{"text": "The Independent Jane\nFor all the love, romance and scandal in Jane Austen\u2019s books, what they are really about is freedom and independence. Independence of thought and the freedom to choose.\nElizabeth\u2019s refusal of Mr. Collins offer of marriage showed an independence seldom seen in heroines of the day. Her refusal of Mr. Darcy while triggered by anger showed a level of independence that left him shocked and stunned.\nThe freedom she exhibited in finally accepting him in direct defiance of Lady Catherine and knowing her father would disapprove was unusual even for Austen. In her last book Anne Elliot is persuaded to refuse Captain Wentworth at Lady Russel\u2019s insistence.\nAlthough Jane played by the rules of the day, all of her writing is infused with how she wanted life to be. She \u2018screams\u2019 her outrage at the limitations for women in Emma.\nWhen accosted by Mrs. Elton, Jane Fairfax says,\n\u201cExcuse me, ma\u2019am, but this is by no means my intention; I make no inquiry myself, and should be sorry to have any made by my friends. When I am quite determined as to the time, I am not at all afraid of being long unemployed. There are places in town, offices, where inquiry would soon produce something \u2014 offices for the sale, not quite of human flesh, but of human intellect.\u201d\n\u201cOh! my dear, human flesh! You quite shock me; if you mean a fling at the slave-trade, I assure you Mr. Suckling was always rather a friend to the abolition.\u201d\n\u201cI did not mean, I was not thinking of the slave-trade,\u201d replied Jane; \u201cgoverness-trade, I assure you, was all that I had in view; widely different certainly, as to the guilt of those who carry it on; but as to the greater misery of the victims, I do not know where it lies.\u201d\nThat same sentiment is emphasized in Emma\u2019s shock when Mrs. Weston tells her of Frank Churchill\u2019s secret engagement to Jane.\n\u201cGood God!\u201d cried Emma, \u201cJane actually on the point of going as governess! What could he mean by such horrible indelicacy? To suffer her to engage herself \u2014 to suffer her even to think of such a measure!\u201d\nI find it interesting that at the moment of Austen\u2019s birth or there about, John Adams left his farm in Massachusetts for the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Doesn\u2019t sound particularly interesting, I know but consider this.\nJohn Adams left his home in mid-December 1775 to attend an unprecedented meeting of colonial representatives to consider severing ties with their mother country and her monarch; a decision that culminated in a document unlike any ever written. In the mother country, one day in that same cold December a baby girl was born at Steventon Rectory. Her cry was heard by only the people in the house but the years to come would see her pen create works unlike any the world had ever seen.\nComparing Austen\u2019s words with Thomas Jefferson\u2019s may seem a trivialization but I believe that Austen\u2019s impact on the world is no less important than Jefferson\u2019s. The effect of Jane\u2019s writing maybe more subtle than that of the Virginian but it is no less influential.\nJefferson\u2019s words instigated and promoted a revolution, a war of independence. Jane\u2019s words had no such excessive consequence. Still in her own quiet, genteel yet powerful way she declared and promoted the same principles of freedom and self-regulated independence as our American forefathers. In all her novels Jane advocates independence of person and thought, the rights of all and acceptance of responsibility for those rights.\nJane may not have incited military action as Jefferson did but even as an avowed royalist, I doubt not that Jane Austen firmly believed in his declaration of the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0d8a309d-25c5-405d-a08a-c11239f0d717>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://austenauthors.net/the-independent-jane", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9743200540542603, "token_count": 845, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tornadoes are the most intense storms on the planet, and they\u2019re never discussed without at least some mention of the term wind shear. Many of us sitting at home, though, have no idea what wind shear is, or if we do, how it affects tornado production.\nWhat is Wind Shear\nWind shear, although it might sound complex, is a simple concept. Wind shear is merely the change in wind with height, in terms of wind direction and speed. I think that we all understand that the wind is generally stronger in the atmosphere over our heads than it is here on the ground, and if we think of the atmosphere in terms of the three dimensions that it has, it should not be surprising that the wind above us might also be blowing from a different direction than the wind at the ground. When that happens\u2013the wind speed and direction vary with height\u2013wind shear is occurring.\nWind Shear and Supercell Thunderstorms\nThis wind shear is an important part of the process in the development of a supercell thunderstorm, from which the vast majority of strong tornadoes form.\nAll thunderstorms are produced by a powerful updraft\u2013a surge of air that rises from the ground into the upper levels of the atmosphere, and when this updraft forms in an area where wind shear is present, the updraft is influence by this speed and different direction of the wind above, pushing the column of air in the updraft into a more vertical alignment.\nRain\u2019s Influence on Tornado Production\nNeedless to say, thunderstorms typically produce very heavy rain, and rain-cooled air is much heavier than the warm air of the updraft, so the rain-cooled air, produces a compensating downdraft (what comes up, must come down). This downdraft pushes the part of the rotating air that was forced in its direction by the stronger wind aloft downward, and the result is a horizontal column of rotating air.\nThat\u2019s Not a Tornado!\nI know what you\u2019re thinking that you\u2019ve seen enough TLC or Discovery Channel shows to know that a horizontal column of air is NOT a tornado; you need a vertical column of air.\nThis Can Be a Tornado\nYou\u2019re right, but remember the updraft that is driving the thunderstorm is still working, and it\u2019s able to pull the horizontal, spinning column of air into the thunderstorm, resulting in a vertical column of spinning air.\n(NOAA image showing vertical column of air in a supercell thunderstorm)\nThe result is a rotating thunderstorm capable of producing a tornado, and it would not be possible without wind shear.\n(NOAA image showing tornado formation in supercell thunderstorm)", "id": "<urn:uuid:7400301c-e625-46d5-be90-1020cf8d52f8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cloudyandcool.com/2009/05/05/wind-shear-and-tornadoes/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9167638421058655, "token_count": 573, "score": 4.15625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Is this bone a Neanderthal flute?\nCave Bear femur fragment from Slovenia, 43+kya\nDOUBTS AIRED OVER NEANDERTHAL BONE 'FLUTE'\n(AND REPLY BY MUSICOLOGIST BOB FINK)\nScience News 153 (April 4, 1998): 215.\nBy B. Bower\nAmid much media fanfare, a research team in 1996 trumpeted an ancient, hollowed out bear bone pierced on one side with four complete or partial holes as the earliest known musical instrument. The perforated bone, found in an Eastern European cave, represents a flute made and played by Neandertals at least 43,000 ye us ago, the scientists contended.\nNow it's time to stop the music, say two archaeologists who examined the purported flute last spring. On closer inspection, the bone appears to have been punctured and gnawed by the teeth of an animal -- perhaps a wolf -- as it stripped the limb of meat and marrow report, April Nowell and Philip G. Chase, both of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. \"The bone was heavily chewed by one or more carnivores, creating holes that became more rounded due to natural processes after burial,\" Nowell says. \"It provides very weak evidence for the origins of [Stone Age] music.\" Nowell presented the new analysis at the annual meeting of the Paleoanthropology Society in Seattle last week.\nNowell and Chase examined the bone with the permission of its discoverer, Ivan Turk of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences in Ljubljana (S.N.: 11/23/96, p. 328). Turk knows of their conclusion but still views the specimen as a flute.\nBoth open ends of the thighbone contain clear signs of gnawing by carnivores, Nowell asserts. Wolves and other animals typically bite off nutrient-rich tissue at the ends of limb bones and extract available marrow. If Neandertals had hollowed out the bone and fashioned holes in it, animals would not have bothered to gnaw it, she says.\nComplete and partial holes on the bone's shaft were also made by carnivores, says Nowell. Carnivores typically break open bones with their scissor like cheek teeth. Uneven bone thickness and signs of wear along the borders of the holes, products of extended burial in the soil, indicate that openings made by cheek teeth were at first less rounded and slightly smaller, the researchers hold.\nMoreover, the simultaneous pressure of an upper and lower tooth produced a set of opposing holes, one partial and one complete, they maintain.\nPrehistoric, carnivore-chewed bear bones in two Spanish caves display circular punctures aligned in much the same way as those on the Slovenian find. In the March Antiquity, Francesco d'Errico of the Institute of Quaternary Prehistory and Geology in Talence, France, and his colleagues describe the Spanish bones.\nIn a different twist, Bob Fink, an independent musicologist in Canada, has reported\non the Internet\n(http://www.webster.sk.ca/greenwich/fl-compl.htm) that the spacing of the two complete and two partial holes on the back of the Slovenian bone conforms to musical notes on the diatonic (do, re, mi. . .) scale.\nThe bone is too short to incorporate the diatonic scale's seven notes, counter Nowell and Chase. Working with Pennsylvania musicologist Robert Judd, they estimate that the find's 5.7-inch length is less than half that needed to cover the diatonic spectrum. The recent meeting presentation is \"a most convincing analysis,\" comments J. Desmond Clark of the University of California, Berkeley, although it's possible that Neandertals blew single notes through carnivore-chewed holes in the bone.\n\"We can't exclude that possibility,\" Nowell responds. \"But it's a big leap of faith to conclude that this was an intentionally constructed flute.\"\nTO THE EDITOR, SCIENCE NEWS (REPLY BY BOB FINK, May 1998)\n(See an update of this discussion on Bob Fink's web site, November 2000)\nThe doubts raised by Nowell and Chase (April 4th, DOUBTS AIRED OVER NEANDERTHAL BONE 'FLUTE') saying the Neanderthal Bone is not a flute have these weaknesses:\nThe alignment of the holes -- all in a row, and all of equivalent diameter, appear to be contrary to most teeth marks, unless some holes were made independently by several animals. The latter case boggles the odds for the holes ending up being in line. It also would be strange that animals homed in on this one bone in a cave full of bones, where no reports of similarly chewed bones have been made.\nThis claim is harder to believe when it is calculated that chances for holes to\nbe arranged, by chance, in a pattern that matches the spacings of 4 notes of a\ndiatonic flute, are only one in hundreds to occur .\nThe analysis I made on the Internet (http://www.webster.sk.ca/greenwich/fl-compl.htm) regarding the bone being capable of matching 4 notes of the do, re, mi (diatonic) scale included the possibility that the bone was extended with another bone \"mouthpiece\" sufficiently long to make the notes sound fairly in tune. While Nowell says \"it's a big leap of faith to conclude that this was an intentionally constructed flute,\" it's a bigger leap of faith to accept the immense coincidence that animals blindly created a hole-spacing pattern with holes all in line (in what clearly looks like so many other known bone flutes which are made to play notes in a step-wise scale) and blindly create a pattern that also could play a known acoustic scale if the bone was extended. That's too much coincidence for me to accept. It is more likely that it is an intentionally made flute, although admittedly with only the barest of clues regarding its original condition.\nThe 5.7 inch figure your article quoted appears erroneous, as the centimeter scale provided by its discoverer, Ivan Turk, indicates the artifact is about 4.3 inches long. However, the unbroken femur would originally have been about 8.5 inches, and the possibility of an additional hole or two exists, to complete a full scale, perhaps aided by the possible thumbhole. However, the full diatonic spectrum is not required as indicated by Nowell and Chase: It could also have been a simpler (but still diatonic) 4 or 5 note scale. Such short-scale flutes are plentiful in homo sapiens history.\nFinally, a worn-out or broken flute bone can serve as a scoop for manipulation of food, explaining why animals might chew on its ends later. It is also well-known that dogs chase and maul even sticks, despite their non-nutritional nature. What appears \"weak\" is not the case for a flute, but the case against it by Nowell and Chase.\nLetter to the Editor: Antiquity Journal:\n\"A Bone to Pick\"\nBy Bob Fink\nI have a bone to pick with Francesco d'Errico's viewpoint in the March issue of Antiquity (article too long to reproduce here) regarding the Neanderthal flute found in Slovenia by Ivan Turk. D'Errico argues the bone artifact is not a flute.\nD'Errico omits dealing with the best evidence that this bone find is a flute.\nRegarding the most important evidence, that of the holes being lined up, neither d'Errico nor Turk make mention of this.\nThis line-up is remarkable especially if they were made by more than one carnivore, which apparently they'd have to be, based on Turk's analysis of the center-spans of the holes precluding their being made by a single carnivore or bite (Turk,* pp.171-175). To account for this possible difficulty, some doubters do mention \"one or more\" carnivores (Chase & Nowell, Science News 4/4/98).\nMy arguments over the past year pointed out the mathematical odds of the lining up of the holes occurring by chance-chewing are too difficult to believe.\nThe Appendix in my essay (\"Neanderthal Flute --A Musicological Analysis\") proves that the number of ways a set of 4 random holes could be differently spaced (to produce an audibly different set of tones) are 680 ways. The chances a random set would match the existing fragment's spacing [which also could produce a match to four diatonic notes of the scale] are therefore only one in hundreds. If, in calculating the odds, you also allowed the holes to be out of line, or to be less than 4 holes as well, then the chance of a line-up match is only one from many tens of thousands.\nAnd yet randomness and animal bites still are acceptable to account for holes being in line that could also play some notes of the scale? This is too much coincidence for me to believe occurred by chance.\nD'Errico mentions my essay in his article and what he thought it was about, but he overstates my case into being a less believable one. My case simply was that if the bone was long enough (or a shorter bone extended by a mouthpiece insert) then the 4 holes would be consistent and in tune with the sounds of Do, Re, Mi, Fa (or flat Mi, Fa, Sol, and flat La in a minor scale).\nIn the 5 points I list below, extracted from Turk's monograph in support of this being a flute, d'Errico omits dealing with much of the first, and all of the second, fourth and sixth points.\nTurk & Co's monograph shows the presence on site of boring tools, and includes experiments made by Turk's colleague Guiliano Bastiani who successfully produced similar holes in fresh bone using tools of the type found at the site (pp. 176-78 Turk).\nThey also wrote (pp. 171-75) that:\n1. The center-to-center distances of the holes in the artifact are smaller than that of the tooth spans of most carnivores. The smallest tooth spans they found were 45mm, and the holes on the bone are 35mm (or less) apart;\n2. Holes bitten are usually at the ends of bones rather than in the center of them;\n3. There is an absence of dents, scratches and other signs of gnawing and counter-bites on the artifact;\n4. The center-to-center distances do not correspond to the spans of carnivores which could pierce the bone;\n5. The diameters of the holes are greater than that producible by a wolf exerting the greatest jaw pressure it had available -- it's doubtful that a wolf's jaws would be strong enough (like a hyena's) to have made the holes, especially in the thickest part of the wall of the artifact.\n6. If you accept one or more carnivores, then why did they over-target one bone, when there were so many other bones in the cave site? Only about 4.5% of the juvenile bones were chewed or had holes, according to Turk (p. 117).\n* Turk, Ivan (ed.) (1997). Mousterian Bone Flute. Znanstvenoraziskovalni\nCenter Sazu, Ljubljana, Slovenia.\nMaintained by Francis F. Steen, Communication Studies, University of California Los Angeles", "id": "<urn:uuid:f166f15d-9976-40ed-8a49-8bed360001ff>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/FluteDebate.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9578442573547363, "token_count": 2445, "score": 3.71875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Dictionary and translator for handheld\nNew : sensagent is now available on your handheld\nA windows (pop-into) of information (full-content of Sensagent) triggered by double-clicking any word on your webpage. Give contextual explanation and translation from your sites !\nWith a SensagentBox, visitors to your site can access reliable information on over 5 million pages provided by Sensagent.com. Choose the design that fits your site.\nImprove your site content\nAdd new content to your site from Sensagent by XML.\nCrawl products or adds\nGet XML access to reach the best products.\nIndex images and define metadata\nGet XML access to fix the meaning of your metadata.\nPlease, email us to describe your idea.\nLettris is a curious tetris-clone game where all the bricks have the same square shape but different content. Each square carries a letter. To make squares disappear and save space for other squares you have to assemble English words (left, right, up, down) from the falling squares.\nBoggle gives you 3 minutes to find as many words (3 letters or more) as you can in a grid of 16 letters. You can also try the grid of 16 letters. Letters must be adjacent and longer words score better. See if you can get into the grid Hall of Fame !\nChange the target language to find translations.\nTips: browse the semantic fields (see From ideas to words) in two languages to learn more.\n1.the language of educated people in ancient Rome\"Latin is a language as dead as dead can be. It killed the ancient Romans--and now it's killing me\"\nclassical Latin (n.)\nLatin inscription in the Colosseum\n|Spoken in||Roman republic, Roman empire|\n|Region||mare nostrum (Mediterranean)|\n|Era||75 BC to the 3rd century AD, when it developed into Late Latin|\n|Writing system||Latin alphabet|\n|Official language in||Roman republic, Roman empire|\n|Regulated by||Schools of grammar and rhetoric|\nThe range of Latin, 60 AD\nClassical Latin in simplest terms is the socio-linguistic register of the Latin language regarded by the enfranchised and empowered populations of the late Roman republic and the Roman empire as good Latin. Most writers during this time made use of it. Any unabridged Latin dictionary informs moderns that Marcus Tullius Cicero and his contemporaries of the late republic while using lingua Latina and sermo Latinus to mean the Latin language as opposed to the Greek or other languages, and sermo vulgaris or sermo vulgi to refer to the vernacular of the uneducated masses, regarded the speech they valued most and in which they wrote as Latinitas, \"Latinity\", with the implication of good. Sometimes it is called sermo familiaris, \"speech of the good families\", sermo urbanus, \"speech of the city\" or rarely sermo nobilis, \"noble speech\", but mainly besides Latinitas it was Latine (adverb), \"in good Latin\", or Latinius (comparative degree of adjective), \"good Latin.\"\nLatinitas was spoken as well as written. Moreover, it was the language taught by the schools. Prescriptive rules therefore applied to it, and where a special subject was concerned, such as poetry or rhetoric, additional rules applied as well. Now that the spoken Latinitas has become extinct (in favor of various other registers later in date) the rules of the, for the most part, polished (politus) texts may give the appearance of an artificial language, but Latinitas was a form of sermo, or spoken language and as such retains a spontaneity. No authors are noted for the type of rigidity evidenced by stylized art, except possibly the repetitious abbreviations and stock phrases of inscriptions.\nGood Latin in philology is \"classical\" Latin literature. The term refers to the canonicity of works of literature written in Latin in the late Roman republic and the early to middle Roman empire: \"that is to say, that of belonging to an exclusive group of authors (or works) that were considered to be emblematic of a certain genre.\" The term classicus (masculine plural classici) was devised by the Romans themselves to translate Greek \u1f10\u03b3\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b8\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 (egkrithentes), \"select\", referring to authors who wrote in Greek that were considered model. Before then, classis, in addition to being a naval fleet, was a social class in one of the diachronic divisions of Roman society according to property ownership by the Roman constitution. The word is a transliteration of Greek \u03ba\u03bb\u1fc6\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 (kl\u0113sis) \"calling\", used to rank army draftees by property from first to fifth class.\nClassicus is anything primae classis, \"first class\", such as the authors of the polished works of Latinitas, or sermo urbanus. It had nuances of the certified and the authentic: testis classicus, \"reliable witness.\" It was in this sense that Marcus Cornelius Fronto (an African-Roman lawyer and language teacher) in the 2nd century AD used scriptores classici, \"first-class\" or \"reliable authors\" whose works could be relied upon as model of good Latin. This is the first known reference, possibly innovated at this time, to classical applied to authors by virtue of the authentic language of their works.\nIn imitation of the Greek grammarians, the Roman ones, such as Quintilian, drew up lists termed indices or ordines on the model of the Greek lists, termed pinakes, considered classical: the recepti scriptores, \"select writers.\" Aulus Gellius includes many authors, such as Plautus, who are currently considered writers of Old Latin and not strictly in the period of classical Latin. The classical Romans distinguished Old Latin as prisca Latinitas and not sermo vulgaris. Each author (and work) in the Roman lists was considered equivalent to one in the Greek; for example Ennius was the Latin Homer, the Aeneid was a new Iliad, and so on. The lists of classical authors were as far as the Roman grammarians went in developing a philology. The topic remained at that point while interest in the classici scriptores declined in the medieval period as the best Latin yielded to medieval Latin, somewhat less than the best by classical standards.\nThe Renaissance brought a revival of interest in restoring as much of Roman culture as could be restored and with it the return of the concept of classic, \"the best.\" Thomas Sebillet in 1548 (Art Po\u00e9tique) referred to \"les bons et classiques po\u00e8tes fran\u00e7ois\", meaning Jean de Meun and Alain Chartier, which was the first modern application of the word. According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, the term classical, from classicus, entered modern English in 1599, some 50 years after its re-introduction on the continent. Governor William Bradford in 1648 referred to synods of a separatist church as \"classical meetings\" in his Dialogue, a report of a meeting between New-England-born \"young men\" and \"ancient men\" from Holland and England. In 1715 Laurence Echard's Classical Geographical Dictionary was published. In 1736 Robert Ainsworth's Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Compendarius turned English words and expressions into \"proper and classical Latin.\" In 1768 David Ruhnken (Critical History of the Greek Orators) recast the mold of the view of the classical by applying the word canon to the pinakes of orators, after the Biblical canon or list of authentic books of the Bible. Ruhnken had a kind of secular catechism in mind.\nIn 1870 Wilhelm Sigismund Teuffel in Geschichte der R\u00f6mischen Literatur (A History of Roman Literature) innovated the definitive philological classification of classical Latin based on the metaphoric uses of the ancient myth of the Ages of Man, a practice then universally current: a Golden Age and a Silver Age of classical Latin were to be presumed. The practice and Teuffel's classification, with modifications, are still in use. His work was translated into English as soon as published in German by Wilhelm Wagner, who corresponded with Teuffel. Wagner published the English translation in 1873. Teuffel divides the chronology of classical Latin authors into several periods according to political events, rather than by style. Regarding the style of the literary Latin of those periods he had but few comments.\nTeuffel was to go on with other editions of his history, but meanwhile it had come out in English almost as soon as it did in German and found immediate favorable reception. In 1877 Charles Thomas Cruttwell produced the first English work along the same lines. In his Preface he refers to \"Teuffel's admirable history, without which many chapters in the present work could not have attained completeness\" and also gives credit to Wagner.\nCruttwell adopts the same periods with minor differences; however, where Teuffel's work is mainly historical, Cruttwell's work contains detailed analyses of style. Nevertheless like Teuffel he encounters the same problem of trying to summarize the voluminous detail in a way that captures in brief the gist of a few phases of writing styles. Like Teuffel, he has trouble finding a name for the first of the three periods (the current Old Latin phase), calling it mainly \"from Livius to Sulla.\" The language, he says, is \"\u2026marked by immaturity of art and language, by a vigorous but ill-disciplined imitation of Greek poetical models, and in prose by a dry sententiousness of style, gradually giving way to a clear and fluent strength\u2026\" These abstracts have little meaning to those not well-versed in Latin literature. In fact, Cruttwell admits \"The ancients, indeed, saw a difference between Ennius, Pacuvius, and Accius, but it may be questioned whether the advance would be perceptible by us.\"\nSome of Cruttwell's ideas have become stock in Latin philology for better or for worse. While praising the application of rules to classical Latin, most intensely in the Golden Age, he says \"In gaining accuracy, however, classical Latin suffered a grievous loss. It became cultivated as distinct from a natural language\u2026 Spontaneity, therefore, became impossible and soon invention also ceased\u2026 In a certain sense, therefore, Latin was studied as a dead language, while it was still a living.\" These views are certainly debatable; one might ask how the upper classes of late 16th century Britain, who shared the Renaissance zealousness for the classics, managed to speak spontaneous Latin to each other officially and unofficially after being taught classical Latin by tutors hired for the purpose. Latinitas in the Golden Age was in fact sermo familiaris, the spoken Latin of the Roman upper classes, who sent their children to school to learn it. The debate continues.\nA second problem is the appropriateness of Teuffel's scheme to the concept of classical Latin, which Teuffel does not discuss. Cruttwell addresses the problem, however, altering the concept of the classical. As the best Latin is defined as golden Latin, the second of the three periods, the other two periods considered classical are left hanging. While on the one hand assigning to Old Latin the term pre-classical and by implication the term post-classical (or post-Augustan) to silver Latin Cruttwell realizes that this construct is not according to ancient usage and asserts \"\u2026the epithet classical is by many restricted to the authors who wrote in it [golden Latin]. It is best, however, not to narrow unnecessarily the sphere of classicity; to exclude Terence on the one hand or Tacitus and Pliny on the other, would savour of artificial restriction rather than that of a natural classification.\" (This from a scholar who had just been complaining that golden Latin was not a natural language.) The contradiction remains; Terence is and is not a classical author depending on context.\nAfter defining a \"First Period\" of inscriptional Latin and the literature of the earliest known authors and fragments, to which he assigns no definitive name (he does use the term \"Old Roman\" at one point), Teuffel presents \"the second period\", his major, \"das goldene Zeitalter der r\u00f6mischen Literatur\", the Golden Age of Roman Literature, dated 671 \u2013 767 AUC or 83 BC \u2013 14 AD according to his time reckoning, between the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the death of the emperor Augustus. Of it Wagner translating Teuffel writes\nThe golden age of the Roman literature is that period in which the climax was reached in the perfection of form, and in most respects also in the methodical treatment of the subject-matters. It may be subdivided between the generations, in the first of which (the Ciceronian Age) prose culminated, while poetry was principally developed in the Augustan Age.\nThe Ciceronian Age was dated 671\u2013711 AUC (83 BC \u2013 43 BC), ending just after the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar, and the Augustan 711\u201367 AUC (43 BC \u2013 14 AD), ending with the death of Augustus. The Ciceronian Age is further divided by the consulship of Cicero in 691 AUC or 63 BC into a first and second half. Authors are assigned to these periods by years of principal achievements.\nThe Golden Age had already made an appearance in German philology but in a less systematic way. In Bielfeld's 1770 Elements of universal erudition the author says (in translation): \"The Second Age of Latin began about the time of Caesar [his ages are different from Teuffel's], and ended with Tiberius. This is what is called the Augustan Age, which was perhaps of all others the most brilliant, a period at which it should seem as if the greatest men, and the immortal authors, had met together upon the earth, in order to write the Latin language in its utmost purity and perfection.\" and of Tacitus \"\u2026his conceits and sententious style is not that of the golden age\u2026\". Teuffel evidently received the ideas of a golden and silver Latin from an existing tradition and embedded them in a new system, transforming them as he thought best.\nIn Cruttwell's introduction, the Golden Age is dated 80 BC \u2013 14 AD (\"from Cicero to Ovid\"), which is about the same as Teuffel's. Of this \"Second Period\" Cruttwell says that it \"represents the highest excellence in prose and poetry,\" paraphrasing Teuffel. The Ciceronian Age is now \"the Republican Period\" and is dated 80\u201342 BC through the Battle of Philippi. Later in the book Cruttwell omits Teuffel's first half of the Ciceronian and starts the Golden Age at Cicero's consulship of 63 BC, an error perpetuated into Cruttwell's second edition as well. He must mean 80 BC as he includes Varro in Golden Latin. Teuffel's Augustan Age is Cruttwell's Augustan Epoch, 42 BC \u2013 14 AD.\nThe literary histories list all authors canonical to the Ciceronian Age even though their works may be fragmentary or may not have survived at all. With the exception of a few major writers, such as Cicero, Caesar, Lucretius and Catullus, ancient accounts of Republican literature are glowing accounts of jurists and orators who wrote prolifically but who now can't be read because their works have been lost, or analyses of language and style that appear insightful but can't be verified because there are no surviving instances. In that sense the pages of literary history are peopled with shadows: Aquilius Gallus, Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, Lucius Licinius Lucullus and many others who left a reputation but no readable works; they are to be presumed in the Golden Age by their associations. A list of some canonical authors of the period, whose works have survived in whole or in part (typically in part, some only short fragments) is as follows:\nThe Golden Age is divided by the assassination of Julius Caesar. In the wars that followed the Republican generation of literary men was lost, as most of them had taken the losing side; Marcus Tullius Cicero was beheaded in the street as he enquired from his litter what the disturbance was. They were replaced by a new generation that had grown up and been educated under the old and were now to make their mark under the watchful eye of the new emperor. As the demand for great orators was more or less over, the talent shifted emphasis to poetry. Other than the historian Livy, the most remarkable writers of the period were the poets Vergil, Horace, and Ovid. Although Augustus evidenced some toleration to republican sympathizers, he exiled Ovid, and imperial tolerance ended with the continuance of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty.\nAugustan writers include:\nIn his second volume, on the Imperial Period, Teuffel initiated a slight alteration in approach, making it clearer that his terms applied to the Latin and not just to the age, and also changing his dating scheme from years AUC to modern. Although he introduces das silberne Zeitalter der r\u00f6mischen Literatur, \"the Silver Age of Roman Literature\", 14\u2013117 AD, from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan, he also mentions regarding a section of a work by Seneca the Elder a wenig Einfluss der silbernen Latinit\u00e4t, a \"slight influence of silver Latin.\" It is clear that he had shifted in thought from golden and silver ages to golden and silver Latin, and not just Latin, but Latinitas, which must at this point be interpreted as classical Latin. He may have been influenced in that regard by one of his sources, E. Opitz, who in 1852 had published a title specimen lexilogiae argenteae latinitatis, mentioning silver Latinity. Although Teuffel's First Period was equivalent to Old Latin and his Second Period was equal to the Golden Age, his Third Period, die r\u00f6mische Kaiserheit, encompasses both the Silver Age and the centuries now termed Late Latin, in which the forms seemed to break loose from their foundation and float freely; that is, literary men appeared uncertain as to what \"good Latin\" should mean. The last of the Classical Latin is the Silver Latin. The Silver Age is the first of the Imperial Period and is divided into die Zeit der julischen Dynastie, 14\u201368; die Zeit der flavischen Dynastie, 69\u201396; and die Zeit des Nerva und Trajan, 96\u2013117. Subsequently Teuffel goes over to a century scheme: 2nd, 3rd, etc., through 6th. His later editions (which came out in the rest of the late 19th century) divide the Imperial Age into parts: the 1st century (Silver Age), the 2nd century: Hadrian and the Antonines and the 3rd through the 6th Centuries. Of the Silver Age proper, pointing out that anything like freedom of speech had vanished with Tiberius, Teuffel says\n\u2026the continual apprehension in which men lived caused a restless versatility\u2026 Simple or natural composition was considered insipid; the aim of language was to be brilliant\u2026 Hence it was dressed up with abundant tinsel of epigrams, rhetorical figures and poetical terms\u2026 Mannerism supplanted style, and bombastic pathos took the place of quiet power.\nThe content of new literary works was continually proscribed by the emperor (by executing or exiling the author), who also played the role of literary man (typically badly). The talent therefore went into a repertory of new and dazzling mannerisms, which Teuffel calls \"utter unreality.\" Crutwell picks up this theme:\nThe foremost of these [characteristics] is unreality, arising from the extinction of freedom\u2026 Hence arose a declamatory tone, which strove by frigid and almost hyterical exaggeration to make up for the healthy stimulus afforded by daily contact with affairs. The vein of artificial rhetoric, antithesis and epigram\u2026 owes its origin to this forced contentment with an uncongenial sphere. With the decay of freedom, taste sank\u2026\nIn Crutwell's view (which had not been expressed by Teuffel), Silver Latin was a \"rank, weed-grown garden\", a \"decline.\" Cruttwell had already decried what he saw as a loss of spontaneity in Golden Latin. That Teuffel should regard the Silver Age as a loss of natural language and therefore of spontaneity, implying that the Golden Age had it, is passed without comment. Instead, Tiberius brought about a \"sudden collapse of letters.\" The idea of a decline had been dominant in English society since Edward Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Once again, Cruttwell evidences some unease with his stock pronouncements: \"The Natural History of Pliny shows how much remained to be done in fields of great interest.\" The idea of Pliny as a model is not consistent with any sort of decline; moreover, Pliny did his best work under emperors at least as tolerant as Augustus had been. To include some of the best writings of the Silver Age, Cruttwell found he had to extend the period through the death of Marcus Aurelius, 180 AD. The philosophic prose of that good emperor was in no way compatible with either Teuffel's view of unnatural language or Cruttwell's depiction of a decline. Having created these constructs, the two philologists found they could not entirely justify them; apparently, in the worst implications of their views, there was no classical Latin by the ancient definition at all and some of the very best writing of any period in world history was a stilted and degenerate unnatural language.\nWriters of the Silver Age include the following.\nOf the additional century granted by Cruttwell and others of his point of view to Silver Latin but not by Teuffel the latter says \"The second century was a happy period for the Roman State, the happiest indeed during the whole Empire\u2026 But in the world of letters the lassitude and enervation, which told of Rome's decline, became unmistakeable\u2026 its forte is in imitation.\" Teuffel, however, excepts the jurists; others find other \"exceptions,\" recasting Teuffels's view.\nThe style of language refers to repeatable features of speech that are somewhat less general than the fundamental characteristics of the language. The latter give it a unity allowing it to be referenced under a single name. Thus Old Latin, Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin, etc., are not considered different languages, but are all referenced under the name of Latin. This is an ancient practice continued by moderns rather than a philological innovation of recent times. That Latin had case endings is a fundamental feature of the language. Whether a given form of speech prefers to use prepositions such as ad, ex, de for \"to\", \"from\" and \"of\" rather than simple case endings is a matter of style. Latin has a large number of styles. Each and every author has a style, which typically allows his prose or poetry to be identified by experienced Latinists. The problem of comparative literature has been to group styles finding similarities by period, in which case one may speak of Old Latin, Silver Latin, Late Latin as styles or a phase of styles.\nThe ancient authors themselves first defined style by recognizing different kinds of sermo, or \"speech.\" In making the value judgement that classical Latin was \"first class\" and that it was better to write with Latinitas they were themselves selecting the literary and upper-class language of the city as a standard style and all sermo that differed from it was a different style; thus in rhetoric Cicero was able to define sublime, intermediate and low styles (within classical Latin) and St. Augustine to recommend the low style for sermons (from sermo). Style therefore is to be defined by differences in speech from a standard. Teuffel defined that standard as Golden Latin.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ca387b2a-7df2-4bb1-8e2d-9e82dcdc8b5a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://dictionary.sensagent.com/Classical_Latin/en-en/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9565777778625488, "token_count": 5107, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In some people, macular degeneration advances so slowly that it has little effect on their vision. But in others, the disease progresses faster and may lead to vision loss. Sometimes only one eye is affected, while the other eye remains free of problems for many years. People with dry macular degeneration in one eye often do not notice any changes in their vision. With one eye seeing clearly, they can still drive, read, and see fine details. Some people may notice changes in their vision only if macular degeneration affects both of their eyes. Both dry and wet macular degeneration cause no pain.\nSymptoms of macular degeneration include:\nBlurred vision \u2014This is an early sign. An example of early findings is that you may need more light for reading and other tasks.\nDifficulty seeing details in front of you \u2014You may have a difficult time seeing words in a book or faces.\nBlind spot \u2014A small, growing blind spot will appear in the middle of your field of vision. This spot occurs because a group of cells in the macula have stopped working properly. Over time, the blurred spot may get bigger and darker, taking more of your central vision.\nCrooked lines \u2014An early symptom of wet macular degeneration is straight lines that will appear crooked or wavy. This happens because the newly formed blood vessels leak fluid under the macula. The fluid raises the macula from its normal place at the back of the eye and distorts your vision.\nLighting \u2014Images appear more gray in color and colors are not as bright\nContact your ophthalmologist immediately for an eye exam if you notice:\n- Visual distortions\n- Sudden decrease in central vision\n- A central blind spot\n- Any other visual problems\n- Reviewer: Christopher Cheyer, MD\n- Update Date: 09/01/2011 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:6aba2b8d-0f86-4d64-b8af-a03c21e98c63>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://doctors-hospital.net/your-health/?/19810/Reducing-Your-Risk-of-Macular-Degeneration~Symptoms", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9273353815078735, "token_count": 384, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There are many ways to effectively teach a dog.\nNot so long ago, most of the accepted methods for training were forceful or aversive. Unfortunately, some of these methods still are in use among the abusive and uneducated.\nOne of the pioneers of gentle training techniques was Barbara Woodhouse. This English dog trainer was instrumental in paving the way for today\u2019s nonaversive and positive methods of training. She was a genius at molding behaviors with lures and gently \u201cmodeling\u201d a dog into positions without force. But even Woodhouse used some techniques that can be considered rough by today\u2019s standards.\nIf you have researched dog-training methodologies at all, you probably have noticed that a percentage of the available training books advocate the use of a \u201cchoke chain\u201d (otherwise called the training collar). When used properly, this training device relies on aversion to get the dog\u2019s attention or to make a correction when your dog doesn\u2019t respond to a command correctly. A sharp snap of the leash tightens the collar around the dog\u2019s neck, startling the dog with a momentary, low-level pain.\nThe choke chain is not a training device for leash pullers, as is commonly thought, and when used incorrectly can, at the least, cause misalignment of the spine and trachea damage. At worst, it can cause brain damage and even death. Because there is such a high risk for misuse of this device (you may not realize that the choke chain should be worn with the free ring up, for instance), the training world probably would be much better off without it.\nYour efforts to train your dog should focus on building a bond and nurturing trust. This bond becomes the motivator that drives your dog to learn, focus and respond.\nWhy would anyone want to use force or violence when positive reinforcement works so well? Why should your dog trust you if he knows that you are likely to hit him when he is unfocused or confused? That\u2019s like your supervisor yelling at you when you have problems with a difficult task. Stress won\u2019t help you concentrate or focus better. Abusive treatment of dogs in the name of training, just as abusive handling of employees in the name of supervision, doesn\u2019t work. It does, however, tell us a lot about the trainer.\nFor any method of dog training to be successful, it must be:\nEffective \u2013 If it\u2019s not effective, what\u2019s the point?\nEfficient \u2013 Both you and your dog will become frustrated if training takes too long.\nEnjoyable \u2013 Fun is an important ingredient in motivating both you and your dog.\nThe proper execution of any training program is dependent on these three ingredients.\nBut, ultimately, the most important ingredient in your training program is you, the owner. The trust you nurture in your dog will be evident in his willingness to look to you for leadership and his motivation to work with you in any and all situations. Those qualities are in your dog right now but cannot be developed through the use of harsh training methods.\nDog training can be whatever you want it to be. If you rely on anger and force, the relationship and trust will suffer. If you rely on motivation and reward, while providing appropriate consequences for misdeeds, training just gets better and better.\nJulie Winkelman is a certified pet dog trainer and a certified dog trainer. Reach her at www.alphacanineacademy.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:81426048-4862-4bb7-9a74-922f76b4cc47>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://durangoherald.com/article/20130314/COLUMNISTS52/130319783/1001/'We-can't-afford-four-more-years'--", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9554711580276489, "token_count": 724, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fewer rare sea turtles will die on the swordfish industry's longlines in Hawaii under an agreement between environmental groups and the government. The agreement settles a lawsuit challenging the federal government's plans that would have dramatically increase the number of turtles that could be killed. The Turtle Island Restoration Network, Center for Biological Diversity and KAHEA sued the National Marine Fisheries Service for allowing 46 imperiled Pacific loggerhead turtles to be hooked last year. The new court-ordered settlement caps the number at 17 per year. Meanwhile the National Marine Fisheries Service is weighing whether loggerheads need more protection under the Endangered Species Act.\n\"It made absolutely no sense to have one arm of the National Marine Fisheries Service increasing the lethal capture of loggerheads, while the other arm is in the process of determining whether loggerheads should be uplisted from threatened to endangered,\" said Todd Steiner, biologist and executive director of Turtle Island Restoration Network. \"With extinction looming, these animals need more protection, not less.\"\n\"With this decision, Hawaii's public-trust ocean resources can be better managed for our collective best interest, and not just the interests of this commercial fishery,\" said KAHEA program director Marti Townsend. \"This is a victory not just for the turtles, but for Hawaii's people who rely on a healthy, functioning ocean ecosystem.\"\nConservation groups represented by Earthjustice filed a federal lawsuit challenging a 2009 rule allowing the swordfish fleet to catch nearly three times as many loggerhead sea turtles as previously permitted. This settlement freezes the number at the previous cap of 17 while the government conducts additional environmental studies and decides whether or not to classify the loggerhead as endangered, rather than its current, less-protective status of threatened. For leatherback turtles, the bycatch limit remains at 16 per year. In 2010, eight Pacific leatherbacks and seven loggerheads were caught in the longline fishery, according to the National Marine Fisheries Service. There have already been 4 loggerheads captured in 2011, which has sea turtle conservationists concerned.\n\"Sea turtles have been swimming the oceans since the time of dinosaurs. But without a change in management, they won't survive our voracious quest for swordfish and tuna,\" said Miyoko Sakashita, oceans director at the Center for Biological Diversity. \"If loggerheads are going to survive in the North Pacific, we need to stop killing them in our fisheries.\"\n\"Pacific loggerhead sea turtles are nearly extinct, so this bycatch rollback helps right a serious wrong,\" said Teri Shore, program director at Turtle Island Restoration Network. \"We can't allow these rare sea turtles to disappear for a plate of swordfish. It's tragic that it took a lawsuit to correct this fishery problem.\"\nSwordfish longline vessels trail up to 60 miles of fishing line suspended in the water with floats, with as many as 1,000 baited hooks deployed at regular intervals. Sea turtles become hooked while trying to take bait or become entangled while swimming through the nearly invisible lines. These encounters can drown the turtles or leave them with serious injuries. Sea birds such as albatross dive for the bait and become hooked; marine mammals, including endangered humpback whales and false killer whales, also sometimes become hooked when they swim through the floating lines.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e36683d3-ded6-4e38-af4d-7bc73d1ec7e3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://earthjustice.org/news/press/2011/endangered-sea-turtles-saved-from-capture-in-hawaii-swordfish-fishery", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9501281380653381, "token_count": 666, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A bullock cart or ox cart is a two-wheeled or four-wheeled vehicle pulled by oxen (draught cattle). It is a means of transportation used since ancient times in many parts of the world. They are still used today where modern vehicles are too expensive or the infrastructure does not favor them.\nUsed especially for carrying goods, the bullock cart is pulled by one or several oxen (bullocks). The cart (also known as a jinker) is attached to a bullock team by a special chain attached to yokes, but a rope may also be used for one or two animals. The driver and any other passengers sit on the front of the cart, while load is placed in the back. Traditionally the cargo was usually agrarian goods and lumber.\nCosta Rica \nIn Costa Rica, ox carts (carretas in the Spanish language) were an important aspect of the daily life and commerce, especially between 1850 to 1935, developing a unique construction and decoration tradition that is still being developed. Costa Rican parades and traditional celebrations are not complete without a traditional ox cart parade.\nIn 1988, the traditional ox cart was declared as National Symbol of Work by the Costa Rican government.\nIn 2005, the \"Oxherding and Oxcart Traditions in Costa Rica\" were included in UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.\nIn Indonesia, Bullock Carts are commonly used in the rural parts of the country, where it is used for transporting goods and carriages and also people. But it is mostly common in Indonesia that there are Horse Car than Bullock Carts on the streets of Indonesia.\nBullock carts were widely used in Malaysia before the introduction of automobiles, and many are still used today. These included passenger vehicles, now used especially for tourists. Passenger carts are usually equipped with awnings for protection against sun and rain, and are often gaily decorated.\nSee also \n|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ox-drawn carts|", "id": "<urn:uuid:4dcad241-2b6b-4970-9112-c67a47a29a2c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bullock_cart", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9640528559684753, "token_count": 415, "score": 3.453125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Birth name||Norman Percevel Rockwell|\nFebruary 3, 1894|\nNew York City\n|Died||November 8, 1978\n|Training||National Academy of Design\nArt Students League\nNorman Percevel Rockwell (February 3, 1894 \u2013 November 8, 1978) was a 20th-century American painter and illustrator. His works enjoy a broad popular appeal in the United States for their reflection of American culture. Rockwell is most famous for the cover illustrations of everyday life scenarios he created for The Saturday Evening Post magazine for more than four decades. Among the best-known of Rockwell's works are the Willie Gillis series, Rosie the Riveter, Saying Grace (1951), The Problem We All Live With, and the Four Freedoms series. He is also noted for his work for the Boy Scouts of America (BSA); producing covers for their publication Boys' Life, calendars, and other illustrations.\nLife and works \nEarly life \nNorman Rockwell was born on February 3, 1894, in New York City to Jarvis Waring Rockwell and Anne Mary \"Nancy\" (born Hill) Rockwell. His earliest American ancestor was John Rockwell (1588\u20131662), from Somerset, England, who immigrated to America probably in 1635 aboard the ship Hopewell and became one of the first settlers of Windsor, Connecticut. He had one brother, Jarvis Waring Rockwell, Jr., older by a year and a half. Jarvis Waring, Sr., was the manager of the New York office of a Philadelphia textile firm, George Wood, Sons & Company, where he spent his entire career.\nNorman transferred from high school to the Chase Art School at the age of 14. He then went on to the National Academy of Design and finally to the Art Students League. There, he was taught by Thomas Fogarty, George Bridgman, and Frank Vincent DuMond; his early works were produced for St. Nicholas Magazine, the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) publication Boys' Life and other juvenile publications. Joseph Csatari carried on his legacy and style for the BSA.\nAs a student, Rockwell was given smaller, less important jobs. His first major breakthrough came in 1912 at age eighteen with his first book illustration for Carl H. Claudy's Tell Me Why: Stories about Mother Nature.\nIn 1913, the nineteen-year-old Rockwell became the art editor for Boys' Life, published by the Boy Scouts of America, a post he held for three years (1913\u20131916). As part of that position, he painted several covers, beginning with his first published magazine cover, Scout at Ship's Wheel, appearing on the Boys' Life September 1913 edition.\nWorld War I \nDuring World War I, he tried to enlist into the U.S. Navy but was refused entry because, at 6 feet (1.8 m) tall and 140 pounds (64 kg) he was eight pounds underweight. To compensate, he spent one night gorging himself on bananas, liquids and doughnuts, and weighed enough to enlist the next day. However, he was given the role of a military artist and did not see any action during his tour of duty.\nRockwell's family moved to New Rochelle, New York when Norman was 21 years old and shared a studio with the cartoonist Clyde Forsythe, who worked for The Saturday Evening Post. With Forsythe's help, he submitted his first successful cover painting to the Post in 1916, Mother's Day Off (published on May 20). He followed that success with Circus Barker and Strongman (published on June 3), Gramps at the Plate (August 5), Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins (September 16), People in a Theatre Balcony (October 14) and Man Playing Santa (December 9). Rockwell was published eight times total on the Post cover within the first twelve months. Norman Rockwell published a total of 323 original covers for The Saturday Evening Post over 47 years. His Sharp Harmony appeared on the cover of the issue dated September 26, 1936; it depicts a barber and three clients, enjoying an a cappella song. The image was adopted by SPEBSQSA in its promotion of the art.\nRockwell's success on the cover of the Post led to covers for other magazines of the day, most notably The Literary Digest, The Country Gentleman, Leslie's Weekly, Judge, Peoples Popular Monthly and Life Magazine.\nPersonal life \nRockwell married his first wife, Irene O'Connor, in 1916. Irene was Rockwell's model in Mother Tucking Children into Bed, published on the cover of The Literary Digest on January 19, 1921. However, the couple were divorced in 1930. Depressed, he moved briefly to Alhambra, California as a guest of his old friend Clyde Forsythe. There he painted some of his best-known paintings including \"The Doctor and the Doll\". While there he met and married schoolteacher Mary Barstow. The couple returned to New York shortly after their marriage. They had three children: Jarvis Waring, Thomas Rhodes and Peter Barstow. The family lived at 24 Lord Kitchener Road in the Bonnie Crest neighborhood of New Rochelle, New York. Rockwell and his wife were not very religious, although they were members of St. John's Wilmot Church, an Episcopal church near their home, and had their sons baptized there as well. Rockwell moved to Arlington, Vermont, in 1939 where his work began to reflect small-town life.\nIn 1953, the Rockwell family moved to Stockbridge, Massachusetts, so that his wife could be treated at the Austen Riggs Center, a psychiatric hospital at 25 Main Street, down Main Street from where Rockwell set up his studio. Rockwell himself received psychiatric treatment from the analyst Erik Erikson, who was on staff at Riggs. Erikson is said to have told the artist that he painted his happiness, but did not live it. In 1959, Mary Barstow Rockwell died unexpectedly of a heart attack.\nWorld War II \nIn 1943, during World War II, Rockwell painted the Four Freedoms series, which was completed in seven months and resulted in his losing 15 pounds. The series was inspired by a speech by Franklin D. Roosevelt, in which he described four principles for universal rights: Freedom from Want, Freedom of Speech, Freedom of Worship, and Freedom from Fear. The paintings were published in 1943 by The Saturday Evening Post. The United States Department of the Treasury later promoted war bonds by exhibiting the originals in 16 cities. Rockwell himself considered \"Freedom of Speech\" to be the best of the four. That same year, a fire in his studio destroyed numerous original paintings, costumes, and props.\nShortly after the war, Rockwell was contacted by writer Elliott Caplin, brother of cartoonist Al Capp, with the suggestion that the three of them should make a daily comic strip together, with Caplin and his brother writing and Rockwell drawing. King Features Syndicate is reported to have promised a $1,000/week deal, knowing that a Capp-Rockwell collaboration would gain strong public interest. However, the project was ultimately aborted as it turned out that Rockwell, known for his perfectionism as an artist, could not deliver material as fast as required of him for a daily comic strip.\nDuring the late 1940s, Norman Rockwell spent the winter months as artist-in-residence at Otis College of Art and Design. Students occasionally were models for his Saturday Evening Post covers. In 1949, Rockwell donated an original Post cover, \"April Fool\", to be raffled off in a library fund raiser.\nIn 1959, his wife Mary died unexpectedly from a heart attack, and Rockwell took time off from his work to grieve. It was during that break that he and his son Thomas produced his autobiography, My Adventures as an Illustrator, which was published in 1960. The Post printed excerpts from this book in eight consecutive issues, the first containing Rockwell's famous Triple Self-Portrait.\nLater career \nRockwell married his third wife, retired Milton Academy English teacher Mary Leete \"Molly\" Punderson, on October 25, 1961. His last painting for the Post was published in 1963, marking the end of a publishing relationship that had included 321 cover paintings. He spent the next ten years painting for Look magazine, where his work depicted his interests in civil rights, poverty and space exploration. In 1968, Rockwell was commissioned to do an album cover portrait of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper for their record The Live Adventures of Mike Bloomfield and Al Kooper. During his long career, he was commissioned to paint the portraits for Presidents Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon, as well as those of foreign figures, including Gamal Abdel Nasser and Jawaharlal Nehru. One of his last works was a portrait of Judy Garland in 1969.\nA custodianship of his original paintings and drawings was established with Rockwell's help near his home in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, and the Norman Rockwell Museum is still open today year round. Norman Rockwell Museum is the authoritative source for all things Norman Rockwell. The museum's collection is the world's largest, including more than 700 original Rockwell paintings, drawings, and studies. The Rockwell Center for American Visual Studies at the Norman Rockwell Museum is a national research institute dedicated to American illustration art.\nWhen he began suffering poor health, he placed his studio and the contents with the Norman Rockwell Museum, which was formerly known as the Stockbridge Historical Society and even more formerly known as the Old Corner house, in a trust.\nFor \"vivid and affectionate portraits of our country,\" Rockwell received the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the United States of America's highest civilian honor, in 1977.\nBody of work \nNorman Rockwell was a prolific artist, producing over 4,000 original works in his lifetime. Most of his works are either in public collections, or have been destroyed in fire or other misfortunes. Rockwell was also commissioned to illustrate over 40 books including Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. His annual contributions for the Boy Scouts' calendars between 1925 and 1976 (Rockwell was a 1939 recipient of the Silver Buffalo Award, the highest adult award given by the Boy Scouts of America), were only slightly overshadowed by his most popular of calendar works: the \"Four Seasons\" illustrations for Brown & Bigelow that were published for 17 years beginning in 1947 and reproduced in various styles and sizes since 1964. Illustrations for booklets, catalogs, posters (particularly movie promotions), sheet music, stamps, playing cards, and murals (including \"Yankee Doodle Dandy\" and \"God Bless the Hills\", which was completed in 1936 for the Nassau Inn in Princeton, New Jersey) rounded out Rockwell's \u0153uvre as an illustrator.\nIn 1969, as a tribute to Rockwell's 75th-year birthday, officials of Brown & Bigelow and the Boy Scouts of America asked Rockwell to pose in Beyond the Easel, the calendar illustration that year.\nRockwell's work was dismissed by serious art critics in his lifetime. Many of his works appear overly sweet in modern critics' eyes, especially the Saturday Evening Post covers, which tend toward idealistic or sentimentalized portrayals of American life \u2013 this has led to the often-deprecatory adjective \"Rockwellesque\". Consequently, Rockwell is not considered a \"serious painter\" by some contemporary artists, who often regard his work as bourgeois and kitsch. Writer Vladimir Nabokov sneered that Rockwell's brilliant technique was put to \"banal\" use, and wrote in his book Pnin: \"That Dal\u00ed is really Norman Rockwell's twin brother kidnapped by Gypsies in babyhood\". He is called an \"illustrator\" instead of an artist by some critics, a designation he did not mind, as it was what he called himself.\nHowever, in his later years, Rockwell began receiving more attention as a painter when he chose more serious subjects such as the series on racism for Look magazine. One example of this more serious work is The Problem We All Live With, which dealt with the issue of school racial integration. The painting depicts a young African American girl, Ruby Bridges, flanked by white federal marshals, walking to school past a wall defaced by racist graffiti.\nRockwell's work was exhibited at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in 2001. Rockwell's Breaking Home Ties sold for $15.4 million at a 2006 Sotheby's auction. A twelve-city U.S. tour of Rockwell's works took place in 2008. In 2008, Rockwell was named the official state artist of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.\n- In the film Empire of the Sun, a young boy (played by Christian Bale) is put to bed by his loving parents in a scene also inspired by a Rockwell painting\u2014a reproduction of which is later kept by the young boy during his captivity in a prison camp (\"Freedom from Fear\", 1943).\n- The 1994 film Forrest Gump includes a shot in a school that re-creates Rockwell's \"Girl with Black Eye\" with young Forrest in place of the girl. Much of the film drew heavy visual inspiration from Rockwell's art.\n- Film director George Lucas owns Rockwell's original of \"The Peach Crop\", and his colleague Steven Spielberg owns a sketch of Rockwell's Triple Self-Portrait. Each of the artworks hangs in the respective filmmaker's workspace. Rockwell is a major character in an episode of Lucas\u2019 Young Indiana Jones Chronicles, \u201cPassion for Life.\u201d\n- In 2005, Target Co. sold Marshall Field's to Federated Department Stores and the Federated discovered a reproduction of Rockwell's The Clock Mender, which depicted the great clocks of the Marshall Field and Company Building on display. Rockwell had donated the painting depicted on the cover of the November 3, 1945 Saturday Evening Post to the store in 1948.\n- On Norman Rockwell's birthday, February 3, 2010, Google featured Rockwell's iconic image of young love \"Boy and Girl Gazing at the Moon\", which is also known as \"Puppy Love\", on its home page. The response was so great that day that the Norman Rockwell museum's servers went down under the onslaught.\n- \"Dreamland\", a track from Canadian alternative rock band Our Lady Peace's 2009 album Burn Burn, was inspired by Rockwell's paintings.\nMajor works \n- Scout at Ship's Wheel (first published magazine cover illustration, Boys' Life, September 1913)\n- Santa and Scouts in Snow (1913)\n- Boy and Baby Carriage (1916; first Saturday Evening Post cover)\n- Circus Barker and Strongman (1916)\n- Gramps at the Plate (1916)\n- Redhead Loves Hatty Perkins (1916)\n- People in a Theatre Balcony (1916)\n- Tain't You (1917; first Life magazine cover)\n- Cousin Reginald Goes to the Country (1917; first Country Gentleman cover)\n- Santa and Expense Book (1920)\n- Mother Tucking Children into Bed (1921; first wife Irene is the model)\n- No Swimming (1921)\n- Santa with Elves (1922)\n- Doctor and Doll (1929)\n- Deadline (1938)\n- The Four Freedoms (1943)\n- Rosie the Riveter (1943)\n- Going and Coming (1947)\n- Bottom of the Sixth (or The Three Umpires; 1949)\n- The New Television Set (1949)\n- Saying Grace (1951)\n- The Young Lady with the Shiner (1953)\n- Girl at Mirror (1954)\n- Breaking Home Ties (1954)\n- The Marriage License (1955)\n- The Scoutmaster (1956)\n- The Runaway (1958)\n- A Family Tree (1959)\n- Triple Self-Portrait (1960)\n- Golden Rule (1961)\n- The Problem We All Live With (1964)\n- Southern Justice (Murder in Mississippi) (1965)\n- New Kids in the Neighborhood (1967)\n- Russian Schoolroom (1967)\n- The Rookie\n- Spirit of 76 (1976) (stolen in 1978 but recovered in 2001 by the FBI's Robert King Wittman)\nOther collections \n- Norman Rockwell World War II posters, hosted by the University of North Texas Libraries Digital Collections\n- Rockwell Collection at the National Museum of American Illustration\n- Norman Rockwell and the Art of Scouting at the National Scouting Museum, Irving, TX \nSee also \n- James K. Van Brunt, a frequent model for Rockwell\n- William Obanhein, another one of Rockwell's models who would later become famous elsewhere\n- Norman Rockwell's World... An American Dream, a 1972 short documentary film\n- \"Alex Ross Biography\". alexrossart.com. Retrieved February 13, 2012.\n- About the Saturday Evening Post[dead link]\n- Boughton, James (1903). Genealogy of the families of John Rockwell, of Stamford, Connecticut 1641, and Ralph Keeler, of Hartford, Connecticut 1939. W.F. Jones. p. 441.\n- Roberts, Gary Boyd, and David Curtis Dearborn (1998). Notable Kin: An Anthology of Columns First Published in the NEHGS Nexus, 1986\u20131995. Boston, Massachusetts: Carl Boyer in cooperation with the New England Historic Genealogical Society. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-936124-20-9.\n- Claridge, Laura P. (2001). Norman Rockwell: A Life. New York, New York: Random House. p. 20,29. ISBN 978-0-375-50453-2.\n- Rockwell, Margaret (1998). Norman Rockwell's Growing Up in America. Metro Books. pp. 10\u201311. ISBN 978-1-56799-598-5.\n- SSDI. \u2013 SS#: 177-01-3581.\n- Claridge. \u2013 p.30,47,150.\n- Rockwell, Norman, and Thomas Rockwell (1988). Norman Rockwell, My Adventures as an Illustrator. Abrams. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-8109-1563-3.\n- \"Rockwell and Csatari: A tour de force\". Scouting magazine: 6. March\u2013April, 2008.\n- \"A personal recollection\". City of Alhambra. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- Kamp, David (November 2009). \"Norman Rockwell\u2019s American Dream\". Vanityfair.com. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- \"A portrait of Norman Rockwell - Berkshire Eagle Online\". Berkshireeagle.com. July 3, 2009. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- Elliott Caplin: Al Capp Remembered (1994)\n- Gherman, Beverly (2000) \"Norman Rockwell Storyteller with a brush\"\n- Claridge, p. 581\n- Kamp, David. \"Erratum: Norman Rockwell Actually Did Rock Well\". Vanity Fair. Retrieved February 24, 2011.\n- Official List of Silver Buffalo award Recipients (Retrieved July 17, 2007)\n- William Hillcourt (1977). Norman Rockwell's World of Scouting. New York: Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-1582-0.\n- Jim Windolf (February 2008). \"Keys to the Kingdom\". Vanityfair.com. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- \"Solomon, Deborah, In Praise of Bad Art\". New York Times. January 24, 1999. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- \"Art of Illustration\". Norman Rockwell Museum. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- \"Norman Rockwell Wins Medal of Freedom\". Massmoments.org. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- Miller, Michelle (November 12, 2010). \"Ruby Bridges, Rockwell Muse, Goes Back to School\". CBS Evening News with Katie Couric (CBS Interactive Inc.). Retrieved November 13, 2010.\n- Norman Rockwell at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum.[dead link]\n- Gates, Anita (November 24, 1999). \"Looking Beyond the Myth-Making Easel of Mr. Thanksgiving\". New York Times. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- RICHARD CORLISS (June 24, 2001). \"The World According to Gump\". Time.com. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- Aronovich, Hannah (April 20, 2006). \"Field's, Federated and More Feuds\". Gothamist. Retrieved April 4, 2008.\n- \"Norman Rockwell Of Field's Store Goes Missing\". NBC5.com. April 21, 2006. Retrieved April 4, 2008.\n- Aronovich, Hannah (April 20, 2006). \"Field's, Federated and More Feuds\". Gothamist. Retrieved September 21, 2009.\n- \"Dreamland\". Songfacts.com. Retrieved May 5, 2010.\n- \"Rosie the Riveter\". Rosie the Riveter. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- NRM, p. 109\n- \"The norman rockwell collection\". Web.me.com. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- \"Norman Rockwell: Southern Justice (Murder in Mississippi)\". Artchive.com. Retrieved April 28, 2012.\n- \"Museum > Exhibitions - Norman Rockwell and the Art of Scouting\". Irving, Texas, USA: National Scouting Museum. Retrieved 16 August 2012.\nFurther reading \n- Buechner, Thomas S (1992). The Norman Rockwell Treasury. Galahad. ISBN 0-88365-411-3.\n- Finch, Christopher (1990). Norman Rockwell: 332 Magazine Covers. Abbeville Publishing Group. ISBN 0-89660-000-9.\n- Christopher, Finch (1985). Norman Rockwell's America. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN 0-8109-8071-1.\n- Gherman, Beverly (2000). Norman Rockwell: Storyteller with a Brush. ISBN 0-689-82001-1.\n- Hennessey, Maureen Hart; Larson, Judy L. (1999). Norman Rockwell: Pictures for the American People. Harry N. Abrams. ISBN 0-8109-6392-2.\n- Rockwell, Tom (2005). Best of Norman Rockwell. Courage Books. ISBN 0-7624-2415-X.\n- Schick, Ron (2009). Norman Rockwell: Behind the Camera. Little, Brown & Co. ISBN 978-0-316-00693-4.\n|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Norman Rockwell|\n|Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Norman Rockwell|\n- Booknotes interview with Laura Claridge on Norman Rockwell: A Life, December 2, 2001.\n- Gallery of classic graphic design featuring the illustrations of Norman Rockwell.\n- Art Directors Club biography, portrait and images of work\n- Norman Rockwell at Find a Grave\n- Footage of Norman Rockwell sketching a couple\n- America, Illustrated \u2013 by The New York Times\n- Norman Rockwell: Once upon a time there Was the American Dream by Tiziano Thomas Dossena, Bridge Puglia USA, April 2011", "id": "<urn:uuid:6c5322ef-413f-4a69-b643-e15509f4014a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Rockwell", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9364941120147705, "token_count": 4950, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The names chiseled onto city tenement building entrances are often pretty puzzling.\nThe typical tenement is more than 100 years old. With the original builders long-gone, who can explain where some of these names come from, and why they were chosen?\nLike Novelty Court, on Driggs Avenue in Williamsburg. Actually, a little research turned up an explanation: this used to be the site of the Novelty Theater, according to Cinema Treasures, which disappeared from city directories by the 1920s.\nA. Segal\u2019s (Secal\u2019s?) Apartments are also in Williamsburg. But who was A. Segal, and why did he put his first initial and last name on his building?\nBlennerhasset sounds like Manhasset, a town in Long Island. I\u2019ve never seen the name anywhere else but on this tenement near Columbia University.\nWho was Frances, and how would she feel about the terrible shape the building named for her is in, on Lexington Avenue in East Harlem?", "id": "<urn:uuid:983e5733-551c-4c84-be58-6e25791db2ab>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ephemeralnewyork.wordpress.com/2011/12/24/the-mysteries-surrounding-some-tenement-names/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9767698645591736, "token_count": 219, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This is an old lecture by linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky (professor at MIT) given at UC Berkeley in 2003. For that evening in the Charles M. and Martha Hitchcock Lecture series, Chomsky examined biolinguistics - the study of relations between physiology and speech.\nA second video of Chomsky is featured below, which is the second half of this talk. Fair warning - this is not easy material - Chomsky is speaking to people who are well-versed in this field.\nChomsky has been one the most influential scholars over the last three or four decades - between 1980 and 1992, he was cited as a source more than any other living scholar, and ranked eighth overall.\nAs background for this lecture, Wikipedia offers a good summary of his influence in linguistics (below the video).\nChomskyan LinguisticsChomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules.\nPerhaps his most influential and time-tested contribution to the field, is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the \"productivity\" or \"creativity\" of language. In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. He has always acknowledged his debt to P\u0101\u1e47ini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar although it is also related to rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge.\nIt is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is entirely innate and discovered a \"universal grammar\" (UG). In fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has which the cat lacks the \"language acquisition device\" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed \"universal grammar\" or UG.\nThe Principles and Parameters approach (P&P)\u2014developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB)\u2014makes strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the pro-drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples.\nProponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. The similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism were being employed), are also pointed to as motivation for innateness.\nMore recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of \"principles and parameters,\" Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P.\nChomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers of the language acquisition in children, though many researchers in this area such as Elizabeth Bates and Michael Tomasello argue very strongly against Chomsky's theories, and instead advocate emergentist or connectionist theories, explaining language with a number of general processing mechanisms in the brain that interact with the extensive and complex social environment in which language is used and learned.\nHis best-known work in phonology is The Sound Pattern of English (1968), written with Morris Halle (and often known as simply SPE). This work has had a great significance for the development in the field. While phonological theory has since moved beyond \"SPE phonology\" in many important respects, the SPE system is considered the precursor of some of the most influential phonological theories today, including autosegmental phonology, lexical phonology and optimality theory. Chomsky no longer publishes on phonology.", "id": "<urn:uuid:249ad1f9-cb8f-42dd-b955-c4814c5a2452>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://integral-options.blogspot.com/2012/04/noam-chomsky-language-and-mind.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9454671144485474, "token_count": 1107, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Deep-space communication improved with electromagnetic radiation antenna\n- Robert C. Dye\n- Technology Transfer\n- (505) 667-3404\nElectromagnetic radiation antenna has potential for deep-space communication\n- Directed Energy\n- Long-range communications\n- Medicine (Oncology)\n- RADAR imaging applications are countermeasure-resistant\n- Communications can be spatially-encrypted\n- 4-dimensional volumes of energy can be aimed at a single space-time point for directed energy applications\n- Nonspherical decay of the cusp enables low-power communications and propagation over great distances\nLos Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) researchers have developed the Lightslinger, a completely new type of antenna that produces tightly-focused packets of electromagnetic radiation fundamentally different from the emissions of conventional transmitters. The device has potential applications in RADAR, directed-energy (non-kinetic kill), secure communications, ultra-long-range communications (e.g., deep-space), medicine (oncology) and astrophysics.\nThe Lightslinger functions by producing a moving polarization pattern in a ring of alumina. By careful timing of voltages applied to electrodes that surround the alumina, the polarization pattern can be made to move superluminally, i.e., faster than the speed of light in a vacuum. Nobel laureate Vitaly Ginzberg showed both that such superluminal polarization patterns do not violate the principles of special relativity and that they emit electromagnetic radiation. Once a source travels faster than the waves that it emits, it can make contributions at multiple retarded times to a signal received instantaneously at a distance. This effect is already well known in acoustics; when a supersonic airplane accelerates through the speed of sound, a violent \u201csonic boom\u201d is heard many miles away, even if the airplane itself is rather quiet. The Lightslinger enables the same thing to be done with electromagnetic radiation; i.e., a relatively low-power source can make an \u201celectromagnetic boom\u201d, an intense concentration of radiowaves at a great distance.\nThe \u201celectromagnetic boom\u201d is due to temporal focusing, that is, focusing in the time domain. Because of this effect, part of the emitted radiation possesses an intensity that decays with distance r as 1/r rather than as the conventional inverse square law, 1/r2. These nonspherically-decaying wavepackets represent a game-changing technology in the applications of electromagnetic radiation.\nDevelopment stage: Working prototype\nPatent status: Patent pending\nLicensing status: Available for exclusive or non-exclusive licensing", "id": "<urn:uuid:79bc5d65-38cf-489f-b8c5-6800ff88c6f7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://moe@lanl.gov/collaboration/tech-transfer/tech-transfer-summaries/electromagnetic-radiation-antenna-has-potential-for-deep-space-communication.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8813943266868591, "token_count": 545, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Schools and Students\nPrivate schools in 1999\u20132000 were located primarily in central cities (42 percent) and the urban fringe or large towns (40 percent) (table 2). About 18 percent of private schools were found in rural areas. In contrast, 24 percent of all public schools were in central city locations, 45 percent in the urban fringe or large towns, and 31 percent in rural areas. Most schools\u201461 percent of private and 71 percent of public\u2014were elementary, but 10 percent of private schools and 25 percent of public schools were secondary. Finally, a much higher proportion of private schools (30 percent) were combined schools (usually grades K\u201312 or 1\u201312), compared with only 4 percent of public schools.\nFigures and Tables\nTable 2: Percentage distribution of schools according to community type and level, by sector and private school type: 1999-2000\nTable S2: Standard errors for the percentage distribution of schools according to community type and level, by sector and private school type: 1999-2000", "id": "<urn:uuid:700680b4-7ce1-472b-af82-33bd71cae337>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/analysis/2002b-sa01a.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9785959720611572, "token_count": 207, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The test team views the use of a pulley as an intermediate step only, and has planned to shift to a reliance on windlasses like those that apparently were used to hoist sails on Egyptian ships.\n\"The whole approach has been to downgrade the technology,\" Gharib said. \"We first wanted to show that a kite could raise a huge weight at all. Now that we're raising larger and larger stones, we're also preparing to replace the steel scaffolding with wooden poles and the steel pulleys with wooden pulleys like the ones they may have used on Egyptian ships.\"\nFor Gharib, the idea of accomplishing heavy tasks with limited manpower is appealing from an engineer's standpoint because it makes more logistical sense.\n\"You can imagine how hard it is to coordinate the activities of hundreds if not thousands of laborers to accomplish an intricate task,\" said Gharib. \"It's one thing to send thousands of soldiers to attack another army on a battlefield. But an engineering project requires everything to be put precisely into place.\n\"I prefer to think of the technology as simple, with relatively few people involved,\" he explained.\nGharib and Graff came up with a way of building a simple structure around the obelisk, with a pulley system mounted in front of the stone. That way, the base of the obelisk would drag on the ground for a few feet as the kite lifted the stone, and the stone would be quite stable once it was pulled upright into a vertical position. If the obelisk were raised with the base as a pivot, the stone would tend to swing past the vertical position and fall the other way.\nThe top of the obelisk is tied with ropes threaded through the pulleys and attached to the kite. The operation is guided by a couple of workers using ropes attached to the pulleys.\nNo one has found any evidence that the ancient Egyptians moved stones or any other objects with kites and pulleys. But Clemmons has found some tantalizing hints that the project is on the right track. On a building frieze in a Cairo museum, there is a wing pattern in bas-relief that does not resemble any living bird. Directly below are several men standing near vertical objects that could be ropes.\nGharib's interest in the project is mainly to demonstrate that the technique may be viable.\n\"We're not Egyptologists,\" he said. \"We're mainly interested in determining whether there is a possibility that the Egyptians were aware of wind power, and whether they used it to make their lives better.\"\nNow that Gharib and his team have successfully raised the four-ton concrete obelisk, they plan to further test the approach using a ten-ton stone, and perhaps an even heavier one after that. Eventually they hope to obtain permission to try using their technique to raise one of the obelisks that still lie in an Egyptian quarry.\n\"In fact, we may not even need a kite. It could be we can get along with just a drag chute,\" Gharib said.\nAn important question is: Was there enough wind in Egypt for a kite or a drag chute to fly? Probably so, as steady winds of up to 30 miles per hour are not unusual in the areas where pyramids and obelisks were found.\n(c) 2001 Caltech\nSOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES", "id": "<urn:uuid:7989d2d3-3e6d-4a4d-ad8e-e7b19882a89a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0628_caltechobelisk_2.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9741706848144531, "token_count": 709, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This collection consists of digital images of the correspondence of John Muir from 1856-1914. The vast majority of the letters\nwere sent and received by Muir, although the collection also includes some correspondence of selected family members and colleagues.\nMuir\u2019s correspondence offers a unique first-hand perspective on his thoughts and experiences, as well as those of his correspondents,\nwhich include many notable figures in scientific, literary, and political circles of the 19th and early 20th centuries. The\ncorrespondence forms part of the John Muir Papers microfilm set that filmed letters located at over 35 institutions.\nA Scottish-born journalist and naturalist, John Muir (1838-1914) studied botany and geology at the University of Wisconsin\n(1861-1863). He worked for awhile as a mill hand at the Trout Broom Factory in Meaford, Canada (1864-1866), then at an Indianapolis\ncarriage factory (1866-1867), until an accident temporarily blinded him and directed his thoughts toward full-time nature\nstudy. Striking out on foot for South America, Muir walked to the Gulf of Mexico (September 1867-January 1868), but a long\nillness in Florida led him to change his plans and turn his interests westward. Muir arrived by ship at San Francisco (March\n1868), walked to the Sierra Nevada Mountains and began a five year wilderness sojourn (1868-1873) during which he made his\nyear-round home in the Yosemite Valley. Working as a sheepherder and lumberman when he needed money for supplies, Muir investigated\nthe length and breadth of the Sierra range, focusing most of his attention on glaciation and its impact on mountain topography.\nHe began to publish newspaper articles about what he saw in the California mountains and these articles brought him to the\nattention of such intellectuals as Asa Gray and Ralph Waldo Emerson, both of whom sought him out during their visits to California.\nEncouraged by Jeanne Carr, wife of his one-time botany professor, Ezra S. Carr, Muir took up nature writing as a profession\n(1872). He set up winter headquarters in Oakland and began a pattern of spring and summer mountaineering followed by winter\nwriting based upon his travel journals that he held to until 1880. His treks took him to Mount Shasta (1874, 1875 & 1877),\nthe Great Basin (1876, 1877, 1878), southern California and the Coast Range (1877), and southern Alaska (1879). Muir found\nthat he could finance his modest bachelor lifestyle with revenue from contributions published in various San Francisco newspapers\nand magazines. During this period he launched the first lobbying effort to protect Sierra forests from wasteful lumbering\nSome of the materials in the John Muir Correspondence Collection may be protected by the U.S. Copyright Law (Title 17, U.S.C.)\nand/or by the copyright or neighboring rights laws of other nations. Additionally, the reproduction of some materials may\nbe restricted by privacy or publicity rights. Responsibility for making an independent legal assessment of an item and securing\nany necessary permissions ultimately rests with persons desiring to reproduce or use the item.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6f2a750f-0c38-4b95-86ad-7af20a393eac>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://oac4.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/hb3z09p2q4/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9655135273933411, "token_count": 679, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Complete the following test so you can be sure you understand the material. Your answers are private, and test results are not scored.\nWhen you create a new table in Datasheet view, you must define a primary key field.\nYou can't use the Lookup Wizard to alter an existing value list.\nWhen you use a template to create a table, you must set data types for the fields in the new table.\nWhich of the following is the correct syntax for a value list?\n'Option 1','Option 2','Option 3'\n\"Option 1\";\"Option 2\";\"Option 3\"\n\"Option 1\":\"Option 2\":\"Option 3\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:21328ea9-4f20-4eeb-8f36-e480bf4e97a9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/training/test-yourself-RZ010288610.aspx?section=9", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7421594262123108, "token_count": 136, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Bible gives us a clear picture of foolish behavior and its consequences. It\u2019s important for us to recognize these traits in others\u2014and in ourselves. Dealing appropriately with people who behave foolishly requires prayer and wisdom. But remember, that foolish person is not in your life by accident, and you can by God\u2019s grace respond to him or her in a Christ-like manner.\nCharacteristics of Foolish Behavior\n1. Denying, disregarding, or rebelling against God.\nThe fool says in his heart \u201cThere is no God\u201d (Psalm 14:1).\n2. Slandering, lying, deceiving\nThe one who conceals hatred has lying lips, and whoever utters slander is a fool\n3. Quick-Tempered A fool shows his annoyance at once, but a prudent man overlooks an insult (Proverbs 12:16).\n4. Acts Impetuously and Without Regard for Consequences\nIn everything the prudent acts with knowledge, but a fool flaunts his folly. (Proverbs 13:16).\nOne who is wise is cautious and turns away from evil, but a fool is reckless and careless.\n5. Talks endlessly, brags, spouts off frequently.\nA fool takes no pleasure in understanding, but only in expressing his opinion\nThe wise lay up knowledge, but the mouth of a fool brings ruin near. (Proverbs 10:14).\nA fool\u2019s mouth is his ruin, and his lips are a snare to his soul. (Proverbs 18:7 ).\n6. Refuses Advice, Accountability and/or Discipline\nA fool despises his father\u2019s instruction, but whoever heeds reproof is prudent\nA rebuke goes deeper into a man of understanding than a hundred blows into a fool\n7. Handles Money Recklessly\nOf what use is money in the hand of a fool, since he has no desire to get wisdom?\nIn the house of the wise are stores of choice food and oil, but a foolish man devours all\nhe has (Proverbs 21:20).\n8. Quarrels frequently, picks fights, is contentious\nFools get into constant quarrels; they are asking for a beating (Proverbs 18:6 NLT).\nA fool gives full vent to his anger, but a wise man keeps himself under control\n9. Lazy, Lacks Focus and Ambition\nFoolish people refuse to work and almost starve (Ecclesiastes 4:5).\nA wise person thinks much about death, while the fool thinks only about having a good time now\n(Ecclesiastes 7:4 ).\nFools are so exhausted by a little work that they have no strength for even the simplest tasks\n(Ecclesiastes 10:15 ).\n10. Never Learns from Past Experience\nAs a do returns to his vomit, so a fool repeats his folly (Proverbs 26:11).\nYou cannot separate fools from their foolishness, even though you grind them like grain with\nmortar and pestle (Proverbs 27:22 ).\nHow are we to respond to foolish behavior?\n1. First and most importantly, we pray for them.\n2. Second, watch your attitude and motivation toward these foolish people:\nPrinciple #1 \u2013 Don\u2019t be surprised if they refuse good advice.\nDon\u2019t waste your breath on fools, for they will despise the wisest advice\n(Proverbs 23:9 ).\nPrinciple #2 \u2013 Don\u2019t give them honor or luxury.\nIt is not fitting for a fool to live in luxury \u2013 how much worse for a slave to rule over princes!\nLike snow in summer or rain in harvest, honor is not fitting for a fool (Proverbs 26:1).\nPrinciple #3 \u2013 Don\u2019t argue with foolish people.\nDon\u2019t have anything to do with foolish and stupid arguments, because you know they produce\nquarrels. And the Lord\u2019s servant must not quarrel; instead, he must be kind to everyone, able to\nteach, not resentful (2 Tim. 2:23-24).\nPrinciple #4 \u2013 Protect yourself from the resentment and anger caused by foolish people.\nA stone is heavy and sand is weighty, but the resentment caused by a fool is heavier than both\n(Proverbs 27:3 ).\nStay away from a foolish man, for you will not find knowledge on his lips (Proverbs 14:7).\nAre you encouraged here? I personally invite you to subscribe and get the latest posts sent to your inbox. Also, connect with us on Facebook and Twitter and get updates that are not posted here on the blog.\nLinking up with:The Modest Mom,\nWe are now selling Lilla Rose! (30% discount on soon to be retired items)\nVision Forum Sale: 20% off everything\nWith discount code: EXTRA20", "id": "<urn:uuid:838d869f-2d2f-432a-b380-608aa039f4f0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://proverbs14verse1.blogspot.com/2012/02/characteristics-of-foolish-behavior.html?showComment=1330368347803", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9307095408439636, "token_count": 1040, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Each year more than 4 million homeless pets are killed as a result of overpopulation, but families who adopt from animal shelters or rescue groups can help preserve these lives and support the growing trend of socially responsible holiday shopping. Best Friends Animal Society encourages families this holiday season to give the precious gift of life by adopting homeless pets rather than buying from breeders, pet stores or online retailers.\nAlso, resist the urge to surprise a friend or family member with a living gift. Choosing the right pet is an extremely personal decision, one that should be made carefully by the adults who will be caring for the animal for its 15- to 20-year lifetime. Instead, offer an adoption gift certificate paired with a basket of pet care items or stuffed animal for the holiday itself, and then let the person or family choose the actual pet that feels right to them.\nOnce you\u2019ve decided to adopt, keep in mind that welcoming a pet into your life is a big decision and requires important preparation. Best Friends offers tips and advice to help make a smooth transition at home:\n* Determine roles and responsibilities \u2013 Before bringing home a new pet, discuss what roles and responsibilities each family member will take on. Who will be in charge of feeding, walks, changing the litter box and taking your pet for regular visits to the vet? Giving each family member a specific task will help everyone feel involved, especially young children.\n* Prep the house \u2013 Adding a pet to the house means adding new items to your shopping lists. For dogs, the basics are a collar and leash, chew toys, a kennel and dog bed. Cats need a litter box and litter, a scratching post and a carrying crate for transportation. Also don\u2019t forget food and toys.\n* Have your pet spayed/neutered \u2013 Spaying or neutering is one of the greatest gifts you can provide your pet and community. It not only helps control the overabundance of pets, but can also help prevent medical and behavioral problems from developing. Most shelters include this with the adoption package or can recommend a local veterinarian in your area, so check with the staff at the shelter before you leave.\n* Research community rules and resources \u2013 Do a little research on what identification (tags, microchips, etc.) you might need for your pet. Scout out the local dog parks and runs for future outdoor fun, and make sure you know where emergency vet clinics or animal hospitals are located.\n* Set limits \u2013 Having pre-determined rules will create consistency in training and help make the home a pleasant environment for you and your pet. Will your pet be allowed to snuggle with you in bed or curl up with you on your furniture? Will treats be limited to one a day? It\u2019s important to discuss these questions as a family before your new family member arrives.\nAn estimated 17 million people will be adding pets to their families this year, so this season, help bring some holiday cheer to a homeless pet by adopting your newest companion.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cefe5610-f57c-40d2-938e-5283619dbcb4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://queensledger.com/view/full_story/20992104/article-The-holiday-gift-that-keeps-on-giving--opt-to-adopt-a-pet--save-a-life?instance=pets", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9344787001609802, "token_count": 614, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Taking Play Seriously\nBy ROBIN MARANTZ HENIG\nPublished: February 17, 2008\nOn a drizzly Tuesday night in late January, 200 people came out to hear a psychiatrist talk rhapsodically about play -- not just the intense, joyous play of children, but play for all people, at all ages, at all times. (All species too; the lecture featured touching photos of a polar bear and a husky engaging playfully at a snowy outpost in northern Canada.) Stuart Brown, president of the National Institute for Play, was speaking at the New York Public Library's main branch on 42nd Street. He created the institute in 1996, after more than 20 years of psychiatric practice and research persuaded him of the dangerous long-term consequences of play deprivation. In a sold-out talk at the library, he and Krista Tippett, host of the public-radio program ''Speaking of Faith,'' discussed the biological and spiritual underpinnings of play. Brown called play part of the ''developmental sequencing of becoming a human primate. If you look at what produces learning and memory and well-being, play is as fundamental as any other aspect of life, including sleep and dreams.''\nThe message seemed to resonate with audience members, who asked anxious questions about what seemed to be the loss of play in their children's lives. Their concern came, no doubt, from the recent deluge of eulogies to play . Educators fret that school officials are hacking away at recess to make room for an increasingly crammed curriculum. Psychologists complain that overscheduled kids have no time left for the real business of childhood: idle, creative, unstructured free play. Public health officials link insufficient playtime to a rise in childhood obesity. Parents bemoan the fact that kids don't play the way they themselves did -- or think they did. And everyone seems to worry that without the chance to play stickball or hopscotch out on the street, to play with dolls on the kitchen floor or climb trees in the woods, today's children are missing out on something essential.\nThe success of ''The Dangerous Book for Boys'' -- which has been on the best-seller list for the last nine months -- and its step-by-step instructions for activities like folding paper airplanes is testament to the generalized longing for play's good old days. So were the questions after Stuart Brown's library talk; one woman asked how her children will learn trust, empathy and social skills when their most frequent playing is done online. Brown told her that while video games do have some play value, a true sense of ''interpersonal nuance'' can be achieved only by a child who is engaging all five senses by playing in the three-dimensional world.\nThis is part of a larger conversation Americans are having about play. Parents bobble between a nostalgia-infused yearning for their children to play and fear that time spent playing is time lost to more practical pursuits. Alarming headlines about U.S. students falling behind other countries in science and math, combined with the ever-more-intense competition to get kids into college, make parents rush to sign up their children for piano lessons and test-prep courses instead of just leaving them to improvise on their own; playtime versus r?m?uilding.\nDiscussions about play force us to reckon with our underlying ideas about childhood, sex differences, creativity and success. Do boys play differently than girls? Are children being damaged by staring at computer screens and video games? Are they missing something when fantasy play is populated with characters from Hollywood's imagination and not their own? Most of these issues are too vast to be addressed by a single field of study (let alone a magazine article). But the growing science of play does have much to add to the conversation. Armed with research grounded in evolutionary biology and experimental neuroscience, some scientists have shown themselves eager -- at times perhaps a little too eager -- to promote a scientific argument for play. They have spent the past few decades learning how and why play evolved in animals, generating insights that can inform our understanding of its evolution in humans too. They are studying, from an evolutionary perspective, to what extent play is a luxury that can be dispensed with when there are too many other competing claims on the growing brain, and to what extent it is central to how that brain grows in the first place.\nScientists who study play, in animals and humans alike, are developing a consensus view that play is something more than a way for restless kids to work off steam; more than a way for chubby kids to burn off calories; more than a frivolous luxury. Play, in their view, is a central part of neurological growth and development -- one important way that children build complex, skilled, responsive, socially adept and cognitively flexible brains.\nTheir work still leaves some questions unanswered, including questions about play's darker, more ambiguous side: is there really an evolutionary or developmental need for dangerous games, say, or for the meanness and hurt feelings that seem to attend so much child's play? Answering these and other questions could help us understand what might be lost if children play less.", "id": "<urn:uuid:316c7af5-14e1-4d0b-9576-753e17ef2cc5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9404E7DA1339F934A25751C0A96E9C8B63&scp=2&sq=taking%20play%20seriously&st=cse", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9614589214324951, "token_count": 1055, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Classroom Activities for Teaching Sedimentary GeologyThis collection of teaching materials allows for the sharing of ideas and activities within the community of geoscience teachers. Do you have a favorite teaching activity you'd like to share? Please help us expand this collection by contributing your own teaching materials.\nSubject: Sedimentary Geology\nResults 1 - 4 of 4 matches\nChemical and Physical Weathering Field and Lab Experiment: Development and Testing of Hypotheses part of Activities\nLisa Greer, Washington and Lee University\nThis exercise combines an integrated field and laboratory experiment with a significant scientific writing assignment to address chemical and physical weathering processes via hypothesis development, experimental ...\nDemystifying the Equations of Sedimentary Geology part of Activities\nLarry Lemke, Wayne State University\nThis activity includes three strategies to help students develop a deeper comfort level and stronger intuitive sense for understanding mathematical expressions commonly encountered in sedimentary geology. Each can ...\nDigital Sandstone Tutorial part of Activities\nKitty Milliken, University of Texas at Austin, The\nThe Tutorial Petrographic Image Atlas is designed to give students more exposure to petrographic features than they can get during organized laboratory periods.\nRed rock and concretion models from Earth to Mars: Teaching diagenesis part of Activities\nMargie Chan, University of Utah\nThis activity teaches students concepts of terrestrial diagenesis (cementation, fluid flow, porosity and permeability, concretions) and encourages them to apply those concepts to new or unknown settings, including ...", "id": "<urn:uuid:f4b8146e-83a2-43e4-8f2c-b3c235ae8afb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/sedimentary/activities.html?q1=sercvocabs__43%253A206", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.898655354976654, "token_count": 310, "score": 3.875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In 1962 President John F. Kennedy\u2019s administration narrowly averted possible nuclear war with the USSR, when CIA operatives spotted Soviet surface-to-surface missiles in Cuba, after a six-week gap in intelligence-gathering flights.\nIn their forthcoming book Blind over Cuba: The Photo Gap and the Missile Crisis, co-authors David Barrett and Max Holland make the case that the affair was a close call stemming directly from a decision made in a climate of deep distrust between key administration officials and the intelligence community.\nUsing recently declassified documents, secondary materials, and interviews with several key participants, the authors weave a story of intra-agency conflict, suspicion, and discord that undermined intelligence-gathering, adversely affected internal postmortems conducted after the crisis peaked, and resulted in keeping Congress and the public in the dark about what really happened.\nWe asked Barrett, a professor of political science at Villanova University, to discuss the actual series of events and what might have happened had the CIA not detected Soviet missiles on Cuba.\nThe Actual Sequence of Events . . .\n\u201cSome months after the Cuban Missile Crisis, an angry member of the Armed Services Committee of the House of Representatives criticized leaders of the Kennedy administration for having let weeks go by in September and early October 1962, without detecting Soviet construction of missile sites in Cuba. It was an intelligence failure as serious as the U.S. ignorance that preceded the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, he said.\nSecretary of Defense Robert McNamara aggressively denied that there had been an American intelligence failure or ineptitude with regard to Cuba in late summer 1962. McNamara and others persuaded most observers the administration\u2019s performance in the lead-up to the Crisis had been almost flawless, but the legislator was right: The CIA had not sent a U-2 spy aircraft over western Cuba for about a six week period.\nThere were varying reasons for this, but the most important was that the Kennedy administration did not wish to have a U-2 \u201cincident.\u201d Sending that aircraft over Cuba raised the possibility that Soviet surface-to-air missiles might shoot one down. Since it was arguably against international law for the U.S. to send spy aircrafts over another country, should one be shot down, there would probably be the same sort of uproar as happened in May 1960, when the Soviet Union shot down an American U-2 flying over its territory.\nFurthermore, most State Department and CIA authorities did not believe that the USSR would put nuclear-armed missiles into Cuba that could strike the U.S. Therefore, the CIA was told, in effect, not even to request permission to send U-2s over western Cuba. This, at a time when there were growing numbers of reports from Cuban exiles and other sources about suspicious Soviet equipment being brought into the country.As we now know, the Soviets WERE constructing missile sites on what CIA deputy director Richard Helms would call \u201cthe business end of Cuba,\u201d i.e., the western end, in the summer/autumn of 1962. Fortunately, by mid-October, the CIA\u2019s director, John McCone, succeeded in persuading President John F. Kennedy to authorize one U-2 flight over that part of Cuba and so it was that Agency representatives could authoritatively inform JFK on October 16th that the construction was underway.The CIA had faced White House and State Department resistance for many weeks about this U-2 matter.\"\nWhat Could Have Happened . . .\n\u201cWhat if McCone had not succeeded in persuading the President that the U.S. needed to step up aerial surveillance of Cuba in mid-October? What if a few more weeks had passed without that crucial October 14 U-2 flight and its definitive photography of Soviet missile site construction?\nRemember to check out Blind over Cuba: The Photo Gap and the Missile Crisis, which is being published this fall!If McCone had been told \u201cno\u201d in the second week of October, perhaps it would have taken more human intelligence, trickling in from Cuba, about such Soviet activity before the President would have approved a risky U-2 flight.The problem JFK would have faced then is that there would have been a significant number of operational medium-range missile launch sites. Those nuclear-equipped missiles could have hit the southern part of the U.S. Meanwhile, the Soviets would also have progressed further in construction of intermediate missile sites; such missiles could have hit most of the continental United States.If JFK had not learned about Soviet nuclear-armed missiles until, say, November 1st, what would the U.S. have done?There is no definitive answer to that question, but I think it\u2019s fair to say that the President would have been under enormous pressure to authorize\u2014quickly--a huge U.S. air strike against Cuba, followed by an American invasion. One thing which discovery of the missile sites in mid-October gave JFK was some time to negotiate effectively with the Soviet Union during the \u201cThirteen Days\u201d of the crisis. I don\u2019t think there would have been such a luxury if numerous operational missiles were discovered a couple weeks later.No wonder President Kennedy felt great admiration and gratitude toward those at the CIA (with its photo interpreters) and the Air Force (which piloted the key U-2 flight). The intelligence he received on October 16th was invaluable. I think he knew that if that intelligence had not come until some weeks later, there would have been a much greater chance of nuclear war between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:7da5e687-07e2-4c8f-9fac-fe3f58c7017a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://tamupress.blogspot.com/2012/07/close-call-what-if-cia-had-not-spotted.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9771577715873718, "token_count": 1150, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By JOHN CARTER\nWhen Abraham Lincoln died from an assassin\u2019s bullet on April 15, 1865, Edwin Stanton remarked to those gathered around his bedside, \u201cNow he belongs to the ages.\u201d\nOne of the meanings implied in Stanton\u2019s famous statement is that Lincoln would not only be remembered as an iconic figure of the past, but that his spirit would also play a significant role in ages to come.\nThe Oscar-nominated movie \u201cLincoln,\u201d which chronicles the struggle to pass the 13th amendment abolishing slavery, has turned our attention again to Lincoln\u2019s legacy and his relevance amid our nation\u2019s present divisions and growing pains.\nHere is some of the wit and wisdom of Abraham Lincoln worth pondering:\n\u201cAs for being president, I feel like the man who was tarred and feathered and ridden out of town on a rail. To the man who asked him how he liked it, he said, \u2018If it wasn\u2019t for the honor of the thing, I\u2019d rather walk.\u2019\u201d\n\u201cI desire so to conduct the affairs of this administration that if at the end, when I come to lay down the reins of power, I have lost every other friend on earth, I shall at least have one friend left, and that friend shall be down inside of me.\u201d\n\u201cShould my administration prove to be a very wicked one, or what is more probable, a very foolish one, if you the people are true to yourselves and the Constitution, there is but little harm I can do, thank God.\u201d\n\u201cBad promises are better broken than kept.\u201d\n\u201cI am not at all concerned that the Lord is on our side in this great struggle, for I know that the Lord is always on the side of the right; but it is my constant anxiety and prayer that I and this nation may be on the Lord\u2019s side.\u201d\n\u201cI have never had a feeling, politically, that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence.\u201d\n\u201cThose who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves; and, under a just God, cannot long retain it.\u201d\n\u201cAs I would not be a slave, so I would not be a master. This expresses my idea of democracy.\u201d\n\u201cThe probability that we may fail in the struggle ought not to deter us from the support of a cause we believe to be just.\u201d\n\u201cThe true rule, in determining to embrace or reject anything, is not whether it have any evil in it, but whether it have more evil than good. There are few things wholly evil or wholly good.\u201d\n\u201cSome of our generals complain that I impair discipline and subordination in the army by my pardons and respites, but it makes me rested, after a hard day\u2019s work, if I can find some good excuse for saving a man\u2019s life, and I go to bed happy as I think how joyful the signing of my name will make him (a deserter) and his family.\u201d\n\u201cI have been driven many times to my knees by the overwhelming conviction that I had nowhere else to go.\u201d\nIn addition, Lincoln\u2019s Gettysburg Address and his second inaugural speech are ever relevant. And you may wish to add your own favorites to these.\nPaul\u2019s advice to us in Philippians 4:8 is to \u201cfill your minds with those things that are good and deserve praise: things that are true, noble, right, pure, lovely, and honorable.\u201d\nAs we celebrate his birthday on the 12th, Lincoln\u2019s words more than meet this standard!\nJohn Carter is a Weatherford resident whose column, \u201cNotes From the Journey,\u201d is published weekly in the Weatherford Democrat.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d53f9812-f42b-4039-a509-209a2d5aac9b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://weatherforddemocrat.com/opinion/x1303543173/NOTES-FROM-THE-JOURNEY-Lincoln-is-still-one-for-the-ages", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9683926701545715, "token_count": 821, "score": 3.390625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Science Fair Project Encyclopedia\nThe chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine picks up one electron to form the anion (negatively charged ion) Cl\u2212. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and are also called chlorides. An example is table salt, which is sodium chloride with the chemical formula NaCl. In water, it dissolves into Na+ and Cl\u2212 ions.\nThe word chloride can also refer to a chemical compound in which one or more chlorine atoms are covalently bonded in the molecule. This means that chlorides can be either inorganic or organic compounds. The simplest example of an inorganic covalently bonded chloride is hydrogen chloride, HCl. A simple example of an organic covalently bonded chloride is chloromethane (CH3Cl), often called methyl chloride.\nOther examples of inorganic covalently bonded chlorides which are used as reactants are:\n- phosphorus trichloride, phosphorus pentachloride, and thionyl chloride - all three are reactive chlorinating reagents which have been used in a laboratory.\n- Disulfur dichloride (SCl2) - used for vulcanization of rubber.\nChloride ions have important physiological roles. For instance, in the central nervous system the inhibitory action of glycine and some of the action of GABA relies on the entry of Cl\u2212 into specific neurons.\nThe contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "id": "<urn:uuid:4e76b8fd-c479-45d7-8ee7-faf61495aecb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Chloride", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8968929052352905, "token_count": 320, "score": 4.59375, "int_score": 5, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How do you get HIV?\nHIV can be passed on when infected bodily fluid, such as blood or semen, is passed into an uninfected person. Semen is the liquid which is released from a man's penis during sex which carries sperm. It can be infected with HIV or AIDS when someone is HIV positive or is carrying the AIDS virus. This can happen during unprotected sex. For example when two people have sex without using a condom when one partner is already infected, or between drug users who inject and share needles.\nIt can't be transmitted by things like coughing, sneezing, kissing, sharing a toilet seat, swimming pools, sweat and tears.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a3e140cd-7f25-48c9-a2f0-a7d0b1954e0d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.childline.org.uk/Explore/SexRelationships/Pages/HIVAIDS.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9667569994926453, "token_count": 136, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD\nbut Follows Normal Pattern\nA 2007 press release from the National Institute of Mental Health discusses brain development in ADHD youths. In some cases, brain development is delayed as much as three years. The full release and related video are available on the NIMH site: Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD, but Follows Normal Pattern.\nAutistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD):\nHow to Help Children with Autism Learn\nFrom Dr. Lauer and Dr. Beaulieu's talk\nQuick facts about Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD)/ Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD)\n- Autism is a 'spectrum disorder' meaning that it affects children in different ways and at different times in their development.\n- Typically, delays and learning problems can emerge in several areas of functioning including social functioning, communication skills, motor skills, and overall intellectual potential.\n- Each child has their own learning style that includes specific learning challenges as well as areas of preserved skills and, at times, exceptional abilities.\n- Both autism and Asperger's disorder are on the same continuum but are distinct in their expression.\nWhat are the challenges students with PDD/ASD frequently experience?\n- Academic difficulties that can often be misinterpreted as learning disabilities.\n- Problems with executive functioning skills.\n- Difficulty in forming relationships with peers.\n- Emotional difficulties due to learning and social problems such as anxiety, depression, low self-esteem.\n- Fear of new situations and trouble adjusting to changes.\n- May look like or be misconstrued as attention-deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Nonverbal Learning Disability (NLD), Oppositional-Defiant Disorder or Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD).\nWhy choose US to help YOU?\n- Our evaluations are conducted by neuropsychologists who have been extensively trained in the early detection of autistic spectrum disorders and in the identification of specific patterns of learning strengths and weaknesses that are often associated with this condition.\n- Our evaluations help determine which teaching style is best suited to fit an individuals' specific learning profile; we also offer suggestions regarding compensatory educational approached.\n- We work as a team with other learning professionals, advocates and health professionals to enhance the child's potential for success in all settings.\n'The design of truly individual treatment plans that exploit strengths and compensate for weaknesses begins with a detailed understanding of how learning is different for children with autism than for those without autism and how learning is different among children with autism.'\n\u2014 Bryna Siegel, Ph.D., author of Helping Children with Autism Learn\nFor more information on current research, interventions and programs, follow us on Facebook.\nComing to see you for an evaluation was so helpful and Im so happy that I did this. After struggling for years with ADHD but not knowing thats what it was and almost completely ruining our marriage because of it, your diagnosis helped more than you could know. Now I know that its not just me the diagnosis has turned our lives around and helped me feel more accomplished at work. Thanks again for everything.\nSandy and Bob M.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9b0b7a97-4882-4e06-adc0-44f4bbdc3349>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cnld.org/autistic_spectrum_disorders.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9517654776573181, "token_count": 647, "score": 3.390625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Download source - 8 Kb\nThis tutorial is based off of the MSDN Article #ID: Q194873. But, for a beginner, following these MSDN articles can be intimidating to say the least. One of the most often asked questions I see as a Visual C++ and Visual Basic programmer is how to call a VB DLL from VC++. Well, I am hoping to show you exactly that today. I am not going to go over the basic details of COM as this would take too long, so I am assuming you have an understanding of VB, VC++ and a little COM knowledge. It's not too hard to learn; just takes a little time. So let's get started.\nThe first thing you need to do is fire up Visual Basic 6 (VB 5 should work as well). With VB running, create a new \"ActiveX DLL\" project. Rename the project to \"vbTestCOM\" and the class to \"clsTestClass\". You can do this by clicking in the VB Project Explorer Window on the Project1 item (Step 1), then clicking in the Properties window and selecting the name property (Step 2). Do the same for the Class. Click on the class (Step 3), then the name property and enter the name mentioned above (Step 4). Your project so far should look like the folowing right hand side picture:\nOk, now we are ready to add some code to the VB Class. Click on the \"Tools\" menu, then select the \"Add Procedure\" menu item. The Add Procedure window will open up. In this window we need to add some information. First (Step 1) make sure the type is set to Function. Second (Step 2) enter a Function name called \"CountStringLength\". Finally hit the Ok button and VB will generate the new function in the class.\nYou should have an empty function with which to work. The first thing we will do is specify a return type and an input parameter. Edit your code to look like this:\nPublic Function CountStringLength(ByVal strValue As String) As Long\nWhat are we doing here? We are taking one parameter, as a String type in this case, then returning the length through the return type, which is a Long. We specify the input parameter as ByVal, meaning VB will make a copy of this variable and use the copy in the function, rather than the default ByRef, which passes the variable by reference. This way we can be sure that we do not modify the string by accident that was passed to us by the calling program. Let's add the code now.\nPublic Function CountStringLength(ByVal strValue As String) As Long\nIf strValue = vbNullString Then\nCountStringLength = 0\nCountStringLength = Len(strValue)\nIn the first line of code we are checking to see if the calling program passed us an empty, or NULL, string. If so we return 0 as the length. If the user did pass something other than an empty string, then we count it's length and return the length back to the calling program.\nNow would be a good time to save your project. Accept the default names and put it in a safe directory. We need to compile this project now. Go to the File menu and select the \"Make vbCOMTest.dll...\" menu item.\nThe compiler will produce a file called surprisingly enough: vbCOMTest.dll. The compiler will also do us the favor of entering this new DLL into the system registry. We have finished the VB side of this project, so let's start the VC++ side of it. Fire up a copy of VC++, then select from the menu, \"New Project\". The New Project window should appear. Select a \"Win32 Console Application\" (Step 1), then give it a name of \"TestVBCOM\" (Step 2). Finally, enter a directory you want to build this project in (Step 3 - your directory will vary from what I have entered).\nClick on the \"OK\" button and the \"Win32 Console Application - Step 1 of 1\" window will appear. Leave everything on this page as the default, and click the \"Finish\" button. One final window will appear after this titled \"New Project Information\". Simply click the \"Ok\" button here. You should now have an empty Win32 Console project. Press the \"Ctrl\" and hit the \"N\" key. Another window titled \"New\" will appear. Select the \"C++ Source File\" (Step 1), then enter the new name for this file called, \"TestVBCOM.cpp\" (Step 2 - make sure the Add to Project checkbox is checked and the correct project name is in the drop down combo box), then click the \"Ok\" button to finish.\nNow we are going to get fancy!\nYou need to go to your Start Menu in Windows and navigate to the \"Visual Studio 6\" menu and go into the \"Microsoft Visual Studio 6.0 Tools\" sub-menu. In here you will see an icon with the name \"OLE View\". Click on it.\nThe OLE View tool will open up. You will see a window similar to this one:\nCollapse all the trees, if they are not already. This will make it easier to navigate to where we want to go. Highlight the \"Type Libraries\" (Step 1) and expand it. You should see a fairly massive listing. We need to locate our VB DLL. Now, remember what we named the project? Right, we need to look for vbTestCOM. Scroll down until you find this. Once you have found it, double click on it. A new window should appear - the \"ITypeLib Viewer\" window. We are only interested in the IDL (Interface Definition Language) code on the right side of the window. Select the entire IDL text and hit the \"Ctrl\" and \"C\" buttons to copy it to the clipboard.\nYou can close this window and the OLE View window now as we are done with the tool. We need to add the contents of the IDL file into our VC++ project folder. Go to the folder you told VC++ to create your project in and create a new text file there (If you are in Windows Explorer, you can right click in the directory and select \"New\" then scroll over following the arrow and select \"Text Document\"). Rename the text document to \"vbCOMTEST.idl\". Then double click on the new IDL file (VC++ should open it if you named it correctly with an IDL extension). Now paste the code in the file by pressing the \"Ctrl\" and \"V\" keys. The IDL text should be pasted into the file. So far, so good. Now, this IDL file is not going to do us much good until we compile it. That way, VC++ can use the files it generates to talk to the VB DLL. Let's do that now. Open a DOS window and navigate to the directory you created your VC++ project in. Once in that directory, at the prompt you need to type the following to invoke the MIDL compiler:\nE:\\VCSource\\TestVBCOM\\TestVBCOM\\midl vbTestCOM.idl /h vbTestCOM.h\nHit the \"Enter\" key and let MIDL do its magic. You should see results similar to the following:\nClose the DOS window and head back into VC++. We need to add the newly generated vbTestCOM.h and vbTestCOM_i.c files to the project. You can do this by going to the \"Project\" menu, then selecting the \"Add to Project\" item, and scrolling over to the \"Files\" menu item and clicking on it. A window titled, \"Insert Files into Project\" will open. Select the two files highlighted in the next picture, then select the \"Ok\" button.\nThese two files were generated by MIDL for us, and VC++ needs them in order to talk to the VB DLL (actually VC++ does not need the \"vbCOMTest_i.c\" file in the project, but it is handy have in the project to review). We are going to add the following code to the \"TestVBCOM.cpp\" file now, so navigate to that file in VC++ using the \"Workspace\" window. Open the file by double clicking it and VC++ will display the empty file for editing.\nNow add the following code to the \"TestVBCOM.cpp\" file:\n_clsVBTestClass *IVBTestClass = NULL;\nhr = CoInitialize(0);\nhr = CoCreateInstance( CLSID_clsVBTestClass,\n_bstr_t bstrValue(\"Hello World\");\nhr = IVBTestClass->CountStringLength(bstrValue,\ncout << \"The string is: \" << ReturnValue << \" characters in\nlength.\" << endl;\nhr = IVBTestClass->Release();\ncout << \"CoCreateInstance Failed.\" << endl;\nIf all the code is entered in correctly, then press the \"F7\" key to compile this project. Once the project has compiled cleanly, then press the \"Ctrl\" and the \"F5\" keys to run it. In the C++ code, we include the MIDL created \"vbTestCOM.h\" file, the \"Comdef.h\" file for the _bstr_t class support and the \"iostream.h\" file for the \"cout\" support. The rest of the comments should speak for themselves as to what's occurring. This simple tutorial shows how well a person can integrate VB and VC++ apps together using COM. Not too tough actually.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a5fbb498-1ce4-4861-9a4d-ac9d31394472>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.codeproject.com/Articles/21/Beginner-s-Tutorial-Calling-Visual-Basic-ActiveX-D?fid=104&df=90&mpp=10&sort=Position&spc=None&select=1378774&tid=816225&PageFlow=FixedWidth", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.87873774766922, "token_count": 2064, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1854-89 THREE DOLLARS INDIAN HEAD\nIn 1853 the United States negotiated the \"Gadsden Purchase\"settlement of a boundary dispute with Mexico that resulted in the U.S. acquiring what would become the southern portions of Arizona and New Mexico for ten million dollars. The following year Commodore Matthew Perry embarked upon his famed expedition to re-open Japan to the Western world and establish trade. Spreading beyond its borders in many ways, a few years earlier the United States had joined the worldwide move to uniform postage rates and printed stamps when the Congressional Act of March 3, 1845 authorized the first U.S. postage stamps, and set the local prepaid letter rate at five cents. This set the stage for a close connection between postal and coinage history.\nExactly six years later, the postage rate was reduced to three cents when New York Senator Daniel S. Dickinson fathered legislation that simultaneously initiated coinage of the tiny silver three-cent piece as a public convenience. The large cents then in circulation were cumbersome and unpopular, and the new denomination was designed to facilitate the purchase of stamps without using the hated \"coppers.\"\nThis reasoning was carried a step further when the Mint Act of February 21, 1853 authorized a three-dollar gold coin. Congress and Mint Director Robert Maskell Patterson were convinced that the new coin would speed purchases of three-cent stamps by the sheet and of the silver three-cent coins in roll quantities. Unfortunately, at no time during the 35-year span of this denomination did public demand justify these hopes. Chief Engraver James Barton Longacre chose an \"Indian Princess\" for his obverse not a Native American profile, but actually a profile modeled after the Greco-Roman Venus Accroupie statue then in a Philadelphia museum. Longacre used this distinctive sharp-nosed profile on his gold dollar of 1849 and would employ it again on the Indian Head cent of 1859. On the three-dollar coin Liberty is wearing a feathered headdress of equal-sized plumes with a band bearing LIBERTY in raised letters. She's surrounded by the inscription UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Such a headdress dates back to the earliest known drawings of American Indians by French artist Jacques le Moyne du Morgue's sketches of the Florida Timucua tribe who lived near the tragic French colony of Fort Caroline in 1562. It was accepted by engravers and medalists of the day as the design shorthand for \"America.\"\nLongacre's reverse depicted a wreath of tobacco, wheat, corn and cotton with a plant at top bearing two conical seed masses. The original wax models of this wreath still exist on brass discs in a Midwestern collection and show how meticulous Longacre was in preparing his design. Encircled by the wreath is the denomination 3 DOLLARS and the date. There are two boldly different reverse types, the small DOLLARS appearing only in 1854 and the large DOLLARS on coins of 1855-89. Many dates show bold \"outlining\" of letters and devices, resembling a double strike but probably the result of excessive forcing of the design punches into the die steel, causing a hint of their sloping \"shoulders\" to appear as part of the coin's design. The high points of the obverse design that first show wear are the cheek and hair above the eye; on the reverse, check the bow knot and leaves.\nA total of just over 535,000 pieces were issued along with 2058 proofs. The first coins struck were the 15 proofs of 1854. Regular coinage began on May 1, and that first year saw 138,618 pieces struck at Philadelphia (no mintmark), 1,120 at Dahlonega (D), and 24,000 at New Orleans (O). These two branch mints would strike coins only in 1854. San Francisco produced the three-dollar denomination in 1855, 1856, and 1857, again in 1860, and apparently one final piece in 1870. Mintmarks are found below the wreath.\nEvery U.S. denomination boasts a number of major rarities. The three-dollar gold coinage of 1854-1889 is studded with so many low-mintage dates that the entire series may fairly be called rare. In mint state 1878 is the most common date, followed by the 1879, 1888, 1854 and 1889 issues. Every other date is very rare in high grade, particularly 1858, 1865, 1873 Closed 3 and all the San Francisco issues. Minuscule mintages were the rule in the later years. Proof coins prior to 1859 are extremely rare and more difficult to find than the proof-only issues of 1873 Open 3, 1875 and 1876, but many dates are even rarer in the higher Mint State grades. This is because at least some proofs were saved by well- heeled collectors while few lower-budget collectors showed any interest in higher-grade business strikes of later-date gold. Counterfeits are known for many dates; any suspicious piece should be authenticated.\nThe rarest date of all is the unique 1870-S, of which only one example was struck for inclusion in the new Mint's cornerstone. Either the coin escaped, or a second was struck as a pocket piece for San Francisco Mint Coiner J.B. Harmstead. In any event, one coin showing traces of jewelry use surfaced in the numismatic market in 1907. It was sold to prominent collector William H. Woodin, and when Thomas L. Elder sold the Woodin collection in 1911, the coin went to Baltimore's Waldo C. Newcomer. Later owned by Virgil Brand, it was next sold by Ted and Carl Brandts of Ohio's Celina Coin Co. and Stack's of New York to Louis C. Eliasberg in 1946 for $11,500. In Bowers and Merena's October 1982 sale of the U.S. Gold Collection, this famous coin sold for a record $687,500.\nThe three-dollar denomination quietly expired in 1889 along with the gold dollar and nickel three-cent piece. America's coinage was certainly more prosaic without this odd denomination gold piece, but its future popularity with collectors would vastly outstrip the lukewarm public reception it enjoyed during its circulating life.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ce5e0d75-e5f8-4ce2-8b94-86d9527d0dd4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.coinsite.com/CoinSite-PF/PParticles/$3goldix.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9638387560844421, "token_count": 1295, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "CTComms sends on average 2 million emails monthly on behalf of over 125 different charities and not for profits.\nTake the complexity of technology and stir in the complexity of the legal system and what do you get? Software licenses! If you've ever attempted to read one you know how true this is, but you have to know a little about software licensing even if you can't parse all of the fine print.\nBy: Chris Peters\nMarch 10, 2009\nA software license is an agreement between you and the owner of a program which lets you perform certain activities which would otherwise constitute an infringement under copyright law. The software license usually answers questions such as:\nThe price of the software and the licensing fees, if any, are sometimes discussed in the licensing agreement, but usually it's described elsewhere.\nIf you read the definitions below and you're still scratching your head, check out Categories of Free and Non-Free Software which includes a helpful diagram.\nFree vs Proprietary:\nWhen you hear the phrase \"free software\" or \"free software license,\" \"free\" is referring to your rights and permissions (\"free as in freedom\" or \"free as in free speech\"). In other words, a free software license gives you more rights than a proprietary license. You can usually copy, modify, and redistribute free software without paying a fee or obtaining permission from the developers and distributors. In most cases \"free software\" won't cost you anything, but that's not always the case \u2013 in this instance the word free is making no assertion whatsoever about the price of the software. Proprietary software puts more restrictions and limits on your legal permission to copy, modify, and distribute the program.\nFree, Open-Source or FOSS?\nIn everyday conversation, there's not much difference between \"free software,\" \"open source software,\" and \"FOSS (Free and Open-Source Software).\" In other words, you'll hear these terms used interchangeably, and the proponents of free software and the supporters of open-source software agree with one another on most issues. However, the official definition of free software differs somewhat from the official definition of open-source software, and the philosophies underlying those definitions differ as well. For a short description of the difference, read Live and Let License. For a longer discussion from the \"free software\" side, read Why Open Source Misses the Point of Free Software. For the \"open-source\" perspective, read Why Free Software is Too Ambiguous.\nPublic domain and copyleft.\nThese terms refer to different categories of free, unrestricted licensing. A copyleft license allows you all the freedoms of a free software license, but adds one restriction. Under a copyleft license, you have to release any modifications under the same terms as the original software. In effect, this blocks companies and developers who want to alter free software and then make their altered version proprietary. In practice, almost all free and open-source software is also copylefted. However, technically you can release \"free software\" that isn't copylefted. For example, if you developed software and released it under a \"public domain\" license, it would qualify as free software, but it isn't copyleft. In effect, when you release something into the public domain, you give up all copyrights and rights of ownership.\nShareware and freeware.\nThese terms don't really refer to licensing, and they're confusing in light of the discussion of free software above. Freeware refers to software (usually small utilities at sites such as Tucows.com) that you can download and install without paying. However, you don't have the right to view the source code, and you may not have the right to copy and redistribute the software. In other words, freeware is proprietary software. Shareware is even more restrictive. In effect, shareware is trial software. You can use it for a limited amount of time (usually 30 or 60 days) and then you're expected to pay to continue using it.\nEnd User Licensing Agreement (EULA).\nWhen you acquire software yourself, directly from a vendor or retailer, or directly from the vendor's Web site, you usually have to indicate by clicking a box that you accept the licensing terms. This \"click-through\" agreement that no one ever reads is commonly known as a EULA. If you negotiate a large purchase of software with a company, and you sign a contract to seal the agreement, that contract usually replaces or supersedes the EULA.\nMost major vendors of proprietary software offer some type of bulk purchasing and volume licensing mechanism. The terms vary widely, but if you order enough software to qualify, the benefits in terms of cost and convenience are significant. Also, not-for-profits sometimes qualify for it with very small initial purchases.\nSome of the benefits of volume licensing include:\nLower cost. As with most products, software costs less when you buy more of it.\nEase of installation. Without volume licenses, you usually have to enter a separate activation code (also known as a product key or license key) for each installed copy of the program. On the other hand, volume licenses provide you with a single, organisation-wide activation code, which makes it much easier to find when you need to reinstall the software.\nEasier tracking of licenses. Keeping track of how many licenses you own, and how many copies you've actually installed, is a tedious, difficult task. Many volume licensing programs provide an online account which is automatically updated when you obtain or activate a copy of that company's software. These accounts can also coordinate licensing across multiple offices within your organisation.\nTo learn more about volume licensing from a particular vendor, check out some of the resources below:\nQualified not-for-profits and libraries can receive donated volume licenses for Microsoft products through TechSoup. For more information, check out our introduction to the Microsoft Software Donation Program, and the Microsoft Software Donation Program FAQ. For general information about the volume licensing of Microsoft software, see Volume Licensing Overview.\nIf you get Microsoft software from TechSoup or other software distributors who work with not-for-profits, you may need to go to the eOpen Web site to locate your Volume license keys. For more information, check out the TechSoup Donation Recipient's Guide to the Microsoft eOpen Web Site.\nAlways check TechSoup Stock first to see if there's a volume licensing donation program for the software you're interested in. If TechSoup doesn't offer that product or if you need more copies than you can find at TechSoup, search for \"volume licensing not-for-profits software\" or just \"not-for-profits software.\" For example, when we have an inventory of Adobe products, qualifying and eligible not-for-profits can obtain four individual products or one copy of Creative Suite 4 through TechSoup. If we're out of stock, or you've used up your annual Adobe donation, you can also check TechSoup's special Adobe donation program and also Adobe Solutions for Nonprofits for other discounts available to not-for-profits. For more software-hunting tips, see A Quick Guide to Discounted Software Programs.\nPay close attention to the options and licensing requirements when you acquire server-based software. You might need two different types of license \u2013 one for the server software itself, and a set of licenses for all the \"clients\" accessing the software. Depending on the vendor and the licensing scenario, \"client\" can refer either to the end users themselves (for example, employees, contractors, clients, and anyone else who uses the software in question) or their computing devices (for example, laptops, desktop computers, smartphones, PDAs, etc.). We'll focus on Microsoft server products, but similar issues can arise with other server applications.\nOver the years, Microsoft has released hundreds of server-based applications, and the licensing terms are slightly different for each one. Fortunately, there are common license types and licensing structures across different products. In other words, while a User CAL (Client Access License) for Windows Server is distinct from a User CAL for SharePoint Server, the underlying terms and rights are very similar. The TechSoup product pages for Microsoft software do a good job of describing the differences between products, so we'll focus on the common threads in this article.\nMoreover, Microsoft often lets you license a single server application in more than one way, depending on the needs of your organisation. This allows you the flexibility to choose the licenses that best reflect your organisation's usage patterns and thereby cost you the least amount of money. For example, for Windows Server and other products you can acquire licenses on a per-user basis (for example, User CALs) or per-device basis (for example, Device CALs).\nThe license required to install and run most server applications usually comes bundled with the software itself. So you can install and run most applications \"out of the box,\" as long as you have the right number of client licenses (see the section below for more on that). However, when you're running certain server products on a computer with multiple processors, you may need to get additional licenses. For example, if you run Windows Server 2008 DataCenter edition on a server with two processors, you need a separate license for each processor. SQL Server 2008 works the same way. This type of license is referred to as a processor license. Generally you don't need client licenses for any application that's licensed this way.\nClient Licenses for Internal Users\nMany Microsoft products, including Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, require client access licenses for all authenticated internal users (for example, employees, contractors, volunteers, etc.). On the other hand, SQL Server 2008 and other products don't require any client licenses. Read the product description at CTXchange if you're looking for the details about licensing a particular application.\nUser CALs: User CALs allow each user access to all the instances of a particular server product in an organisation, no matter which device they use to gain access. In other words, if you run five copies of Windows Server 2008 on five separate servers, you only need one User CAL for each person in your organisation who access those servers (or any software installed on those servers), whether they access a single server, all five servers, or some number in between. Each user with a single CAL assigned to them can access the server software from as many devices as they want (for example, desktop computers, laptops, smartphones, etc.). User CALs are a popular licensing option.\nDevice CALs: Device CALs allow access to all instances of a particular server application from a single device (for example, a desktop computer, a laptop, etc.) in your organisation. Device CALs only make sense when multiple employees use the same computer. For example, in 24-hour call centres different employees on different shifts often use the same machine, so Device CALs make sense in this situation.\nChoosing a licensing mode for your Windows Server CALs: With Windows Server 2003 and Windows Server 2008, you use a CAL (either a User CAL or a Device CAL) in one of two licensing modes: per seat or per server. You make this decision when you're installing your Windows Server products, not when you acquire the CALs. The CALs themselves don't have any mode designation, so you can use either a User CAL or a Device CAL in either mode. Per seat mode is the default mode, and the one used most frequently. The description of User CALs and Device CALs above describes the typical per seat mode. In \"per server\" mode, Windows treats each license as a \"simultaneous connection.\" In other words, if you have 40 CALs, Windows will let 40 authenticated users have access. The 41st user will be denied access. However, in per server mode, each CAL is tied to a particular instance of Windows Server, and you have to acquire a new set of licenses for each new server you build that runs Windows. Therefore, per server mode works for some small organisations with one or two servers and limited access requirements.\nYou don't \"install\" client licenses the way you install software. There are ways to automate the tracking of software licenses indirectly, but the server software can't refuse access to a user or device on licensing grounds. The licenses don't leave any \"digital footprint\" that the server software can read. An exception to this occurs when you license Windows Server in per server mode. In this case, if you have 50 licenses, the 51st authenticated user will be denied access (though anonymous users can still access services).\nSome key points to remember about client licensing:\nThe licensing scenarios described in this section arise less frequently, and are too complex to cover completely in this article, so they're described briefly below along with more comprehensive resources.\nYou don't need client licenses for anonymous, unauthenticated external users. In other words, if someone accesses your Web site, and that site runs on Internet Information Server (IIS), Microsoft's Web serving software, you don't need a client license for any of those anonymous users.\nIf you have any authenticated external users who access services on your Windows-based servers, you can obtain CALs to cover their licensing requirements. However, the External Connector License (ECL) is a second option in this scenario. The ECL covers all use by authenticated external users, but it's a lot more expensive than a CAL, so only get one if you'll have a lot of external users. For example, even if you get your licenses through the CTXchange donation program, an ECL for Windows Server 2008 has an \u00a376 administrative fee, while a User CAL for Windows Server 2008 carries a \u00a31 admin fee. If only a handful of external users access your Windows servers, you're better off acquiring User CALs. Also, an ECL only applies to external users and devices. In other words, if you have an ECL, you still have to get a CAL for all employees and contractors.\nEven though Terminal Services (TS) is built into Windows Server 2003 and 2008, you need to get a separate TS CAL for each client (i.e. each user or each device) that will access Terminal Services in your organisation. This TS license is in addition to your Windows Server CALs.\nMicrosoft's System Centre products (a line of enterprise-level administrative software packages) use a special type of license known as a management license (ML). Applications that use this type of licensing include System Center Configuration Manager 2007 and System Center Operations Manager 2007. Any desktop or workstation managed by one of these applications needs a client management license. Any server managed by one of these applications requires a server management license, and there are two types of server management licenses \u2013 standard and enterprise. You need one or the other but not both. There are also special licensing requirements if you're managing virtual instances of Windows operating systems. For more information, see TechSoup's Guide to System Center Products and Licensing and Microsoft's white paper on Systems Center licensing.\nSome Microsoft server products have two client licensing modes, standard and enterprise. As you might imagine, an Enterprise CAL grants access to more advanced features of a product. Furthermore, with some products, such as Microsoft Exchange, the licenses are additive. In other words, a user needs both a Standard CAL AND an Enterprise CAL in order to access the advanced features. See Exchange Server 2007 Editions and Client Access Licenses for more information.\nWith virtualisation technologies, multiple operating systems can run simultaneously on a single physical server. Every time you install a Microsoft application, whether on a physical hardware system or a virtual hardware system, you create an \"instance\" of that application. The number of \"instances\" of particular application that you can run using a single license varies from product to product. For more information see the Volume Licensing Briefs, Microsoft Licensing for Virtualization and the Windows Server Virtualization Calculator. For TechSoup Stock products, see the product description for more information.\nThere are a lot of nuances to Microsoft licensing, and also a lot of excellent resources to help you understand different scenarios.\nAbout the Author:\nChris is a former technology writer and technology analyst for TechSoup for Libraries, which aims to provide IT management guidance to libraries. His previous experience includes working at Washington State Library as a technology consultant and technology trainer, and at the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation as a technology trainer and tech support analyst. He received his M.L.S. from the University of Michigan in 1997.\nOriginally posted here.\nCopyright \u00a9 2009 CompuMentor. This work is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 License.\nThe latest version of Microsoft Office Professional Plus is an integrated collection of programs, servers, and services designed to work together to enable optimised information work.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c337bcd8-6aa1-4f2d-8c48-b916442ebbee>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ctt.org/resource_centre/getting_started/learning/understanding_licenses", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9106022119522095, "token_count": 3479, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Aliphatic alcohols occur\nnaturally in free form (component of the cuticular lipids) but more usually in esterified\n(wax esters) or etherified form (glyceryl ethers). Several alcohols belong to aroma\ncompounds which are found in environmental or food systems (see the website: Flavornet).\nThey are found with normal, branched (mono- or isoprenoid), saturated or unsaturated of various chain length and sometimes with secondary or even tertiary alcoholic function. An unusual phenolic alcohol is found as a component of glycolipids in Mycobacteria. Some cyclic alcohols have been described in plants.\nA classification according to the carbon-chain structure is given below.\n1 - Normal-chain alcohols\nThe carbon chain may be fully saturated or unsaturated (with double and/or triple bonds), it may also be substituted with chlorine, bromine or sulfate groups. Some acetylenic alcohols have been also described.\nAmong the most common, some are listed below\n9-methyl-1-hendecanol (anteisolauryl alcohol)\n11-methyl-1-tridecanol (anteisomyristyl alcohol)\n14-methyl-1-pentadecanol (isopalmityl alcohol)\n13-methyl-1-pentadecanol (anteisopalmityl alcohol)\n16-methyl-1-heptadecanol (isostearyl alcohol)\n15-methyl-1-pentadecanol (anteisostearyl alcohol)\nFree fatty alcohols are not commonly found in epicuticular lipids of insects, although high molecular weight alcohols have been reported in honeybees (Blomquist GJ et al., Insect Biochem 1980, 10, 313). Long-chain alcohols also have been reported in the defensive secretions of scale insects (Byrne DN et al., Physiol Entomol 1988, 13,267). Typically, insects more commonly produce lower molecular weight alcohols. Honeybees produce alcohols of 17\u201322 carbons, which induce arrestment in parasitic varroa mites (Donze G et al., Arch Insect Biochem Physiol 1998, 37, 129). Two female-specific fatty alcohols, docosanol (C22) and eicosanol (C20), which have been found in epicuticle of Triatoma infestans (a vector of Chagas disease in South America), are able to trigger copulation in males (Cocchiararo-Bastias L et al., J Chem Ecol 2011, 37, 246). Hexadecyl acetate is found in the web of some spiders (Pholcidae) to attract females (Schulz S, J Chem Ecol 2013, 39, 1).\nLong-chain alcohols (C18, C24, C28) from the femoral glands in the male lizard Acanthodactylus boskianus play a role in chemical communication as a scent marking pheromone (Khannoon ER et al., Chemoecology 2011, 21, 143).\nVarious fatty alcohols are found in the waxy film that plants have over their leaves and fruits. Among them, octacosanol (C28:0) is the most frequently cited.\nPolicosanol is a natural mixture of higher primary aliphatic alcohols isolated and purified from sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum, L.) wax, whose main component is octacosanol but contains also hexacosanol (C26:0) and triacontanol or melissyl alcohol (C30:0). Policosanol is also extracted from a diversity of other natural sources such as beeswax, rice bran, and wheat germ (Irmak S et al., Food Chem 2006, 95, 312) but is also present in the fruits, leaves, and surfaces of plants and whole seeds. A complex policosanol mixture has been identified in peanut (Cherif AO et al., J Agric Food Chem 2010, 58, 12143). More than 20 aliphatic alcohols were identified (C14-C30) and four unsaturated alcohols (C20-24). The total policosanol content of the whole peanut samples varied from 11 to 54 mg/100 g of oil.\nThis mixture was shown to have cholesterol-lowering effects in rabbits (Arruzazabala ML et al., Biol Res 1994, 27, 205). Octacosanol was also able to suppress lipid accumulation in rats fed on a high-fat diet (Kato S et al., Br J Nutr 1995, 73, 433) and to inhibit platelet aggregation (Arruzazabala ML et al., Thromb Res 1993, 69, 321). The effectiveness of policosanol is still questionable but it has been approved as a cholesterol-lowering drug in over 25 countries (Carbajal D et al., Prostaglandins Leukotrienes Essent Fatty Acids 1998, 58, 61), and it is sold as a lipid-lowering supplement in more than 40 countries. More recent studies in mice question about any action on improvement of lipoprotein profiles (Dullens SPJ et al., J Lipid Res 2008, 49, 790). The authors conclude that individual policosanols, as well as natural policosanol mixtures, have no potential for reducing coronary heart disease risk through effects on serum lipoprotein concentrations. Furthermore, sugar cane policosanol at doses of 20 mg daily has shown no lipid lowering effects in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia (Francini-Pesenti F et al., Phytother Res 2008, 22, 318). It must be noticed that, for the most part, positive results have been obtained by only one research group in Cuba. Outside Cuba, all groups have failed to validate the cholesterol-lowering efficacy of policosanols (Marinangeli C et al., Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2010, 50, 259). Independent studies are required before evaluating the exact value of the therapeutic benefits of that mixture.\nAn unsaturated analogue of octacosanol, octacosa-10, 19-dien-1-ol was synthesized and was as effective as policosanol in inhibiting the upregulation of HMGCoA reductase (Oliaro-Bosso S et al., Lipids 2009, 44, 907). This work opens promising perspectives for the design of new antiangiogenic compounds (Thippeswamy G et al., Eur J Pharmacol 2008, 588, 141). An unsaturated analogue of octacosanol, octacosa-10, 19-dien-1-ol was synthesized and was as effective as policosanol in inhibiting the upregulation of HMGCoA reductase (Oliaro-Bosso S et al., Lipids 2009, 44, 907). This work opens promising perspectives for the design of new antiangiogenic compounds.\n1-Octanol and 3-octanol are components of the mushroom flavor (Maga JA, J Agric Food Chem 1981, 29, 1).\nMany alcohols in the C10 to C18 range, and their short-chain acid esters are potent sex or aggregation pheromones. They are mainly found as components of specialized defensive glands, pheromone glands or glands of the reproductive system.\nA series of C22 up to C28 saturated n-alcohols, with even carbon numbers predominating, and a maximum at C26 and C28, has been identified in the cyanobacterium Anabaena cylindrica (Abreu-Grobois FA et al., Phytochemistry 1977, 16, 351). Several authors have reported high contents of the 22:0 alcohol in sediments where an algal origin is plausible. For example, the major alcohol in a sample of the lacustrine Green River Shale of Eocene age is also 22:0 which comprises over 50% of the alcohols present (Sever JR et al., Science 1969, 164, 1052)\nLong-chain alcohols are known as major surface lipid components (waxes) with chains from C20 up to C34 carbon atoms, odd carbon-chain alcohols being found in only low amounts. Very long-chain methyl-branched alcohols (C38 to C44) and their esters with short-chain acids were shown to be present in insects, mainly during metamorphosis. A series of long-chain alkanols (more than 23 carbon atoms) were identified in settling particles and surface sediments from Japanese lakes and were shown to be produced by planktonic bacteria being thus useful molecular markers (Fukushima K et al., Org Geochem 2005, 36, 311).\nCutin and suberin contain as monomer saturated alcohols from C16 to C22 up to 8% of the total polymers. C18:1 alcohol (oleyl alcohol) is also present.\nLong-chain di-alcohols (1,3-alkanediols) have been described in the waxes which impregnate the matrix covering all organs of plants (Vermeer CP et al., Phytochemistry 2003, 62, 433). These compounds forming about 11% of the leaf cuticular waxes of Ricinus communis were identified as homologous unbranched alcohols ranging from C22 to C28 with hydroxyl group at the carbon atoms 1 and 3.\nIn the leaf cuticular waxes of Myricaria germanica (Tamaricaceae) several alkanediols were identified (Jetter R, Phytochemistry 2000, 55, 169). Hentriacontanediol (C31) with one hydroxyl group in the 12-position and the second one in positions from 2 to 18 is the most abundant diol (9% of the wax). Others were far less abundant : C30-C34 alkanediols with one hydroxyl group on a primary and one on a secondary carbon atom, C25-C43 b-diols and C39-C43 g-diols. Very-long-chain 1,5-alkanediols ranging from C28 to C38, with strong predominance of even carbon numbers, were identified in the cuticular wax of Taxus baccata (Wen M et al., Phytochemistry 2007, 68, 2563). The predominant diol had 32 carbon atoms (29% of the total).\nLong-chain saturated C30-C32 diols occur in most marine sediments and in a few instances, such as in Black Sea sediments, they can be the major lipids (de Leeuw JW et al., Geochim Cosmochim Acta 1981, 45, 2281). A microalgal source for these compounds was discovered when Volkman JK et al. (Org Geochem 1992, 18, 131) identified C30-C32 diols in marine eustigmatophytes from the genus Nannochloropsis.\nTwo nonacosanetriols (7,8,11-nonacosanetriol and 10,12,15-nonacosanetriol) have been isolated from the outer fleshy layer (sarcotesta) of the Ginkgo biloba \"fruit\" (Zhou G et al., Chem Phys Lipids 2012, 165, 731). They exhibited slight activity of antithrombin and moderate activities of platelet aggregation in vitro.\nThe chief lipid fraction in the uropygial gland excretion of the domestic hen is a diester wax. The unsaponifiable fraction consists of a series of three homologous compounds, which have been named the uropygiols and identified as 2,3-alkanediols containing 22-24 carbon atoms. These fatty alcohols are esterified by saturated normal C22-C24 fatty acids (Haahti E et al., J Lipid Res 1967, 8, 131).\n- Unsaturated alcohols\nSome fatty alcohols have one double bond (monounsaturated). Their general formula is:\nThe unique double bond may be found in different positions: at the C6: i.e. cis-6-octadecen-1-ol (petroselenyl alcohol), C9 i.e cis-9-octadecen-1-ol (oleyl alcohol) and C11 i.e cis-11-octadecen-1-ol (vaccenyl alcohol). Some of these alcohols have insect pheromone activity. As an example, 11-eicosen-1-ol is a major component of the alarm pheromone secreted by the sting apparatus of the worker honeybee. In zooplankton, the cis-11-docosen-1-ol (22:1 (n-11) alcohol) is not only present in high proportion in wax esters (54 to 83%) but may be also predominant in free form (75-94% of free alcohols) in ctenophores (Graeve M et al., Mar Biol 2008, 153, 643). This presence is unexplained because pathways for conversion and catabolism of fatty alcohols in ctenophores are still unknown.\nSome short-chain unsaturated alcohols are components of mushroom flavor, such as 1-octen-3-ol, t2-octen-1-ol, and c2-octen-1-ol (Maga JA, J Agric Food Chem 1981, 29, 1).\nAn acetoxy derivative of a 16-carbon alcohol with one double bond, gyptol (10-acetoxy cis-7-hexadecen-1-ol), was described to be a strong attractive substance secreted by a female moth (Porthetria dispar, \"gypsy moth\").\nA fatty alcohol with two double bonds, bombykol (tr-10,cis-12-hexadecadien-1-ol), was also shown to be excreted as a very strong attractive substance by the female of silk-worm (Bombyx mori).\nThis first discovery of a pheromone\nwas made by Butenandt A et al. (Z Naturforsch 1959, 14, 283) who was\nformerly Nobel laureate (in 1939) for his work in sex hormones. Another pheromone,\n8,10-dodecadienol (codlemone), is secreted by the codling moth Cydia\npomonella, has been used for monitoring and mating in apple and pear\norchards in the USA and Europe. This molecule was also used to monitor the\npopulation of the pea moth Cydia nigricana. Likewise, 7,9-dodecadienol,\nthe female pheromone of the European grapewine moth Lobesia botrana, was\nused to control this important pest in vineyards.\nA fatty triol with one double bond, avocadene (16-heptadecene-1,2,4-triol) is found in avocado fruit (Persea americana) and has been tested for anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory properties. These properties are likely related with the curative effects of avocado described for a number of ailments (diarrhea, dysentery, abdominal pains and high blood pressure). Several others heptadecanols with one primary and two secondary alcohol functions and with one double or triple bond have been identified in the leaves of Persea americana (Lee TH et al., Food Chem 2012, 132, 921). One or two of these alcohol groups may be acetylated. These compounds may be related to the known antifungal activity of Persea leaves.\nLong-chain alkenols (C37 to C39) with 2 to 4 double bonds, the reduced form of the alkenones, have been described in the benthic haptophyte Chrysotila lamellosa (Rontani JF et al., Phytochemistry 2004, 65, 117). al., 1986). C30 to C32 alcohols having one or two double bonds are significant constituents of the lipids of marine eustigmatophytes of the genus Nannochloropsis (Volkman JK et al., Org Geochem 1992, 18, 131). These microalgae could be partially the source of the alkenols found in some marine sediments.\nTwo chlorinated derivatives of unusual alcohols were described in a red alga Gracilaria verrucosa (Shoeb M et al., J Nat Prod 2003, 66, 1509). Both compounds have a C12 aliphatic chain chlorinated in position 2 and with one double bond at carbon 2 (compound 1 : 2-chlorododec-2-en-1-ol) or two double bonds at carbon 2 and 11 (compound 2 : 2-chlorododec-2,11-dien-1-ol).\n- Acetylenic alcohols\nNatural acetylenic alcohols and their derivatives have been isolated from a wide variety of plant species, fungi and invertebrates. Pharmacological studies have revealed that many of them display chemical and medicinal properties.\nMonoacetylenic alcohols : were isolated from culture of Clitocybe catinus (Basidiomycetes) and the study of their structure revealed the presence of two or three hydroxyl groups (Armone A et al., Phytochemistry 2000, 53, 1087). One of these compounds is shown below.\nAcetylenic alcohols have been also described in a tropical sponge Reniochaline sp (Lee HS et al., Lipids 2009, 44, 71). One of the two described in that species is shown below, it exhibited a significant growth effect against human tumor cell lines.\nPolyacetylenic alcohols : Several examples with different chain lengths, unsaturation degrees, and substitution have been reported from terrestrial plants and marine organisms. Food plants of the Apiaceae (Umbellifereae) plant family such as carrots, celery and parsley, are known to contain several bioactive bisacetylenic alcohols. The main plant sources of these compounds are Angelica dahurica, Heracleum sp and Crithmum maritimum (falcarindiol, falcarinol), red ginseng (Panax ginseng) (panaxacol, panaxydol, panaxytriol), Cicuta virosa (virol A), and Clibadium sylvestre (cunaniol). All these compounds display antibiotic or cytotoxic activities.\nPolyacetylenes have been isolated from the stems of Oplopanax elatus (Araliaceae), plant used in Korean and Chinese traditional medicine for anti-inflammatory and analgesic purposes (Yang MC et al., J Nat Prod 2010, 73, 801). Among the most efficient in inhibiting the formation of nitric oxide in LPS-induced cells is a seventeen-carbon diyne diol with an epoxy cycle, oploxyne A. Other parent compounds without the epoxy group were also described.\nJ. Sci. Food Agric. 2003,\n83, 1010). Falcarinl\nhas potent anticancer properties on primary mammary epithelial cells and was\ncompared with that of\nb-carotene. These results might be important in developing\nnew cancer treatments with simple and common vegetables. At high concentrations,\nfalcarinol is capable to induce contact dermatitis.\nFalcarinol, a seventeen-carbon diyne fatty alcohol (1,9-heptadecadiene-4,6-diyn-3-ol), was first isolated from Falcaria vulgaris (Bohlmann F et al., Chem Ber 1966, 99, 3552) as well as from Korean ginseng (Takahashi et al., Yakugaku Zasshi 1966, 86, 1053). It was also isolated from carrot (Hansen SL et al.\nFalcarinol protects the\nvegetable from fungal diseases, it showed biphasic activity, having stimulatory\neffects between 0.01 and 0.05 \u00b5g per ml and inhibitory effects between 1 and 10\n\u00b5g per ml, whereas b-carotene\nshowed no effect in the concentration range 0.001\u2013100 \u00b5g per ml (Hansen SL\net al., J Sci Food Agric 2003, 83, 1010). Experiments with\nmacrophage cells have shown that falcarinol (and its C-8 hydroxylated\nderivative, falcarindiol) reduced nitric oxide production, suggesting that these\npolyacetylenes are responsible for anti-inflammatory bioactivity (Metzger\nBT et al., J Agric Food Chem 2008, 56, 3554). Falcarindiol was first\nreported as phytochemicals in carrots (Daucus carota) (Bentley RK et\nal., J Chem Soc 1969, 685). Besides falcarinol, falcarindiol, and\nfalcarindiol 3-acetate, nine additional bisacetylene alcohols were identified in\nDaucus carota (Schmiech L et al., J Agric Food Chem 2009, 57, 11030).\nExperiments with human intestinal cells demonstrate that aliphatic C17-polyacetylenes (panaxydol, falcarinol, falcarindiol) are potential anticancer principles of carrots and related vegetables (parsley, celery, parsnip, fennel) and that synergistic interaction between bioactive polyacetylenes may be important for their bioactivity (Purup S et al., J Agric Food Chem 2009, 57, 8290). Compounds very similar to falcarinol and extracted from Panax japonicus are potent a-glucosidase inhibitors (Chan HH et al., Phytochemistry 2010, 71, 1360). These inhibitors may potentially reduce the progression of diabetes by decreasing digestion and absorption of carbohydrates.\nThe water dropwort (Oenanthe crocata), which lives near streams in the Northern Hemisphere, contains a violent toxin, cicutoxin, resulting in convultions and respiratory paralysis (Uwai K et al., J Med Chem 2000, 43, 4508).\nThe biochemistry and bioactivity of polyacetylenes are presented in a review (Christensen LP et al., J Pharm Biomed Anal 2006, 41, 683) as well methods for the isolation and quantification of these compounds.\nMany other polyacetylenic alcohols were found in primitive marine organisms,\nsuch as sponges and ascidians. These invertebrates have no physical defenses and\nthus they have developed efficient chemical mechanisms such as polyacetylenic\nmetabolites to resist predators and bacteria.\nA C36 linear diacetylene alcohol named lembehyne was found in an Indonesian marine sponge (Haliclona sp) (Aoki S et al., Tetrahedron 2000, 56, 9945) and was later able to induce neuronal differentiation in neuroblastoma cell (Aoki S et al., Biochem Biophys Res Comm 2001, 289, 558).\nSeveral polyacetylenic alcohols with 22 carbon atoms were isolated and identified in lipid extract from a Red Sea sponge, Callyspongia sp (Youssef DT et al., J Nat Prod 2003, 66, 679). Their physical study revealed the presence of 4 triple bonds and one, two or three double bonds. The structure of one of these Callyspongenols is given below.\nSeveral di- and\ntri-acetylenic di-alcohols with a chain of 26 up to 31 carbon atoms, named strongylodiols,\nhave been isolated from a Petrosia Okinawan marine sponge (Watanabe K\net al., J Nat Prod 2005, 68, 1001). Some of them have cytotoxic\nSeveral polyacetylenic alcohols with 21 carbon atoms were isolated from a marine ascidian (Polyclinidae) and were determined to have two triple bonds combined with a conjugated dienyne group (Gavagnin M et al., Lipids 2004, 39, 681). Some of them have an additional hydroxyl group or only three double bonds. The structure of one of these molecules is given below.\nSeveral brominated polyacetylenic diols with cytotoxic properties were isolated from a Philippines sponge Diplastrella sp (Lerch ML et al., J Nat Prod 2003, 66, 667). One of these molecules is shown below.\nA comprehensive survey of acetylenic alcohols in plant and invertebrates with information on their anticancer activity has been released by Dembitsky VM (Lipids 2006, 41, 883).\n- Sulfated alcohols\nLong-chain di-hydroxy alcohols in which both the primary and secondary hydroxyl groups are converted to sulfate esters and one to five chlorine atoms are introduced at various places have been discovered in the alga Ochromonas danica (Chrysophyceae, Chrysophyta) where they constitute 15% of the total lipids (Haines TH, Biochem J 1969, 113, 565). An example of these chlorosulfolipids is given below. There may be several types of chlorine addition : one at R4, two at R3 and R5 or R1 and R2, five at R1 to R5 and six at R1 to R6.\nSimilar molecules with a 24 carbon\nchain was also described in Ochromonas malhamensis (review in Dembitsky\nVM et al., Prog Lipid Res 2002, 41, 315 and in Bedke DK et\nal., Nat Prod Rep 2011, 28, 15). It was suggested that the\nchlorosulfolipids replace sulfoquinovosyl diglyceride, since when the later is\nhigh the former is low and vice versa. They have been associated with the human\ntoxicity of the mussel-derived lipids (Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning).\nSeveral of these chlorosulfolipids have also been identified from more than 30 species of both freshwater and marine algae belonging to green (Chlorophyceae), brown (Phaeophyceae), red (Rhodophyceae) macrophytic algae (Mercer EI et al., Phytochemistry 1979, 18, 457), and other microalgal species (Mercer EI et al., Phytochemistry 1975, 14, 1545).\nSome fatty alcohols, such as dodecanol (lauryl or dodecyl alcohol), are used for the manufacture of detergents after sulphonation (by action of SO3 gas). The salt sodium laurylsulfate (or sodium dodecylsulfate) is a detergent and strong anionic surfactant, used in biochemistry and in the composition of cosmetic products (shampoos, toothpastes).\n2 - Branched-chain alcohols\nIn 1936, Stodola et al. characterized an optically active substance recovered on saponification of \u2018\u2018purified waxes\u2019\u2019 of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, determined its global formula and proposed to name it phthiocerol (Stodola FH et al., J Biol Chem 1936, 114, 467). In 1959, after several chemical studies, its structure was determined as a mixture of C36 and C34b-glycols. It has been proposed that the term phthiocerol be reserved for the original 3-methoxy congener (phthiocerol A) and that the term phthioglycol be used to refer to the family of compounds (Onwueme KC et al., Prog Lipid Res 2005, 44, 259).\nAmong the most important saturated isopranols found in plants or in geological sediments are those having two (tetrahydrogeraniol), three (farnesanol), or four (phytanol) isoprenoid units. Pristanol (2,6,10,14-tetramethyl-1-pentadecanol) is tetramethylated but with only three complete isoprenoid units.\nB - Unsaturated polyisoprenoids (prenols or polyprenols)\nThey have the following general structure :\nThese molecules consist of several up to more than 100 isoprene residues linked head-to-tail, with a hydroxy group at one end (a-residue) and a hydrogen atom at the other (w-end).\n- 1. all trans forms : They have the following structure:\nSome important members of the series are as follows:\nNumber of isoprene unit\nNumber of carbons\nLong-chain trans-polyprenol (n>8) have been\ncharacterized from Eucommia ulmoides.\nGeraniol (from rose oil) is a monoterpene (2 isoprene units). It has a rose-like odor and is commonly used in perfumes and as several fruit flavors. Geraniol is also an effective mosquito repellent. Inversely, it can attract bees as it is produced by the scent glands of honey bees to help them mark nectar-bearing flowers and locate the entrances to their hives.\nFarnesol is a sesquiterpene (3 isoprene units). It is the prenol that corresponds to the carbon skeleton of the simplest juvenile hormone described for the first time in insects in 1961 (Schmialek PZ, Z Naturforsch 1961, 16b, 461; Wigglesworth VB, J Insect Physiol 1961, 7, 73). It is present in many essential oils such as citronella, neroli, cyclamen, lemon grass, rose, and others. It is used in perfumery to emphasize the odors of sweet floral perfumes. It is especially used in lilac perfumes. As a pheromone, farnesol is a natural pesticide for mites. The dimorphic fungus Candida albicans has been shown to use farnesol as quorum-sensing molecule (Hornby JM et al., Appl Environ Microbiol 2001, 67, 2982).\nGeranylgeraniol is a diterpene (4 isoprene units). Geraniol and geranylgeraniol are important molecules in the synthesis of various terpenes, the acylation of proteins and the synthesis of vitamins (Vitamins E and K). The covalent addition of phosphorylated derivatives of typical isoprenoids, farnesyl pyrophosphate and geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, to proteins is a process (prenylation) common to G protein subunits. These isoprenylated proteins have key roles in membrane attachment leading to central functionality in cell biology and pathology.\nSolanesol, discovered in tobacco leaves in 1956 (Rowland RL et al., J Am Chem Soc 1956, 78, 4680), may be an important precursor of the tumorigenic polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons of smoke but is also a possible side chain for plastoquinone. Solanesol is also present in the leaves of other Solanaceae plants including tomato, potato, eggplant and pepper. It has useful medicinal properties and is known to possess anti-bacterial, anti-inflammation, and anti-ulcer activities (Khidyrova NK et al., Chem Nat Compd 2002, 38, 107). Industrially, solanesol is extracted from Solanaceae leaves (about 450 tons in 2008) and used as an intermediate in the synthesis of coenzyme Q10 and vitamin K analogues.\nSpadicol was discovered in the spadix (inflorescence) of the Araceae Arum maculatum (Hemming FW et al., Proc R Soc London 1963, 158, 291). Its presence is likely related to its presence in the ubiquinone as the side-chain.\nPhytol is a partially saturated diterpene, a monounsaturated derivative of geranylgeraniol which is part of the chlorophyll molecule :\n- 2. ditrans-polycis-prenols, such as the bacteria prenol and betulaprenol types. In general, bacteria, as all prokaryotic cells, possess ditrans-polycis-prenols containing between 10 and 12 units, the most abundant being undecaprenol (trivial name bactoprenol).\nBetulaprenols with n = 3-6 were\nisolated from the woody tissue of Betula verrucosa (Wellburn AR et\nal., Nature 1966, 212, 1364), and bacterial polyprenol with n = 8 were\nisolated from Lactobacillus plantarum (Gough DP et al., Biochem J\n1970, 118, 167). Betulaprenol-like species with 14 to 22 isoprene units have\nbeen discovered in leaves of Ginkgo biloba (Ibata K et al., Biochem J\n1983, 213, 305).\nPolyisoprenoid alcohols are accumulated in the cells most often as free alcohols and/or esters with carboxylic acids. A fraction of polyisoprenoid phosphates has also been detected, and this form is sometimes predominant in dividing cells and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Adair WL et al., Arch Biochem Biophys 1987, 259, 589).\n- 3. tritrans-polycis-prenols, of the ficaprenol type.Some of the earliest samples were obtained from Ficus elastica, giving rise to the trivial names ficaprenol-11 and ficaprenol-12 (Stone KJ et al. Biochem J 1967, 102, 325).\nIn plants, the diversity of polyprenols is much broader, their chain length covers the broad spectrum of compounds ranging from 6 up to 130 carbon atoms (Rezanka T et al., J Chromatogr A 2001, 936, 95).\n- 4. dolichol types, the a\nterminal is saturated.\nMost eukaryotic cells contain one type of polyisoprenoid alcohols with one a-saturated isoprenoid unit (2,3-dihydro polycis-prenols) which have been called dolichol by Pennock JF et al. (Nature 1960, 186, 470), a derivative of prenols. Most of these carry two trans units at the w-end of the chain.\nDolichols (fro the Greek dolikos: long) have the general structure :\nDolichols isolated from yeast or\nanimal cells consist mainly of seven to eight compounds, those with 16, 18, or\n19 isoprenoid units being the most abundant (Ragg SS, Biochem Biophys Res\nComm 1998, 243, 1).\nDolichol amount was shown to be increased in the brain gray matter of elderly (Pullarkat RK\net al., J Biol Chem 1982, 257, 5991). Dolichols with 19, 22 and 23\nisoprenoid units were described as early as 1972 in marine invertebrates (Walton\nMJ et al., Biochem J 1972, 127, 471). Furthermore, the pattern of their distribution may be\nconsidered as a chemotaxonomic criterion. It has been reported that a high\nproportion of dolichols is esterified to fatty acids. As an example, 85-90% of\ndolichols are esterified in mouse testis (Potter\nJ et al., Biochem Biophys Res Comm 1983, 110, 512). In addition, dolichyl\ndolichoate has been found in bovine thyroid (Steen\nL. et al., Biochim Biophys Acta, 1984, 796, 294).\nThey are well known for their important role as glycosyl carrier in a phosphorylated form in the synthesis of polysaccharides and glycoproteins in yeast cells, and animals. Dolichyl phosphate is an obligatory intermediate in the biosynthesis of N-glycosidically linked oligosaccharide chains. Conversely, they have been identified as the predominant isoprenoid form in roots (Skorupinska-Tudek K et al., Lipids 2003, 38, 981) and in mushroom tissue (Wojtas M et al., Chem Phys Lipids 2004, 130, 109). Similar compounds (ficaprenols) have the same metabolic function in plants.\nThe repartition of the various types of polyisoprenoid alcohols between plants and animals and their metabolism have been extensively discussed (Swiezewska E et al., Prog Lipid Res 2005, 44, 235). Biosynthesis of polyisoprenoid alcohols and their biological role have been reviewed in 2005 (Swiezewska E et al., Prog Lipid Res 2005, 44, 235).\n3 - Phenolic alcohols\nAmong the simple phenolic alcohols, monolignols are the source materials for biosynthesis of both lignans and lignin. The starting material for production of monolignols (phenylpropanoid) is the amino acid phenylalanine. There are two main monolignols: coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol. Para-coumaryl alcohol is similar to conipheryl alcohol but without the methoxy group.\nConipheryl alcohol is found in both gymnosperm and angiosperm\nplants. Sinapyl alcohol and para-coumaryl alcohol, the other two lignin\nmonomers, are found in angiosperm plants and grasses. Conipheryl esters (conypheryl\n8-methylnonanoate) have been described in the fruits of the pepper, Capsicum\nbaccatum (Kobata K et al., Phytochemistry 2008, 69, 1179). These\ncompounds displayed an agonist activity for transient receptor potential\nvanilloid 1 (capsaicin receptor) as the well known capsaicinoids present in\nthese plant species.\nComplex phenolic alcohols (phenolphthiocerol) were shown to be components of Mycobacterium glycolipids which are termed glycosides of phenolphthiocerol dimycocerosate (Smith DW et al., Nature 1960, 186, 887) belonging to the large family of \"mycosides\". The chain length differs according to the homologues, 18 and 20 carbon atoms in mycosides A, and B, respectively. One of these phenolphthiocerols is shown below.\nAn analogue component but with a ketone group instead of the methoxy group, a phenolphthiodiolone, has been detected in mycoside A (Fournie JJ et al., J Biol Chem 1987, 262, 3174).\nAn alcohol with a furan group, identified as 3-(4-methylfuran-3-yl)propan-1-ol, has been isolated from a fungal endophyte living in a plant, Setaria viridis (Nakajima H et al., J Agric Food Chem 2010, 58, 2882). That compound was found to have a repellent effect on an insect, Eysarcoris viridis, which is a major pest of rice.\nSome cyclic alkyl polyols have been reported in plants. Among the various form present in an Anacardiaceae, Tapirira guianensis, from South America, two displayed anti-protozoal (Plasmodium falciparum) and anti-bacterial (Staphylococcus spp) activities (Roumy V et al., Phytochemistry 2009, 70, 305). The structure shown below is that of a trihydroxy-alcohol containing a cyclohexene ring.\nAs emphasized by the\nauthors, external application of the active plant extract or of the\npurified compounds could represent an accessible therapeutic alternative to\nclassical medicine against leishmaniasis.\naldehydes are found in free form, but also in the form of vinyl ether (known as alk-1-enyl\nether) integated in glycerides and phospholipids (plasmalogens).\nThe free aldehydes can be as fatty acids saturated or unsaturated. They have a general formula CH3(CH2)nCHO with n=6 to 20 or greater. The most common is palmitaldehyde (hexadecanal) with a 16 carbon chain. Normal monoenoic aldehydes are analogous to the monoenoic fatty acids.\nIt must be noticed that an aldehyde function may be found at a terminal (w) position while an acid function is present at the other end of the carbon chain (oxo fatty acids). These compounds have important signaling properties in plants.\nLong-chain aldehydes have been described in the waxes which impregnate the matrix covering all organs of plants (Vermeer CP et al., Phytochemistry 2003, 62, 433). These compounds forming about 7% of the leaf cuticular waxes of Ricinus communis were identified as homologous unbranched aldehydes ranging from C22 to C28 with a hydroxyl group at the carbon 3. Long-chain 5-hydroxyaldehydes with chain lengths from C24 to C36, the C28 chain being the most abundant, were identified in the cuticular wax of Taxus baccata needles (Wen M et al., Phytochemistry 2007, 68, 2563). Long-chain aliphatic aldehydes with chain-length from C22 to C30 are also present in virgin olive oils, hexacosanal (C26) being the most abundant aldehyde (Perez-Camino MC et al., Food Chem 2012, 132, 1451).\nAldehydes may be produced during decomposition of fatty acid hydroperoxides following a peroxidation attack. Several aldehydes (hexanal, heptanal..) belong to aroma compounds which are found in environmental or food systems (see the website: Flavornet). Aldehydes (mono- or di-unsaturated) with 5 to 9 carbon atoms are produced by mosses (Bryophyta) after mechanical wounding (Croisier E et al., Phytochemistry 2010, 71, 574). It was shown that they were produced by oxidative fragmentation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18, C20). Trans-2-nonenal is an unsaturated aldehyde with an unpleasant odor generated during the peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. It participates to body odor and is found mainly covalently bound to protein in vivo (Ishino K et al., J Biol Chem 2010, 285, 15302).\nFatty aldehydes may be determined easily by TLC or gas liquid chromatography (follow that link). The most common method for the determination of aldehydes involves derivatization with an acidic solution of 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine to form corresponding hydrazones followed by HPLC separation and UV\u2013VIS detection. An optimized derivatization procedure for the determination of aliphatic C1-C10 aldehydes has been described (Stafiej A et al., J Biochem Biophys Meth 2006, 69, 15).\nOther short-chain aldehydes (octadienal, octatrienal, heptadienal) are produced via a lipoxygenase-mediated pathway from polyunsaturated fatty acids esterifying glycolipids in marine diatoms (D'Ippolito G et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 2004, 1686, 100). Heighteen species of diatoms have been shown to release unsaturated aldehydes (C7:2, C8:2, C8:3, C10:2, and C10:3) upon cell disruption (Wichard T et al., J Chem Ecol 2005, 31, 949).\nSeveral short-chain aldehydes were shown to induce deleterious effects on zooplankton crustaceans and thus limiting the water secondary production (birth-control aldehydes) (D'Ippolito G et al., Tetrahedron Lett 2002, 43, 6133). In laboratory experiments, three decatrienal isomers produced by various diatoms were shown to arrest embryonic development in copepod and sea urchins and have antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on carcinoma cells (Miralto A et al., Nature 1999, 402, 173). Later, the copepod recruitment in blooms of planktonic diatom was shown to be suppressed by ingestion of dinoflagellate aldehydes (Nature 2004, 429, 403). It was demonstrated that diatoms can accurately sense a potent 2E,4E/Z-decadienal and employ it as a signaling molecule to control diatom population sizes (Vardi A et al., PLoS Biol 2006, 4, e60). This aldehyde triggered a dose-dependent calcium transient that has derived from intracellular store. Subsequently, calcium increase led to nitric oxide (NO) generation by a calcium-dependent NO synthase-like activity, resulting in cell death in diatoms.\nMyeloperoxidase-derived chlorinated aldehydes with plasmalogens has been reported. Thus, the vinyl-ether bond of plasmalogens is susceptible to attack by HOCl to yield a lysophospholipid and an\nBoth these chloro-fatty aldehydes have been detected in neutrophils activated\nwith PMA (Thukkani\nAK et al., J Biol Chem 2002, 277, 3842) and in human atherosclerotic\nAK et al., Circulation 2003, 108, 3128). Furthermore,\n2-chlorohexadecanal was shown to induce COX-2 expression in human coronary\nartery endothelial cells (Messner\nMC et al., Lipids 2008, 43, 581). These data suggest that\n2-chlorohexadecanal and possibly its metabolite 2-chlorohexadecanoic acid, both produced during leukocyte activation, may alter vascular endothelial cell\nfunction by upregulation of COX-2 expression.\nLong after the demonstration of the presence of iodinated lipids in thyroid (besides iodinated aminoacids), it was shown that the major iodinated lipid formed in thyroid when incubated in vitro with iodide was 2-iodohexadecanal (Pereira A et al, J Biol Chem 1990, 265, 17018). In rat and dog thyroid, 2-iodooctadecanal was determined to be more abundant that the 16-carbon aldehyde. These compounds, which are thought to play a role in the regulation of thyroid function, were recently shown to be formed by the attack of reactive iodine on the vinyl ether group of PE plasmalogen. This attack generates an unstable iodinated derivative which breaks into lysophosphatidylethanolamine and 2-iodo aldehydes (Panneels V et al, J Biol Chem 1996, 271, 23006).\nIn some bacteria, aldehyde analogs of cyclopropane fatty acids were described.\nSeveral fatty aldehydes are known to have pheromone functions. Studies in African and Asian countries have shown that the use of 10,12-hexadecadienal could be effective for control of the spiny bollworm Earias insulana, a cotton pest. The sex pheromone of the navel orange worm, Amyelois transitella, 11,13-hexadecadienal, is usually used in the control of this citric pest.\nA branched saturated aldehyde (3,5,9-trimethyldodecenal, stylopsal) has been identified as a female-produced sex pheromone in Stylops (Strepsiptera), an entomophagous endoparasitic insect (Cvacka J et al., J Chem Ecol 2012, 38, 1483).\nSeveral isoprenoid aldehydes are important in insect biology as pheromones and in botany as volatile odorous substances. Some examples are given below:\nThese three terpenic aldehydes are produced in large amounts by\nthe mandibular glands of ants and may function as defensive repellents (Regnier\nFE et al., J Insect Physiol 1968, 14, 955). In contrast, the same molecules\nhave a role of recruiting pheromones in honeybees\nCitral, a mixture of the tautomers geranial (trans-citral) and neral (cis-citral) is a major component (more than 60%) of the lemongrass (Cymbopogon flexuosus) oil. Lemongrass is widely used, particularly in Southeast Asia and Brazil, as a food flavoring, as a perfume, and for its medicinal properties (analgesic and anti-inflammatory). It was found that citral is a major suppressor of COX-2 expression and an activator of PPARa and g (Katsukawa M et al., Biochim Biophys Acta 2010, 1801, 1214).\nIt was demonstrated that damaged leaves released 2-hexenal, among other C6-volatile aldehydes, produced from the catalytic activity of hydroperoxide lyase (Turlings TC et al., Proc Ntl Acad Sci USA 1995, 92, 4169). These compounds, considered as signal molecules, can trigger several responses in neighboring plants and may also act as antimicrobial agents (Farmer EE, Nature 2001, 411, 854).\nOne important constituent of this group of aldehydes is retinal, one active form of vitamin A involved in the light reception of animal eyes but also in bacteria as a component of the proton pump.\nRetinal exist in two forms, a cis and a trans isomer. On illumination with\nwhite light, the visual pigment, rhodopsin is converted to a mixture of a protein (opsin)\nand trans-retinal. This isomer must be transformed into the cis form by retinal isomerase\nbefore it combines again with opsin (dark phase). Both isomers can be reduced to retinol (vitamin A) by a NADH dependent alcohol dehydrogenase.\nRetinol is stocked in retina mainly in an acylated form.\nCinnamic aldehyde (cinnamaldehyde) is the key flavor compound in cinnamon essential oil extracted from Cinnamomum zeylanicum and Cinnamomum cassia bark. Investigations have revealed than that benzyl aldehyde activates the Nrf2-dependent antioxidant response in human epithelial colon cells (Wondrak GT et al., Molecules 2010, 15, 3338). Cinnamic aldehyde may therefore represent a precious chemopreventive dietary factor targeting colorectal carcinogenesis.", "id": "<urn:uuid:545660ca-1ae5-41b7-b614-1a9c88f961c3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cyberlipid.org/simple/simp0003.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8814170956611633, "token_count": 10975, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How to Check Your Dog\u2019s Pulse\n6 of 7 in Series: The Essentials of Dog Care for a Healthy Pet\nTo check your dog\u2019s pulse, you need to locate the femoral artery, which lies just below the skin on the inside of the back legs, between two large muscles where the leg joins the body.\nWith your dog standing, reach around in front of the rear leg where it joins his body, and slide your fingers into the groin area. You can feel the femoral artery pumping each time the heart beats.\nWhen you have found the artery with your dog standing, try it with your dog lying on his side. Count how many pulses you feel in 15 seconds and multiply by 4 to get the number of beats per minute. Dogs normally have a pulse between 70 and 120 beats per minute. In puppies, the pulse ranges from 120 to 160 beats per minute.\nBecome familiar with your dog\u2019s pulse rate and how his pulse feels when he is relaxed as well as after exercise.\nIf you have reason to believe your dog is suffering from an emergency, a dramatic change in pulse (such as, a slowed pulse indicating shock) can be one sign and symptom.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c5b7ff1c-c303-4447-bd3a-5dc50802f12c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-check-your-dogs-pulse.seriesId-111403.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9533708095550537, "token_count": 248, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Rainy Day Painting\nCreate your very own creepy, haunted castle sitting in a turbulent field of flowing grass, eerily surrounded by dark, ominous clouds.\nFireworks are such an exciting part of part of summer festivities, but it's sad when the show is over. Keep them alive all year long with watercolor fireworks.\nShow your high schooler how to celebrate Mary Cassatt, an Impressionist painter, by creating a mother-child painting in her style.\nPut your individual fingerprint on the 100th Day of School (literally!) with this activity.\nShow your preschooler how to make a print of a butterfly using her hand as a tool--a great way to stimulate her sense of touch.\nUse marbles and paint to explore the wild world of shapes and color...and build kindergarten writing strength, too.\nIntroduce your kindergartener to some art history by showing him how to create an everyday object print, Andy Warhol-style.\nCelebrate the changing seasons with this fun, hands-on art activity that will teach your child about the different colors of the seasons.\nHelp your preschooler begin reading and writing the printed word by connecting simple letter recognition exercises with this easy art project: alphabet trees!", "id": "<urn:uuid:b9953fa3-a9b1-49a2-8a31-a2bff8d508c2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.education.com/collection/zapkode/rainy-day-painting/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9140550494194031, "token_count": 253, "score": 3.453125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "the energy [r]evolution\nThe climate change imperative demands nothing short of an Energy [R]evolution. The expert consensus is that this fundamental shift must begin immediately and be well underway within the next ten years in order to avert the worst impacts. What is needed is a complete transformation of the way we produce, consume and distribute energy, while at the same time maintaining economic growth. Nothing short of such a revolution will enable us to limit global warming to less than a rise in temperature of 2\u00b0 Celsius, above which the impacts become devastating.\nCurrent electricity generation relies mainly on burning fossil fuels, with their associated CO2 emissions, in very large power stations which waste much of their primary input energy. More energy is lost as the power is moved around the electricity grid network and converted from high transmission voltage down to a supply suitable for domestic or commercial consumers. The system is innately vulnerable to disruption: localised technical, weather-related or even deliberately caused faults can quickly cascade, resulting in widespread blackouts. Whichever technology is used to generate electricity within this old fashioned configuration, it will inevitably be subject to some, or all, of these problems. At the core of the Energy [R]evolution there therefore needs to be a change in the way that energy is both produced and distributed.\n4.1 key principles\nthe energy [r]evolution can be achieved by adhering to five key principles:\n1.respect natural limits \u2013 phase out fossil fuels by the end of this century We must learn to respect natural limits. There is only so much carbon that the atmosphere can absorb. Each year humans emit over 25 billion tonnes of carbon equivalent; we are literally filling up the sky. Geological resources of coal could provide several hundred years of fuel, but we cannot burn them and keep within safe limits. Oil and coal development must be ended. The global Energy [R]evolution scenario has a target to reduce energy related CO2 emissions to a maximum of 10 Gigatonnes (Gt) by 2050 and phase out fossil fuels by 2085.\n2.equity and fairness As long as there are natural limits there needs to be a fair distribution of benefits and costs within societies, between nations and between present and future generations. At one extreme, a third of the world\u2019s population has no access to electricity, whilst the most industrialised countries consume much more than their fair share.\nThe effects of climate change on the poorest communities are exacerbated by massive global energy inequality. If we are to address climate change, one of the core principles must be equity and fairness, so that the benefits of energy services \u2013 such as light, heat, power and transport \u2013 are available for all: north and south, rich and poor. Only in this way can we create true energy security, as well as the conditions for genuine human wellbeing.\nThe Advanced Energy [R]evolution scenario has a target to achieve energy equity as soon as technically possible. By 2050 the average per capita emission should be between 1 and 2 tonnes of CO2.\n3.implement clean, renewable solutions and decentralise energy systems. There is no energy shortage. All we need to do is use existing technologies to harness energy effectively and efficiently. Renewable energy and energy efficiency measures are ready, viable and increasingly competitive. Wind, solar and other renewable energy technologies have experienced double digit market growth for the past decade.\nJust as climate change is real, so is the renewable energy sector. Sustainable decentralised energy systems produce less carbon emissions, are cheaper and involve less dependence on imported fuel. They create more jobs and empower local communities. Decentralised systems are more secure and more efficient. This is what the Energy [R]evolution must aim to create.\nTo stop the earth\u2019s climate spinning out of control, most of the world\u2019s fossil fuel reserves \u2013 coal, oil and gas \u2013 must remain in the ground. Our goal is for humans to live within the natural limits of our small planet.\n4.decouple growth from fossil fuel use Starting in the developed countries, economic growth must be fully decoupled from fossil fuel usage. It is a fallacy to suggest that economic growth must be predicated on their increased combustion.\nWe need to use the energy we produce much more efficiently, and we need to make the transition to renewable energy and away from fossil fuels quickly in order to enable clean and sustainable growth.\n5.phase out dirty, unsustainable energyWe need to phase out coal and nuclear power. We cannot continue to build coal plants at a time when emissions pose a real and present danger to both ecosystems and people. And we cannot continue to fuel the myriad nuclear threats by pretending nuclear power can in any way help to combat climate change. There is no role for nuclear power in the Energy [R]evolution.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b6cc700a-55c3-47a6-baaf-dbe7c04a4b04>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.energyblueprint.info/1332.0.html?L=0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9383349418640137, "token_count": 982, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hold the salt: UCLA engineers develop revolutionary new desalination membrane\nProcess uses atmospheric pressure plasma to create filtering 'brush layer'\nDesalination can become more economical and used as a viable alternate water resource.\nBy Wileen Wong Kromhout\nOriginally published in UCLA Newsroom\nResearchers from the UCLA Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science have unveiled a new class of reverse-osmosis membranes for desalination that resist the clogging which typically occurs when seawater, brackish water and waste water are purified.\nThe highly permeable, surface-structured membrane can easily be incorporated into today's commercial production system, the researchers say, and could help to significantly reduce desalination operating costs. Their findings appear in the current issue of the Journal of Materials Chemistry.\nReverse-osmosis (RO) desalination uses high pressure to force polluted water through the pores of a membrane. While water molecules pass through the pores, mineral salt ions, bacteria and other impurities cannot. Over time, these particles build up on the membrane's surface, leading to clogging and membrane damage. This scaling and fouling places higher energy demands on the pumping system and necessitates costly cleanup and membrane replacement.\nThe new UCLA membrane's novel surface topography and chemistry allow it to avoid such drawbacks.\n\"Besides possessing high water permeability, the new membrane also shows high rejection characteristics and long-term stability,\" said Nancy H. Lin, a UCLA Engineering senior researcher and the study's lead author. \"Structuring the membrane surface does not require a long reaction time, high reaction temperature or the use of a vacuum chamber. The anti-scaling property, which can increase membrane life and decrease operational costs, is superior to existing commercial membranes.\"\nThe new membrane was synthesized through a three-step process. First, researchers synthesized a polyamide thin-film composite membrane using conventional interfacial polymerization. Next, they activated the polyamide surface with atmospheric pressure plasma to create active sites on the surface. Finally, these active sites were used to initiate a graft polymerization reaction with a monomer solution to create a polymer \"brush layer\" on the polyamide surface. This graft polymerization is carried out for a specific period of time at a specific temperature in order to control the brush layer thickness and topography.\n\"In the early years, surface plasma treatment could only be accomplished in a vacuum chamber,\" said Yoram Cohen, UCLA professor of chemical and biomolecular engineering and a corresponding author of the study. \"It wasn't practical for large-scale commercialization because thousands of meters of membranes could not be synthesized in a vacuum chamber. It's too costly. But now, with the advent of atmospheric pressure plasma, we don't even need to initiate the reaction chemically. It's as simple as brushing the surface with plasma, and it can be done for almost any surface.\"\nIn this new membrane, the polymer chains of the tethered brush layer are in constant motion. The chains are chemically anchored to the surface and are thus more thermally stable, relative to physically coated polymer films. Water flow also adds to the brush layer's movement, making it extremely difficult for bacteria and other colloidal matter to anchor to the surface of the membrane.\n\"If you've ever snorkeled, you'll know that sea kelp move back and forth with the current or water flow,\" Cohen said. \"So imagine that you have this varied structure with continuous movement. Protein or bacteria need to be able to anchor to multiple spots on the membrane to attach themselves to the surface \u2014 a task which is extremely difficult to attain due to the constant motion of the brush layer. The polymer chains protect and screen the membrane surface underneath.\"\nAnother factor in preventing adhesion is the surface charge of the membrane. Cohen's team is able to choose the chemistry of the brush layer to impart the desired surface charge, enabling the membrane to repel molecules of an opposite charge.\nThe team's next step is to expand the membrane synthesis into a much larger, continuous process and to optimize the new membrane's performance for different water sources.\n\"We want to be able to narrow down and create a membrane selection system for different water sources that have different fouling tendencies,\" Lin said. \"With such knowledge, one can optimize the membrane surface properties with different polymer brush layers to delay or prevent the onset of membrane fouling and scaling.\n\"The cost of desalination will therefore decrease when we reduce the cost of chemicals [used for membrane cleaning], as well as process operation [for membrane replacement]. Desalination can become more economical and used as a viable alternate water resource.\"\nCohen's team, in collaboration with the UCLA Water Technology Research (WaTeR) Center, is currently carrying out specific studies to test the performance of the new membrane's fouling properties under field conditions.\n\"We work directly with industry and water agencies on everything that we're doing here in water technology,\" Cohen said. \"The reason for this is simple: If we are to accelerate the transfer of knowledge technology from the university to the real world, where those solutions are needed, we have to make sure we address the real issues. This also provides our students with a tremendous opportunity to work with industry, government and local agencies.\"\nA paper providing a preliminary introduction to the new membrane also appeared in the Journal of Membrane Science last month.\nPublished: Thursday, April 08, 2010", "id": "<urn:uuid:c0b175bb-65fb-420e-a881-a80b91d00ecd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.environment.ucla.edu/water/news/article.asp?parentid=6178", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9249808192253113, "token_count": 1115, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Traffic barricades can be used to redirect or restrict traffic in areas of highway construction or repair. They are typically made from wood, steel, plastic, fiberglass, or a combination of these materials. Many manufacturers have switched to the use of recycled materials in both the supporting frame and rails of the barricades. EPA's designation covers only Types I and II traffic barricades.\nEPA's Recovered Materials Advisory Notice (RMAN) recommends recycled-content levels for purchasing traffic barricades as shown in the table below.\nEPA's Recommended Recovered Materials Content Levels\nfor Traffic Barricades (Types I and II) \u00b9\n|Material||Postconsumer Content (%)||Total Recovered Materials Content (%)|\n(HDPE, LDPE, PET)\n1The recommended materials content levels for steel in this table reflect the fact that the designated items can be made from steel manufactured in either a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) or an Electric Arc Furnace (EAF). Steel from the BDF process contains 25-30% total recovered materials, of which 16% is postconsumer steel. Steel from the EAF process contains a total of 100% recovered steel, of which 67% is postconsumer.\nof Manufacturers and Suppliers\nThis database identifies manufacturers and suppliers of traffic barricades containing recovered materials.\nBuy-Recycled Series: Transportation Products (PDF) (7 pp, 89K, About PDF)\nThis fact sheet highlights the transportation products designated in the CPG, including traffic barricades, and includes case studies, recommended recovered-content levels, and a list of resources.\nTechnical Background Documents\nThese background documents include EPA's product research on recovered-content traffic barricades as well as a more detailed overview of the history and regulatory requirements of the CPG process.", "id": "<urn:uuid:606e0bdc-95c7-42f5-a7a6-890b7ac8b653>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.epa.gov/osw/conserve/tools/cpg/products/barricds.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8579104542732239, "token_count": 371, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "SAN ANGELO, Texas \u2014 MOSCOW (AP) The head of Russia's space agency said Tuesday that cosmic radiation was the most likely cause of the failure of a Mars moon probe that crashed to Earth this month, and suggested that a low-quality imported component may have been vulnerable to the radiation. Vladimir Popovkin also said a manned launch to the International Space Station is being postponed from March 30 because of faults found in the Soyuz capsule.\nThe statements underline an array of trouble that has afflicted the country's vaunted space program in recent months, including the August crash of a supply ship for the space station and last month's crash of a communications satellite.\nSince the end of the U.S. space shuttle program last year, Russian craft are the only means to send crew to and from the ISS.\nThe unmanned Phobos-Ground probe was to have gone to the Mars moon of Phobos, taken soil samples and brought them back. But it became stuck in Earth orbit soon after its launch on Nov. 9. It fell out of orbit on Jan. 15, reportedly off the coast of Chile, but no fragments have been found.\nThe failure was a severe embarrassment to Russia, and Popovkin initially suggested it could have been due to foreign sabotage.\nBut on Tuesday he said in televised remarks that an investigation showed the probable cause was \"localized influence of heavily radiated space particles.\"\nPopovkin, speaking in the city of Voronezh where the report was presented to Deputy Prime Minister Dmitry Rogozin, said two units of the Phobos-Ground probe's onboard computer system went into an energy-saving \"restart\" mode, apparently due to the radiation, while the craft was in its second orbital circuit.\nIt was not immediately clear why the units could not be brought out of that mode.\nPopovkin said that some microchips used on the craft were imported and possibly of inadequate quality to resist radiation. He did not specify where the chips were manufactured.\nYuri Koptev, a former space agency head who led the Phobos-Ground investigation, said 62 percent of the microchips used in the probe were \"industrial\" class, a less-sophisticated level than should be used in space flight.\nPopovkin said the craft's builder, Moscow-based NPO Lavochkin, should have taken into account the possibility of radiation interfering with the operation and said Lavochkin officials would face punishment for the oversight.\nPopovkin later announced that a March 30 planned launch of three astronauts to the space station will be postponed \"likely until the end of April\" because of problems with the capsule. He did not specify, but the state news agency RIA Novosti cited the director of Russia's cosmonaut-training program as saying leaks had been found in the capsule's seals.\nIt would be the second significant postponement of a manned Russian launch in the past year. The August crash of the supply ship pushed back a manned launch to the ISS because the booster rocket that failed in the crash was similar to the ones used in manned missions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fe10118b-a42c-4bff-bcb7-7ab62838ca60>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.gosanangelo.com/news/2012/jan/31/1501lt-ap-eu-russia-falling-spacecraft0515-for/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9729071259498596, "token_count": 640, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Gay and Lesbian Issues\nThe adolescent years are full of challenges, many related to sex and sexual identity. These issues can be especially difficult for teens who are (or think they may be) homosexual. Homosexual teens deserve the same understanding and respect as heterosexual teens, and it is important for everyone to know the facts about homosexuality. Here are the basics.\nEach of us has a biological sex (we have a male or female body), a gender identity (we feel like a male or female), and a sexual orientation (we are attracted to males or females). Homosexuality refers to a person's sexual orientation; homosexual teen-agers have strong romantic or sexual feelings for a person of the same sex. Heterosexual teen-agers are attracted to people of the opposite sex, and bisexual teens are attracted to people of both sexes.\nThe word \"gay\" is used to describe both men and women who are homosexual, with the word \"lesbian\" specifically referring to a homosexual woman. It is estimated that 10 percent of the population in the United States and throughout the world is lesbian or gay.\nAlthough scientists don't know why some people are homosexual and others are not, most believe that homosexuality is a normal variation of sexual orientation. It may be genetic, result from natural substances (hormones) in the body, be influenced by the environment before or after birth, or, most likely, several of these things working in combination. Homosexual teens are found in all types of families. Homosexuality is not caused by \"bad parenting.\" If your teen is gay, it is not because of anything you or anyone else did.\nHomosexuality also is not something a person chooses, nor is it an illness that can be cured. According to the American Psychiatric Association, so-called therapies such as \"reparative therapy\" and \"transformational ministry\" don't work and actually can be harmful, causing guilt and anxiety in homosexual teens.\nNot all teen-agers who are attracted to members of the same sex are homosexual. Many teens experiment with their sexuality during adolescence, in much the same way that they experiment with clothing, body art or music. This brief sexual experimentation is thought to be a normal part of sexual development. For homosexual teens, the attraction to people of the same sex is stronger and longer lasting.\nBack to top\nEvery family is different. While one parent may find out by chance that a teen is homosexual, others may hear directly from their teen in person, in a letter or by a phone call. When a teen tells other people that he is homosexual, it's called \"coming out.\" Although this process sometimes can be difficult or painful for families, it also can be a time of tremendous growth. It is important to remember that all teens need their family's support and acceptance, especially when they are dealing with sensitive issues.\nBack to top\n\"Coming out\" can be scary and painful, and parents need to reassure their children that they will not be loved any less for sharing the truth about themselves. If your teen tells you he is gay, let him know that you love him unconditionally, and accept him no matter what.\nShow your teen that you care by learning more about homosexuality. Read books on the subject or check out reputable Web sites (such as www.pflag.org). Talk to some adults you know who are gay. Look for organizations or support groups in your community that can give you information on homosexuality. It will be easier for you to support your teen when you know more and are comfortable with the subject.\nParents may worry about how friends, neighbors and family will react to their teen's homosexuality. It is usually best not to share any information without your teen-ager's permission. Unfortunately, prejudice against homosexuals is widespread, mostly due to ignorance and fear. When your teen is ready for you to let others know, you should talk with them about your teen's sexual orientation and help them to understand, by using what you have learned.\nBack to top\nGrowing up as a homosexual in a mostly heterosexual society often is not easy. Gay and lesbian adolescents sometimes must cope with unfair, prejudiced, and even violent behavior at school, at home and in the community. They may feel fear or be alone and unsupported. This can push some teens to use drugs and alcohol, engage in risky sexual behavior, or even attempt suicide. It is important that homosexual teens feel supported by their parents and always able to talk openly with them about these issues.\nOverall, most gay and lesbian youth grow up to be well-adjusted and happy adults, with successful careers and family lives.\nBooks for parents of the newly out:\n\"Is it A Choice? Answers to 300 Most Asked Questions About Gay and Lesbian People\" by Eric Marcus\n\"Loving Someone Gay\" by Don Clark, Ph.D.\n\"My Child is Gay\" by Bryce McDougall, editor\nLast updated May 29, 2011", "id": "<urn:uuid:83d99630-30d5-4811-bdcf-250bf5d3fac5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/34970/34997/362814.html?d=dmtChildGuide", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9618534445762634, "token_count": 1006, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In addition, health issues, such as pain, asthma, restless legs syndrome, and back problems, also can contribute to lack of sleep. So can some medications, such as decongestants, steroids and some medicines for high blood pressure, asthma or depression.\nSecrets of good sleep\nYou can take steps to shift your body and mind into more beneficial sleep habits:\n- Keep your bedroom dark, quiet, comfortable and cool. \u201cMaking your bedroom a sanctuary conducive for sleep can make a significant difference in the quality of sleep you get,\u201d says Dr. Wolfson.\n- Go to sleep and wake up at the same time, even on weekends. Doing so helps keep your internal \u201ccircadian clock\u201d in balance, which signals your body to sleep and wake in a regular pattern.\n- Establish a regular, relaxing bedtime routine that might include reading a book, listening to soothing music or doing something else you find relaxing. \u201cA relaxing, routine activity right before bedtime helps separate your sleep time from activities that can make it more difficult to fall asleep or remain asleep,\u201d says Dr. Wolfson. \u201cParents know that a bedtime routine can help children get a good night\u2019s sleep. Doing the same for themselves can have the same results.\u201d\n- Make sure your mattress is comfortable and supportive. Good-quality mattresses generally last about 10 years. Have comfortable pillows and make the room attractive and inviting.\n- Avoid caffeine close to bedtime. Caffeine products, such as coffee, tea and colas, remain in the body, on average, from three to five hours, but they can affect some people up to 12 hours later.\n- Avoid alcohol close to bedtime. Many people think of alcohol as a sedative, but it actually disrupts sleep, causing nighttime awakenings.\n- Quit smoking. Nicotine is a stimulant that can make it more difficult for smokers to fall asleep, stay asleep and wake in the morning. Smokers should never smoke in bed or when they\u2019re sleepy.\n- Finish eating at least two or three hours before your regular bedtime. Be aware that large, high-fat or spicy meals may cause heartburn, which leads to difficulty falling asleep and discomfort during the night.\n- Exercise regularly but complete your workout at least a few hours before bedtime. Exercising regularly makes it easier to fall asleep and contributes to sounder sleep. However, working out right before going to bed will make falling asleep more difficult.\n- Find ways to manage stress and anxiety. Relaxation exercises, meditation or deep breathing work for many people.\n\u201cIf there are problems or issues keeping you awake, try writing them in a notebook and putting it away,\u201d suggests Dr. Wolfson. \u201cThat way, you\u2019ve registered your concerns but become free to put them aside until morning.\u201d\nWhen to seek help\nIf your sleep problems persist for longer than a week and are bothersome, or if sleepiness interferes with the way you feel or function during the day, don\u2019t self-medicate with sleeping pills; make an appointment with your doctor.\n\u201cThe key to better sleep is recognizing you\u2019re not getting enough deep, restorative sleep, and then doing something about it,\u201d says Dr. Wolfson. \u201cFailure to do so puts you and others at risk.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:1cbff567-0d53-485f-b0da-b9c3af53d7f1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kcra.com/Gets-the-ZZZs-you-need/-/11798090/18014276/-/item/1/-/14d2jl9/-/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9462397694587708, "token_count": 712, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Most Active Stories\nSun September 25, 2011\nLaunch Logistics: Speedy Rocket, Slow Electronics\nWeird things jump out at me in press releases.\nTake the press kit NASA prepared for the GRAIL mission. GRAIL consists of two nearly identical spacecraft that are on their way to the moon. Once there, they will make a precise map of the moon's gravitational field. Such a map will help scientists refine their theories about how the moon formed and what the interior is made of.\nSo I'm reading through the GRAIL press kit, learning about the size of the spacecraft (washing machine-sized), how long it will take to make the map (approximately three months), and where the mission control room is (at a Lockheed Martin facility just outside of Denver).\nI also learn that GRAIL can launch any day between Sept. 9 and Oct. 19. And then I get to this sentence:\n\"On each day, there are two separate, instantaneous launch opportunities separated in time by approximately 39 minutes.\"\nThat's weird. Now, I wasn't surprised that this mission had an extremely precise launch opportunity \u2014 \"instantaneous\" means the launch window is essentially a second long. I know you have to wait until the moon's orbit around the Earth, and Earth's orbit around the sun, and the Earth's rotation around its axis are all in exactly the right position before you can launch your rocket.\nBut what's up with two instantaneous launch opportunities. Why 39 minutes apart?\nI called the NASA press office. They were stumped and promised they'd find someone who could give me the answer. In the meantime, I called several universities with large aerospace programs, and asked if anyone there had the answer.\nNope. Nada. Nothing.\nSo now this is beginning to bug me. I'm also beginning to worry. If an aerospace engineer can't figure this out, how am I ever going to understand it?\nWhile I'm pondering this, GRAIL deputy project manager Tom Hoffman called. I asked him about the two instantaneous launch opportunities.\n\"It's a pretty simple answer not driven by the mission at all,\" Hoffman told me. \"It's driven by the launch vehicle.\"\nThe launch vehicle? Not orbital mechanics or a complex trajectory? The problem, Hoffman said, is some slow electronics.\nThere is actually a launch window of 40 minutes or so each day. Modern computers in modern rockets can calculate the precise direction the rocket needs to launch on a second-by-second basis. But GRAIL was launching on a Delta II rocket, and Hoffman told me the Delta II rocket is a rather old design. It's been around for more than 20 years, \"and so the rocket just can't, it can't do that internally, in its own computer system. It basically has to be fed all the information,\" he said.\nHoffman said it takes about 39 minutes to load in the new information, and then check to make sure that it was loaded correctly.\nNot the answer I was expecting, but there's something oddly pleasing about a brand-new space mission launching with some rather old electronics.\nWhatever works ... as the saying goes.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a9a03c48-37f0-4107-92ff-4b61e412d876>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kenw.org/post/launch-logistics-speedy-rocket-slow-electronics", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.967178463935852, "token_count": 657, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ulva spp. on freshwater-influenced or unstable upper eulittoral rock\nEcological and functional relationships\nThe community predominantly consists of algae which cover the rock surface and creates a patchy canopy. In doing so, the algae provides an amenable habitat in an otherwise hostile environment, exploitable on a temporary basis by other species. For instance, Ulva intestinalis provides shelter for the orange harpacticoid copepod, Tigriopus brevicornis, and the chironomid larva of Halocladius fucicola (McAllen, 1999). The copepod and chironomid species utilize the hollow thalli of Ulva intestinalis as a moist refuge from desiccation when rockpools completely dry. Several hundred individuals of Tigriopus brevicornis have been observed in a single thallus of Ulva intestinalis (McAllen, 1999). The occasional grazing gastropods that survive in this biotope no doubt graze Ulva.\nSeasonal and longer term change\n- During the winter, elevated levels of freshwater runoff would be expected owing to seasonal rainfall. Also, winter storm action may disturb the relatively soft substratum of chalk and firm mud, or boulders may be overturned.\n- Seasonal fluctuation in the abundance of Ulva spp. Would therefore be expected with the biotope thriving in winter months. Porphyra also tends to be regarded as a winter seaweed, abundant from late autumn to the succeeding spring, owing to the fact that the blade shaped fronds of the gametophyte develop in early autumn, whilst the microscopic filamentous stages of the spring and summer are less apparent (see recruitment process, below).\nHabitat structure and complexity\nHabitat complexity in this biotope is relatively limited in comparison to other biotopes. The upper shore substrata, consisting of chalk, firm mud, bedrock or boulders, will probably offer a variety of surfaces for colonization, whilst the patchy covering of ephemeral algae provides a refuge for faunal species and an additional substratum for colonization. However, species diversity in this biotope is poor owing to disturbance and changes in the prevailing environmental factors, e.g. desiccation, salinity and temperature. Only species able to tolerate changes/disturbance or those able to seek refuge will thrive.\nThe biotope is characterized by primary producers. Rocky shore communities are highly productive and are an important source of food and nutrients for neighbouring terrestrial and marine ecosystems (Hill et al., 1998). Macroalgae exude considerable amounts of dissolved organic carbon which is taken up readily by bacteria and may even be taken up directly by some larger invertebrates. Dissolved organic carbon, algal fragments and microbial film organisms are continually removed by the sea. This may enter the food chain of local, subtidal ecosystems, or be exported further offshore. Rocky shores make a contribution to the food of many marine species through the production of planktonic larvae and propagules which contribute to pelagic food chains.\nThe life histories of common algae on the shore are generally complex and varied, but follow a basic pattern, whereby there is an alternation of a haploid, gamete-producing phase (gametophyte-producing eggs and sperm) and a diploid spore-producing (sporophyte) phase. All have dispersive phases which are circulated around in the water column before settling on the rock and growing into a germling (Hawkins & Jones, 1992).\nUlva intestinalis is generally considered to be an opportunistic species, with an 'r-type' strategy for survival. The r-strategists have a high growth rate and high reproductive rate. For instance, the thalli of Ulva intestinalis, which arise from spores and zygotes, grow within a few weeks into thalli that reproduce again, and the majority of the cell contents are converted into reproductive cells. The species is also capable of dispersal over a considerable distance. For instance, Amsler & Searles (1980) showed that 'swarmers' of a coastal population of Ulva reached exposed artificial substrata on a submarine plateau 35 km away.\nThe life cycle of Porphyra involves a heteromorphic (of different form) alternation of generations, that are either blade shaped or filamentous. Two kinds of reproductive bodies (male and female (carpogonium)) are found on the blade shaped frond of Porphyra that is abundant during winter. On release these fuse and thereafter, division of the fertilized carpogonium is mitotic, and packets of diploid carpospores are formed. The released carpospores develop into the 'conchocelis' phase (the diploid sporophyte consisting of microscopic filaments), which bore into shells (and probably the chalk rock) and grow vegetatively. The conchocelis filaments reproduce asexually. In the presence of decreasing day length and falling temperatures, terminal cells of the conchocelis phase produce conchospores inside conchosporangia. Meiosis occurs during the germination of the conchospore and produces the macroscopic gametophyte (blade shaped phase) and the cycle is repeated (Cole & Conway, 1980).\nTime for community to reach maturity\nDisturbance is an important factor structuring the biotope, consequently the biotope is characterized by ephemeral algae able to rapidly exploit newly available substrata and that are tolerant of changes in the prevailing conditions, e.g. temperature, salinity and desiccation. For instance, following the Torrey Canyon tanker oil spill in mid March 1967, which bleached filamentous algae such as Ulva and adhered to the thin fronds of Porphyra, which after a few weeks became brittle and were washed away, regeneration of Porphyra and Ulva was noted by the end of April at Marazion, Cornwall. Similarly, at Sennen Cove where rocks had completely lost their cover of Porphyra and Ulva during April, by mid-May had occasional blade-shaped fronds of Porphyra sp. up to 15 cm long. These had either regenerated from basal parts of the 'Porphyra' phase or from the 'conchocelis' phase on the rocks (see recruitment processes). By mid-August these regenerated specimens were common and well grown but darkly pigmented and reproductively immature. Besides the Porphyra, a very thick coating of Ulva (as Enteromorpha) was recorded in mid-August (Smith 1968). Such evidence suggests that the community would reach maturity relatively rapidly and probably be considered mature in terms of the species present and ability to reproduce well within six months.\nNo text entered.\nThis review can be cited as follows:\nUlva spp. on freshwater-influenced or unstable upper eulittoral rock.\nMarine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line].\nPlymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom.\nAvailable from: <http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatecology.php?habitatid=104&code=2004>", "id": "<urn:uuid:13da434f-f140-49e3-8fdb-67019653693a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatecology.php?habitatid=104&code=2004&code=2004", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9125921130180359, "token_count": 1520, "score": 3.625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "History of the Indians of the United States\nby Angie Debo\nThe political, social, and military conflicts and foul-ups between the Indians and whites from the colonial era to the 1970s.\n6 x 9 450 pages, index, maps, illustrated, paperbound\n#300 Indians in the US $24.95\nby Barry C. Kent\nCulturally and linguistically, the Susquehannocks closely resembled the Iroquois of New York state. Actually, they were a fiercely independent nation that lived along the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania and Maryland. They often invaded the tribes of lower Maryland. This is a detailed narrative of the Susquehannocks' lifestyle, villages,\nand artifacts. Also describes their relationship with the Conestogas, Conoy, Shawnee, Delaware, and other tribes that lived along the river.\n6\" x 9\" 440 pages, index, illustrated, maps, paperbound\n#372 Susquehanna's Indians $16.95\nIndians and World War II\nby Alison R. Bernstein\nThe impact of World War II on Indian affairs was more provound and lasting than that of any other event or policy, including FDR's Indian New Deal and eforts to terminate federal responsibility for tribes under Eisenhower. Focusing on the period from 1941 to 1947, Bernstein explains why termination and tribal self-determination wer logical results of the Indians' World War II experiences in battle and on the home front. Includes a brief story of the Navajo Marine Codetalkers and Ira Hayes, a Pima Indian who helped raise the flag at Iwo Jima.\n5\u00bd\" x 8\u00bd\" 247 pages, index, some photos, paperbound\n#373 Indians & WWII $19.95\nFAX: 717 464-3250", "id": "<urn:uuid:24918d75-915c-4e00-b5b9-a827162bb127>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.redrosestudio.com/Cat%2016%20Indians.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8740735650062561, "token_count": 374, "score": 3.515625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "LABDIEN [Hello]! My name is Hannah Rosenthal, and I am the Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Anti-Semitism at the U.S. Department of State. In Latvian, envoy means \u201c\u012apa\u0161\u0101 s\u016btne\u201d. Thank you for inviting me here today to speak to you about the importance of diversity and respect for others. I am always eager to speak to young students because so much of my work depends on your help.\nAs the Special Envoy, it is my job to monitor anti-Semitic incidents and combat such intolerance. \u201cAnti-Semitism\u201d simply means hatred for Jewish people. I monitor anti-Semitic incidents such as vandalism of religious places, anti-Semitic speech, and even violence against Jews.\nBut the truth is, I am in the relationship-building business. I am here today to tell you that young people and students can have an impact and do what I do. We must all share and strive for the same mission: to combat hate and intolerance to create a more peaceful and just world.\nIn order to fight hatred, we must begin with respecting the dignity of every individual, regardless of his or her beliefs. In fact, our differences make us human. You may have heard about the concept of the \u201cOther,\u201d or in Latvian, \u201csve\u0161inieks\u201d. There are individuals in this world who would like us to view some people as outside the larger human family.\nThe desire to stamp out or suppress or ostracize certain individuals because of who they are, how they worship, or who they love is an obstacle for all members of society. Intolerance prevents us from creating a just and peaceful society. Meanwhile, we, as society, must not stand by idly. When we stand by passively, we also pay a price.\nTerrible things can happen when intolerance and racism take hold in a society, across a continent. Hitler\u2019s Nazi ideology called for racial purity and targeted the Jews as an Other that needed to be exterminated. Some of you may know that yesterday communities around the world observed Yom HaShoah, or Holocaust Remembrance Day. Yom HaShoah is a day to remember the victims of the Holocaust and to commemorate the individuals \u2013 including some Latvians -- who risked their lives to save the Jews. I understand Latvia has its own official Holocaust Remembrance Day on July 4. While we officially commemorate the Holocaust on these days, we must carry their lessons with us every day. We must stand against attitudes that value some individuals below others. We must expand the circle of rights and opportunities to all people \u2013 advancing their freedoms and possibilities.\nIntolerance is a moral, a political, and a social problem. But it is also a solvable one. It is not unchangeable. We are not born hating. Somewhere we learn to hate. We can, in fact, make hatred and intolerance something of the past. But this demands our attention. It\u2019s not easy work, but it is urgent work.\nAt the U.S. Department of State (which is like the Foreign Ministry in Latvia) I work within the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor. The primary and overarching goal of the Bureau is to promote freedom and democracy and protect human rights around the world. We are constantly strengthening our policies and pushing ourselves and others to break down former walls of intolerance. Over the past three years, Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton has made the human rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people \u2013 \u201cLGBT\u201d in shorthand -- a priority of our human rights policy. As Secretary Clinton emphatically stated, \u201cGay rights are human rights and human rights are gay rights.\u201d\nIn the United States, we are inspired by the idea that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. The United States has a strong multi-ethnic heritage. Over the course of centuries, many people have immigrated to the United States in hopes of a better life with more opportunities. We embrace this diversity and continue to uphold these values in our everyday lives, actions and laws.\nI am learning that Latvia too has a diverse and multicultural history. Various tribes -- the Livs, the Letts, and the Cours -- lived here for many centuries. People from Belarus, Germany, Russia, Sweden, Ukraine, and many other places have played an important part in Latvia\u2019s history. Jews have also contributed to Latvia\u2019s heritage since the sixteenth century. In the eighteenth century, a Jewish man named Abraham Kuntze invented the famous Rigas Balzam (Latvia\u2019s signature liquor). Latvia\u2019s Jews backed the independence movement in the early twentieth century, with hundreds volunteering for service in the Latvian Army and fighting heroically during the war for independence. Latvia\u2019s Jews thrived during the independence period of the 1920s and 30s, serving in parliament and helping write Latvia\u2019s constitution. Zigfrids Meierovics, the first Foreign Minister of Latvia, and twice Prime Minister, had a Jewish father.\nSadly, when the Soviets arrived in Latvia in 1940, they shut down Jewish institutions and seized Jews\u2019 property. When the Soviets deported tens of thousands of Latvians to Siberia, hundreds of Latvian Jews were deported as well. And then, just over one year later, the Holocaust followed and approximately 70,000 of Latvia\u2019s Jews \u2013 almost 90 percent \u2013 were murdered by the Nazis and their accomplices.\nAnd yet, the Jewish people survived in Latvia. In the 1980s and 90s, Latvia\u2019s Jews once again supported Latvian independence from the Soviet Union, lending their efforts to those of the Popular Front of Latvia. Jews stood on the barricades in 1991. Today, Jews \u2013 along with all other Latvians -- are free to practice their faith and to celebrate their culture in a free Latvia. Latvian society is richer, and more diverse, because of the contributions of all these people.\nOf course, neither Latvia, nor the United States, is perfect. There are people in both of our countries who do not believe in diversity and respect in every society. However, if we condemn their words of hate, we can spread the message of dignity and respect.\nAnti-Semitism and other forms of hatred attack the very idea that every individual is born free and equal in dignity and rights. But Jews, Christians, Muslims and all religious communities are all part of the same family we call humanity. As a child of a Holocaust survivor, anti-Semitism is something very personal to me. My father was arrested \u2013 on Kristallnacht, the unofficial pogrom that many think started the Holocaust \u2013 and sent with many fellow Jews to prison and then to the Buchenwald concentration camp in Germany. And he was the lucky one \u2013 every other person in his family was murdered at Auschwitz. I have dedicated my life to eradicating anti-Semitism and intolerance with a sense of urgency and passion that only my father could give me.\nAt the State Department, we are trying to make human rights a human reality. As the Special Envoy to Monitor and Combat Anti-Semitism, I have recognized that this will not be possible without the help of you, our youth and future leaders.\nLast year my colleague Farah Pandith, the Special Representative to Muslims Communities, and I launched a virtual campaign called \u201c2011 Hours Against Hate,\u201d using Facebook. Perhaps you have heard of it? We are asking you, young people around the world, to pledge a number of hours to volunteer to help or serve a population different than their own. We ask that you work with people who may look different, or pray differently or live differently. For example, a young Jew might volunteer time to read books at a Muslim pre-school, or a Russian Orthodox at a Jewish clinic, or a Muslim at a Baha\u2019i food pantry, or a straight woman at an LGBT center. We want to encourage YOU to walk a mile in another person\u2019s shoes. And while our goal was to get 2011 hours pledged, at the end of last year youth all over the world had pledged tens of thousands of hours.\nThe campaign was, in fact, so successful that we continued it into 2012. Thanks to a group of British non-governmental organizations, we are now also partnering with the London Olympic and Paralympic Games! In January, the London Olympic and Paralympics approved our application to have 2012 Hours Against Hate branded with the Olympics logo. We can now leverage the energy surrounding the 2012 Olympics to encourage athletes and fans alike to participate in combating hate and pledging their time to help or serve someone who is different from them.\nFarah and I have met hundreds of young people \u2013 students and young professionals \u2013 in Europe, the Middle East and Central Asia. They want to DO something. And I have a feeling that YOU want to DO something too. Last summer, Farah and I met with youth and interfaith leaders in Jordan, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia, and discussed reaching out to others, increasing tolerance and understanding among different religious groups, and addressed intolerance in their textbooks and lessons. Last month we traveled to Albania to encourage students from Tirana University and the local Madrasah to participate in 2012 Hours Against Hate. We held a panel discussion on the importance of religious diversity, and encouraged Albanian youth to live up to their country\u2019s important legacy of acceptance and courage: Albania was the only country that saved all of its Jews during the Holocaust. Really, we have just begun.\nSo while I fight anti-Semitism, I am also aware that hate is hate. Nothing justifies it \u2013 not economic instability, not international events, not isolated incidents of hate.\nSince the beginning of humankind, hate has been around, but since then too, good people of all faiths and backgrounds have worked to combat it. The Jewish tradition tells us that \u201cyou are not required to complete the task, but neither are you free to desist from it.\u201d\nTogether, we must confront and combat the many forms of hatred in our world today. Where there is hatred born of ignorance, we must teach and inspire. Where there is hatred born of blindness, we must expose people to a larger world of ideas and reach out, especially to youth, so they can see beyond their immediate circumstances. Where there is hatred whipped up by irresponsible leaders, we must call them out and answer as strongly as we can \u2013 and make their message totally unacceptable to all people of conscience.\nThank you again for inviting me here to speak to you today. I am now happy and excited to answer your questions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:98ec614b-daef-452c-9e5b-ae03965de10f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/rm/2012/189162.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9629838466644287, "token_count": 2200, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Giant Water Scavenger Beetle\n|Geographical Range||North America|\n|Scientific Name||Hydrophilus triangularis|\n|Conservation Status||Not listed by IUCN|\nThe name says it all. This large beetle lives in water, where it scavenges vegetation and insect parts. The insect can store a supply of air within its silvery belly, much like a deep-sea diver stores air in a tank.", "id": "<urn:uuid:469863a4-9f80-47c2-ad04-ee7f0adecfd5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.stlzoo.org/animals/abouttheanimals/invertebrates/insects/beetles/giantwaterscavengerbeetle/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8343905210494995, "token_count": 91, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "January 23, 2007:\nThe paper by researchers at Yale, the University of Winnipeg, Stony Brook University, and led by University of Florida paleontologist Jonathan Bloch reconstructs the base of the primate family tree by comparing skeletal and fossil specimens representing more than 85 modern and extinct species. The team also discovered two 56-million-year-old fossils, including the most primitive primate skeleton ever described.\nIn the two-part study, an extensive evaluation of skeletal structures provides evidence that plesiadapiforms, a group of archaic mammals once thought to be more closely related to flying lemurs, are the most primitive primates. The team analyzed 173 characteristics of modern primates, tree shrews, flying lemurs with plesiadapiform skeletons to determine their evolutionary relationships. High-resolution CT scanning made fine resolution of inaccessible structures inside the skulls possible.\n\"This is the first study to bring it all together,\" said co-author Eric Sargis, associate professor of anthropology at Yale University and Assistant Curator of Vertebrate Zoology at Yale's Peabody Museum of Natural History. \"The extensive dataset, the number and type of characteristics we were able to compare, and the availability of full skeletons, let us test far more than any previous study.\"\nAt least five major features characterize modern primates: relatively large brains, enhanced vision and eyes that face forward, a specialized ability to leap, nails instead of claws on at least the first toes, and specialized grasping hands and feet. Plesiadapiforms have some but not all of these traits. The article argues that these early primates may have acquired the traits over 10 million years in incremental changes to exploit their environment.\nWhile the study did not include a molecular evaluation of the samples, according to Sargis, these results are consistent with molecular studies on related living groups. Compatibility with the independent molecular data increases the researchers' confidence in their own results.\nBloch discovered the new plesiadapiform species, Ignacius clarkforkensis and Dryomomys szalayi, just outside Yellowstone National Park in the Bighorn Basin with co-author Doug Boyer, a graduate student in anatomical sciences at Stony Brook. Previously, based only on skulls and isolated bones, scientists proposed that Ignacius was not an archaic primate, but instead a gliding mammal related to flying lemurs. However, analysis of a more complete and well-preserved skeleton by Bloch and his team altered this idea.\n\"These fossil finds from Wyoming show that our earliest primate ancestors were the size of a mouse, ate fruit and lived in the trees,\" said study leader Jonathan Bloch, a vertebrate paleontology curator at the Florida Museum of Natural History. \"It is remarkable to think we are still discovering new fossil species in an area studied by paleontologists for over 100 years.\"\nResearchers previously hypothesized plesiadapiforms as the ancestors of modern primates, but the idea generated strong debate within the primatology community. This study places the origins of Plesiadapiforms in the Paleocene, about 65 (million) to 55 million years ago in the period between the extinction of the dinosaurs and the first appearance of a number of undisputed members of the modern orders of mammals.\n\"Plesiadapiforms have long been one of the most controversial groups in mammalian phylogeny,\" said Michael J. Novacek, curator of paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History. \"First, they are somewhere near primates and us. Second, historically they have offered tantalizing, but very often incomplete, fossil evidence. But the specimens in their study are beautifully and spectacularly preserved.\"\n\"The results of this study suggest that plesiadapiforms are the critical taxa to study in understanding the earliest phases of human evolution. As such, they should be of very broad interest to biologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists,\" said co-author Mary Silcox, professor of anthropology at the University of Winnipeg.\n\"This collaboration is the first to bring together evidence from all regions of the skeleton, and offers a well-supported perspective on the structure of the earliest part of the primate family tree,\" Bloch said.\nThe research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, Field Museum of Natural History, Yale University, Sigma Xi Scientific Research Society, Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council (Canada), University of Winnipeg, the Paleobiological Fund, and The Wenner--Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3fb03c5f-56af-4237-afa9-75336a1587b5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.strangeark.com/blogarchive/2007_01_01_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9440796971321106, "token_count": 932, "score": 3.8125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "THL Toolbox > Audio-Video > Overview\nContributor(s): David Germano, James Graves, Chelsea Hall, Eric Woelfel.\nNew developments in digital technology and the Web offer exciting new possibilities for the incorporation of audio-video into new areas of research, publication and teaching. They also allow us for the first time to use and explore audio-video creatively in ways previously only possible with texts, such as providing for powerful ways to search media files and giving users tools to creatively alter audio-video files to incorporate into their own work. However, working with audio-video can also be very frustrating, and thus THL has expended considerable energies in developing tools and documentation to provide a systematic framework for the creation, delivery and use of audio-video in research, publication and teaching.\nFor a beginner's lesson on how to use the AV Database website, please see: Using the THL AV Database.\nThe overall process from start to finish can be divided into five distinct phases:\n- Create the audio-video through recording sessions\n- Technically process the media into edited segments in formats usable on a computer\n- Catalog the resultant media titles with metadata\n- Linguistically process the media titles with transcription, translation, annotation and timecoding\n- Package the media title into research publications, or into instructional units, including integration with reference databases, for delivery to end users\nGiven the demands of such a process, it is vital that an integrated set of tools with proper manuals and broader documentation are available which are free, open source, and suited for educational purposes. We are creating comprehensive documentation for each phase, which themselves involve a series of internal steps and processes often requiring separate documentation. As a whole, these materials form the basis for our training and reference with regard to audio-video materials.\n1. Determine a title to be produced.\n- Review/screen recorded material (i.e., video tapes) and decide how they might be broken down into discrete titles. Each title will be its own video. Consult standardized guidelines for generating titles, including standardized phraseology, etc.\n- Generating Titles & Credits for Recordings\n2. Propose a title (and corresponding credits for each title) and have them checked by Germano.\n- (Typically, it's best to prepare a batch of titles and their corresponding credits, and submit that to Germano, rather than submitting titles to him one-by-one.)\n3. Send the approved titles and credits to Penam in Lhasa, or a local Tibetan assigned to the task like Tsering Wangchuk and Tsering Perlo to be rendered into Tibetan and Chinese.\n4. Meanwhile digitize and edit your titles in Final Cut Pro, inserting blank title and credit slates whose trilingual information can be added later, once translations are ready.\n5. Complete catalog entries in BOTH the physical media (i.e., tapes) database AND Audio-Video database.\n- Physical Media Database: Make sure the content of the tape is properly described in the physical media database. Also include the recording date, the tape format (i.e., NTSC, PAL, HD, etc.), and other useful data about the tape itself and its recording.\n- AV Database: Give a short description of the title\u2019s content, fill out the relevant metadata (like language, etc.), propose collection classifications if not obvious, & record as much information as you can about participants involved in your title, under the \"Credits\" tab of each AVDB entry\n- Consult with a native Tibetan speaker to help process participant information on handwritten forms as necessary. (Often such forms are filled out in the cursive script, not dbu can, and may therefore be harder to understand.)\n6. Compress each title in Final Cut Pro, making sure you've included ending credits. Upload the files to the server after compression and after converting the audio files to MPEG-3 and generating thumbnails.\n7. Alert a Transcription Center that the compression is ready for transcription, and eventual translation.\n8. If relevant, once transcribed, it can be further processed for use in an instructional unit or other presentational context (see making language instructional units).\nNOTE: If possible, use the fields under the workflow tab in order to mark processes as completed. In addition, you should keep track of the workflow in a more comprehensive fashion using the status reports for av, ie: titles waiting to be approved, completed titles, etc. In the future, we hope the new AV database will allow for tracking of workflow so that everyone involved can easily fnd what titles need to be translated, etc. by using the database itself.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3c5658e7-c38b-4074-9e1d-6519a90175a4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thlib.org/tools/wiki/Overview%20of%20Working%20with%20Audio-Video%20in%20THDL.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9010822176933289, "token_count": 961, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Who Was Martin Luther King, Jr.?\nISBN 9780448478050 | 112 pages | 27 Dec 2007 | Grosset & Dunlap | 5.59 x 7.67in | 8 - 12 years\nSummary of Who Was Martin Luther King, Jr.? Summary of Who Was Martin Luther King, Jr.? Reviews for Who Was Martin Luther King, Jr.? An Excerpt from Who Was Martin Luther King, Jr.?\nDr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was only 25 when he helped organize the Montgomery Bus Boycott and was soon organizing black people across the country in support of the right to vote, desegregation, and other basic civil rights. Maintaining nonviolent and peaceful tactics even when his life was threatened, King was also an advocate for the poor and spoke out against racial and economic injustice until his death\u2014from an assassin\u2019s bullet\u2014in 1968. With clearly written text that explains this tumultuous time in history and 80 black-and-white illustrations, this Who Was\u2026? celebrates the vision and the legacy of a remarkable man.\nTo keep up-to-date, input your email address, and we will contact you on publication\nPlease alert me via email when:", "id": "<urn:uuid:58ca579d-7d43-496c-ad02-96666b414a67>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.us.penguingroup.com/nf/Book/BookDisplay/0,,9780448478050,00.html?Who_Was_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.?_Bonnie_Bader", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8971253037452698, "token_count": 245, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is Rainwater Harvesting?\nRainwater harvesting is an ancient practice of catching and holding rain for later use. In a rainwater harvesting system, rain is gathered from a building rooftop or other source and is held in large containers for future use, such as watering gardens or washing cars. This practice reduces the demand on water resources and is excellent during times of drought.\nWhy is it Important?\nIn addition to reducing the demand on our water sources (especially important during drought), rainwater harvesting also helps prevent water pollution. Surprised?\nHere\u2019s why: the success of the 1972 Clean Water Act has meant that the greatest threat to New York\u2019s waterbodies comes not from industrial sources, but rather through the small actions we all make in our daily lives. For example, in a rain storm, the oil, pesticides, animal waste, and litter from our lawns, sidewalks, driveways, and streets are washed down into our sewers. This is called non-point source (NPS) pollution because the pollutants come from too many sources to be identified. Rainwater harvesting diverts water from becoming polluted stormwater; instead, this captured rainwater may be used to irrigate gardens near where it falls.\nIn New York City, keeping rainwater out of the sewer system is very important. That\u2019s because the city has an old combined sewer system that uses the same pipes to transport both household waste and stormwater to sewage treatment plants. During heavy rains, the system overloads; then untreated sewage and contaminated stormwater overflow into our rivers and estuary, with serious consequences:\nWho is Harvesting Rainwater in New York City?\nBack in 2002, a drought emergency pushed many community gardens to the brink of extinction. For the first time in twenty years, community gardeners were denied permission to use fire hydrants, the primary source of water for most community gardens. This crisis led to the formation of the Water Resources Group (WRG), an open collaboration of community gardening and environmental organizations. With help from the WRG, rainwater harvesting systems have now been built as demonstration sites in twenty NYC community gardens.\nAt community gardens that harvest rainwater, rain is diverted from the gutters of adjacent buildings and is stored in tanks in the gardens. A 1-inch rainfall on a 1,000-square-foot roof produces 600 gallons of water. The tanks are mosquito proof, so the standing water does not encourage West Nile virus. Because rainwater is chlorine free, it is better than tap water for plant growth, meaning healthier plants. And it\u2019s free!\nWhat are Other Cities Doing?\nMany cities have adopted creative, low-cost ways to stop wasting rainwater by diverting it from their sewage systems and putting it to use where it falls. Here are some examples:\nWhat Can I Do?\nSpread the word! Educate those around you on the importance of lifestyle decisions.\nTell people not to litter, dump oil down storm drains, or overfertilize their lawns.\nInstall a rainwater harvesting system at your home, school, business, or local community center.\nContact your local elected officials, and let them know you support rainwater harvesting!\nSupporting rainwater harvesting Jade Boat Loans", "id": "<urn:uuid:14a860e9-8430-426b-8c1a-80c7f022fb96>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.waterresourcesgroup.org/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9423009157180786, "token_count": 671, "score": 3.890625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Henry Evans is a mute quadriplegic, having suffered a stroke when he was just 40 years old. Following extensive therapy, Henry regained the ability to move his head and use a finger, which allows him to operate computers. Last year, Henry caught a TV interview of Georgia Tech Professor Charlie Kemp showing research with the Willow Garage PR2 robot. Willow Garage and Professor Kemp were contacted by Henry shortly afterwards, and we have been collaborating since then.\nWe are currently exploring ways for Henry to use a PR2 robot as his surrogate. Every day, people take for granted the simple act of scratching an itch. In Henry's case, 2-3 times every hour of every day he gets an itch he can't scratch. With the aid of a PR2, Henry was able to scratch an itch for himself for the first time in 10 years.\nWhile this is only a first step, it demonstrates how people with severe physical disabilities could use personal robots to gain independence. In another example, Henry recently used the PR2 to shave his cheek. We are actively researching ways for Henry and others to perform tasks like these on a daily basis.\nCurrently, Henry uses a head tracker to operate a variety of experimental user interfaces. These interfaces allow him to directly move the robot's body, including its arms and head. They also let him invoke autonomous actions, such as navigating in a room and reaching out to a location.\nRobots that complement human abilities are extremely valuable, especially when they help us do things that we can't do by ourselves. Our goal is to get robots in homes to help people like Henry and Jane Evans. This is just the beginning.\nLeila Takayama Recognized by MIT Technology Review's TR35 Listing of the World's Top Young Innovators for 2012", "id": "<urn:uuid:a598bb26-9bcf-4c37-b446-316a1826452a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.willowgarage.com/blog/2011/07/13/robots-humanity?page=4", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9684308171272278, "token_count": 363, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On behalf of Gov. Mark Schweiker, Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) Secretary David E. Hess announced that this month's episode of the Emmy-award-winning television series GreenWorks for Pennsylvania features stories about people working to protect Pennsylvania's watersheds.\n\"Raising awareness of the role watersheds play in our environment is one of the cornerstones of Pennsylvania's `Growing Greener' program,\" Hess said. \"The current episode of GreenWorks features people of all ages learning about, protecting and restoring Pennsylvania's watersheds.\nGreenWorks, produced in a video-magazine format, takes viewers across the Commonwealth to spotlight people doing positive things for the environment. GreenWorks is supported by DEP and the Environmental Fund for Pennsylvania (EFP). The current episode runs through October. This month's episode includes these features.\n* The Radnor Middle School Watershed Program in Delaware County, which takes students out of the classroom and into the field to learn about watersheds first hand.\n* Members of the Delaware RiverKeepers, who worked on mitigating stream bank erosion by clearing, regrading and covering a stream bank with a biodegradable mesh of coconut fibers allowing native plants to regain a healthy foothold.\n* The Pottstown Watershed Alliance, which removed an old dam in the Manatawny Creek in Pottstown, Montgomery County, to improve water quality.\n* Members of the Swatara Creek Watershed Association and DEP staff, which cleaned up 33 acres of abandoned mine drainage in Schuylkill County.\n* The River Sojourn 2001, where people from all walks of life canoed and kayaked on Pennsylvania rivers to connect with and appreciate the beauty and power of the state's natural water resources.\n\"We all depend on rivers and watersheds for drinking water and more,\" EFP Executive Director Timothy J. Schlitzer said. \"I hope this program will deepen viewers' understanding and respect for what it takes to protect our precious waterways.\"\nEFP funds environmental education and improvement projects from contributions made through employee payroll-deduction programs established by businesses and the Commonwealth and other donations.\nThe series reaches more than five million households in Pennsylvania through 83 cable television stations as well as the Public Broadcasting Service.\nFor a listing of stations carrying GreenWorks and information on particular broadcasts, visit the GreenWorks website through the PA PowerPort at www.state.pa.us, directly at www.GreenWorks.tv, or call EFP at 1-800-PAGREEN ext. 1.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8eb9e2b6-423a-4071-a262-e351d76dcaf3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wwdmag.com/igreenworksi-episode-focuses-watersheds", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9360654354095459, "token_count": 519, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\"Caring, Effective, Middle/High School Math Tutor\"\n...Sometimes it is just more practice that is needed, but in any case it is very important that students know math facts, operations, decimals, fractions, ratios, percents, and proportions extremely well. They must also have general \"number sense.\" I bring a lot of experience helping students learn these basics, which are the key building blocks of...\n10 subjects, including algebra 1", "id": "<urn:uuid:f4f74643-3c40-4c5d-8c6f-610835c3c8b8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wyzant.com/Trenton_NJ_Factoring_tutors.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9654094576835632, "token_count": 95, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Why is my paper pink?\nThe color of today\u2019s paper is probably quite a shock to many of our readers, and that is just the effect we are hoping for.\nToday marks the beginning of Breast Cancer Awareness Month, and this edition of The Yazoo Herald is dedicated to raising awareness about the importance of early detection and encouraging support for efforts to help find a cure.\nMost of us know someone who has been affected by breast cancer. Besides some forms of skin cancer, it is the most common cancer in women.\nIt doesn\u2019t discriminate. Breast cancer rates are equally high among women of all races. The Center of Disease Control reports that it is the highest cause of death by cancer among Hispanic women and the second-leading cancer cause of death among white and black women. One in eight women in the United States will suffer from invasive breast cancer at some point in their lives.\nFortunately, breast cancer deaths have been decreasing since 1990 as detection and treatment improve, reducing the mortality rate to 3 in 100. If you\u2019re reading this and you haven\u2019t had an examination, it\u2019s time to make an appointment.\nLast Updated (Friday, 30 September 2011 18:19)", "id": "<urn:uuid:6b5d0ec8-8dc7-4252-be65-524a63366d63>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.yazooherald.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1607:why-is-my-paper-pink&Itemid=1&el_mcal_month=11&el_mcal_year=2012", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696381249/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092621-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9649915099143982, "token_count": 249, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Not Just for Kids\nThe Hunt for Falling Leaves...\nNature's Color on the Ground\nby Mary Catherine Ball\nBeing a reporter, I am always looking for an adventure. Last week, I found one.\nI left work to go on a simple journey, but it turned out to be much more.\nFirst, I crossed a mud-ridden stream. Then, I came face to face with flying creatures, fighting to get near me. I even endured webmakers spinning my hair into a shiny maze.\nWhere did I go? Into the woods, of course. Why? I wanted to gather some fallen leaves.\nMy luck was good that day. I was able to spy lots of different kinds of leaves lying on the ground. Some were leaves I had never seen. Some were still green, while others were changing to their autumn colors.\nHave you ever hunted for leaves? I wonder if you know the names of five of the trees that live in your neighborhood? I bet the answer is no.\nWell, me neither. So I had five of the leaves analyzed. I had found the leaves from an oak, a beech, a sweet gum tree and more.\nNow, I invite you to make this journey.\nNarrow body with pointy edges\nNarrow body with pointy edges\nMay grow berries\nGood for sap & color\n3 distinct leafs\nMay grow nuts\nThis is your task...\nTravel to the deep, dark woods (in the daylight) to find these 5 leaves. Cut out the page and take it with you. Make sure you can match your discovery with mine. Happy leaf-hunting!\nStone Soup October 9 (11:30am)-Enjoy lunch and a show. After you eat peanut butter & jelly, watch Stone Soup, performed by the Lost Caravan. Lunch is at noon; show starts at 12:30. Chesapeake Music Hall, Off Rt. 50 approaching the Bay Bridge: 410/406-0306.\nAll Aboard October 9 & 10 (2pm)-Chug a chug to Zany Brainy for train fun. Listen to stories and sing railroad songs. Build your own trains. Ages 3+. Zany Brainy, Annap. Harb. Ctr.: 410/266-1447.\nTiny Tots Fall for Nature Tues. Oct 12 (10:30am-noon) Three- to five-year-olds (and their adult) hike into the woods to hear autumn stories, gather leaves and make a craft. Bring a bag lunch to enjoy w/apple cider @ King's Landing Park, Huntingtown. $3 rsvp: 800/735-2258.\nSpooky Stories in the Woods Tues. Oct. 12 (10:30-noon)-Hike with a ranger to a clearing in the woods. Listen to autumn stories and drink warm apple cider. Gather leaves to make a craft. Bring a bag lunch. Kings Landing Park, Huntingtown: 410/535-5327.\nMusical Minds Wed. Oct. 13 (4-4:45pm)-Music makes the world go round. So sing, listen to stories and play musical instruments. Ages 2-4. Chesapeake Children's Museum, Festival at Riva. $8.50; rsvp: 410/266-0677.\nNature Designs Deadline Oct. 15-Create your favorite nature scene out of clay or on paper to win prizes. Age categories are 3-5, 6-8 and 9-12 years. Place winners win nature books or statues. All art forms accepted. Take your masterpiece to Wild Bird Center, Annapolis Harbour Center: 410/573-0345.\nTiny Tots get in Touch with Mother Nature Sat. Oct 16 (10-10:30am)\nTiny tots (2-3 w/adult) learn nature by touch, feeling the many different\ntextures rough and soft in the world around us. @ Battle Creek Cypress Swamp,\nPrince Frederick: 800/735-2258.\n| Issue 40 |\nVolume VII Number 40\nOctober 7-13, 1999\nNew Bay Times\n| Homepage |\n| Back to Archives |", "id": "<urn:uuid:373cc951-d17e-4d57-b0f5-122effe3a054>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://bayweekly.com/old-site/year99/issue7_40/kids7_40.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9368833303451538, "token_count": 869, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Intellectual disability begins in childhood. People with intellectual disability have limits in their mental functioning seen in below-average intelligence (IQ) tests and in their ability to communicate, socialize, and take care of their everyday needs. The degree of disability can vary from person to person. It can be categorized as mild, moderate, severe, or profound.\nSome causes of intellectual disability can be prevented with proper medical care. Children diagnosed with an intellectual disability are most successful when they get help early in life. If you suspect that your child may have an intellectual disability, contact your doctor.\nSeveral hundred causes of intellectual disability have been discovered, but many are still unknown. The most common ones are:\nBiomedical causes resulting from:\n- Abnormal genes inherited from parents\n- Errors when genes combine, such as Down syndrome and Fragile X syndrome\n- Nutritional deficiencies\n- Metabolic conditions, such as phenylketonuria (PKU), galactosemia , and congenital hypothyroidism\n- Developmental brain abnormality, such as hydrocephalus and brain malformation\n- Infections during pregnancy, such as:\n- Behavioral issues during pregnancy, such as:\nProblems at birth, such as:\n- Premature delivery or low birth weight\n- Baby doesn\u2019t get enough oxygen during birth\n- Baby is injured during birth\nFactors during childhood, such as:\n- Nutritional deficiencies\n- Illnesses or infections that affect the brain, including meningitis , encephalitis , chickenpox , whooping cough , and measles\n- Exposure to lead , mercury , and other toxins\n- Head injury or near drowning\n- Social factors, such as child stimulation and adult responsiveness\n- Educational deficiencies\nA child could be at higher risk for intellectual disability due to any of the causes listed above, or due to intellectual disability in other family members. If you are concerned that your child is at risk, tell your child's doctor.\nSymptoms appear before a child reaches age 18. Symptoms vary depending on the degree of the intellectual disability. If you think your child has any of these symptoms, do not assume it is due to intellectual disability. These symptoms may be caused by other, less serious health conditions.\n- Learning and developing more slowly than other children of the same age\n- Difficulty communicating or socializing with others\n- Lower than average scores on IQ tests\n- Trouble learning in school\n- Inability to do everyday things like getting dressed or using the bathroom without help\n- Difficulty hearing, seeing, walking, or talking\n- Inability to think logically\nThe following categories are often used to describe the level of intellectual disability:\n- IQ 50-70\n- Slower than normal in all areas\n- No unusual physical signs\n- Can learn practical skills\n- Reading and math skills up to grades 3-6\n- Can conform socially\n- Can learn daily task skills\n- Functions in society\n- IQ 35-49\n- Noticeable delays, particularly speech\n- May have unusual physical signs\n- Can learn simple communication\n- Can learn elementary health and safety skills\n- Can participate in simple activities and self-care\n- Can perform supervised tasks\n- Can travel alone to familiar places\n- IQ 20-34\n- Significant delays in some areas; may walk late\n- Little or no communication skills, but some understanding of speech with some response\n- Can be taught daily routines and repetitive activities\n- May be trained in simple self-care\n- Needs direction and supervision socially\n- IQ <20\n- Significant delays in all areas\n- Congenital abnormalities present\n- Needs close supervision\n- Requires attendant care\n- May respond to regular physical and social activity\n- Not capable of self-care\nIf you suspect your child is not developing skills on time, tell the doctor as soon as possible. Your doctor will ask about your child\u2019s symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. Standardized tests may be given that measure:\n- Intelligence\u2014IQ tests measure a person\u2019s ability to do things such as think abstractly, learn, and solve problems. A child may have intellectual disability if IQ test results are 70 or below.\nAdaptive behavior\u2014These are skills needed to function in everyday life, including:\n- Conceptual skills like reading and writing\n- Social skills like responsibility and self-esteem\n- Practical skills like the ability to eat, use the bathroom, and get dressed\nChildren with intellectual disability have a higher risk for other disabilities such as hearing impairment , visual problems, seizures , attention deficit hyperactivity disorder , or orthopaedic conditions. Additional testing may be needed to check for other conditions.\nTalk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for your child. Treatment is most helpful if it begins as early as possible. Treatment includes:\n- Early intervention programming for infants and toddlers up to age three\n- Family counseling\n- Human development training, including emotional skills and hand-eye coordination\n- Special education programs\n- Life skills training, such as preparing food, bathing\n- Job coaching\n- Social opportunities\n- Housing services\nTo help reduce your child\u2019s chance of becoming intellectually disabled, take the following steps:\n- During pregnancy:\n- Have your newborn screened for conditions that may produce intellectual disability.\n- Have your child properly immunized .\n- Schedule regular visits to the pediatrician.\n- Use child safety seats and bicycle helmets.\n- Remove lead-based paint from your home.\n- Keep poisonous household products out of reach .\n- Aspirin is not recommended for children or teens with a current or recent viral infection. This is because of the risk of Reye's syndrome , which can cause neurological problems. Ask your doctor which medicines are safe for your child.\n- Reviewer: Rimas Lukas, MD\n- Review Date: 03/2013 -\n- Update Date: 00/31/2013 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:9966e685-a44f-44d0-bc28-77804eba9bae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blakemedicalcenter.com/your-health/?/96644/Intellectual-disability", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9288511872291565, "token_count": 1224, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA)\nPassed in 1996, The Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA) denies federal recognition of gay marriages and gives each state the right to refuse recognition of same-sex marriage licenses issued by other states. The act does not prohibit states from allowing gay marriages, but neither does it obligate states to recognize the gay marriages from other states. For the first time in history, the federal government defines marriage in the Act as a \"legal union between one man and one woman as husband and wife,\" and spouse is defined as \"a person of the opposite sex who is a husband or a wife.\" Marriages that do not fit this description are not eligible for any benefits offered by the federal government.\nFor More Information on DOMA, see Senate Subcommittee Hearing on the Proposed Federal Defense of Marriage Act.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1932bf59-c93f-4c7c-a5f7-346d3a9e87e1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://community.pflag.org/page.aspx?pid=560", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9609653353691101, "token_count": 169, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "12. June 2012 10:55\nRetinal hemorrhage occurs when the blood vessels in the retina get damaged or ruptured, leading to abnormal bleeding. The retina, which is composed of rods and cones is the region of the eye responsible for sensitivity to light, and vision. The retinal vein and artery, along with a dense network of capillaries, are responsible for transmitting the blood supply to the retina. When these blood vessels are damaged, due to any reason, this affects the blood supply to the retina, which in turn leads to a decrease in visual acuity. Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in people aged between 20 and 65.\nThe dense network of cells in the retina is extremely sensitive, and can be damaged with even a slight trauma.\nThe causes due to which this damage might occur include:\n- High blood pressure\n- Forceful blows in the head region\n- Child abuse in infants\n- Improper development of blood vessels in infants born prematurely\n- Blurred vision\n- Spotted vision\n- Lines in the field of vision\n- Blind spots\n- Distorted vision\n- Progressive vision loss\n- The disease is diagnosed by an ophthalmologist, who uses an opthalmoscope to examine the internal structure of the eye.\n- Another method that is commonly used to detect the abnormalities in the blood vessels is a fluorescein angiography test, in which a fluorescent dye is injected into the patient\u2019s bloodstream, after which photographs are clicked to view the blood vessels.\n- In some cases, the physician might also order for a blood test to be performed.\n- The disorder is self-limiting in most patients, with more than 85% cases healing on their own.\n- The most common treatment for retinal hemorrhages is laser treatment, in which a laser beam is used to remove the affected blood vessels.\n- If the disease is caused by some underlying medical condition like diabetes or hypertension, the treatment focuses on eliminating that disorder.\n- Injection of anti-VEGF drugs like Avestin has been found to be effective in the treatment of hemorrhages associated with the growth of new vessels.\n- The administration of various nutritional and herbal supplements like antioxidants, omega-3-rich foods, antioxidant vitamins, zinc, lutein, pine bark extract, grape seed extract, etc. has also been found to be effective in improving the symptoms of the disease.\nWe at Killeen Eyecare center are renowned throughout Killeen for providing the highest quality eye care to all our patients. We help them maintain healthy eyes and treat various eye diseases using most sophisticated instruments. For more details, you can visit us at 416 North Gray Street, Killeen, TX 76541, Downtown Killeen or call at 254-634-7805.\nEye Doctor Killeen - Eye Doctor Fort Hood", "id": "<urn:uuid:0a57e8d8-1439-48dd-8688-080cf98e78c5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://killeeneyecarecenter.com/blog/post/Retinal-Hemorrhage-Symptoms-Diagnosis-And-Treatment.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9317519664764404, "token_count": 596, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Types of literature\nPRIMARY SOURCES are publications that report the results of original research. They may be in the form of conference papers, monographic series, technical reports, theses and dissertations, or journal articles. Because they present information in its original form (that is, it has not been interpreted or condensed or otherwise \u201crepackaged\u201d by other writers), these are considered primary sources. The works present new thinking/discoveries/results and unite them with the existing knowledge base. Journal articles that report original research are one of the more common and important steps in the information sharing cycle. They often go through a process in which they are \u201cpeer reviewed\u201d by other experts who evaluate the work and findings before publication.\nSECONDARY SOURCES are those which are published about the primary literature, that generalize, analyze, interpret, evaluate or otherwise \u201cadd value\u201d to the original information, OR which simplify the process of finding and evaluating the primary literature. Some examples of secondary sources are \u201creview\u201d articles and indexes or bibliographies, such as PubMed or the ScienceDirect.\nTERTIARY SOURCES compile or digest information from primary or secondary sources that has become widely accepted. They aim to provide a broad overview of a topic, or data, already proven facts, and definitions, often presented in a convenient form. They provide no new information. These include \u201creference\u201d types of works such as textbooks, encyclopedias, fact books, guides and handbooks, and computer databases such as The Handbook of the Microbiological Media and SciFinder.\nGRAY LITERATURE are source materials not available through the usual systems of publication (e.g., books or periodicals) and distribution. Gray literature includes conference proceedings, dissertations, technical reports, and working papers. Locating this type of literature is a little more difficult, but there are finding tools such as Dissertations Abstracts and PapersFirst.\nWhat is a literature review?\nA literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time period.\nA literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant.\nBut how is a literature review different from an academic research paper?\nWhile the main focus of an academic research paper is to support your own argument, the focus of a literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of others. The academic research paper also covers a range of sources, but it is usually a select number of sources, because the emphasis is on the argument. Likewise, a literature review can also have an \"argument,\" but it is not as important as covering a number of sources. In short, an academic research paper and a literature review contain some of the same elements. In fact, many academic research papers will contain a literature review section. But it is the aspect of the study (the argument or the sources) that is emphasized that determines what type of document it is.\nWhy do we write literature reviews?\nLiterature reviews provide you with a handy guide to a particular topic. If you have limited time to conduct research, literature reviews can give you an overview or act as a stepping stone. For professionals, they are useful reports that keep them up to date with what is current in the field. For scholars, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the writer in his or her field. Literature reviews also provide a solid background for a research paper's investigation. Comprehensive knowledge of the literature of the field is essential to most research papers.\nWho writes these things, anyway?\nLiterature reviews are written occasionally in the humanities, but mostly in the sciences and social sciences; in experiment and lab reports, they constitute a section of the paper. Sometimes a literature review is written as a paper in itself.\nExcerpt from \u201cLiterature Reviews\u201d from The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (http://writingcenter.unc.edu/resources/handouts-demos/specific-writing-assignments/literature-reviews), 2007.\nCollection Development Librarian\n1014 Boswell Ave.\nCrete NE 68333", "id": "<urn:uuid:36c1f567-48f3-46f4-b9c2-332bfdf4d2b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://libguides.doane.edu/biosem", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9317653775215149, "token_count": 972, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "knowledge is from the heart as well as the mind. It is not a mere\nmental perception of the forms of things or a knowledge of their\nmaterial nature; it must include the soul of things, the divine ideas\nthat they enshrine.\nEverything is dependent on the small things: relaxation - you\nalways relax more; acceptance, oneself and others - can always try;\nhouse-cleaning - will always be just as difficult, but at least you\nhave done it before. It is important to do all these little things\nQuestion: - How can we discern\nwhether it is the divine conscience animating us and directing us in a\ncertain direction, or the\nanimal soul seeking release from seemingly unfavorable environments:\nAnswer: - The divine conscience acts in all struggles for betterment, but clouded more or less in each by reason of education and habit of thought; hence it varies in brightness. It is not possible to make a hard-and-fast fixed rule for finding out what is the animating motive. If we are trying to get into a better state, it is for us to decide if that be simply and wholly selfish. All actions are surrounded by desire as the rust is round the polished metal or the smoke round the fire, but we must try. So if we fix for ourselves the rule that we will try to do the best we can for others, we will generally be led right. If we rely on the higher self and aspire to be guided by it, we will be led to the right even if the road goes through pain, for sorrow and pain are necessary for purification of the soul. But if we wish to run away from an environment because we do not like it and without trying to live in it while not of it, we are not altering ourselves but simply altering the circumstances, and may not always gain anything.\nQuestioner: What is your attitude to the early teachings of Theosophy, the Blavatsky type? Do you consider we have deteriorated or advanced?\nKRISHNAMURTI: I am afraid I do not know, because I do not know what Madame Blavatsky's teachings are. Why should I? Why should you know of someone else's teachings? You know, there is only one truth, and therefore there is only one way, which is not distant from the truth; there is only one method to that truth, because the means are not distinct from the end.\nNow you who have studied Madame Blavatsky's and the latest Theosophy, or whatever it is, why do you want to be students of books instead of students of life? Why do you set up leaders and ask whose teachings are better? Don't you see? Please, I am not being harsh, or anything of that kind. Don't you see? You are Christians; find out what is true and false in Christianity\u2014and you will then find out what is true. Find out what is true and false in your environment with all its oppressions and cruelties, and then you will find out what is true. Why do you want philosophies? Because life is an ugly thing, and you hope to run away from it through philosophy. Life is so empty, dull, stupid, ignominious, and you want something to bring romanticism into your world, some hope, some lingering, haunting feeling; whereas, if you really faced the world as it is, and tackled it, you would find it something much more, infinitely greater than any philosophy, greater than any book in the world, greater than any teaching or greater than any teacher.\nWe have really lost all sense of feeling, feeling for the oppressed, and feeling for the oppressor. You only feel when you are oppressed. So gradually we have intellectually explained away all our feelings, our sensitiveness, our delicate perceptions, until we are absolutely shallow; and to fill that shallowness, to enrich ourselves, we study books.\nThe Theosophical Society has had three objects for more than a century. They are:\nOf these three objects the first has been considered the most important, at least since the time H.P. Blavatsky and H.S. Olcott arrived in India in 1879. Strangely enough the 'mission-statement' of the Theosophical Society in Wheaton (Adyar) rephrases the above, but leaves brotherhood out. It is as follows:\nTo encourage open-minded enquiry into world religions, philosophy, science, and the arts in order to understand the wisdom of the ages, respect the unity of all life, and help people explore spiritual self-transformation.\nA mission statement is merely another word for aim or object. So one would expect the three objects of the Theosophical Society to agree precisely with the mission-statement. One would also expect the wording of the mission-statement to be more modern. In that vein it would have been a nice challenge if the board of directors of the US-section of the TS had found a new sex-neutral way of saying that people should treat each other well. What else does a 'nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity (etc)' mean? But to leave it all out is really going too far for me, and for several of the people I met in Wheaton this summer. This mission-statement sounds selfish to me. Great: I find an organisation where people will help me with my self-transformation en where my open enquiry into religions, spirituality and science will be supported. Wonderful. And there is no suggestion that I personally need to do anything at all. I don't need to practice loving kindness. I don't need to find tolerance in my heart for those I've learned to despise or ignore. I will perhaps learn to respect the unity of all life in abstract, but there is no need for me to do anything practical at all...\nI'm obviously being cynical. In actual fact the attempt to form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color is work. It means a constant attempt to overcome my conditioning. It means reaching out to people. It means practicing kindness. It means learning to deal with people I may not like. I find it very disappointing that the TS in America has edited this very important attempt out of its 'mission statement' and hope they will change things soon.\nEach summer the American Section of the Theosophical Society (TS) has a gathering that is both business meeting and summer school. Non-members of the TS are not explicitly invited, but in practice nothing is done to discourage them from coming either. The atmosphere of the gathering was both very familiar to me, as strange and new. Familiar, as it was as comfortable talking to these overseas theosophists, as it has always been talking to theosophists here in the Netherlands. Strange as well, as inevitably things are done differently, when there is a different host-country.\nThe opening was a lot former than I'm used to seeing it. 'evening dress optional' says it all, I think. For those who have not been to Olcott for this: evening dress means suits and ties and dresses and in the case of theosophists: saris and Indian dresses in general. First Betty Bland, the national president of the TS in the USA, welcomed us. Then there were prayers from 'all the world's religions', though this is obviously practically impossible there were a lot. The atmosphere of that ceremony was more informal than I saw it in India. It looked like people could just come up and give whatever prayer they wanted. Among the many prayers more than one Christian denomination was represented, as well as Islam, the gayatri mantra and a humanist prayer. The opening ended with greetings from all over the world. I gave greetings from the Netherlands and the International Theosophical Centre at Naarden also in the Netherlands.\nThe business meeting consisted of reports from the various departments. I was surprised to see the work that went into making it literally entertaining. The Quest Bookshop even got a (fake) s\u0165ance on the way in which Annie Besant appeared. This is certainly different from how I'm used to seeing it, but I enjoyed myself anyhow.\nThe theme of the school was 'Theosophy in action'. Radha Burnier, international president, gave most of the lectures. Room had been made for Diana Chapotin's coverage of the Order of Service, John Algeo and Joy Mills. After the main lecture, each morning, there were group discussion that were - as usual - very interesting. In the afternoon there were usually lectures, workshops and meditation classes. To be honest I wasn't impressed with what I saw of the meditation classes. Theosophists don't have a reputation of being very good at meditation and this didn't help any in my book. The morning meditation even reminded me of group hypnosis. A bad sign that confirmed this impression was that several people told me that they had a tendency to fall asleep during the morning-meditation.\nThe lectures were very good. Radha Burnier's opening lecture was about finding balance. She meant finding a balance between the development of buddhi (roughly intuition), thought, emotion and action. If there is insight, don't act on it immediately. Let it germinate, it will express itself naturally in action or words at some point. Spiritual aspiration as well needs to be in harmony. Too much of it leads to ambition, too much tension or waste of energy. Mental balance includes overcoming the duality of thought. This means that likes and dislikes will disappear and we will neither accept nor reject what IS.\nDiana Chapotin, in her lecture about the Theosophical Order of Service (TOS), stressed that theosophists are active in social service in various ways. One of the main ways is individual action. She meant that theosophists all over the world are active in social work through organisations that have nothing to do with theosophy. The second way in which theosophists are active practically in the world is through the activities of local theosophical lodges and sections. The TOS complements all that with very specific projects in area's like education, animal welfare, vegetarianism and help in case of natural disasters like recently Katrina. On an organisational level TOS-groups are led by theosophists, but the volunteers don't have to be members. Though any kind of social work can be taken on, it is necessary that central theosophical values behind the work are communicated regularly to keep the work theosophical. Diana explained that the work of the TOS has grown dramatically recently under her leadership. She can't cope on her own anymore and a reorganisation is necessary.\nJoy Mills gave a public lecture on the vitality of living truth. She stressed the difference between living wisdom and book wisdom. Theosophists always risk not going beyond book wisdom. If we really see the truth, our heart and our whole being will change. That's the power of living truth. In order for that to happen, we need to actually practice truth as we know it (not as we want it to be) in our daily lives. Every experience that broadens our sensitivity, mirrors living truth for us. In modern thought the interconnectedness of everything is becoming quite clear. H.P. Blavatsky actually went one step further: she saw everything as one living being, One Life. The theory of Gaia shows this on the level of the earth, but for Blavatsky it's true of the whole universe. Breath is used as an image of that Oneness.\nRadha's second lecture dealt with a very central theme: growing in wisdom. In this lecture she repeated a theme that threads through her Watchtower pieces in The Theosophist as well: Humanity grows in knowledge, but not in wisdom. The knowledge that has been developed over the past two centuries leads to destruction because there is no knowledge on what is right in the long run. It is relatively easy to develop knowledge. It is very hard to find out what right action is. We don't realise enough that in hurting someone else, we hurt ourselves. Wisdom leads to a peaceful, sensitive world. Knowledge leads to pride and this can only be challenged by becoming aware of the limitations of knowledge. Otherwise knowledge leads to a feeling of separateness. On the other hand it is necessary to learn to think independently and become aware to what extent we are all influenced by others. An example she gave is that the simple life is no longer seen as ideal. Everybody wants to live as is portrayed on television. In all her lectures this week Radha reminded us that our personal problems need to come second. Growth in wisdom means growth in altruism and that means forgetting self. Our personal problems and our joys are both temporary. We make them bigger than they are. Why is suffering such a large problem? The TS was founded to fight prejudice. Prejudice hinders an insight into real problems and can only be dissolved by a feeling of connectedness with all human beings. Our altruism needs to become universal. The Buddha said: it's better to give a little lovingly, than to give a lot without love.\nIt was very impressive to hear the report of theosophists living near the area where Katrina hit. There were slides as accompanying there very personal report. The most important insight I got from that was that storms are normal for the people in this region. Normally people do not leave in case of a storm. Despite that fact, and this has not been stressed enough, this was the most successful evacuation in history. Around 90-95% of the people in the New Orleans region were evacuated. We were told that criminals always stay behind so they can loot. This is part of the pattern. Because this storm did so much more damage than most other storms, everything got bigger than usual.\nJohn Algeo spoke about the most holy mission of theosophy. He started by saying that Blavatsky in her final five years on earth, had left a legacy of five:\nThese three letters were the backbone to Johns two lectures. They give direction to Theosophical work in the world. Blavatsky's last years were tough, but John stressed that out of disaster, blessings often come. Disasters mix things up. Tibetan Buddhism would never have spread to the West as it has, if China hadn't invaded Tibet. In her 1891 letter, Blavatsky mainly spoke of living theosophy, not the teachings. In her first letter she stressed the aim of the Theosophical Society to unite people of all nations and altruism. Organisations are important, but they can't created holiness, health or wholeness. We have to become fully human, that is what the word master signifies: to master ourselves. There can only be harmony in organisations, if opposites are balanced, not through wiping out differences. In his second lecture he returned to the theme of unifying people of all nations. He also pointed out that every wise administration knows that things can't be forced. No rule can open the heart-mind of people. No group is safe from fundamentalism. Theosophists too run this risk, though in real theosophy there can be no dogmas, because it is based on real insight and rational thinking. Real theosophy reflects divine reason, the reason of Buddhi. John closed with Blavatsky's words in the last letter to the American Conventions: to be theosophists, live theosophy.\nIn her next lecture Radha talked about growing in Love. Love is our true being, that aspect of ourselves which is one with every other. Love is beyond words, it's part of Universal Life. It is necessary to feel affection for kids and animals. Continually looking for security, that wish masks a desire for Love. Our world is dark, there is little friendship, little Love. How do we remove the barriers that separate us from our essential nature: Love? To this practical question, Radha's answer is to be more sensitive. We have to feel as others feel, without identifying with their pain. You can't help others by going along with their pain, but you have to know what it is. Right action requires going beyond social custom and convention and being really sensitive. This sensitivity doesn't hinder our happiness. Our real nature isn't just Love, it's also Bliss. But we need to become conscious of other people. Unkind thoughts hurt others, and ultimately ourselves. They are like a hungry wolf that eats up our best tendencies. Annie Besant said that if we can't see God in others, we must be the worst possible atheists. The problem with gossip is that it is superficial. We have to learn to look under the surface, without judgment of any kind. The habit to criticize strengthens the ego. Be a missionary of Love and generosity. Be prepared to give of yourself. Don't just do what is necessary, but actively contribute to the welfare of people in conversation. Every tendency of personality has to disappear. That way of looking teaches us to overcome pettiness. The first step is the last step, because the direction in which we move is of primary importance.\nRadha's final lecture was called 'purification through action'. Real wisdom is in seeing action in non-action and non-action in action. The central question she asked: what is right action? Each of us has to decide that for ourselves. Keep in mind that our energy impacts the world, not just our actions. Everything is interconnected. That's why abstaining from action isn't the same thing as freedom from action. When actions create problems, it's not right action. Right action is necessary, but we have to avoid identifying with it. In everything you do, ask yourself if there is egoism involved. The tricky part is that even that thought is in a way selfish. We need an inner balance that is independent of success or failure. Success and failure are part of the ups and downs of life, but we don't have to inwardly get involved in that. The risk of accomplishment is that one starts thinking: I can do this. That feeling can get in the way of right action. The problem with selfish action is that even if the short-term result seems good, it's never permanent. Radha closed with one of Krishnamurti's insights: actions that are a product of the past, don't work. Action only works if it's the consequence of right insight. This lecture was very insightful, but I missed one aspect that the title does suggest: that sometimes insight follows unselfish action. Right action can help clean the personality. One has to start somewhere.\nThe final session was a question and answer round with Radha Burnier, Joy Mills and John Algeo. The questions had come in through the internet and from the discussion groups. What follows is a selection. Can Muslims become members of the Theosophical Society? Yes, we have Muslim members in Indonesia, India and Pakistan. Radha stressed that Muslim women aren't forced to stay at home in all countries. In many countries they are free. Why do people ignore the Middle Path? The middle path is hard, said Radha, people prefer it easy. It's hard to overcome the tendency to overdo things. A question was asked about loving yourself. Joy Mills answered that it is important to look at yourself objectively. Observe yourself, it is unnecessary to become emotional or judgmental about yourself. Loving yourself means accepting what is, and resolving to change. Radha asks what it means to love yourself. Can you love your shadow? Reality IS, it doesn't need to be loved.\nAs this summary shows, the lectures were very interesting and deep. I really enjoyed myself and met some very good people.", "id": "<urn:uuid:94c05889-67fb-45ec-b0e9-6e5f7d80bc05>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://lucifer7.katinkahesselink.net/i/2006/9.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9737836122512817, "token_count": 4095, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Position your mouse pointer over the image.\n- Click the right mouse button.\n- Select the \"Save Picture As\" or the \"Save Image As\" menu item.\n- Enter the directory and name of the file to create.\nNeed a World file?\nClick the \"World File\" link located above the\nimage on the right to obtain the geographic reference\ncoordinates of the above image. Use your browser's File.SaveAs\nmenu option to save the World File to the same directory where\nyou saved the image. Make sure World File extension is\nIt takes a few\nmoments to construct a single image from the image tiles you\nwere viewing. The repeating \"Your image is being constructed...\"\nmessage will be replaced with your image. Please be patient.\nOnce the image is\ndisplayed, use your web browser's save picture or save image\nfunction to copy your image to a location on your computer\nsystem. On Microsoft Internet Explorer, you can save the image\nby clicking on the image with the right mouse button.\nA pop-up menu will\nbe displayed. Click the \"Save Picture\nAs\" menu item. On FireFox, right-click on the\nimage and select the \"Save Image\nAs\" menu item.\nThe web browser\nwill display a \"Save Picture As\" window. There will be \"File name:\" field\non the bottom of\nthe Save As window. Change the name of the file to your liking\nand click the Save button. Windows\nusers, you should make sure you end your filename with the .jpg . All\nimages downloaded from\nMicrosoft MSR Maps are in the Jpeg image", "id": "<urn:uuid:ac458d88-099d-46dc-94ec-3a58670022d5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://msrmaps.com/map.aspx?t=2&s=14&lon=-114.123029667485&lat=40.1056927135721&w=800&h=600&opt=2&f=Tahoma,Verdana,Arial&fs=8&fc=ffffff99", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7440337538719177, "token_count": 345, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Glasses-free 3D is something available on just a handful of TVs, which manage it only through complicated hardware, and at no small cost.\nStill, the effect is pretty smooth and no more tiresome for the eyes than glasses-assisted technology, from what we've been able to gather.\nThere is one more accomplishment that tech experts are looking for: holographic television, which offers a different perspective at the action, depending on the angle from which one beholds the TV.\nResearchers from the Massachusetts institute of Technology (MIT) claim to have created something of the sort.\nCalled Tensor Display, it uses several layers of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) with a refresh rate of 360 Hz per second.\nThe technique is different from the one used in Nintendo's 3DS\n, which has two layers of LCD screens (the bottom for light and dark bands and the top for the two slightly offset images).\nThe problem with this old method (a century old really) is that the only way so far known for creating multiple perspectives would rely on complicated hardware and algorithms. Hundreds of perspectives would have to be produced in order to suit a moving viewer, and that means that too much info has to be displayed at once.\nEvery frame of the stereo-3D video would need the screen to flicker 10 times, each with a different pattern. Thus, a convincing stereo-3D illusion would need a 1,000 Hz refresh rate.\nMIT's Tensor Display lowers that requirement by using a higher number of LCDs, although it does bring another problem: the pattern calculation becomes more complex. Fortunately, the researcher had a convenient factor to exploit: not all aspects of a scene change with the viewing angle. This reduced the amount of information that needed to be sent to the LCD screens.\nThe end result was a panel that produces stereo-3D images based on calculations similar to those behind CT, X-ray and computed tomography, of all things (they produce 3D images of internal organs).\nThe Media Lab researchers will demo a Tensor Display prototype at Siggraph 2012 (5-9 August), made of three LCD panels. A second model will have two LCDs with a sheet of lenses between them (refract light left and right), primarily for wider viewing angles (50 degrees rather than 20).\nPractical and commercial applications should appear soon, or at least sooner than any alternatives.\n\u201cHolography works, it\u2019s beautiful, nothing can touch its quality. The problem, of course, is that holograms don\u2019t move,\u201d said\nDouglas Lanman, a postdoc at the Media Lab.\n\u201cTo make them move, you need to create a hologram in real time, and to do that, you need little tiny pixels, smaller than anything we can build at large volume at low cost. So the question is, what do we have now? We have LCDs. They are incredibly mature, and they are cheap.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:efffa1be-d968-41f5-b3e7-ddb772865645>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://news.softpedia.com/news/MIT-Creates-New-Glasses-Free-Stereo-3D-TV-Technology-281825.shtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9489791393280029, "token_count": 619, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft is expected to discover its 1,000TH comet this summer.\nThe SOHO spacecraft is a joint effort between NASA and the European Space Agency. It has accounted for approximately one-half of all comet discoveries with computed orbits in the history of astronomy.\n\"Before SOHO was launched, only 16 sun grazing comets had been discovered by space observatories. Based on that experience, who could have predicted SOHO would discover more than 60 times that number, and in only nine years,\" said Dr. Chris St. Cyr. He is senior project scientist for NASA's Living With a Star program at the agency's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. \"This is truly a remarkable achievement!\"\nAbout 85 percent of the comets SOHO discovered belongs to the Kreutz group of sun grazing comets, so named because their orbits take them very close to Earth's star. The Kreutz sun grazers pass within 500,000 miles of the star's visible surface. Mercury, the planet closest to the sun, is about 36 million miles from the solar surface.\nSOHO has also been used to discover three other well-populated comet groups: the Meyer, with at least 55 members; Marsden, with at least 21 members; and the Kracht, with 24 members. These groups are named after the astronomers who suggested the comets are related, because they have similar orbits.\nMany comet discoveries were made by amateurs using SOHO images on the Internet. SOHO comet hunters come from all over the world. The United States, United Kingdom, China, Japan, Taiwan, Russia, Ukraine, France, Germany, and Lithuania are among the many countries whose citizens have used SOHO to chase comets.\nAlmost all of SOHO's comets are discovered using images from its Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph (LASCO) instrument. LASCO is used to observe the faint, multimillion-degree outer atmosphere of the sun, called the corona. A disk in the instrument is used to make an artificial eclipse, blocking direct light from the sun, so the much fainter corona can be seen. Sun grazing comets are discovered when they enter LASCO's field of view as they pass close by the star.\n\"Building coronagraphs like LASCO is still more art than science, because the light we are trying to detect is very faint,\" said Dr. Joe Gurman, U.S. project scientist for SOHO at Goddard. \"Any imperfections in the optics or dust in the instrument will scatter the light, making the images too noisy to be useful. Discovering almost 1,000 comets since SOHO's launch on December 2, 1995 is a testament to the skill of the LASCO team.\"\nSOHO successfully completed its primary mission in April 1998. It has enough fuel to remain on station to keep hunting comets for decades if the LASCO continues to function.\nFor information about SOHO on the Internet, visit:\nExplore further: Long-term warming, short-term variability: Why climate change is still an issue", "id": "<urn:uuid:78cbe1bd-1849-4138-b59a-5521e93122a3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://phys.org/news4969.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9434174299240112, "token_count": 663, "score": 4.0, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "People who struggle to find enough food to eat are poor. The World Bank\u2019s poverty line is an income of less than $1.25 a day. Financial Times readers, who spend more than that amount on their morning newspaper, are in no position to dispute that judgment. In the past two decades, economic growth in China and India has reduced global poverty by an unprecedented amount. That achievement is not diminished because some individuals in both these countries have become very rich. Fundamentally, poverty is about absolute deprivation.Kay observes that there is also a relative definition of poverty:\nUnder the definition that I have proposed on this blog for wealth, poverty would simply be an absence of wealth, or a deficit of valued outcomes.\nThe median income is the level that equal numbers of people are above and below, so that a rise in Sir Martin Sorrell\u2019s bonus does not lead anyone into poverty \u2013 that would confuse poverty and inequality. But the choice of median income as a reference level has a wider significance. It encapsulates the idea that in a rich society, poverty is an enforced inability to participate in the everyday activities of that society. You might therefore be poor if you lack access to antibiotics or Facebook, even though in this respect you are no worse off than the Sun King or John D. Rockefeller, and in other respects considerably better off than most people in the world.\nHowever, to define poverty as social exclusion takes the definition far away from the assessment of income. It is not hard to imagine places in which few, if any, people experience a sense of exclusion. These might include both sophisticated societies with high incomes per head \u2013 towns in Scandinavia \u2013 and simple cultures without access to modern essentials \u2013 rural villages in the developing world. Poverty becomes a cultural and political phenomenon rather than an economic one.\nBut once we define poverty in terms of outcomes beyond simple incomes as measured in currency units, we have indeed entered the territory of culture and politics, and ultimately, what constitutes a life worth living.\nJust as GDP doesn't measure all that matters when it comes to wealth, I am deeply skeptical of efforts to define multi-dimensional metrics of \"poverty\" that integrate different valued outcomes. Statistics are indeed important inputs to policy, and I prefer mine simple and transparent.\nSo let's leave poverty defined in terms of absolute income, as defined by the World Bank and others. If we care about obesity, lack of access to antibiotics or even Facebook -- all perfectly legitimate valued outcomes -- then let's track these outcomes on their merits and based on transparent variables that measure these outcomes. Just don't label these issues \"poverty\" as it will conflate arguments about what it means to be wealthy with efforts to attain whatever valued outcomes we as a society decide to pursue.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b3e96514-e784-44b4-9bdd-92774b612428>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://rogerpielkejr.blogspot.com/2012/06/just-dont-call-it-poverty.html?showComment=1340574487936", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9549145102500916, "token_count": 562, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Technology Review has a writeup on the latest advance in the lab towards an invisibility cloak made of metamaterials, described this week in Science. We've been following this technology since the beginning. The breakthrough is software that lets researchers design materials that are both low-loss and wideband. \"The cloak that the researchers built works with wavelengths of light ranging from about 1 to 18 gigahertz \u2014 a swath as broad as the visible spectrum. No one has yet made a cloaking device that works in the visible spectrum, and those metamaterials that have been fabricated tend to work only with narrow bands of light. But a cloak that made an object invisible to light of only one color would not be of much use. Similarly, a cloaking device can't afford to be lossy: if it lets just a little bit of light reflect off the object it's supposed to cloak, it's no longer effective. The cloak that Smith built is very low loss, successfully rerouting almost all the light that hits it.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:e3c7fcf8-dc52-4cf0-abe7-0f2837fb7923>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://science.slashdot.org/story/09/01/18/2015249/a-step-toward-an-invisibility-cloak/insightful-comments", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9739586114883423, "token_count": 210, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "At NIDA's last Drug Facts Chat Day, Razorfang asked this question:\n\"can you get viruses from drugs?\"\nThe answer to this might surprise you. Although you can't get viruses directly from drugs, using drugs can increase your chances of catching a virus like HIV (the virus that causes AIDS). In fact, behaviors associated with drug abuse are one of the biggest factors in the spread of HIV across the US.\nThat's because drugs can mess up your judgment and lead to bad decisions\u2014bad decisions like unsafe sex. And risky sex can lead to more than pregnancy. It can also lead to becoming infected with HIV or other sexually transmitted viruses.", "id": "<urn:uuid:44248e42-0913-4e31-82b8-00ab86f92227>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://teens.drugabuse.gov/comment/8210", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9632043242454529, "token_count": 134, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Courtesy Iona Knapp\nIona Knapp, right, has been diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment, a potential precursor to Alzheimer's disease. Like 1 in 7 people with Alzheimer's or other dementias, the 65-year-old Lake Monticello, Va., woman lives alone. Her daughter, Sharon Mullen, lives 90 minutes away, in Manassas.\nIona Knapp\u2019s father died of Alzheimer\u2019s disease and her late mother suffered from dementia. Now, the 65-year-old Lake Monticello, Va., woman has been diagnosed herself with mild cognitive impairment, or MCI, and she fears their fate soon may be her own.\nThe trouble is, Knapp lives by herself, which would make her one of 5.4 million people in the U.S. living with Alzheimer\u2019s disease and other dementias -- and one of 800,000 Americans doing it alone, according to a new report issued Thursday by the Alzheimer\u2019s Association.\nThe report, \u201c2012 Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Facts and Figures,\u201d estimates that one in seven people with Alzheimer's or dementia lives alone, and that up to half of those people have no identifiable caregiver. Most are older women with milder impairment.\n\u201cThat\u2019s a huge issue,\u201d said Dr. Kenneth Langa, professor of medicine at the University of Michigan, and an expert on the economics and demographics of Alzheimer\u2019s Disease.\nAs the baby boom generation ages, more and more people diagnosed with Alzheimer\u2019s will be living alone, sometimes because they choose to do so, but also because a spouse has died, or because they have few or no children living nearby, said Langa, who wasn\u2019t involved in the new report.\nThe analysis finds that Alzheimer\u2019s costs the country about $200 billion per year in Medicare, Medicaid, and personal out-of-pocket expenses. As enormous as that cost is, it takes 15.2 million unpaid caregivers, usually family members, to keep it from rising even higher.\nThe personal impact on living alone with Alzheimer\u2019s, dementia, or even MCI like Knapp\u2019s, can be dramatic compared to living with a caregiver. Patients who live alone have a much higher risk of wandering off, suffering bad falls, missing medication and doctor appointments, and exacerbating other medical conditions like heart disease or diabetes. Ultimately that\u2019s not only harmful to those people, but it ratchets up costs, too.\nAs Knapp herself discovered when she served as an unpaid caregiver to her mother, living alone has a host of practical costs and dangers.\nWhen she accompanied her mother to the bank one day, \u201cthe teller said, \u2018Your mother is way overdrawn. She has no money,\u2019\u201d Knapp recalled. \u201cI looked back over the past two years of records, and found my mother had bankrupted herself.\u201d\nNow, she said, \u201cI imagine my own future. I meet with my attorney on Friday. I want to talk to him about all kinds of things I can put in place so my older daughter can step in and take over financially.\u201d\nSuch advanced planning is critical for anybody with Alzheimer\u2019s, but especially for those who live alone, said Angela Geiger, chief strategy officer for the Alzheimer\u2019s Association.\nLegal and logistical considerations like advanced directives, power of attorney designations, and answers about who will be part of the care team must be addressed. None of these decisions is pleasant, Geiger explained, but they must be addressed.\n\u201cYou really want to say, \u2018Here are the two or three triggers for me. I\u2019d like to go to assisted living as soon as possible,\u2019 or, \u2018Do I want to stay in my house as long as possible?' 'Who pays my bills?\u2019\u201d\nWhile Knapp wrestles with those decisions, she\u2019s trying to adapt so she can continue to live by herself, independently, for as long as possible. But it\u2019s a challenge. She writes reminders on a white board. She programs appointments into her smart phone.\nSuch tactics aren\u2019t foolproof, though: This week, she missed a doctor\u2019s appointment.\nKnapp is considering the purchase of an alarm button she can wear to alert emergency services in case she finds herself injured or lost. She\u2019s also thinking of selling her house, and moving into senior housing close to her daughter, Sharon Mullen, whose family lives in Manassas, Va. Transportation will be available there, she hopes, because she\u2019s already growing worried about her own driving. \u201cThere are times now, when I\u2019ll be, like, \u2018Where am I going?\u2019\u201d\nThe Alzheimer\u2019s Association has created an online social network called ALZ Connected, in an effort to provide support, especially for those who find it tough to get out for in-person group support meetings.\nAccording to Langa, barring some miracle of science -- and the science of Alzheimer\u2019s and dementia has been frustrating so far -- the population of Alzheimer\u2019s and dementia sufferers is going to grow significantly over the next decade. And because of America\u2019s changing demographics, more and more of those people will be living alone.\n\u201cTo me that is one of the key issues going forward, from a public policy standpoint,\u201d he said. \u201cWhat will the care-giving resources be?\u201d\nDo you live alone? Do you worry about what you'll do if you have health issues? Tell us on Facebook.\nNew Alzheimer's criteria would change diagnosis for millions\nCancer drug reverses Alzheimer's in mice\nObama increases Alzheimer's research funding", "id": "<urn:uuid:5b21fa17-f991-4edc-bfc0-a6ed528436d1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://usnews.nbcnews.com/alzheimers", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9543272852897644, "token_count": 1218, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "While any kind of dog can attack, some breeds are more prone to attacks than others. In fact, some dogs are more likely than others to kill humans.\nThe Centers of Disease Control estimates that more than 4.7 million people are bitten by dogs every year. Of those, 20 percent require medical attention.\nIn a 15-year study (1979-1994) a total of 239 deaths were reported as a result of injuries from dog attacks in the United States. Through its research, the CDC compiled a list of the dogs most responsible for human fatalities. They are as follows:\nThe study found that most dog-bite-related deaths happened to children. But, according to the CDC there are steps children (and adults) can take cut down the risk of a dog attack from family pets as well as dogs they are not familiar with:\n-Don't approach an unfamiliar dog.\n-If an unfamiliar dog approaches you, stay motionless.\n-Don't run from a dog or scream.\n-If a dog knocks you down, roll into a ball and stay still.\n-Avoid looking directly into a dog's eyes.\n-Leave a dog alone that is sleeping, eating or taking care of puppies.\n-Let a dog see and sniff you before petting it.\n-Don't play with a dog unless there is an adult present.\n-If a dog bites you, tell an adult immediately.\nBut, the CDC's report says most attacks are preventable in three ways:\n1. \"Owner and public education. Dog owners, through proper selection, socialization, training, care, and treatment of a dog, can reduce the likelihood of owning a dog that will eventually bite. Male and unspayed/unneutered dogs are more likely to bite than are female and spayed/neutered dogs.\"\n2. \"Animal control at the community level. Animal-control programs should be supported, and laws for regulating dangerous or vicious dogs should be promulgated and enforced vigorously. For example, in this report, 30% of dog-bite-related deaths resulted from groups of owned dogs that were free roaming off the owner's property.\"\n3. \"Bite reporting. Evaluation of prevention efforts requires improved surveillance for dog bites. Dog bites should be reported as required by local or state ordinances, and reports of such incidents should include information about the circumstances of the bite; ownership, breed, sex, age, spay/neuter status, and history of prior aggression of the animal; and the nature of restraint before the bite incident.\"\nCDC officials did make one important note about its list: The reporting of the breed was subjective. There is no way to determine if the identification of the breed was correct. Also, there is no way to verify if the dog was a purebred or a mixed breed.\nCopyright 2011 Scripps Media, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:da55ad67-a163-461b-9317-72c3b8b457e2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.abc2news.com/dpp/lifestyle/pets/which-dogs-are-most-likely-to-kill-humans%3F", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9530437588691711, "token_count": 609, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Threatened birds of the world: the official source for birds on the IUCN Red List.\nBarcelona: Lynx Edicions, 2000.\nQuarto, laminated boards, 852 pp. colour illustrations, maps.\nThis comprehensive volume documents globally threatened species whether extinct in the wild, critical, endangered or vulnerable and includes notes on identification, range and population, ecology, threats, conservation, targets and references. Also includes listing of lower risk species.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e2bb2a4d-a52f-477d-9b91-bd61560a5466>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.andrewisles.com/all-stock/publication/15236", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7915006279945374, "token_count": 98, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "ASIA NEWS NETWORK\nWE KNOW ASIA BETTER\nPublication Date : 04-09-2012\nWith health and wellness gaining prominence in people\u2019s wish lists, there is now a growing awareness of healthier choices.\nHere are more answers for your myriad of options. Pick a wellness plan that will suit you best.\nPlease explain\u2014what\u2019s all the fuss over over nitrates and nitrites?\nMultiple choice: Which meal would you consider supportive of brain health?\na) Scrambled eggs cooked in butter plus a generous topping of cheese and sour cream\nb) Green salad with lean chicken or turkey ham topped with low-fat Caesar salad dressing.\nA is the healthier meal. For one, eggs are nutritious and are considered brain food.\nVegetables are very good for you; however, we do not know about the toppings. Perhaps the ham is laced with preservatives and additives, including aspartame and nitrite. By itself, nitrite isn\u2019t so bad. But when it is eaten, it can transform into nitrosamine compounds, considered potent cancer-causing chemicals.\nThis occurs when a chemical reaction happens between nitrate (added to food) and amines (found in protein that is present in the body).\nAdded to processed foods, this chemical, also known as sodium nitrite or potassium nitrite, prevents the contamination of foods by controlling the toxin production of clostridium botulinum (which causes botulism). In the US, these chemicals are allowed to be used, setting the limit to one part nitrite to 120 parts per million.\nNitrates for fertilisers are suspected to enter the food and water supply. And this is why proper farming is a big issue.\nNitrite and nitrosamine are linked with increased cancer of the colon, lung, pancreas, liver, etc.\nHow to neutralise nitrite poisoning? Take megadoses of vitamin C and E, beta-carotene and flavonoids.\nVisit your dentist\nHow do I cure bad breath?\nWould you believe that billions of bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites live in our mouths? It\u2019s true. There are over 600 species of bacteria that claim our mouths as their home. An overgrowth of bacteria leads to tooth decay and gum disease. It could, one day, lead to tooth loss. If you are brushing, flossing and gargling regularly, then you shouldn\u2019t have a real problem.\nBut if you don\u2019t, then it\u2019s time to visit your dentist. Dental plaque, a sticky, grainy film that grows on teeth due to the mixture of bacteria with the sugars and starches from the food you eat, causes bad breath. Tartar is the hardened plaque build-up after so much dental neglect.\nBrush or floss twice daily, thrice if you can. Do not sleep without doing your cleansing ritual. Eradicate parasites from your tummy.\nLooking at yourself in the mirror and then smiling is a practice that can get you started on better dental health. Run your tongue over your teeth. If it feels grainy, then it\u2019s time for your dental check-up and cleaning.\nMake it a habit to take two acidophilus (good bacteria) capsules daily.\nConsider digestive enzymes, one to three tablets daily or eat fresh, raw (uncooked) fruits and vegetables.\nJuice fresh veggies/fruits as your morning starter, tonic and cleanser.\nChlorophyll tablets could be taken.\nSteep parsley leaves in hot water and sip as a tea.\nRule out parasites. See your doctor.\nAlternation to steroids\nAre there any legal and natural supplements as an alternative to steroids? I am a professional athlete.\nYes there are. Called branched chain amino acids (BCAA\u2019s), these are compound of leucine, valine and isoleucine. Considered natural anabolic muscle-building supplements, they are a principal source of calories for the human muscle, especially effective during an intense workout.\nBCAAs can also reduce the appetite while producing glycogen which balances insulin secretion.\nMore importantly, it promotes lean muscle mass and distribution.\nSupplements should be taken 30 minutes before a workout.", "id": "<urn:uuid:48afad8f-d635-44ff-ae7f-6e3c50a37916>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.asianewsnet.net/news-35955.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9182509183883667, "token_count": 896, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bolivia: Coca-chewing protest outside US embassy\nIndigenous activists in Bolivia have been holding a mass coca-chewing protest as part of campaign to end an international ban on the practice.\nHundreds of people chewed the leaf outside the US embassy in La Paz and in other cities across the country.\nBolivia wants to amend a UN drugs treaty that bans chewing coca, which is an ancient tradition in the Andes.\nBut the US has said it will veto the amendment because coca is also the raw material for making cocaine.\nThe protesters outside the US embassy also displayed products made from coca, including soft drinks, toothpaste, sweets and ointments.\nThey were supporting a Bolivian government campaign to amend the 1961 UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs to remove language that bans the chewing of coca leaf.\nThe convention stipulates that coca-chewing be eliminated within 25 years of the convention coming into effect in 1964.\nBolivia says that is discriminatory, given that coca use is so deeply rooted in the indigenous culture of the Andes.Eradication\nThe US is opposed to changing the UN convention because it says it would weaken the fight against cocaine production.\nIn a statement, the US embassy said Washington recognised coca-chewing as a \"traditional custom\" of Bolivia's indigenous peoples but could not support the amendment.\n\"The position of the US government in not supporting the amendment is based on the importance of maintaining the integrity of the UN convention, which is an important tool in the fight against drug-trafficking,\" it said.\nThe US is the world's largest consumer of cocaine and has been leading efforts to eradicate coca production in the Andes for decades.\nBolivia is the world's first biggest producer of cocaine after Peru and Colombia, and much of its coca crop is used to make the illegal drug.\nBolivian President Evo Morales has long advocated the recognition of coca as a plant of great medicinal, cultural and religious importance that is distinct from cocaine.\nAs well as being Bolivia's first indigenous head of state, Mr Morales is also a former coca-grower and leader of a coca-growers trade union.\nThe Bolivian amendment would come into effect on 31 January only if there were no objections.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a63f6870-f496-4355-adfd-f3296c1577e5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12292661", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9660392999649048, "token_count": 484, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Visit a Travel Clinic Before Going AbroadEn Espa\u00f1ol (Spanish Version)\nFood and Water-borne Illnesses | Vaccination Requirements | Travel Clinic Services | Post-travel Care\nWith the age of aviation, traveling the world has not only become easier, but it is also an enriching experience. Although some of us may stay within the limits of our national borders, many of us will travel to exotic locales in countries with varying degrees of sanitation and standards of hygiene. The risk of food- or water-borne illnesses, as well as more harmful diseases while on vacation, including malaria and yellow fever, can be a reality of travel. Despite these significant health risks, many will not seek medical advice before a trip. But whether your destination is Cancun or Calcutta, it may be well worth the time to visit a travel health clinic before your departure.\nThe following individuals should seek medical advice before traveling abroad:\n- Infants and young children\n- Those with chronic conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, irritable bowel syndrome, epilepsy, or HIV infection\n- Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy\n- Persons on prescription medications including H-2 blockers and antacids\n- Pregnant women\nWhile these individuals must take extra precautions when traveling, anyone planning a trip overseas should consider seeking medical advice from a travel clinic.\nFood and Water-borne Illnesses\nFood- and water-borne illnesses, such as traveler\u2019s diarrhea, are the most common maladies faced during travel. Contaminated food and water can be sources of infection from Escherichia coli, bacillary dysentery, and hepatitis A\u2014all of which can lead to severe dehydration. In general, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends drinking only bottled water (be sure it is a fresh bottle by checking the seal) and avoiding undercooked or raw foods (especially vegetable and fruits), dairy products, shellfish, or food that has been allowed to cool to room temperature. Based on the country you will be visiting, a travel health clinic can provide you with a complete list of CDC precautions and recommendations along with necessary antibiotics and water sanitation devices.\nDepending on your destination, general health risks can range from the common cold to typhoid fever. The World Health Organization (WHO) cites malaria as one of the most serious risks to international travelers. This potentially fatal disease, transmitted through mosquito bites, occurs in more than 100 countries\u2014many of which are popular destinations, such as Mexico, the Caribbean, India, Egypt, and South Africa. Also of concern are vaccine-preventable hepatitis A and B, both of which can cause liver damage.\nTravel health clinics can provide you with information about the year-round health risks that exist in your destination and alert you about new outbreaks that may arise prior to your time of travel. They will also provide you with the recommended immunizations and antibiotics to safeguard against tropical and other illnesses. Of main concern are the following:\n- Hepatitis A or B\u2014Mexico, Central and South America, Africa, the Middle East, Asia, the Caribbean, eastern and southern Europe\n- Malaria\u2014Asia, Africa, the Middle East, the South Pacific, Mexico, Eastern Europe, Central America, and the Caribbean\n- Traveler\u2019s diarrhea\u2014Latin America, Africa, Asia, and the Middle East\n- Yellow fever\u2014Africa and South America\n- Cholera\u2014Southeast Asia\n- Typhoid\u2014Asia, Africa, Soviet Union\n- Japanese encephalitis\u2014Southeast Asia\nWhile some countries only recommend that visitors get vaccinated before arriving, others require vaccination as a condition of entry, and will inspect health records to verify that the necessary vaccinations have been taken. In these countries, anyone who has not been vaccinated may be quarantined until they have been, or denied entry altogether. A travel health clinic can determine the vaccination requirements for your destination, administer inoculations and provide you with the necessary documentation, such as an International Certificate of Vaccination as well as other travel health records, which can be updated before each trip.\nTravel Clinic Services\nYour destination, length of stay, itinerary, and previous medical history are important factors to consider when seeking travel health advice. The staffs at most travel health clinics consist of physicians and nurse practitioners with specialized degrees in infectious diseases or tropical medicine. They are qualified to develop a travel care plan customized to your individual health needs; administer vaccines and booster shots for polio or measles, mumps, and rubella; and write prescriptions for antibiotics and other medications. It is important to make an appointment 4-6 weeks in advance of your trip. This will give you enough time to begin a malaria vaccine regimen if you need to, and for vaccinations to boost your immune system before your trip.\nIn general, services provided by most travel health clinics include:\n- CDC and WHO information about health risks and recommendations in your area of travel\n- United States State Department travel advisories; consulate information\n- Pre-travel counseling based on destination, length of stay, and medical history, including how to care for chronic conditions while traveling\n- An individualized plan of prevention and treatment, including recommendations for food and water safety, and recommendations for avoiding insect-borne diseases\n- Vaccinations for influenza; hepatitis A and B; yellow fever; typhoid; polio; tetanus/diphtheria; Japanese encephalitis; measles, mumps, and rubella; and rabies\n- Vaccination certificates required by some countries before entry\n- Antibiotics or over-the-counter medications for diarrhea or prescriptions for malaria prevention\n- Permanent medical records listing any present illness as well as medical needs\n- A list of recommended doctors or clinics abroad\n- Information about traveler\u2019s medical insurance, which provides affordable coverage for medical emergencies (also check with your current provider)\n- Tests to determine whether any illnesses were acquired abroad\n- Treatment of any illnesses acquired abroad\nAnother essential aspect of travel clinic services is post-travel care. This is particularly important for those with chronic conditions and anyone experiencing persistent health problems upon their return, including the following:\n- Fever (seek immediate attention if you have traveled to an area where malaria is prevalent)\n- Urinary tract or genital infections\n- Skin disorders\nMany hospitals and medical centers provide travel health services. The following site can provide you with a list of travel health clinics in your area: http://http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention\nUnited States State Department\nWorld Health Organization\nAurora Health Care Travelers Clinic. Staying healthy abroad starts with healthy advice at home. Available at: http://www.aurorahealthcare.org/services/travelclinic/index.asp. Accessed July 2005.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Pre-and post-travel general health recommendations. Health Information for International Travel, 2005-2006. Available at: http://www.2ncid.cdc.gov/travel/yb/utls/ybGet.asp?section=recs&obj=food-drink-risks.htm. Accessed July 2005.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Malaria and Travelers. Available at: www.cdc.gov/malaria/travel/index.htm. Accessed July 2005.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Vaccination Certificate Requirements for Direct Travel from the United States to Other Countries. Available at: www.cdc.gov/travel/vaccinations/cert-requirements2.htm. Accessed July 2005.\nInternal Medicine Doctors for Adults. Health Care Topics: Travel Immunization. Available at: www.doctorsforadults.com/topics/dfa_travel.htm. Accessed July 2005.\nMayoClinic.com. Global travel: Advance planning can prevent illness. Available at: http://www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm:id=HQ00760. Accessed July 2005.\nMedical College of Wisconsin. Health Risks of Travel Range from Unusual to Mundane. Available at: http://healthlink.mcw.edu/article/1031002363.html. Accessed July 2005.\nMedicalNewsService.com. American Society of Travel Agents Urge Healthy Travel for Consumers. Available at: http://www.medicalnewsservice.com/fullstory.cfm?storyID=3029&fback=yes. Accessed July 2005.\nMedical University of South Carolina. Travel Clinic. Available at: http://www.muschealth.com/medical_services/specialty_listing/travelclinic/. Accessed July 2005.\nSee a doctor before you travel. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website. Available at: http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/see-doctor.htm. Created July 31, 2008. Updated January 13, 2011. Accessed August 8, 2011.\nTulane University. Clinic Keeps Travelers Fit. Available at: http://www2.tulane.edu/article_news_details.cfm?ArticleID=5752. Accessed July 2005.\nUMass Memorial Medical Center. Traveler\u2019s Health Services. Available at: http://www.umassmemorial.org/ummhc/hospitals/med_center/services/travelers/index.cfm. Accessed July 2005.\nUniversity of Connecticut Health Center. The International Traveler\u2019s Medical Service. Available at: http://health/uchc.edu/clinicalservices/travel/. Accessed July 2005.\nUniversity of Maryland Medical Center. Travel Medicine. Guide for the Adventurous Traveler. Available at: http://www.umm.edu/travel/guide.htm.AccessedAccessed July 2005.\nUniversity of Texas Health Services. Travel Medicine. Available at: http://www.uth.tmc.edu/uths/travel.html. Accessed July 2005.\nUnited States State Department. Medical Information for Americans Traveling Abroad. Available at: http://travel.state.gov/travel/tips/health/health_1185.html. Accessed July 2005.\nVanderbilt International Travel Clinic. Health Services You\u2019ll Receive After You Return. Available at: http://www.vanderbilttravelclinic.com/services/after.html. Accessed July 2005.\nVanderbilt International Travel Clinic. Health Services You\u2019ll Receive Before you travel. Available at: http://www.vanderbiltclinic.com/services/before.html. Accessed July 2005.\nLast reviewed August 2011 by Brian Randall, MD\nPlease be aware that this information is provided to supplement the care provided by your physician. It is neither intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice. CALL YOUR HEALTHCARE PROVIDER IMMEDIATELY IF YOU THINK YOU MAY HAVE A MEDICAL EMERGENCY. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified health provider prior to starting any new treatment or with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition.", "id": "<urn:uuid:edbef51d-99a0-49d5-9d34-e03973b12633>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bermudahospitals.bm/health-wellness/TherapeuticCenters.asp?chunkiid=95461", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8958825469017029, "token_count": 2304, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Glucose is a type of sugar. It comes from food, and is also created in the liver. Glucose travels through the body in the blood. It moves from the blood to cells with the help of a hormone called insulin. Once glucose is in those cells, it can be used for energy.\nDiabetes is a condition that makes it difficult for the body to use glucose. This causes a buildup of glucose in the blood. It also means the body is not getting enough energy. Type 2 diabetes is one type of diabetes. It is the most common type.\nMedication, lifestyle changes, and monitoring can help control blood glucose levels.\nType 2 diabetes is often caused by a combination of factors. One factor is that your body begins to make less insulin. A second factor is that your body becomes resistant to insulin. This means there is insulin in your body, but your body cannot use it effectively. Insulin resistance is often related to excess body fat.\nThe doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. You will also be asked about your family history. A physical exam will be done.\nDiagnosis is based on the results of blood testing. American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends diagnosis be made if you have one of the following:\nSymptoms of diabetes and a\nrandom blood test\nwith a blood sugar level greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)\n- Fasting blood sugar test\u2014Done after you have not eaten for eight or more hours\u2014Showing blood sugar levels greater than or equal to 126 mg/dL (7 mmol/L) on two different days\n- Glucose tolerance test\u2014Measuring blood sugar two hours after you eat glucose\u2014Showing glucose levels greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)\n- HbA1c level of 6.5% or higher\u2014Indicates poor blood sugar control over the past 2-4 months\nmg/dL = milligrams per deciliter of blood; mmol/L = millimole per liter of blood\nTreatment aims to:\n- Maintain blood sugar at levels as close to normal as possible\n- Prevent or delay complications\n- Control other conditions that you may have, like high blood pressure and high cholesterol\nFood and drinks have a direct effect on your blood glucose level. Eating healthy meals can help you control your blood glucose. It will also help your overall health. Some basic tips include:\nIf you are overweight, weight loss will help your body use insulin better. Talk to your doctor about a healthy weight goal. You and your doctor or dietitian can make a safe meal plan for you.\nThese options may help you lose weight:\nPhysical activity can:\n- Make the body more sensitive to insulin\n- Help you reach and maintain a healthy weight\n- Lower the levels of fat in your blood\nexercise is any activity that increases your heart rate. Resistance training helps build muscle strength. Both types of exercise help to improve\nlong-term glucose control. Regular exercise can also help reduce your risk of heart disease.\nTalk to your doctor about an activity plan. Ask about any precautions you may need to take.\nCertain medicines will help to manage blood glucose levels.\nMedication taken by mouth may include:\n- Metformin\u2014To reduce the amount of glucose made by the body and to make the body more sensitive to insulin\nMedications that encourage the pancreas to make more insulin such as sulfonylureas (glyburide,\ntolazamide), dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors (saxagliptin,\nInsulin sensitizers such as\npioglitazone\u2014To help the body use insulin better\nStarch blockers such as\nmiglitol\u2014To decrease the amount of glucose absorbed into the blood\nSome medicine needs to be given through injections, such as:\nIncretin-mimetics such as\nstimulate the pancreas to produce insulin and decrease appetite (can assist with weight loss)\nAmylin analogs such as\nreplace a protein of the pancreas that is low in people with type 2 diabetes\nInsulin may be needed if:\n- The body does not make enough of its own insulin.\n- Blood glucose levels cannot be controlled with lifestyle changes and medicine.\nInsulin is given through injections.\nBlood Glucose Testing\nYou can check the level of glucose in your blood with a blood glucose meter. Checking your blood glucose levels\nduring the day can help you stay on track. It will also help your doctor determine if your treatment is working. Keeping track of blood sugar levels is especially important if you take insulin.\nRegular testing may not be needed if your diabetes is under control and you don't take insulin. Talk with your doctor before stopping blood sugar monitoring.\nmay also be done at your doctor's office. This is a measure of blood glucose control over a long period of time. Doctors advise that most people keep their HbA1c levels below 7%. Your exact goal may be different. Keeping HbA1c in your goal range can help lower the chance of complications.\nDecreasing Risk of Complications\nOver a long period of time, high blood glucose levels can damage vital organs. The kidneys, eyes, and nerves are most affected. Diabetes can also increase your risk of heart disease.\nMaintaining goal blood glucose levels is the first step to lowering your risk of these complications. Other steps include:\n- Take good care of your feet. Be on the lookout for any sores or irritated areas. Keep your feet dry and clean.\n- Have your eyes checked once a year.\n- Don't smoke. If you do, look for programs or products that can help you quit.\n- Plan medical visits as recommended.", "id": "<urn:uuid:da329173-6e70-42f5-aa09-933ea8352a2f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bidmc.org/YourHealth/ConditionsAZ/Congestiveheartfailure.aspx?ChunkID=11902", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9118043184280396, "token_count": 1210, "score": 3.6875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "First ever direct measurement of the Earth\u2019s rotation\nGeodesists are pinpointing the orientation of the Earth\u2019s axis using the world\u2019s most stable ring laser\nA group with researchers at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) and the Federal Agency for Cartography and Geodesy (BKG) are the first to plot changes in the Earth\u2019s axis through laboratory measurements. To do this, they constructed the world\u2019s most stable ring laser in an underground lab and used it to determine changes in the Earth\u2019s rotation. Previously, scientists were only able to track shifts in the polar axis indirectly by monitoring fixed objects in space. Capturing the tilt of the Earth\u2019s axis and its rotational velocity is crucial for precise positional information on Earth \u2013 and thus for the accurate functioning of modern navigation systems, for instance. The scientists\u2019 work has been recognized an Exceptional Research Spotlight by the American Physical Society.\nThe Earth wobbles. Like a spinning top touched in mid-spin, its rotational axis fluctuates in relation to space. This is partly caused by gravitation from the sun and the moon. At the same time, the Earth\u2019s rotational axis constantly changes relative to the Earth\u2019s surface. On the one hand, this is caused by variation in atmospheric pressure, ocean loading and wind. These elements combine in an effect known as the Chandler wobble to create polar motion. Named after the scientist who discovered it, this phenomenon has a period of around 435 days. On the other hand, an event known as the \u201cannual wobble\u201d causes the rotational axis to move over a period of a year. This is due to the Earth\u2019s elliptical orbit around the sun. These two effects cause the Earth\u2019s axis to migrate irregularly along a circular path with a radius of up to six meters.\nCapturing these movements is crucial to create a reliable coordinate system that can feed navigation systems or project trajectory paths in space travel. \u201cLocating a point to the exact centimeter for global positioning is an extremely dynamic process \u2013 after all, at our latitude, we are moving at around 350 meters to the east per second,\u201d explains Prof. Karl Ulrich Schreiber, meanwhile as station director of the geodetic observatory Wettzell where the ring laser is settled. Karl Ulrich Schreiber had directed the project in TUM\u2019s Research Section Satellite Geodesy. The geodetic observatory Wettzell is run together by TUM and BKG.\nThe researchers have succeeded in corroborating the Chandler and annual wobble measurements based on the data captured by radio telescopes. They now aim to make the apparatus more accurate, enabling them to determine changes in the Earth\u2019s rotational axis over a single day. The scientists also plan to make the ring laser capable of continuous operation so that it can run for a period of years without any deviations. \u201cIn simple terms,\u201d concludes Schreiber, \u201cin future, we want to be able to just pop down into the basement and find out how fast the Earth is accurately turning right now.\"\nFor more information please visit the TU M\u00fcnchen homepage http://portal.mytum.de/pressestelle/pressemitteilungen/NewsArticle_20111220_100621/newsarticle_view?.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d4281798-7278-4727-a736-be4cecc072f8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bkg.bund.de/nn_149566/sid_0F335650A0F77C3C47FE83A10BEB41EC/nsc_true/EN/News/01News/N2011/2011__12__27ring-laser.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9092651009559631, "token_count": 710, "score": 3.921875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A common virus that affects 50-70% of adults. If a woman acquires cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection during pregnancy, there is about a 15% chance that her infant will have infection and serious complications. Women who have had CMV infection and who are considering breastfeeding their prematurely born infant should check first with their child's doctor since there is a risk of transmitting the virus to the infant through breast milk. Prematurely born infants may not be able to fight off the CMV infection as do infants born at term. CMV infection is usually a mild infection in adults. Infants born to women who have had CMV long before they became pregnant are at low risk of having an infant with serious CMV infection.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2f752b52-9aba-4aab-b8c0-9d6efd875aa8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.childrensmn.org/Manuals/Glossary/A/025679.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9865432381629944, "token_count": 150, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "the National Science Foundation\nAvailable Languages: English, Spanish\nThis classroom-tested learning module gives a condensed, easily-understood view of the development of atomic theory from the late 19th through early 20th century. The key idea was the discovery that the atom is not an \"indivisible\" particle, but consists of smaller constituents: the proton, neutron, and electron. It discusses the contributions of John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and James Chadwick, whose experiments revolutionized the world view of atomic structure. See Related Materials for a link to Part 2 of this series.\natomic structure, cathode ray experiment, electron, helium atom, history of atom, history of the atom, hydrogen atom, neutron, proton\nMetadata instance created\nJuly 12, 2011\nby Caroline Hall\nOctober 10, 2012\nby Caroline Hall\nLast Update when Cataloged:\nJanuary 1, 2006\nAAAS Benchmark Alignments (2008 Version)\n4. The Physical Setting\n4D. The Structure of Matter\n6-8: 4D/M1a. All matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope.\n9-12: 4D/H1. Atoms are made of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons. The nucleus is a tiny fraction of the volume of an atom but makes up almost all of its mass. The nucleus is composed of protons and neutrons which have roughly the same mass but differ in that protons are positively charged while neutrons have no electric charge.\n9-12: 4D/H2. The number of protons in the nucleus determines what an atom's electron configuration can be and so defines the element. An atom's electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. Atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons.\n10. Historical Perspectives\n10F. Understanding Fire\n9-12: 10F/H1. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, the idea of atoms reemerged in response to questions about the structure of matter, the nature of fire, and the basis of chemical phenomena.\n9-12: 10F/H3. In the early 1800s, British chemist and physicist John Dalton united the concepts of atoms and elements. He proposed two ideas that laid the groundwork for modern chemistry: first, that elements are formed from small, indivisible particles called atoms, which are identical for a given element but different from any other element; and second, that chemical compounds are formed from atoms by combining a definite number of each type of atom to form one molecule of the compound.\n9-12: 10F/H4. Dalton figured out how the relative weights of the atoms could be determined experimentally. His idea that every substance had a unique atomic composition provided an explanation for why substances were made up of elements in specific proportions.\nThis resource is part of a Physics Front Topical Unit.\nTopic: Particles and Interactions and the Standard Model Unit Title: History and Discovery\nThis classroom-tested learning module gives a condensed, easily-understood view of the development of atomic theory from the late 19th through early 20th century. The key idea was the discovery that the atom is not an \"indivisible\" particle, but consists of smaller constituents: the proton, neutron, and electron. It discusses the contributions of John Dalton, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and James Chadwick, whose experiments revolutionized the world view of atomic structure.\n%0 Electronic Source %A Carpi, Anthony %D January 1, 2006 %T Visionlearning: Atomic Theory I %I Visionlearning %V 2013 %N 21 May 2013 %8 January 1, 2006 %9 text/html %U http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=50&l=\nDisclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e5d364b6-d557-47e6-b078-62ea4b57c2d1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.compadre.org/precollege/items/detail.cfm?ID=11307", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8961477279663086, "token_count": 860, "score": 3.4375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Questions Relating To The Future Of Humankind\nBy Jason G. Brent\n24 October, 2011\nWE HAVE COME A LONG WAY FROM THE NUCLEAR BOMBS DROPPED ON JAPAN IN 1945--20,000 TONS TNT EQUIVILENT--- TO NUCLEAR DEVICES WHICH PRODUCE OVER 57,000,000 TONS TNT EQUIVILENT.\n1. After many years of thinking and research I could come up only with three ways by which the growth of the human population can be reduced to zero or made negative, if that were necessary for the survival of our species.\na) By war, with or without weapons of mass destruction, starvation, disease, ethnic cleansing, rape, mutilation, and other horrors. This most likely would occur as humanity got close to the carrying capacity of the earth and almost certainly would occur after humankind reached or exceeded the earth's carrying capacity.\nb) By the voluntary action of all of humanity. This most likely would occur prior to reaching the carrying capacity of the Earth. Of course, this also could happen after humanity reached or exceeded the carrying capacity of the Earth and be used to reduce the human population to the carrying capacity of the Earth without violence---provided the horrors in (a) above have not commenced. This action would include education of women, raising their standard of living, modifying the culture of many societies, increasing the standard of living of all of humanity, and many other actions of a similar nature. Voluntary action includes any and all non-violent steps humankind could take to reduce population growth to zero or make it negative except coercive action.\nc) By the coercive action of society limiting the number of children a person or a couple could produce. This most likely would occur prior to reaching the carrying capacity of the Earth. Of course, it could also be used to reduce human population to the carrying capacity of the Earth after humanity has exceeded the carrying capacity of the Earth, provided the horrors in (a) above have not commenced.\nThere isn't a single accepted definition of \"carrying capacity\". For the purposes of this essay I will define \"carrying capacity\" as the number of human beings combined with the average per capita usage of resources which will permit that number of human beings to exist and survive on this planet for a minimum of 1000 years. An alternative definition of \"carrying capacity\" is the number of human beings combined with the average per capita usage of resources which if exceeded even for a short period of time will result in the inability of the Earth provide the resources necessary for civilization to continue causing a rapid and horrendous decline in the human population. While no one knows what the carrying capacity of the Earth may be, it cannot be infinite-- it must be finite. No matter how much the average per capita usage of resources is reduced the Earth could not support 1 trillion human beings. Similarly, if the per capita usage of resources were increased such that each human being used 30 times the amount of resources used by the average American is highly unlikely that the Earth could support 1 billion human beings.\nAt present human population is growing. It is highly likely that the average per capita usage of resources will continue to increase due to the rapidly growing economies of India and China and the growing economies of many of the other nations of the world. Therefore, a very strong case can be made that humanity will shortly exceed the carrying capacity of the Earth, if humanity already has not exceeded that capacity. If humanity exceeds the carrying capacity and takes no immediate action to reduce the population and/or the usage of resources to reduce it's impact on the planet below carrying capacity, then humans will enter into a violent competitions for the resources necessary to survive and the horrors set forth in 1(a) will occur. In simple terms, it will be each and every man/group/religion/nation/culture against every other man/group/religion/nation/culture in order to obtain resources which the Earth can provide so that the individual survives-- pure violent Darwinism. Billions will die and die horribly and more importantly the catastrophe will use up and/or destroy any remaining resources such that civilization will be unable to restart forever or at least for thousands of years\n2. Does society, no matter how defined, have a right to limit the number of children a person produces by coercion or is the right to determine how many children a person produces absolute and society has no right to interfere with that decision? In considering this question limit yourself to the right I have set forth above and do not consider how that right could or would be enforced and whether enforcing that right would be harmful or beneficial to society. Those questions and any and all others would have to be considered, evaluated and discussed only if the right to limit the number of children a person produces by coercion exists in society. As far as I have been able to determine after doing many years of research I could not find a single human right that was not subject to control or modification by society. Even the right to life is not absolute-- many nations and cultures take away right to life when a person has committed certain types of murder. The right walk the streets as a free person is not an absolute right-- almost every nation or culture takes away that right and places a person in prison when a serious/heinous crime has been committed. Your reasons for your answer are requested.\n3. While United Nations issues about eight different projections of the future human population, the most quoted and accepted projection is the \"medium\" projection. The most recent medium projection/estimation/prediction/prognostication (use whatever word you desire) issued by the UN predicts that the human population will exceed 10 billion and still be growing by the year 2100. Do you agree with that prediction after giving due consideration to the rate by which humanity is using the limited finite nonrenewable resources of our planet and the rate our species is using resources normally considered renewable? Do you agree with that prediction after giving consideration to the projected increase in per capita usage of resources by the nations of the world and in particular by the ever increasing per capita usage of resources of China and India? You may want to review the work of Lester Brown of the Earth Policy Institute as to the future usage of resources by China. Do you believe that the carrying capacity of the Earth, no matter how defined, is substantially less than 10 billion of our species and that the continued population growth will result in the collapse of society/the social order/civilization and the horrors set forth in paragraph 1 (a) above will happen prior to the year 2100? You may want to consult the works of William Catton, Richard Heinberg, Chris Clugston, David Pimental, James Lovelock and many others. Clugston's work can be viewed free of charge on his web site www.wakeupamerika.com (it is spelled with a 'k\" and not a \"c\")-- pay particular attention to his book \"Scarcity\". The reasons for your answers to these questions would be most appreciated.\nSince no rational person would want to control population growth by the horrors set forth in paragraph 1(a) above, there are in reality only two ways to control population growth/reduce population growth to zero/make it negative. No one can present a logically and factually supported case that the voluntary action (as defined in paragraph 1 above) of humanity will reduce population growth to zero prior to the commencement of the horrors described in paragraph 1(a) with absolute certainty. In other words, there is some level of probability that if humanity were to limit itself to voluntary action to control population growth that action will fail and humanity will exceed the carrying capacity of the Earth such that the horrors described in paragraph 1(a) would occur. No one knows what is the chance of success or what is the chance of failure of voluntary action-- no one knows if the chance of success is 70% and the chance of failure is 30% or 80/20 or 60/40 or 50/50 or any other combination of numbers. However, there is a chance of failure and failure will lead to the collapse of society/the collapse of the social order/the destruction of civilization and to the horrors described in paragraph 1(a).\nMore importantly, there is a vastly greater chance of failure of voluntary action if population growth not only has to be reduced to zero but made negative to substantially reduce the human population from the current 7 billion or from the future 10 billion (year 2100) to a much lower number in order for our species to survive for a reasonable period of time. A number of experts (whatever the word \"expert\" means) ( David Pimental of Cornell University and James Lovelock of Gaia fame, for example) have presented factually and logically supported cases that the Earth's carrying capacity is 2 billion or less of our species. Humanity ignores at its peril the work of these experts. If the chance of success/failure is one set of numbers for voluntary action relating to reducing population growth zero, then there is a second set of numbers for success/failure in which the success side of the equation is substantially reduced and failure side of the equation is substantially increased in considering voluntary action in relation to population reduction.\nSince chance of failure of voluntary action could result in the horrific deaths of billions, perhaps as many as 9.6 billion--(10.1 billion alive in 2100 less the possible carrying capacity of 0.5 billion = reduction of 9.6 billion),the question becomes---- what level of possible failure of voluntary action is acceptable to humankind? Of course, the number of horrific deaths could be substantially less than 9.6 billion. However, since no one can guarantee with 100% certainty that the voluntary action will not prevent a substantial number of horrific deaths, the leaders of humanity have a duty to convene one or more conferences of the best minds presently on our planet to evaluate and consider coercive population control. It cannot be denied that many arguments can be made against coercive population control--- the experiment in India a number of years ago was a failure, humanity could equate coercive population control with the actions of Adolph Hitler or racists, it will take as long to impose coercive control as to make voluntary action successful and many others.\nCoercive population control need not be discriminatory. If each couple in the entire world were limited to one child, no religion, group, nationality, race, culture, etc., would benefit at the expense of any other religion, group, nationality, race or culture.\nThis essay is not intended discuss or debate the advantages/disadvantages, or the problems/benefits of coercive population control. Rather, the purpose of this essay is to show that humanity must consider and evaluate coercive population control because there is a substantial, but undefined, risk that voluntary action will lead to the horrific deaths of a substantial number of human beings in the very near future----probably before the year 2050 and almost certainly before the year 2100.\nJason G. Brent email@example.com\nComments are not moderated. Please be responsible and civil in your postings and stay within the topic discussed in the article too. If you find inappropriate comments, just Flag (Report) them and they will move into moderation que.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ce07bc9-b917-4f76-92c8-dedc32b62fed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.countercurrents.org/brent241011.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9432213306427002, "token_count": 2299, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Micro vs Macro\nMicro and macro are prefixes that are used before words to make them small or big respectively. This is true with micro and macroeconomics, micro and macro evolution, microorganism, micro lens and macro lens, micro finance and macro finance, and so on. The list of words that makes use of these prefixes is long and exhaustive. Many people confuse between micro and macro despite knowing that these prefixes signify small and large respectively. This article takes a closer look at the two prefixes to find out their differences.\nTo understand the difference between micro and macro, let us take up the example of micro and macro evolution. To signify evolution that takes place within a single species, the word microevolution is used whereas evolution that transcends the boundaries of species and takes place on a very large scale is termed as macroevolution. Though the principles of evolution such as genetics, mutation, natural selection, and migration remain the same across microevolution as well as macro evolution, this distinction between microevolution and macroevolution is a great way to explain this natural phenomenon.\nAnother field of study that makes use of micro and macro is economics. While the study of the overall economy and how it works is called macroeconomics, microeconomics focuses on the individual person, company, or industry. Thus, the study of GDP, employment, inflation etc. in an economy is classified under macroeconomics. Microeconomics is the study of forces of demand and supply inside a particular industry effecting the goods and services. So it is macroeconomics when economists choose to concentrate upon the state of the economy in a nation whereas the study of a single market or industry remains within the realms of microeconomics.\nThere is also the study of finance where these two prefixes are commonly used. Thus, we have microfinance where the focus is upon the monetary needs and requirements of a single individual where there is also macro finance where financing by the banks or other financial institutions is of very large nature.\nMicro and macro are derived from Greek language where micro means small and macro refers to large. These prefixes are used in many fields of study such as finance, economics, evolution etc. where we have words like micro finance and macro finance, micro evolution and macro evolution etc. Studying something at a small level is micro while studying it on a large scale is macro analysis. Financing the needs of an individual may be micro financing whereas the financial needs of a builder requiring money for a very large infrastructural project may be referred to as macro finance.", "id": "<urn:uuid:837ed974-3d4d-4f45-9652-e4dbceee85e2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-micro-and-vs-macro/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.941696047782898, "token_count": 524, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\u2014 Copyright Dorothy Sloan 2013 \u2014\nEarly Railroad Map of Missouri & Eastern Kansas\nVery Rare Pocket Map\n389. [MAP]. WELLS, J[ohn] G[aylord]. Wells\u2019 New Rail Road and Township Map of Missouri and Eastern Kansas from the Latest Government Surveys. J.G. Wells, 11 Beekman St. New York. 1857. Scale of Miles... Explanation [with symbols] State Capital. County Towns. Rail Roads. Proposed Rail Roads. [pictorial seal] Great Seal of the State of Missouri [below lower neat line at left] Lith. V. Keil 181 William St. N.Y. [centered below lower ornamental border] Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by J.G. Wells, in the Clerk\u2019s Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New York. New York, 1857. Lithograph map of Eastern Kansas, all of Missouri, and parts of Indian Territory, Nebraska, Iowa, Arkansas, and Illinois, printed on bank note paper, full hand coloring, borders in bright rose pink, ornate border of grapes, grape leaves, Native American portrait in oval at each corner; neat line to neat line: 42.8 x 63 cm; border to border: 51 x 71 cm; overall sheet size: 60 x 79 cm; folded into original green embossed cloth (14.7 x 9.5 cm), title lettered in gilt on upper cover (Wells\u2019 New Map of Missouri and Eastern Kansas), printed yellow endpaper affixed to inside upper cover (Wells\u2019 List of New Publications). Mild age toning to map, a few stains at top left, clean splits at a few folds (no losses), overall a fine copy with brilliant color. Uncommon (one copy of the 1858 edition located by OCLC, University of Virginia at Charlottesville).\nFirst edition. Not in Modelski\u2019s railroad bibliographies, or other standard sources. Railroads began to be important in the region in the late 1850s, but ironically, the only railroad shown on this map is the Pacific Railroad Line between St. Louis (\u201cThe Gateway to the West\u201d) and Jefferson City, with shorter trunk lines to the north and south of St. Louis. Slowly the emigrant and other trails were being replaced by railroad tracks. On the other hand, several proposed lines are indicated, such as one from Jefferson City to Kansas City, and another from Keosauqua, Iowa, to Kansas City. Tooley lists cartographer J.G. Wells (1821-1880) but notes only one map (Ohio) by him. Other located publications indicate that he was active principally in 1857. Circa 1856, Wells published a map of Kansas and Nebraska. In 1857 Wells published an extraordinary amount of material, such as pocket guides for Iowa (Howes W250), Nebraska (Howes W251), and popular guides, such as Wells\u2019 National Hand-Book, and even a book on how to be your own attorney. Other maps by Wells in 1857 include New Sectional Map of Minnesota (1857); New Sectional Map of Kansas (1857); Kansas and Nebraska (1857); New Sectional Map of Nebraska (sold at our Auction 20 in 2007 @ $8,225). He also published an undated panoramic map of the Civil War in the 1860s (one copy located at University of Virginia at Charlottesville). The list of Wells\u2019 forty publications on the front pastedown is impressive. The mysterious Wells\u2019 cartographic output was short-lived and vigorous, and all his maps are very rare.\nDSRB Home | e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.org", "id": "<urn:uuid:7b93de28-e698-4499-90cf-bb90fe483356>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dsloan.com/Auctions/A23/item-map-wells-missouri-1857.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9254819750785828, "token_count": 781, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Smart Student's Handbook provides information to motivate and guide students on the path to a successful academic career. It will also help parents and organizations that are sponsoring students to monitor their educational performance.\nAuthor Leevon Washington Phillips's unique scholastic guide is filled with valuable information to help students get and stay organized, such as:\n- Goals for individual terms and the year as a whole\n- Study, assignment, and examination tips\n- Assignment and performance tracking forms\n- Class and study timetables\n- A monthly planner/journal\nBy helping students to better organize their studies, The Smart Student's Handbook inspires students to succeed in their academic pursuits, provides a means of assessing performance, and identifies areas that need improvement.", "id": "<urn:uuid:24255169-51bf-43ab-a750-94bad62e0b57>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ebookmall.com/ebook/the-smart-student-s-handbook/leevon-phillips/9780595376575", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9398625493049622, "token_count": 147, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fast Food Tied to Asthma, Eczema and Hay Fever in Kids\nMONDAY, Jan. 14 (HealthDay News) -- Kids who eat fast food three or more times a week are likely to have more severe allergic reactions, a large new international study suggests.\nThese include bouts of asthma, eczema and hay fever (rhinitis). And although the study doesn't prove that those burgers, chicken snacks and fries cause these problems, the evidence of an association is compelling, researchers say.\n\"The study adds to a growing body of evidence of the possible harms of fast foods,\" said study co-author Hywel Williams, a professor of dermato-epidemiology at the University of Nottingham, in England.\n\"Whether the evidence we have found is strong enough to recommend a reduction of fast food intake for those with allergies is a matter of debate,\" he added.\nThese finding are important, Williams said, because this is the largest study to date on allergies in young people across the world and the findings are remarkably consistent globally for both boys and girls and regardless of family income.\n\"If true, the findings have big public health implications given that these allergic disorders appear to be on the increase and because fast food is so popular,\" he said.\nHowever, Williams cautioned that fast food might not be causing these problems. \"It could be due to other factors linked to behavior that we have not measured, or it could be due to biases that occur in studies that measure disease and ask about previous food intake,\" he said.\nIn addition, this association between fast foods and severe allergies does not necessarily mean that eating less fast food will reduce the severity of disease of asthma, hay fever or eczema (an itchy skin disorder), Williams said.\nThe report was published in the Jan. 14 online issue of Thorax.\nWilliams and colleagues collected data on more than 319,000 teens aged 13 and 14 from 51 countries and more than 181,000 kids aged 6 and 7 from 31 countries. All of the children were part of a single study on child asthma and allergies.\nKids and their parents were asked about whether they suffered from asthma or runny or blocked nose along with itchy and watery eyes and eczema. Participants also described in detail what they ate during the week.\nFast food was linked to those conditions in both older and younger children.\nConsuming three or more weekly fast food meals was associated with a 39 percent increased risk of severe asthma among teens And three such meals for younger children was associated with a 27 percent increased risk of severe asthma, as well higher risk of rhinitis and eczema.\nFruit, however, appeared to reduce the incidence and severity of these conditions for all the children, and for incidence and severity of wheeze and rhinitis among the teens.\nAccording to Williams, three or more weekly servings of fruit reduced the severity of symptoms 11 percent among the teens and 14 percent among the children.\nWhen looked at closely, the data among children was not as convincing as among teens. However, fast food meals were still associated with symptoms except for current eczema, and in poorer countries, except for current and severe asthma.\n\"Eating fast food is not healthy for a multitude of reasons,\" said Samantha Heller, an exercise physiologist and clinical nutrition coordinator at the Center for Cancer Care at Griffin Hospital in Derby, Conn.\nIt's notorious for being high in sodium, saturated fat, trans fats and refined and processed carbohydrates, and low in essential healthy nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, healthy unsaturated fats and fiber, she said.\n\"I cannot imagine any parent would choose the convenience of fast food over their child's health if they fully understood how deleterious a diet of fast and junk food is to children,\" Heller added.\nHealthy compounds like vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and healthy fats are essential players in whole-body immunity. Kids eating fast food regularly are subject not only to the disease-promoting and inflammatory effects of trans and saturated fats, excess sodium and refined carbohydrates but also likely to suffer from deficiencies of essential health-promoting compounds, Heller said.\n\"This can lead to chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, behavior problems, and as this study suggests, possibly asthma, eczema and colds,\" she said.\nEating at home more often not only saves money but also keeps families healthier, Heller said.\n\"For example, you can make healthy fast-food dishes in your own kitchen, such as black bean veggie burgers on whole-wheat buns with tomato and avocado, mashed potatoes with low-fat milk and olive oil or roasted sweet potato fries,\" she suggested.\nFor more about healthy eating for children, visit the Nemours Foundation.\nSOURCES: Hywel Williams, Ph.D., professor of dermato-epidemiology, University of Nottingham, U.K.; Samantha Heller, M.S., R.D., exercise physiologist and clinical nutrition coordinator, Center for Cancer Care, Griffin Hospital, Derby, Conn.; Jan. 14, 2013, Thorax, online", "id": "<urn:uuid:a8ce4f8e-c062-43bf-83ca-a02e25f36188>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.harperhutzel.org/taxonomy/relateddocuments.aspx?id=0&ContentTypeId=6&ContentID=672480", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9665424227714539, "token_count": 1057, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Leaf Characteristics (PK1) This set introduces simple vocabulary to describe the physical features of 40 North American tree, garden, and house plant leaves. First - The child sorts 9 leaf characteristics cards (3\" x 4\") onto 3 control cards (10-3/8\u201d x 5\u00bc\u201d) that identify characteristics of Leaf Types, Leaf Veins, and Leaf Margins. Second - After learning the 9 characteristics of leaves, it is time to describe the 3 characteristics of just one leaf. A leaf card is selected from the 40 leaf cards provided (3\" x 4\"). The child selects the 3 characteristics cards (type, venation, margin) that describe that leaf, and places them on the blank Leaf Identification card (10-3/8\u201d x 5\u00bc\u201d). Real leaves can be used in this exercise as well. Background information is included for the teacher.\nLeaves (PK1C) This set consists of 40 DUPLICATE leaf cards (80 cards total). One group of 20 cards illustrates familiar leaves such as dandelion, marigold, and ivy. The second group illustrates common North American tree leaves such as oak, maple, and cottonwood. These are the same leaf cards found in In-Print for Children's \u201cLeaf Characteristics\u201d activity.\nFlowers (FL1) This set is designed to help children recognize and to name 20 common flowers, many of which are commercially available throughout the year. This duplicate set of picture cards can be used in simple matching exercises, or in 3-part matching activities if one set is cut apart. The 40 photocards (3\u00bc\u201d x 4\") are in full-color and laminated. Flower background information is included for the teacher.\nNuts (PK3) Nuts are nourishing snacks and learning how they grow will make eating them all the more fun! This set of 22 two-color cards (5\u00bd\u201d x 3\u00bd\u201d) of plant and nut illustrations represents eleven edible nuts/seeds. The child pairs the illustration cards of the nuts in their growing stage to the cards of the nuts in and out of their shells. Make the activity even more successful by bringing the real nuts into the classroom.\nKitchen Herbs & Spices (PK5) This set help children to learn about 20 plants that give us herbs and spices. The delicately drawn, 2-color illustrations clearly show the parts of the plants that give us edible leaves, seeds, stems, bark, bulbs, and berries. Create an aromatic and tasty exercise by having the children pair real herbs and spices with these cards (4\u00bd\u201d x 6\u00bc\u201d).\nPlants We Eat (PK9) Learn more about food plants and their different edible parts. This set classifies 18 plant foods into six groups: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. A duplicate set of 18 labeled picture/definition cards (6\" x 6\") shows plants in their growing stage with only their \u201cfood\u201d portion in color. One set of picture/ definition cards is spiral bound into 6 control booklets that include definitions of the root, stem, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed. The other set of picture/ definition cards are to be cut apart for 2 or 3-part matching exercises. Plant description cards can be used for \u201cWho am I?\u201d games with our plant picture cards or with real foods. Both cards and booklets are laminated.\nPlants We Eat Replicards (PK9w) Six replicards are photocopied to produce worksheets for an extension exercise using our set Plants We Eat (PK9). Children color and label the worksheets, which illustrate three plant examples for each of the following groups: roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds. The Plants We Eat booklets serve as controls. After worksheets (8\u00bd\u201d x 11\") are colored and labeled, they can be cut apart, stapled together, and made into six take-home booklets. These booklets may generate lively family dinner-table discussions: \u201cA potato is a what?\u201d\nPlants - Who am I? (WP) This beginning activity for lower elementary strengthens both reading and listening skills, and provides children with simple facts about 10 plants. The set consists of duplicate, labeled picture cards with descriptive text and features plants different from those in the First Knowledge: Plant Stories (see below). The set of cards with text ending in \u201cWho am I?\u201d is cut apart into 10 picture cards, 10 plant name cards, and 10 text cards. The other set is left whole. Cards are used for picture-to-text card matching exercises and for playing the \u201cWho am I\u201d game. Cards measure 6\u00bd\u201d x 4\" and are in full color and laminated.\nFirst Knowledge: Plant Stories (PK7) This set consists of 19 duplicate plant picture/text cards. One set is cut apart for 3-part matching activities, and the other set is placed in the green, 6-ring mini-binder labeled Plants. The teacher has the option of changing the cards in the binder as needed. The children can match the 3-part cards (6\" x 3\u00be\u201d) to the cards in the binder, practice reading, learn about the diverse characteristics of these plants, and then play \u201cWho am I?\u201d The eight angiosperms picture cards can be sorted beneath two cards that name and define Monocots and Dicots. These activities prepare children for later work with our Plant Kingdom Chart & Cards (see below), which illustrates the same plants.\nPlant Kingdom Chart and Cards (PK6) Our 4-color plastic paper chart and cards represents the current classification of the plant kingdom (not illustrated here) \u2013 the same as is used in secondary and college level biology courses. This classification organizes the plant kingdom in a straightforward manner with simple definitions and examples under each heading. Firs the plants are categorized as either Nonvascular Plants (Bryophytes) or Vascular Plants. Then the Vascular plants are divided into two groups: Seedless Plants or Seed Plants. Seed Plants are divided into two groups: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms with sub-categories. Nineteen picture cards (2\u00bc\u201d x 3\") illustrate the currently recognized phyla of the plant kingdom. Children match the 19 plant picture cards to the pictures on the chart (18\" x 32\"). Text on the back of the picture cards describes each plant. Advanced students can recreate the chart with the title cards provided, using the chart as a control of error. Background information is provided.\nParts of a Mushroom Parts of a gilled mushroom are highlighted and labeled on six 2-color cards (3\" x 5\"). Photocopy the Replicard (8\u00bd\u201d x 11\") to make quarter page worksheets. The child colors and labels the worksheets, using the picture cards as a guide. Completed worksheets can be stapled together to make a booklet for \u201cParts of a Mushroom\u201d. (In-Print product code FK1)\nFungi (FK4) Members of the Fungus Kingdom have a wide variety of forms. Children see fungi everywhere, such as mold on food, or mushrooms on the lawn. This duplicate set of labeled picture cards shows 12 common fungi found indoors and out. Fungi illustrated: blue cheese fungus, bolete, coral fungus, cup fungus, jelly fungus, lichens, mildew, milky mushrooms, mold, and morel. Background information is included. Pictures cards (3\u00bd\u201d x 4\u00bd\u201d) are in full color and laminated.\nClassification of the Fungus KingdomChart and Cards (FK3) This classification of the Fungus Kingdom organizes 18 representative fungi into four major groups and two important fungal partnerships: Chytrids, Yoke Fungi, Sac Fungi, Club Fungi, Lichens, Mycorrhizae. Children match the 18 picture cards (2-7/8\u201d x 2-3/8\u201d) to the pictures on the 2-color chart (18\" x 16\"). After this activity, they can sort the picture cards under the label cards for the 5 fungus groups, using the chart as the control. Description of each fungus type is printed on the back of the picture cards. Background information is included for the teacher. This chart is printed on vinyl and does not need to be laminated.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d8d399d3-71ef-4f88-8432-8aa6553e707a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.in-printforchildren.com/3201/4285.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9279775023460388, "token_count": 1788, "score": 3.96875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Education for Sustainable Diversity (ESD), as defined by the Office for Inclusion, is the practice of acquiring knowledge about and becoming aware of ways in which our beliefs and biases impact the quality of relationships among people from different cultural groups around the world.\nThe goal of the Office for Inclusion is to support a campus community that understands how to fully integrate the University\u2019s core values of diversity and inclusion into campus work and learning environments. ESD serves to provide opportunities for people to better understand the complexities of and synergies between, the issues threatening our intercultural sustainability and assess their own values and those of the society in which they live in. ESD seeks to engage people in negotiating a sustainable future, making decisions and acting on them. To do this effectively, the following skills are essential to ESD:\n- Envisioning -- being able to imagine a better future. The premise is if we recognize and begin to understand the issues that obstruct intercultural respect, we will be better able to work through issues and find ways to respect each other.\n- Critical thinking and reflection -- learning to question our current belief systems and to recognize the assumptions underlying our knowledge, perspective and opinions. Critical thinking skills help people learn to examine social and cultural structures in the context of sustainable intercultural development.\n- Systemic thinking -- acknowledging complexities and looking for links and synergies when trying to find solutions to problems.\n- Building partnerships -- promoting dialogue and negotiation, learning to work together.\n- Participation in decision-making -- empowering people.\n- Interactive theatre uses customized and uniquely designed sketches performed by actors to address specific issues, and allow for open and guided discussion between the audience and actors to find solutions to issues.\n- Customized small-group workshops, large-group presentations, and symposia featuring themes around diversity, inclusion and social justice.\n- e-learning tools custom designed for large audiences on specific topics\n- Topics include: MSU's anti-discrimination policies, diversity/inclusion, best practices\nFor more information or to request a service, please contact the main office at 517-353-3922.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1c9f4e73-1cdf-478b-9eec-7d653882b9d9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.inclusion.msu.edu/Education/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9322834610939026, "token_count": 432, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Its an interesting question. But since doctors dont really know the answer, youve caught the scientific community napping as well. Even so, several things come to mind.\nThe first thing to consider is the possibility that you nap because you have daytime sleepiness. If so, then what might be the cause?\n- Do you take any medicine that might make you sleepy? Review your prescriptions with your pharmacist or next time you visit your doctor.\n- Have you started having problems sleeping at night? If you sleep well at night and wake up refreshed, dont worry. But if you feel groggy or have early morning headaches, you may have sleep apnea or some other cause of interrupted sleep.\n- Could you be depressed? Ask yourself if you no longer enjoy activities that previously gave you pleasure, and whether you are feeling low.\nIt sounds as if your nap is voluntary and enjoyable. So it probably does not reflect an underlying sleep disturbance. If it refreshes your day without making it hard for you to sleep at night, snooze away.\nFor most people, a 20- to 40-minute nap between noon and 4:00 p.m. is the best way to catch a few winks without disturbing the sleep-wake cycle. But remember to give yourself a good 10 minutes to wake up gently before you engage in mentally or physically demanding tasks.\nWhen NASA and the FAA studied napping in airline pilots, they found that napping improved mental alertness and performance. Many night shift workers are also perked up by naps as brief as 1520 minutes.\nDo naps improve overall health? Napping is the exception in America. But afternoon siestas are the rule in many Mediterranean and Latin American countries.\nScientists have learned that blood pressure drops during a siesta. But it rises abruptly on awakening. Is this meaningful? Probably not, but we cant be sure.\nUntil doctors dream up a way to resolve the contradiction, there is no reason for you to deprive yourself of a pleasurable nap.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9d2bde1e-1e7e-474a-836e-2062e6902a13>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSI/4464/8488.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443063735961914, "token_count": 415, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Breakthroughs bring the next two major leaps in computing power into sight\nBreakthroughs might make quantum computing, replacement for silicon practical within a decade\nOne of the best things about covering technology is that you're always on the edge of a completely new generation of stuff that will make everything completely different than it ever was before, even before the last generation made everything different.\n\"Completely different\" always seems pretty much the same, with a few more complications, higher costs and a couple of cool new capabilities, of course.\nUnless you look back a decade or two and see that everything is completely different from the way it was then\u2026\nMust be some conceptual myopia that keeps us in happy suspense over the future, nostalgic wonder at the past and bored annoyance with the present.\nThe next future to get excited about is going to be really cool, though.\nYou know how long scientists have been working on quantum computers that will be incomparably more powerful than the ones we have now because don't have to be built on a \"bit\" that's either a 1 or a zero? They would use a piece of quantum data called a qubit (or qbit, consistent with everything in the quantum world, the spelling wants to be two things at once), that can exist in several states at the same time. That would turn the most basic function in computing from a toggle switch to a dial with many settings.\nMultiply the number of pieces of data in the lowest-level function of the computer and you increase its power logarithmically.\nMaking it happen has been a trick; they've been under development for 20 years and probably won't show up for another 10.\nTeams of Austrian scientists may cut that time down a bit with a system they developed they say can create digital models of quantum-computing systems to make testing and development of both theory and manufacturing issues quicker and easier.\nThey did it the same way Lord of the Rings brought Gollum to life: putting a living example in front of cameras and taking detailed pictures they could use to recreate the image in any other digital environment.\nRather than an actor, the photo subject was a calcium atom, drastically cooled to slow its motion, then manipulated it using lasers, putting it through a set of paces predicted by quantum-mechanical theory, and recorded the results.\nAbstracting those results lets the computer model predict the behavior of almost any other quantum particle or environment, making it possible to use the quantum version of a CAD/CAM system to develop and test new approaches to the systems that will actually become quantum computers, according to a paper published in the journal Science by researchers from the University of Innsbruck and the Institute for Quantum Optics and Quantum Information (IQOQI).\nFar sooner than quantum computers will blow our digitized minds, transistors made from grapheme rather than chunkier materials will allow designers to create processors far more dense \u2013 and therefore more potentially powerful \u2013 than anything theoretically possible using silicon and metallic alloys we rely on now.\nGraphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon that offers almost no resistance to electricity flowing through it, but doesn't naturally contain electrons at two energy levels, as silicon does. Silicon transistors flip on or off by shifting electrons from one energy level to another.\nEven silicon doesn't work that way naturally. It has to be \"doped\" with impurities to change its properties as a semiconductor.\nFor graphene to work the same way, researchers have to add inverters that that mimic the dual energy levels of silicon. So far they only work at 320 degrees below zero Fahrenheit (77 degrees Kelvin).\nResearchers at Purdue's Birck Nanotechnology Center built a version that operates at room temperature, removing the main barrier to graphene as a practical option for computer systems design\nThe researchers, led by doctoral candidate Hong-Yan Chen presented their paper at the Device Research Conference in Santa Barbara. Calif. in June to publicize their results with the inverter.\nReal application will have to wait for Chen or others to integrate the design into a working circuit based on graphene rather than silicon.\nSystems built on graphene have the potential to boost the computing power of current processors by orders of magnitude while reducing their size and energy use, but only if they operate in offices not cooled to 77 degrees Kelvin.\nIt will still be a few years before graphene starts showing up in airline magazines, let alone in IT budgets. We'll probably be tired of them, too, by the time quantum computers show up, but there's just no satisfying some people.\nRead more of Kevin Fogarty's CoreIT blog and follow the latest IT news at ITworld. Follow Kevin on Twitter at @KevinFogarty. For the latest IT news, analysis and how-tos, follow ITworld on Twitter and Facebook.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3ca19734-477a-46c8-bb68-c661817a1a5c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.itworld.com/print/201819", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9510484337806702, "token_count": 1000, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Some school districts are returning to an old idea, AP reports. They\u2019re grouping students by performance rather than age. The boldest experiment will start in Kansas City, Missouri schools this fall when 17,000 students will switch to the new system.\nStudents \u2014 often of varying ages \u2014 work at their own pace, meeting with teachers to decide what part of the curriculum to tackle. Teachers still instruct students as a group if it\u2019s needed, but often students are working individually or in small groups on projects that are tailored to their skill level.\nFor instance, in a classroom learning about currency, one group could draw pictures of pennies and nickels. A student who has mastered that skill might use pretend money to practice making change.\nStudents who progress quickly can finish high school material early and move forward with college coursework. Alternatively, in some districts, high-schoolers who need extra time can stick around for another year.\nAdvocates say the approach cuts down on discipline problems because advanced students aren\u2019t bored and struggling students aren\u2019t frustrated.\nKansas City\u2019s traditional public schools have seen enrollment fall by half as students move to suburbs or enroll in charter or private schools; 40 percent of schools are closing. The district spent $2 billion in state desegregation case funds without raising test scores. Kansas City is desperate. Superintendent John Covington will start the new system in elementary schools.\n\u201cThis system precludes us from labeling children failures,\u201d Covington said. \u201cIt\u2019s not that you\u2019ve failed, it\u2019s just that at this point you haven\u2019t mastered the competencies yet and when you do, you will move to the next level.\u201d\nIn a Marzano Research Laboratory study of 15 school districts in Alaska, Colorado and Florida, \u201cresearchers found that students who learned through the different approach were 2.5 times more likely to score at a level that shows they have a good grasp of the material on exams for reading, writing, and mathematics.\u201d\nGreg Johnson, director of curriculum and instruction for the Bering Strait School District in Alaska, recalled that before the switch there were students who had been on honor roll throughout high school then failed a test the state requires for graduation.\nNow, he said if students are on pace to pass a class like Algebra I, the likelihood of them passing the state exam covering that material is more than 90 percent.\nTeachers love the new approach, Johnson says.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7a7b90ba-eed4-41d7-a644-0c07f7f1e18e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.joannejacobs.com/2010/07/kansas-city-updates-grade-levels/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9546963572502136, "token_count": 523, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Our district has created a process for the Response to Intervention which we call A4L (Assessment for Learning). Regardless of the name of the program, the work that happens to help support students is sound. Our teachers understand that the first two levels of intervention are done in class. When a student requires something other than the standard curriculum instruction, teachers are to start documenting what they are doing for that student and why. Teachers work in their Professional Learning Communities to get support with this work. Once every six weeks, the PLC is replaced by an A4L meeting where all of the specialists meet along with the team to make sure that all students are making progress. These meetings allow for all the players to be in the same place at the same time. Also, the group is able to draw from each others' strengths for strategies and ideas. The documentation for the students in the intervention process is kept in the grade level's team notebook so that all the data for the students is in the same place and is in a format that is accessible.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3682f932-4996-4085-828a-3e7a0c037eae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.laketravis.txed.net/Page/12941", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9679434895515442, "token_count": 210, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Author and Audience: The book of 2 Thessalonians was written by Paul and addressed to the church at Thessalonica (see 2 Thessalonians 1:1; 3:17). Paul wrote this letter around A.D. 50\u201351 (see Bible Dictionary, (\u201cPauline Epistles,\u201d p. 743).\nHistorical Background: The similarities between this letter and 1 Thessalonians are so strong that many believe they were written within six months of each other. Paul wrote it soon after hearing the reports of Silas and Timothy when they returned from delivering his first letter. For more information see the introduction to the book of 1 Thessalonians (p. 208).", "id": "<urn:uuid:5144f6d5-8745-41f0-b57a-8a9a2e6e2c68>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.lds.org/manual/new-testament-teacher-resource-manual/the-second-epistle-of-paul-the-apostle-to-the-thessalonians/084?lang=eng", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9740402698516846, "token_count": 149, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Breaking the COX code\nUsing the team approach\nEditor\u2019s Note: This story, first published in 2004, has been updated.\nProstaglandins, which were first isolated from the prostate gland in 1936, are very rapidly metabolized, or broken down, making measurement in the blood difficult. Researchers at Vanderbilt led by John Oates, M.D., developed methods for measuring levels of prostaglandin metabolites (breakdown products) in the urine using mass spectrometry.\nUsing this technique, the research team\u2014which by the late 1970s included L. Jackson Roberts, M.D.\u2014identified prostaglandin D2 as a product of the human mast cell and demonstrated its release during allergic asthma.\nWith colleagues including Garret A. FitzGerald, M.D., now chair of Pharmacology at the University of Pennsylvania, Oates and Roberts showed that low doses of aspirin blocked the production of thromboxane, a prostaglandin made by platelets that causes blood clotting and constriction of blood vessels. Their findings supported the use of low dose aspirin to prevent heart attacks.\nIn the early 1990s, Vanderbilt researchers led by Ray DuBois, M.D., Ph.D., discovered a link between the COX-2 enzyme and colon cancer. That work helped lead to current tests of COX-2 inhibitors as a potential way to prevent cancer.\nIn 2004 another group led by the late Jason Morrow, M.D., and David H. Johnson, M.D., director of the Hematology-Oncology division at Vanderbilt, reported that urine levels of a prostaglandin metabolite called PGE-M could predict the effectiveness of a COX-2 inhibitor in patients with non-small cell lung cancer. This suggests, Morrow said in 2004, \u201cthat the measurement of these inflammatory \u2018mediators\u2019 and their suppression may be useful in the treatment of lung cancer.\u201d\nCOX enzymes also may play a role in Alzheimer\u2019s disease. In addition to prostaglandins, the COX pathway can lead to the production of highly reactive molecular compounds called levuglandins, which, in turn, can form \u201cadducts,\u201d or irreversible attachments to proteins that may be toxic to nerve cells.\nAlso in 2004, Oates and his colleagues at Vanderbilt and Johns Hopkins University reported that they found a 12-fold increase in the level of adducts in the brains of patients who had Alzheimer\u2019s disease compared to age-matched control brains.\n\u201cThese are the first clear data showing that COX products are elevated in the brains of patients with Alzheimer\u2019s disease,\u201d says Oates, Thomas F. Frist Professor of Medicine and professor of Pharmacology.\nVanderbilt currently is participating in a national trial to see if long-term use of COX inhibitors will reduce the incidence of the disease.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0428aaca-1b84-4407-9b6f-93b230a692b3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/lens/article/?id=110&pg=999", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9439824819564819, "token_count": 607, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": ": the study of the conformation of the skull based on the belief that it is indicative of mental faculties and character\nStudy of the shape of the skull as an indication of mental abilities and character traits. Franz Joseph Gall stated the principle that each of the innate mental faculties is based in a specific brain region (organ), whose size reflects the faculty's prominence in a person and is reflected by the skull's surface. He examined the skulls of persons with particular traits (including criminal traits) for a feature he could identify with it. His followers Johann Kaspar Spurzheim (1776\u20131832) and George Combe (1788\u20131858) divided the scalp into areas they labeled with traits such as combativeness, cautiousness, and form perception. Though popular well into the 20th century, phrenology has been wholly discredited.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0946e91b-14ac-49fc-8c05-8dc7853d40e6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phrenology", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9497552514076233, "token_count": 170, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1 significant figure\n2 significant figures\n3 significant figures\n4 significant figures\n5 significant figures\n6 significant figures\n7 significant figures\n8 significant figures\nNote: Fractional results are rounded to the nearest 1/64. For a more accurate answer please select 'decimal' from the options above the result.\nNote: You can increase or decrease the accuracy of this answer by selecting the number of significant figures required from the options above the result.\nNote: For a pure decimal result please select 'decimal' from the options above the result.\nBefore approximately the 14th century there were two hundredweights in England, one of 100 pounds, and one of 108 pounds. In 1340, King Edward III changed the value of the stone from 12 pounds to 14 pounds. Since a hundredweight is 8 stones, the 100-pound hundredweight became 112 pounds.\nA unit of mass equal to one-millionth of a gram.\nLong Hundredweights (UK) to Micrograms\nMobile phone converter app\nWhilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the metric calculators and charts given on this site, we cannot make a guarantee or be held responsible for any errors that have been made. If you spot an error on this site, we would be grateful if you could report it to us by using the contact link at the top of this page and we will endeavour to correct it as soon as possible.\nCreated:Fri 31 Oct 2003 this page last updated:: Wed 08 Feb 2013", "id": "<urn:uuid:9e70284c-9ca7-43d0-806d-423eb01c432f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.metric-conversions.org/weight/long-hundredweights-to-micrograms.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9034254550933838, "token_count": 309, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "INDIA INFO: India - More Indian Musical Instruments\nby V.A.Ponmelil (Feedback)\nMore Indian Musical Instruments\nChitra Veena / Gotu Vadhyam\nThe Chitraveena which is also referred to as the gotuvadhyam is one of the most exquisite instruments. It is a 21 stringed fretless lute similar to Vichitraveena.\nIt contains a flat top, two resonant chambers, and a hollow stem of wood. While the right hand plectrums pluck the strings, the left hand slides a piece of wood over the strings.\nIt is one of the oldest instruments of the world and the forerunner of the fretted Saraswati Veena.\nThe word Jaltarang means \"waves in water\". The jaltarang is an interesting ancient musical instrument consisting of a series of tuned bowls arranged in a semicircle around the performer.\nThe bowls are of different sizes and are tuned precisely to the pitches of various ragas by adding appropriate amounts of water. The instrument is played by striking the inside edge of the bowls with two small wooden sticks, one held in each hand.\nJal tarang is not very common and is normally found in the accompaniment of kathak dancers.\nThe Morsing is a tiny instrument which is held in the left hand, the prongs against the upper and lower front teeth.\nThe tongue, which protrudes from the mouth, is made of spring steel. This is plucked with the Index finger of the right hand (backwards, not forwards) while the tone and timbre are adjusted by changing the shape of the mouth cavity and moving the tongue. Further control of the sound can be achieved with the breath.\nLike the mridangam, the morsing is tuned to the Shruti and fine tuning is achieved by placing small amounts of bee's wax on the end of the tongue.\nThe Shank is one of the ancient instruments of India. It is also referred to as the sushirvadya which is associated with religious functions.\nIn India it is considered very sacred. It is being regarded as one of the attributes of Lord Vishnu. Before using, the Shankh is drilled in such a way as to produce a hole at the base taking care that the natural hole is not disturbed. In Athar\u00acVeda, one finds reference to Shankh, though it existed long, before. In Bhagvad Gita, during the time of war, Shankh had played an important role. It also has different names like Panch Janya Shankh, Devadatt Shankh, Mahashan Ponder Shankh and more.\nEven in Valmiki's Ramayna, the mention of a Shankh can be traced. In the temples, Shankh is played in the mornings and evenings during the prayers. In homes, it is played before the starting of havan, yagnopavit, marriage, etc.\nThe Kombu is a wind instrument or a kind of trumpet which is usually played along with the Panchavadyam or the Pandi Melam or the Panchari melam. This musical instrument is like a long horn and is usually seen in Kerala state of South India.\nTravel Information on top destinations of India\nHill Stations of India", "id": "<urn:uuid:d883f592-7d49-4425-b333-5e5fa1fcfd30>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newkerala.com/india/Indian-Music/Indian-Musical-Instruments/More-Indian-Musical-Instruments.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9539422392845154, "token_count": 697, "score": 3.265625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Evolution can fall well short of perfection. Claire Ainsworth and Michael Le Page assess where life has gone spectacularly wrong\nTHE ascent of Mount Everest's 8848 metres without bottled oxygen in 1978 suggests that human lungs are pretty impressive organs. But that achievement pales in comparison with the feat of the griffon vulture that set the record for the highest recorded bird flight in 1975 when it was sucked into the engine of a plane flying at 11,264 metres.\nBirds can fly so high partly because of the way their lungs work. Air flows through bird lungs in one direction only, pumped through by interlinked air sacs on either side. This gives them numerous advantages over lungs like our own. In mammals' two-way lungs, not as much fresh air reaches the deepest parts of the lungs, and incoming air is diluted by the oxygen-poor air that remains after ...\nTo continue reading this article, subscribe to receive access to all of newscientist.com, including 20 years of archive content.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ad635de7-8a5e-4c98-be53-8c463594f176>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19526161.800-evolutions-greatest-mistakes.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9488707780838013, "token_count": 207, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Walter Bagehot (February 3, 1826 \u2013 March 24, 1877) was a British journalist, political analyst and economist, famous for his analysis of British Parliament and money market. Under his leadership The Economist became one of world\u2019s leading business and political journals. Bagehot recognized that economics in not just a matter of the external, material aspects of financial transactions, but also involves the internal aspects of people's desires, motivations, and personality. Thus, he always emphasized social issues in his writings, and endeavored to make issues of government transparent to the public. Bagehot had an original and insightful mind, recognizing that the character of leaders was often more important than their political affiliation or beliefs. His work has continued to inform and inspire debate, contributing to our understanding of the functioning of human society and its improvement.\nWalter Bagehot was born in on February 3, 1826, in Langport, Somerset, England, the son of a local banker. He attended the University College London, where he earned a Master's degree in mathematics in 1848. He studied law and was called to the Bar, but decided not to practice, instead joining his father in the banking business, in Stuckey & Co. in the west of England.\nWhile still working as a banker, Bagehot started to write, first for some periodicals, and then for The National Review. He soon became the editor of the paper. In 1857, he met James Wilson, founder and editor of The Economist, a political and financial weekly newsmagazine. Bagehot married Wilson\u2019s daughter in 1858.\nIn 1860, Bagehot succeeded his father-in-law, James Wilson, as editor of The Economist. After taking over he expanded the publication's reporting on the United States and on politics, and is considered to have increased its influence among policymakers. Bagehot became influential in both politics and economics, among whose friends were statesmen George Cornewall Lewis and Grant Duff, Lord Carnarvon, Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone, and the governor and directors of the Bank of England.\nBagehot made several attempts to be elected as a Member of Parliament, but without success. He remained at the head of The Economist for the rest of his life. He died suddenly on March 24, 1877 in his home in Langport, Somerset, England, at the age of 51.\nBagehot was a person with a whole variety of interests. He wrote on the topics of economics, politics, law, literature, and so forth. He remains most famous however for his three books: The English Constitution (1867), Physics and Politics (1872), and Lombard Street (1873). In addition to these volumes, he commanded substantial influence through his editorship of The Economist.\nThe English Constitution\nIn 1867, Bagehot wrote The English Constitution which explored the constitution of the United Kingdom, specifically the functioning of the British Parliament and the British monarchy, and the contrasts between British and American government. Bagehot revealed how the Parliament operated as it were \"behind a curtain,\" hidden from public knowledge. He divided the constitution into two components:\n- The Dignified \u2013 symbolic side of the constitution, and\n- The Efficient - the real face of the constitution, the way things actually work and get done.\nInstead of describing the constitution from the point of the law, as a lawyer would, Bagehot focused on the practical implications of the constitution, as experienced by the common man. The book soon became widely popular, ensuring Bagehot worldwide fame.\nHe criticized American presidential system, claiming that it lacked flexibility and accountability. While in the English parliament real debates took place, after which changes could take place, in the American Congress debates had no power, since the President made the final decision. In Bagehot's view:\na parliamentary system educates the public, while a presidential system corrupts it. (The English Constitution 1867)\nHe also criticized the way American presidents are chosen, saying:\nUnder a presidential constitution the preliminary caucuses that choose the president need not care as to the ultimate fitness of the man they choose. They are solely concerned with his attractiveness as a candidate. (The English Constitution, 1867)\nPhysics and Politics\nBagehot wrote Physics and Politics in 1872, in which he tried to apply the principles of evolution to human societies. The subtitle of the book reads: Thoughts on the Application of the Principles of \"Natural Selection\" and \"Inheritance\" to Political Society. The book represented a pioneering effort to make a relationship between the natural and the social sciences. Bagehot explained the functioning of the market, and how it affects the behavior of the people. For example, he believed that people tend to invest money when the mood of the market is positive, and restrain from it when it comes to a negative phase.\nIn this book Bagehot also reflected on the psychology of politics, especially on the personality of a leader. He stressed two things as essential for leadership: the personality of a leader and his motivation. Bagehot believed that motivation played one of the key roles in good leadership, and that the personality of a leader often counted more than the policy he endorsed:\nIt is the life of teachers which is catching, not their tenets.\u201d (Physics and Politics 1872)\nBagehot claimed that the personal example of the leader sets the tone for the whole governance. That is why \u201ccharacter issues\u201d are so important for any government. Character \"issues\" still play an important role in deciding the potential candidate for any leadership position in today\u2019s modern world.\nBagehot coined the expression \"the cake of custom,\" denoting the sets of customs that any society is rooted in. Bagehot believed that customs develop and evolve throughout human history, with the best organized groups overthrowing the poorly organized groups. In this sense Bagehot\u2019s views are a clear example of cultural selection, closer to Lamarckian than Darwinian evolution. The central problem in his book was to understand why Europeans could break away from tradition and \u201cthe cake of custom\u201d and instead focus on progress and novelty. He saw tradition as important in keeping societies cohesive, but also believed that diversity was essential for progress:\nThe great difficulty which history records is not that of the first step, but that of the second step. What is most evident is not the difficulty of getting a fixed law, but getting out of a fixed law; not of cementing (as upon a former occasion I phrased it) a cake of custom, but of breaking the cake of custom; not of making the first preservative habit, but of breaking through it, and reaching something better. (Physics and Politics 1872)\nIn his famous Lombard Street (1873), Bagehot explained the theory behind the banking system, using insights from the English money market. As with his analysis of the English constitution six years earlier, Bagehot described the English banking system through the eyes of a simple person, as experienced in everyday life.\nBagehot showed that the English money system was solely relying on the central bank, the Bank of England. Bagehot had warned that the whole reserve was in the central bank, under no effectual penalty of failure. He proposed several ideas how to improve that system.\nBagehot\u2019s work can be closely associated with the English historicist tradition. He did not directly oppose Classical economics, but advocated for its reorganization. He claimed that economics needed to incorporate more factors in its theory, such as cultural and social factors, in order to be more accurate in theorizing about economic processes.\nBagehot was one of the first to study the relationship between physical and social sciences from a sociological perspective. In his contributions to sociological theory through historical studies, Bagehot may be compared to his contemporary Henry Maine. He also developed a distinct theory of central banking, many points of which continue to be valued.\nWith his analysis of English and United States political systems in the English Constitution, Bagehot influenced Woodrow Wilson to write his Congressional Government.\nIn honor of his achievements and his work as its editor, The Economist named its weekly column on British politics after him. Every year the British Political Studies Association awards the Walter Bagehot Prize for the best dissertation in the field of government and public administration.\n- Bagehot, Walter. 1848. Review of Mill's Principles of Political Economy. Prospective Review, 4(16), 460-502.\n- Bagehot, Walter. 1858. Estimates of Some Englishmen and Scotchmen. London: Chapman and Hall.\n- Bagehot, Walter. 1875. A New Standard of Value. The Economist, November 20.\n- Bagehot, Walter. 1879. Literary Studies. London: Longmans, Green and Co.\n- Bagehot, Walter. 1998. (original 1880). Economic Studies. Augustus M Kelley Pubs. ISBN 0678008523\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2001. (original 1867). The English Constitution. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192839756\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2001. (original 1873). Lombard Street: A description of the money market. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 140210006X\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2001. (original 1877). Some Articles on the Depreciation of Silver and on Topics Connected with It. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 140216288X\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2001. (original 1889). The Works of Walter Bagehot. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1421254530\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2006. (original 1881). Biographical Studies. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 1428608400\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2006. (original 1872). Physics and Politics. Dodo Press. ISBN 1406504408\n- Bagehot, Walter. 2006. (original 1885). The Postulates of English Political Economy. Cosimo. ISBN 1596053771\n- Barrington, Russell. 1914. Life of Walter Bagehot. Longmans, Green and Co.\n- Buchan, Alastair. 1960. The spare chancellor: The life of Walter Bagehot. Michigan State University Press. ISBN 087013051X\n- Cousin, John William. 1910. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature. New York, E.P. Dutton.\n- Morgan, Forrest. 1995. The Works of Walter Bagehot. Routledge. ISBN 0415131545\n- Orel, Harold. 1984. Victorian Literary Critics: George Henry Lewes, Walter Bagehot, Richard Holt Hutton, Leslie Stephen, Andrew Lang, George Saintsbury, and Edmund Goss. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312843046\n- Sisson C. H. 1972. The case of Walter Bagehot. Faber and Faber Ltd. ISBN 0571095011\n- Stevas, Norman. 1959. Walter Bagehot a Study of His Life and Thought Together with a Selection from His Political Writings. Indiana University Press.\n- Sullivan, Harry R. 1975. Walter Bagehot. Twayne Publishers. ISBN 0805710183\nAll links retrieved December 6, 2012.\n- Bagehot and the Age of Discussion \u2013 Commentary on Bagehot\u2019s Physics and Politics\n- Major Works \u2013 Some full-text works of Walter Bagehot\n- Quotations from Walter Bagehot\n- Walter Bagehot \u2013 Biography\n- Works by Walter Bagehot. Project Gutenberg\nNew World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here:\nNote: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cc871262-6e2e-4e4f-a909-b3fd012a101a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Walter_Bagehot", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9281991720199585, "token_count": 2559, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Does Thinness Raise Alzheimer's Risk?\n< Nov. 23, 2011 > -- In the search for early markers of Alzheimer's disease - in hopes of eventually preventing it - researchers have found that low body weight may somehow play a role.\nIn a study published this week in the journal Neurology, people with early signs of Alzheimer's disease were more likely to be underweight or have a low body mass index (BMI).\nEarlier studies found that people who are overweight in middle age or earlier are at higher risk for Alzheimer's later in life. Other studies have shown that being overweight later in life seems to protect against the disease.\nMore research needed\nWhat the latest study findings mean for diagnosing or preventing Alzheimer's disease is unclear.\n\"A long history of declining weight or BMI could aid the diagnostic process,\" says study author Eric Vidoni, Ph.D., at the University of Kansas. But, he adds, it's too early \"to make body composition part of the diagnostic toolbox.\"\nDr. Vidoni and colleagues studied brain imaging and analyzed cerebrospinal fluid in 506 people. Study participants ranged from those with no memory problems to others with Alzheimer's.\nImpact of body weight\nPeople who had evidence of Alzheimer's - either in brain scans or protein levels in the cerebrospinal fluid - were more likely to have a lower BMI than those who did not show early evidence of the disease.\nThe researchers aren't sure why body weight might have a bearing on Alzheimer's risk. They speculate that the disease may affect the hippocampus, the area of the brain that controls metabolism and appetite. Or, they say, perhaps inflammation is driving both the drop in BMI and the cognitive changes that are the hallmark of Alzheimer's.\nFor more information on health and wellness, please visit health information modules on this website.\nAlthough you can't control certain risk factors for Alzheimer's disease like advancing age, you can reduce your odds of developing the condition. The latest findings show you can reduce risk by:\nAlways talk with your health care provider to find out more information.\n(Our Organization is not responsible for the content of Internet sites.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:02eab517-43e9-4b5b-a99e-db4f220d208d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nyhq.org/diw/Content.asp?PageID=DIW010334&More=DIW", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9403473734855652, "token_count": 440, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "LESSON ONE: Transforming Everyday Objects\nMarcel Duchamp: Bicycle Wheel, bicycle wheel on wooden stool, 1963 (Henley-on-Thames, Richard Hamilton Collection); \u00a9 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris, photo credit: Cameraphoto/Art Resource, NY\nMan Ray: Rayograph, gelatin silver print, 29.4\u00d723.2 cm, 1923 (New York, Museum of Modern Art); \u00a9 2007 Man Ray Trust/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ADAGP, Paris, photo \u00a9 The Museum of Modern Art, New York\nMeret Oppenheim: Object (Le D\u00e9jeuner en fourrure), fur-lined cup, diam. 109 mm, saucer, diam. 237 mm, spoon, l. 202 mm, overall, h. 73 mm, 1936 (New York, Museum of Modern Art); \u00a9 2007 Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York/ProLitteris, Zurich, photo \u00a9 Museum of Modern Art/Licensed by SCALA/Art Resource, NY\nDada and Surrealist artists questioned long-held assumptions about what a work of art should be about and how it should be made. Rather than creating every element of their artworks, they boldly selected everyday, manufactured objects and either modified and combined them with other items or simply se-lected them and called them \u201cart.\u201d In this lesson students will consider their own criteria for something to be called a work of art, and then explore three works of art that may challenge their definitions.\nStudents will consider their own definitions of art.\nStudents will consider how Dada and Surrealist artists challenged conventional ideas of art.\nStudents will be introduced to Readymades and photograms.\nAsk your students to take a moment to think about what makes something a work of art. Does art have to be seen in a specific place? Where does one encounter art? What is art supposed to accomplish? Who is it for?\nAsk your students to create an individual list of their criteria. Then, divide your students into small groups to discuss and debate the results and come up with a final list. Finally, ask each group to share with the class what they think is the most important criteria and what is the most contested criteria for something to be called a work of art. Write these on the chalkboard for the class to review and discuss.\nShow your students the image of Bicycle Wheel. Ask your students if Marcel Duchamp\u2019s sculp-ture fulfills any of their criteria for something to be called a work of art. Ask them to support their obser-vations with visual evidence.\nInform your students that Duchamp made this work by fastening a Bicycle Wheel to a kitchen stool. Ask your students to consider the fact that Duchamp rendered these two functional objects unus-able. Make certain that your students notice that there is no tire on the Bicycle Wheel.\nTo challenge accepted notions of art, Duchamp selected mass-produced, often functional objects from everyday life for his artworks, which he called Readymades. He did this to shift viewers\u2019 engagement with a work of art from what he called the \u201cretinal\u201d (there to please the eye) to the \u201cintellectual\u201d (\u201cin the service of the mind.\u201d) [H. H. Arnason and Marla F. Prather, History of Modern Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Photography (Fourth Edition) (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998), 274.] By doing so, Duchamp subverted the traditional notion that beauty is a defining characteristic of art.\nInform your students that Bicycle Wheel is the third version of this work. The first, now lost, was made in 1913, almost forty years earlier. Because the materials Duchamp selected to be Readymades were mass-produced, he did not consider any Readymade to be \u201coriginal.\u201d\nAsk your students to revisit their list of criteria for something to be called a work of art. Ask them to list criteria related specifically to the visual aspects of a work of art (such as \u201cbeauty\u201d or realistic rendering).\nDuchamp said of Bicycle Wheel, \u201cIn 1913 I had the happy idea to fasten a Bicycle Wheel to a kitchen stool and watch it turn.\u201d [John Elderfield, ed., Studies in Modern Art 2: Essays on Assemblage (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1992), 135.] Bicycle Wheel is a kinetic sculpture that depends on motion for effect. Although Duchamp selected items for his Readymades without regard to their so-called beauty, he said, \u201cTo see that wheel turning was very soothing, very comforting . . . I en-joyed looking at it, just as I enjoy looking at the flames dancing in a fireplace.\u201d [Francis M. Naumann, The Mary and William Sisler Collection (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1984), 160.] By en-couraging viewers to spin Bicycle Wheel, Duchamp challenged the common expectation that works of art should not to be touched.\nShow your students Rayograph. Ask your students to name recognizable shapes in this work. Ask them to support their findings with visual evidence. How do they think this image was made?\nInform your students that Rayograph was made by Man Ray, an American artist who was well-known for his portrait and fashion photography. Man Ray transformed everyday objects into mysterious images by placing them on photographic paper, exposing them to light, and oftentimes repeating this process with additional objects and exposures. When photographic paper is developed in chemicals, the areas blocked from light by objects placed on the paper earlier on will remain light, and the areas exposed to light will turn black. Man Ray discovered the technique of making photograms by chance, when he placed some objects in his darkroom on light-sensitive paper and accidentally exposed them to light. He liked the resulting images and experimented with the process for years to come. He likened the technique, now known as the photogram, to \u201cpainting with light,\u201d calling the images rayographs, after his assumed name.\nNow that your students have identified some recognizable objects used to make Rayograph, ask them to consider which of those objects might have been translucent and which might have been opaque, based on the tone of the shapes in the photogram.\nNow show your students Meret Oppenheim\u2019s sculpture Object (D\u00e9jeuner en fourrure). Both Rayograph and Object were made using everyday objects and materials not traditionally used for making art, which, when combined, challenge ideas of reality in unexpected ways. Ask your students what those everyday objects are and how they have been transformed by the artists.\nAsk your students to name some traditional uses for the individual materials (cup, spoon, saucer, fur) used to make Object. Ask your students what choices they think Oppenheim made to transform these materials and objects.\nIn 1936, the Swiss artist Oppenheim was at a caf\u00e9 in Paris with her friends Pablo Picasso and Dora Maar. Oppenheim was wearing a bracelet she had made from fur-lined, polished metal tubing. Picasso joked that one could cover anything with fur, to which Oppenheim replied, \u201cEven this cup and saucer.\u201d [Bice Curiger, Meret Oppenheim: Defiance in the Face of Freedom (Zurich, Frankfurt, New York: PARKETT Publishers Inc., 1989), 39.] Her tea was getting cold, and she reportedly called out, \u201cWaiter, a little more fur!\u201d Soon after, when asked to participate in a Surrealist exhibition, she bought a cup, saucer, and spoon at a department store and lined them with the fur of a Chinese gazelle. [Josephine Withers, \u201cThe Famous Fur-Lined Teacup and the Anonymous Meret Oppenheim\u201d (New York: Arts Magazine, Vol. 52, Novem-ber 1977), 88-93.]\nDuchamp, Oppenheim, and Man Ray transformed everyday objects into Readymades, Surrealist objects, and photograms. Ask your students to review the images of the three artworks in this lesson and discuss the similarities and differences between these artists\u2019 transformation of everyday objects.\nArt and Controversy\nAt the time they were made, works of art like Duchamp\u2019s Bicycle Wheel and Oppenheim\u2019s Object were controversial. Critics called Duchamp\u2019s Readymades immoral and vulgar\u2014even plagiaristic. Overwhelmed by the publicity Object received, Oppenheim sunk into a twenty-year depres-sion that greatly inhibited her creative production.\nAsk your students to conduct research on a work of art that has recently been met with controversy. Each student should find at least two articles that critique the work of art. Have your students write a one-page summary of the issues addressed in these articles. Students should consider how and why the work chal-lenged and upset critics. Was the controversial reception related to the representation, the medium, the scale, the cost, or the location of the work? After completing the assignment, ask your students to share their findings with the class. Keep a list of shared critiques among the work\u2019s various receptions.\nMake a Photogram\nIf your school has a darkroom, have your students make photograms. Each student should collect several small objects from school, home, and the outside to place on photographic paper. Their collection should include a range of translucent and opaque objects to allow different levels of light to shine through. Stu-dents may want to overlap objects or use their hands to cover parts of the light-sensitive paper. Once the objects are arranged on the paper in a darkroom, have your students expose the paper to light for several seconds (probably about five to ten seconds, depending on the level of light) then develop, fix, rinse, and dry the paper. Allow for a few sheets of photographic paper per student so that they can experiment with different arrangements and exposures. After the photograms are complete, have your students discuss the different results that they achieved. Students may also make negatives of their photograms by placing them on top of a fresh sheet of photographic paper and covering the two with a sheet of glass. After ex-posing this to light, they can develop the paper to get the negative of the original photogram.\nEncourage your students to try FAUXtogram, an activity available on Red Studio, MoMA's Web site for teens.\nGROVE ART ONLINE: Suggested Reading\nBelow is a list of selected articles which provide more information on the specific topics discussed in this lesson.", "id": "<urn:uuid:31fab53b-eb78-4e38-ae2c-77d787710125>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.oxfordartonline.com/public/page/lessons/Unit5Lesson1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9461767077445984, "token_count": 2260, "score": 3.859375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "ActiveMQ via C# using Apache.NMS Part 1\nJava Message Service (JMS) is the de facto standard for asynchronous messaging between loosely coupled, distributed applications. Per the specification, it provides a common way for Java application to create, send, receive and read messages. This is great for enterprises or organizations whose architecture depends upon a single platform (Java), but the reality is that most organizations have hi-bred architectures consisting of Java and .NET (and others). Oftentimes these systems need to communicate using common messaging schematics: ActiveMQ and Apache.NMS satisfy this integration requirement.\nThe JMS specification outlines the requirements for system communication between Java Messaging Middleware and the clients that use them. Products that implement the JMS specification do so by developing a provider that supports the set of JMS interfaces and messaging semantics. Examples of JMS providers include open source offerings such as ActiveMQ, HornetQ and GlassFish and proprietary offerings such as SonicMQ and WebSphere MQ. The specification simply makes it easier for third parties to develop providers.\nAll messaging in JMS is peer-2-peer; clients are either JMS or non JMS applications that send and receive messages via a provider. JMS applications are pure Java based applications whereas non JMS use JMS styled APIs such as ActiveMQ.NMS which uses OpenWire, a cross language wire protocol that allows native access to the ActiveMQ provider.\nJMS messaging schematics are defined into two separate domains: queue based and topic based applications. Queue based or more formally, point-to-point (PTP) clients rely on \u201csenders\u201d sending messages to specific queues and \u201creceivers\u201d registering as listeners to the queue. In scenarios where more a queue has more than one listener, the messages are delivered in a round-robin fashion between each listener; only one copy of the message is delivered. Think of this as something like a phone call between you and another person.\nTopic based application follow the publish/subscribe metaphor in which (in most cases) a single publisher client publishes a message to a topic and all subscribers to that topic receive a copy. This type of messaging metaphor is often referred to as broadcast messaging because a single client sends messages to all client subscribers. This is some analogous to a TV station broadcasting a television show to you and any other people who wish to \u201csubscribe\u201d to a specific channel.\nJMS API Basics\nThe JMS Standard defines a series of interfaces that client applications and providers use to send messages and receive messages. From a client perspective, this makes learning the various JMS implementations relatively easy, since once you learn one you can apply what you learned to another implementation relatively easily and NMS is no exception. The core components of JMS are as follows: ConnectionFactory, Connection, Destination, Session, MessageProducer, and MessageConsumer. The following diagram illustrates communication and creational aspects of each object:\nNMS supplies similar interfaces to the .NET world which allows for clients to send messages to and from the ActiveMQ JMS via OpenWire. A quick rundown of the NMS interfaces are as follows:\nNote that the Apache.NMS namespace contains several more interfaces and classes, but these are the essential interfaces that map to the JMS specification. The following diagram illustrates the signature that each interface provides:\nThe interfaces above are all part of the Apache.NMS 1.30 API available for download here. In order to use NMS in your .NET code you also need to down load the Apache.NMS.ActiveMQ client as well and to test your code, you will need to download and install the ActiveMQ broker, which is written in Java so it requires the JRE to be installed as well. The following table provides links to each download:\nFor my examples I will be using the latest release of Apache.NMS and Apache.NMS.ActiveMQ as of this writing time. You should simple pick the latest version that is stable. The same applies for ActiveMQ and the JDK/JRE\u2026note that you only need the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) to host install ActiveMQ. Install the JDK if you want to take advantage of some the tools that it offers for working with JMS providers.\nTo start ActiveMQ, install the JRE (if you do not already have it installed \u2013 most people do already) and unzip the ActiveMQ release into a directory\u2026in directory will do. Open a command prompt and navigate to the folder with the ActiveMQ release and locate the \u201cbin\u201d folder, then type \u2018activemq\u201d. You should see something like the following:\nDownload and install the Apache.NMS and Apache.NMS.ActiveMQ libraries from the links defined in the table above. Unzip them into a directory on your hard drive, so that you can reference them from Visual Studio.\nOpen Visual Studio 2008/2010 and create a new Windows project of type \u201cClass Library\u201d:\nAnd once the project is created, using the \u201cAdd Reference\u201d dialog, browse to the directory where you unzipped the Apache.NMS files defined above and a reference to the Apache.NMS.dll. Do the same for the Apache.NMS.ActiveMQ download. Note that each download contains builds for several different .NET versions; I chose the \u201cnet-3.5\u201d version of each dll since I am using VS 2008 and targeting the 3.5 version of .NET.\nFor my examples you will also need to install the latest and greatest version NUnit from www.nunit.org. After you have installed NUnit, add a reference to the nunit.framework.dll. Note that any unit testing framework should work.\nAdd three classes to the project:\n- A test harness class (ApacheNMSActiveMQTests.cs)\n- A publisher class (TopicPublisher.cs)\n- A subscriber class (TopicSubscriber.cs).\nYour solution explorer should look something like the following:\nThe test harness will be used to demonstrate the use of the two other classes. The TopicPublisher class represents a container for a message producer and the TopicSubcriber represents a container for a message consumer.\nThe publisher, TopicPublisher is a simple container/wrapper class that allows a client to easily send messages to a topic. Remember from my previous discussion about topics that topics allow for broadcast messaging scenarios: a single publisher sends a message to one or more subscribers and that all subscribers will receive a copy of the message.\nMessage producers typically have a lifetime equal to the amount of time it takes to send a message, however for performance reasons you can extend the life out to the length of the application\u2019s lifetime.\nLike the TopicPublisher above, the TopicSubscriber class is container/wrapper class that allows clients to \u201clisten in\u201d or \u201csubscribe\u201d to a topic.\nThe TopicSubscriber class is typically has a lifetime that is the equal to the lifetime of the application. The reason is pretty obvious: a publisher always knows when it will publish, but a subscriber never knows when the publisher will send the message. What the subscriber does is create a permanent \u201clistener\u201d to the topic, when a publisher sends a message to the topic, the subscriber will receive and process the message.\nThe following unit test shows the classes above used in conjunction with the Apache.NMS and Apache.NMS.ActiveMQ API\u2019s to send and receive messages to ActiveMQ which is Java based, from the .NET world!\nHere is quick rundown of the ApachNMSActiveMQTests class:\n- Declare variables for the required NMS objects and the TopicSubscriber\n- Declare variables for the broker URI, the topic to subscribe/publish to, and the client and consumer ids\n- Create a ConnectionFactory object, create and start a Connection, and then create a Session to work with.\n- Create and start the TopicSubscriber which will be a listener/subscriber to the \u201cTestTopic\u201d topic. Also, to receive messages you must register an event handler or lambda expression with the MessageReceivedDelegate delegate. In this example I in-lined a lambda expression for simplicity.\n- On the test the method, create a temporary publisher and send a message to the topic.\n- Tear down and dispose of the subscriber and Session.\n- Tear down and dispose of the Connection.\nAfter you run the unit test you should see something like the following message:\nNote that ActiveMQ must be up and running for the example to work.", "id": "<urn:uuid:73b23611-c6f1-4577-9ef2-cbb95d8098c3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rantdriven.com/2010/07/default.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8888753652572632, "token_count": 1808, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ever wonder what would happen if every single adult in the U.S. took a few hours each month to support a program that supports the well-being of children? Perhaps you would choose to advocate for a child in an unstable environment; or a child in poor health; or one who is struggling with their academics; or one who facing a bully? What kind of impact would that make on the future of our country?\nI recently came across some information about National Make a Difference in Children Month; a grassroots call to action sponsored by long-time child advocate, Kim Ratz. The intention of this annual observance is to bring awareness on how our actions can make a positive difference to a child.\nMs. Ratz outlines 4 key actions we can take to have a direct impact on the life of a child on her Website:\n1. Pick one (or more) event or activity to do with a child \u2026 that will make some kind of positive difference or impact on that child. Need ideas? Read 100+ Ways to Make a Difference to Children.\n2. Support an organization that serves children \u2026It could be your local community ed. or schools, YMCA, Boy or Girl Scouts, place of worship, park and recreation or any other organization that serves kids.\n3. Tell your policy makers to support initiatives that are good for kids \u2026 like your school board, city council, county commissioners, state legislators & congressional delegation; summer is generally a more relaxed time to communicate with them. Share your own story about Making a Difference to Children \u2026 and WHY it\u2019s important to support programs for children \u2026\n4. Tell other people about this campaign \u2026like your neighbors, relatives, friends, people at work, worship, school or play.\nHere are some more ideas from Early Childhood News and Resources on how you can make a difference to a child this month:\n- Volunteer at a local center that helps teen or single mothers (or fathers)\n- Volunteer with your local elementary school\n- Help at a soup kitchen for needy families\n- Help at church with Sunday School, VBS or another faith-based program\n- Locate a service in your area that assists homeless children with school supplies, medical care or social-emotional development\n- Volunteer to read for kids at your local library\n- Teach classes at a local rec center or community center: arts, crafts, reading, sports, ASL, music, etc.\n- Offer your time at the Foundation for the Blind (they often run children\u2019s classes)\n- Find a local farm that hosts classes for special needs kiddos and volunteer there (horse therapy, etc)\n- Don\u2019t have time to volunteer your time? How about a simple donation?\nWhat can YOU do to help a child in need? Share your ideas and inspiration!", "id": "<urn:uuid:a9bc1e4e-7dcc-4fb4-8dfb-781c02a919cd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.schoodoodle.com/weblog/2011/07/05/july-is-national-make-a-difference-in-children-month/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.948811948299408, "token_count": 580, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Reading Classic Literatures\nClassic literature, even though they were written fifty or hundred years ago, still has the power to affect the readers. The gift of literature to educate and inspire people transcends time. Unfortunately, not all people like to read classic literature. Sometimes, to understand classic literature, you have to be mature enough to enjoy and comprehend these writings.\nAlthough we read classic literature because we have to do a report in school, we can also read them for enjoyment. You may have heard of famous authors of classical novels on the television and internet, you can check out their writings and their books.\nIf you really want to get into the habit of reading classical literature, you can start by reading 30 minutes every day. You should have a dictionary near you when reading classical novels since the words used are always deep or its meaning has changed over time.\nTo have a better understanding of the setting and the plot of the story, you can make a little background research on the era or its time period. You can also research on the background of the author.\nYou really have to follow the structure of the story. Most classical literature have complex storyline and plots which makes it hard sometimes to follow the story. The character development is also very extensive. Seeing the overall theme of the story is very important as well as following the basic development of the characters and their story.\nThere are literature companions that you can buy to help you get started with the classical literature. An example of a literature companion is the \"Oxford Companion to Classical Literature.\"\nAnother key to understanding classic literature is by understanding the use of the footnotes. These classical literature are full of footnotes that references the social and culture elements of their time.", "id": "<urn:uuid:007f5583-acd1-46d2-9f51-3956850b8832>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.studyguide.org/reading-classic-literatures", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9732595086097717, "token_count": 348, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Image: Sierra Nevada Corporation\nSierra Nevada Corporation\u2019s Dream Chaser spacecraft is being prepared for its first test flights as part of NASA\u2019s commercial space program, and it\u2019s a design that wouldn\u2019t look out of place on a poster stuck to a 10-year-old\u2019s wall.\nThe Dream Chaser is one of three vehicles competing for NASA contracts to replace the space shuttle orbiters for transporting astronauts to the International Space Station and elsewhere in low Earth orbit. Unlike its capsule competitors from Boeing and SpaceX, the Dream Chaser is a flying, lifting body design that could land on a runway, much closer in concept to the orbiters that were retired in 2011.\nSierra Nevada announced that it will be partnering with veteran space vehicle maker and aerospace juggernaut Lockheed Martin to build the second Dream Chaser vehicle. The two companies will also collaborate on ongoing parts of NASA\u2019s commercial crew program, which is currently in the Certification Products Contract phase. Sierra Nevada, SpaceX and Boeing are developing versions of their space vehicles that will meet NASA certification for safety and performance.\n\u201cThe SNC team is thrilled that Lockheed Martin will be joining our expanding world-class team of partner organizations,\u201d said Mark Sirangelo, head of Sierra Nevada\u2019s space system group.\nLockheed Martin will build the next Dream Chaser at the facility in Michaud, Louisiana where the external tanks for the space shuttles were made. The company is no stranger to the current commercial space programs as it builds the Atlas V rocket (in a joint venture with Boeing) to be used by the Dream Chaser as well as Boeing\u2019s CST-100 spacecraft.\nSierra Nevada says the first Dream Chaser spacecraft is currently bring prepared for transport at the company\u2019s facility in Colorado. In the next few weeks SNC expects to transport the vehicle to Edwards Air Force Base in California\u2019s Mojave Desert where flight testing will take place.\nThe Dream Chaser will be dropped from a helicopter at 12,000 feet and and is expected to reach speeds of around 300 knots (345 mph) before landing at a touchdown speed of around 180 knots (207 mph). For the initial test flights, the Dream Chaser will glide to the ground autonomously without a pilot. The glide flights are scheduled to begin within the next two months and Sierra Nevada says the flight test vehicle will make just a few flights to gather the data necessary to further refine the flight characteristics of the design.\nThe second Dream Chaser \u2013 built by Lockheed Martin \u2013 will be the vehicle used for sub-orbital flight testing that the company hopes will begin in the next two years. NASA is expected announce at least two companies to fly astronauts to low earth orbit by 2017.\nVia FlowingData: http://flowingdata.com/", "id": "<urn:uuid:4abc34f9-9bde-4342-be02-fb5417a2e9d5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.valveinteractive.com/press/tag/sierra-nevada/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9321600794792175, "token_count": 571, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "American Heritage\u00ae Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition\n- v. To establish in office; install.\nCentury Dictionary and Cyclopedia\n- To set or place; establish, as in a rank or condition.\n- To invest.\nGNU Webster's 1913\n- v. To set, place, or establish, as in a rank, office, or condition; to install; to invest.\n- From in- + state. (Wiktionary)\n\u201cNorth Carolina improved to 21-1 in instate tournament games, including 6-0 in games played here - home to Atlantic Coast Conference rival Wake Forest.\u201d\n\u201cWhile this was not a war, the instate was the same.\u201d\n\u201cBut, the difficult national environment for Democrats coupled with a surge in Republican energy instate -- the result of the passage of a stringent immigration bill -- quickly turned the race into a serious contest.\u201d\n\u201cSoccer Board of Directors voted to re-instate the provisional sanction.\u201d\n\u201cAfter a first refusal, Obama says he'll now re-instate solar water heating to the White House roof, and will add photo-voltaic cells that will generate electricity.\u201d\n\u201cIf we want to avoid catastrophic climate change and avoid climate disaster, we need to instate a moratorium on drilling in the Arctic.\u201d\n\u201cI think only money from instate sources should be allowed to pay for the campaign.\u201d\n\u201cThis seems like more of a power play to me: they want a worldwide governing body to oversee this and have them instate rules in place that will change our lives forever.\u201d\n\u201cIt's time to re-instate the tax breaks from the 2000-2004 period and we all have to face the fact that these bills must be paid.\u201d\n\u201cThen if Congress really thinks this is incorrect, they can re-instate them.\u201d\nThese user-created lists contain the word \u2018instate\u2019.\nThe only letters without a \"satine\" bingo possibility: J, Q, Y\nWords found through Wordie's random word function. I didn't take phrases, foreign, misspelled, or madeupical words, so I looked at about 200 words to assemble this list.\nI was surprise...\nLooking for tweets for instate.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7182c3f0-5278-41e6-ae9b-bc961c31adc2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wordnik.com/words/instate", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.933995246887207, "token_count": 497, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Volume 11, Number 3\u2014March 2005\nRumor Surveillance and Avian Influenza H5N1\nWe describe the enhanced rumor surveillance during the avian influenza H5N1 outbreak in 2004. The World Health Organization\u2019s Western Pacific Regional Office identified 40 rumors; 9 were verified to be true. Rumor surveillance informed immediate public health action and prevented unnecessary and costly responses.\nIn January 2004, 14 persons in Vietnam were admitted to provincial hospitals with severe respiratory illness (1). Avian influenza H5N1 was detected in samples from 3 of these patients. Health officials and the World Health Organization (WHO) were concerned, as these were sporadic cases of an influenza strain that normally infects birds exclusively (2). Furthermore, little was known about the extent of the outbreak, its potential for international spread, and the possible evolution of a pandemic influenza strain. WHO issued an international public health alert on January 13, 2004, to inform the world about the outbreak (1).\nNews of the outbreak led to international anxiety and the propagation of unofficial outbreak reports or disease rumors (3). These rumors could have led countries to impose trade and travel restrictions with negative social, economic, and health consequences (3,4). To protect both the international community and the affected countries, WHO introduced enhanced rumor surveillance for reports of avian influenza H5N1, a process of investigating unofficial reports of disease events to determine their veracity. Rumor surveillance aims to decrease the potential for misinformation and misunderstanding and to inform the public and health officials about disease outbreaks, facilitate a rapid response, and promote public health preparedness (3).\nRumor surveillance is a passive process, where rumors are identified from media reports, professional groups, the public, and persons in the WHO network, which is made up of WHO headquarters, country offices, and WHO Collaborating Centers. In an enhanced system, rumor surveillance is intensified by actively seeking out rumors and undertaking more rigorous follow up. This surveillance includes analyzing more media sources and regularly requesting information from the WHO network about outbreak events. Previous studies have examined the role of enhanced rumor surveillance during public health emergencies, such as the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986 and the outbreak of Ebola in Uganda in 2000 (5,6). However, research has not examined the role of rumor surveillance in multicountry or regional outbreaks.\nThe importance of rumor surveillance is likely to increase as the international community considers the revised draft of the International Health Regulations (IHR). Article 8 of the IHR Working Paper (7) states, \u201cWHO, in consultation with the health administration of the State concerned, shall verify rumors of public health risks which may involve or result in international spread of disease.\u201d\nDuring the avian influenza outbreak, WHO\u2019s Western Pacific Regional Office (WPRO) was the focal point for identifying rumors and coordinating their investigations in the region (8). WPRO covers 37 nations and stretches from China in the north and west, to New Zealand in the south, and to French Polynesia in the east (9). This study examines whether the enhanced rumor surveillance undertaken by WPRO during the first 40 days of the outbreak achieved its aims of 1) offering timely assistance to potentially affected nations, 2) prompting countries to undertake preparedness measures appropriate to their level of risk of being affected, and 3) informing the public and the international community about relevant events.\nWPRO designated a rumor surveillance officer to develop and implement the rumor surveillance system for avian influenza in animals and humans. This officer actively assessed media sources and email-based public health discussion and regularly contacted the WHO network to identify rumors. Media sources included journalists visiting WPRO and Web sites for television networks and newspapers. Most were English-based media sources; however, some were also in Japanese and Arabic. To increase the scope of the active media search, this officer also accessed the Global Public Health Intelligence Network (10), an electronic surveillance system that continuously monitors >600 media sources and biomedical journals in a number of languages, including Chinese, Spanish, English, and French.\nEach rumor was followed up by an email or a telephone request to the relevant WHO country office to investigate its veracity. The WHO country office in turn sought verification from the country\u2019s health authorities. Overall, the onus of the verification process was in the hands of the affected countries\u2019 health authorities. The authorities had to demonstrate to WHO that appropriate investigations were conducted to deem rumors correct or incorrect. To ensure this process, WHO sometimes supported rumor verification by assisting in laboratory testing or shipment of isolates.\nOnce available, the outcome of the investigation was disseminated to WHO stakeholders, including the outbreak response team. For events reported in the media, WPRO\u2019s media officers made information publicly available through press releases and media interviews, as well as providing up-to-date information on the WHO Web site (http://www.who.int).\nFrom January 20 to February 26, 2004, a total of 40 rumors were identified, most within 4 weeks of the outbreak alert (Figure). The rumors concerned 12 countries and 1 special administrative region. Of the total rumors received, 19 (48%) were received from the media, 18 (45%) from the WHO network, 2 (5%) from embassy staff living in affected countries, and 1 (2%) from ProMED Digest with a media source as the origin. Nine (23%) rumors were confirmed to be true events: 5 in China and 1 each in Cambodia, Japan, Laos, and South Korea. Of the incorrect rumors, 6 were in China, 6 in Laos, 4 in Vietnam, 4 and in Hong Kong, 3 in Cambodia, 2 in Germany, and 1 each in Bangladesh, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, and Singapore.\nThe average period for verification of true events was 2.7 days (range 1\u20135 days). The average period to verify that a rumor was incorrect was 9.3 days (range 1\u201326 days). Sixty percent of the rumors related to human outbreaks, of which 1 was true, and 40% to animal outbreaks, of which 8 were true. The Table provides examples of rumors received during the 40-day study, the outcomes of the investigation, and the public health action taken. The remaining 32 rumors are not shown for reasons of brevity and privacy; however, not all rumors resulted in public health action after the verification process. This finding was expected because the high sensitivity of the system decreased the predictive value positive.\nWPRO\u2019s enhanced rumor surveillance system identified many rumors. Most were identified in the first few weeks after the public health alert. A similar pattern was also observed during the 2003 SARS outbreak, when most rumors were received within the first 7 weeks of the public health alert (11). The decreased rate of rumor detection later in the outbreak is consistent with Allport and Postman\u2019s basic law of rumor (12). According to this law, the amount of rumors in circulation is roughly equal to the importance of the rumor multiplied by the uncertainty surrounding the rumor. We found that, as more information became available about the outbreaks and about the H5N1 virus, fewer rumors circulated. This decrease was despite the fact that the importance of the disease remained high because of the ongoing risk for evolution of a pandemic influenza strain.\nThrough rumor surveillance, WHO assisted affected countries by issuing guidelines, providing technical expertise, and mobilizing supplies. Unaffected countries also took action by banning the importation of poultry from affected countries. This action was crucial in preventing the further spread of avian influenza.\nAn important part of rumor surveillance is the timely dissemination of accurate information to reduce misunderstanding and unwarranted concern, especially for rumors reported in the media. One example was the need to address the international concern that arose about the rumor that pigs were infected with avian influenza (13). If the rumor had not been reported to be incorrect publicly after the verification process, health authorities may have heightened avian influenza surveillance to include the investigation of persons with symptoms of influenza and a history of contact with pigs.\nThe literature lacks guidance on how to establish and operate enhanced rumor surveillance during large outbreaks. Based on our experience and drawing on the recommendations in standard texts on public health surveillance (14,15), we suggest the following criteria for developing rumor surveillance: 1) Define the goals of surveillance as part of an early warning system in which each rumor deserves investigation to determine its veracity; 2) Apply a case definition that will have a high level of sensitivity (and therefore a relatively lower specificity) to identify the event of interest early in the outbreak; 3) Articulate clearly the steps to be undertaken to assess the veracity of the rumor, the criteria for deeming the verification process complete, and the ethics and confidentiality in conducting investigations; 4) Clarify the actions to be taken if the rumored events are true, or incorrect, or if the response of the verifying authority lacks credibility; 5) Delegate responsibility for data collection, management of the rumor database, and verification to a person trained in surveillance. This person must have access to relevant national and international networks and appropriate negotiation skills to investigate the veracity of the rumors. In selected instances, multilingual staff may be essential; 6) Include among the data sources print and electronic media, the Global Public Health Intelligence Network, national health authorities, and professional bodies and networks. Consider mechanisms for the public to report rumors through a hotline or an email address; 7) Develop mechanisms to provide regular updates on current verification activities, the number of rumors investigated, and their outcomes to the outbreak response team; 8) Provide regular feedback on the outcomes of investigations to those who provided data, and where appropriate, to the international community; and 9) Evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the investigations and upgrade the rumor surveillance system through a process of continuous quality improvement.\nMs. Samaan is completing a field epidemiology training program at the Australian National University and is currently working at the Australian Department of Health and Ageing. Her research interests include emergency disease outbreak response and mental health epidemiology.\nWe thank Roseanne Muller and Janet Li for their comments.\nThis research was supported by the Masters of Applied Epidemiology Program at Australian National University.\nThe Masters of Applied Epidemiology Program is funded by the Australian Department of Health and Ageing.\n- World Health Organization. Avian influenza A (H5N1) in humans and poultry in Viet Nam. [cited 2003 May 14]. Available from http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_01_13/en/\n- Yuen KY, Chan PK, Peiris M, Tsang DN, Que TL, Shortridge KF, Clinical features and rapid viral diagnosis of human disease associated with avian influenza H5N1 virus. Lancet. 1998;351:467\u201371.\n- Grein TW, Kamara KO, Rodier G, Plant AJ, Bovier P, Ryan MJ, Rumors of disease in the global village: outbreak verification. Emerg Infect Dis. 2000;6:97\u2013102.\n- Health Canada. Learning from SARS: renewal of public health in Canada, October 2003. [cited 2003 May 14]. Available from http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/english/protection/warnings/sars/learning.html\n- Rahu M. Health effects of the Chernobyl accident: fears, rumors and the truth. Eur J Cancer. 2003;39:295\u20139.\n- Okware SI, Omaswa FG, Zaramba S, Opio A, Lutwama JJ, Kamugisha J, An outbreak of Ebola in Uganda. Trop Med Int Health. 2002;7:1068\u201375.\n- World Health Organization. International health regulations: working paper for regional consultations. [cited 2004 Jun 21]. Available from http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/csrpublications/en/index8.htm\n- World Organization for Animal Health. Update on avian influenza in animals in Asia. [cited 2004 May 15]. Available from http://www.oie.int/downld/AVIAN%20INFLUENZA/A_AI-Asia.htm\n- World Health Organization Western Pacific Regional Office. In brief. [cited 2004 Oct 6]. Available from http://www.wpro.who.int/in_brief.asp\n- World Health Organization. Epidemic intelligence\u2014systematic event detection. [cited 2004 Oct 6]. Available from http://www.who.int/csr/alertresponse/epidemicintelligence/en/\n- Muller R. Chasing rumors: a field placement with the WHO SARS team in Manila April\u2013June 2003. The Northern Territory Disease Control Bulletin 2003;10:1\u20134. Available from: http://www.nt.gov.au/health/cdc/bulletin/June_2003.pdf\n- Allport GW, Postman L. The psychology of rumor. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston; 1947.\n- Health e-line. Bird flu death toll hits 18, pigs in focus. Reuters Health Online. 2004 Feb 6. Available from http://www.nt.gov.au/health/cdc/bulletin\n- Teutsch SM, Churchill RE, eds. Principles and practice of public health surveillance. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000.\n- Thacker SB, Birkhead GS. Surveillance. In: Gregg MB, editor. Field epidemiology. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 2002. p. 26\u201350.\nSuggested citation for this article: Samaan G, Patel M, Olowokure B, Roces MC, Oshitani H, and the World Health Organization Outbreak Response Team. Rumor surveillance and avian influenza. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet] 2005 Mar [date cited]. http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1103.040657\n1WHO Western Pacific Region Team: Richard Brown, Maria Roces, Elizabeth Miranda, Peter Cordingley, Karen Shaw, Masahiro Ueno, Kumi Ueno, Lance Jennings, Akira Suzuki, Reiko Sato, Kevin Carroll, and Clara Witt.\nComments to the Authors\nLessons from the History of Quarantine, from Plague to Influenza A", "id": "<urn:uuid:35b1806c-e026-4097-aa0c-64e1d238bdf3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/eid/article/11/3/04-0657_article.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9230085611343384, "token_count": 2959, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Japan has been hit by the worst crisis since 1945, as an earthquake and tsunami have killed 10,000, destroyed tens of thousands of buildings, displaced hundreds of thousands, and left millions without power or water. As the nation braces for more aftershocks, people have resorted to using sea water in an attempt to prevent a nuclear meltdown from adding a third catastrophe, which has already leaked and caused a mass evacuation. According to Greenpeace,\n\"We are told by the nuclear industry that things like this cannot happen with modern reactors, yet Japan is in the middle of a nuclear crisis with potentially devastating consequences\u2026The evolving situation at Fukushima remains far from clear, but what we do know is that contamination from the release of Cesium-137 poses a significant health risk to anyone exposed. Cesium-137 has been one if the isotopes causing the greatest health impacts following the Chernobyl disaster, because it can remain in the environment and food chain for 300 years.\u201d\nWhereas the first two catastrophe\u2019s were natural and unpredictable, a nuclear meltdown is entirely unnatural and entirely predictable. According to the local anti-nuclear group, Citizens\u2019 Nuclear Information Centre,\nThe nuclear crisis comes a month before the 25th anniversary of the Chernobyl disaster, the largest nuclear meltdown in history, which showered Europe in a radioactive cloud causing a quarter of a million cancers, 100,000 of them fatal. As of this writing the disaster in Japan is already the third worst in history, behind Chernobyl and the Three Mile Island partial meltdown in 1979, and comes only 12 years after a fatal overexposure of workers at a nuclear plant in Tokaimura, Japan. Even without the inherent risk of a meltdown, nuclear power is a threat to health. The problem is not just the few terrible times when they don't work, but the daily experience of when they do work. As climate campaigner George Monbiot wrote more than a decade ago,\n\u201cThe children of women who have worked in nuclear installations, according to a study by the National Radiological Protection Board, are eleven times more likely to contract cancer than the children of workers in non-radioactive industries. You can tell how close to [the nuclear plant in] Sellafield children live by the amount of plutonium in their teeth.\u201d\nAdd to this the morbidity and mortality or working in uranium mines and the dangers of disposing of radioactive waste, and you have negative health impacts at every stage of nuclear power (for a summary see the UK\u2019s Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament). Despite this, governments have invested massively in the nuclear industry and globalized the risk. Canada has exported nuclear reactors while building seven of its own, and despite concerns about safety the Ontario government plans on investing $36 billion into nuclear power at the same time as its backing off wind power.\nREASONS AND EXCUSES\nWhile nuclear power is a clear and present danger to the health of the planet and its people, it is a thriving industry driven by economic and military competition. Vandana Shiva\u2014who studied nuclear physics and now leads the climate justice movement in India\u2014has exposed the hypocrisy of US hostility to Iranian nuclear power when it is doing the same thing to promote nuclear power and weapons in India as a bulwark against China:\nAs Shiva summarized in her book Soil Not Oil, \u201cnuclear winter is not an alternative to global warming\u201d, and it is a tragedy that Japan has become the test case against both military and civilian arms of the nuclear industry--from the atomic bomb 65 years ago to the nuclear meltdown today. But instead of admitting the problems of nuclear power, the nuclear industry and its supporters have greenwashed it and presented it as a solution to global warming. Some environmentalists, such as Gaia theorist James Lovelock, have fallen prey to these claims. Lovelock, whose ideas are driven by apocalyptic predictions and an extreme pessimism, has gone so far as to claim that \u201cnuclear power is the only green solution\u201d.While former US president George Bush defended his country\u2019s 103 nuclear power plants as not producing \"a single pound of air pollution or greenhouses gases\u201d, Dr. Helen Caldicott has refuted the claim in her important book Nuclear Power is Not the Answer, which proves that even without meltdowns nuclear power is a threat to the planet:\nThe false dichotomy between carbon emissions and nuclear power is also refuted by those developing the Tar Sands, who have proposed using nuclear power to pump Tar Sands oil.\nPEOPLE POWER, GREEN JOBS\nFortunately there are growing anti-nuclear campaigns uniting indigenous groups, NGOs and the broader climate justice movement to challenge nuclear power in all its stages\u2014from mining to use to waste disporal. As Vandana Shiva writes in Soil Not Oil,\nMeanwhile in Canada indigenous groups are leading opposition to transportation of nuclear waste through the Great Lakes and their surrounding communities, declaring \u201cwhat we do to the land, we do to ourselves.\u201d Last year the German government extended nuclear power against the will of the majority but after news of the leak in Japan, 50,000 people formed a human chain from a nuclear reactor to Stuttgart demanding an end to nuclear power.\nUniting these campaigns with the labour movement raises the demands of good green jobs for all, to transform our oil and nuclear economy into one based on ecological and social sustainability and justice. Instead of the billions in subsidies for the nuclear industry, governments could be investing in solar, wind and clean electricity, while retrofitting buildings, which could solve the economic and climate crises without the inherent dangers of nuclear power. As Greenpeace wrote,\n\"Our thoughts continue to be with the Japanese people as they face the threat of a nuclear disaster, following already devastating earthquake and tsunami. The authorities must focus on keeping people safe, and avoiding any further releases of radioactivity...Greenpeace is calling for the phase out of existing reactors, and no construction of new commercial nuclear reactors. Governments should invest in renewable energy resources that are not only environmentally sound but also affordable and reliable.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:f8f50eee-35e0-4fe2-8425-891ee98718b0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://yourheartsontheleft.blogspot.com/2011/03/nuclear-meltdown-is-not-alternative-to.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368699881956/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516102441-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9475212693214417, "token_count": 1235, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Photography - Overview\nThe millions of photographs in the Museum's collections compose a vast mosaic of the nation's history. Photographs accompany most artifact collections. Thousands of images document engineering projects, for example, and more record the steel, petroleum, and railroad industries.\nSome 150,000 images capture the history, art, and science of photography. Nineteenth-century photography, from its initial development by W. H. F. Talbot and Louis Daguerre, is especially well represented and includes cased images, paper photographs, and apparatus. Glass stereographs and news-service negatives by the Underwood & Underwood firm document life in America between the 1890s and the 1930s. The history of amateur photography and photojournalism are preserved here, along with the work of 20th-century masters such as Richard Avedon and Edward Weston. Thousands of cameras and other equipment represent the technical and business side of the field.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4c09ccb6-b489-4574-9e82-73f3859b7df4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/subjects/photography?edan_start=0&edan_fq=name%253A%2522U.S.+Forest+Service%2522", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9248025417327881, "token_count": 190, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.\n2012 June 23\nExplanation: As seen from Fr\u00f6s\u00f6n island in northern Sweden the Sun did set a day after the summer solstice. From that location below the arctic circle it settled slowly behind the northern horizon. During the sunset's final minute, this remarkable sequence of 7 images follows the distorted edge of the solar disk as it just disappears against a distant tree line, capturing both a green and blue flash. Not a myth even in a land of runes, the colorful but elusive glints are caused by atmospheric refraction enhanced by long, low, sight lines and strong atmospheric temperature gradients.\nAuthors & editors:\nJerry Bonnell (UMCP)\nNASA Official: Phillip Newman Specific rights apply.\nA service of: ASD at NASA / GSFC\n& Michigan Tech. U.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6665d40b-fee1-4353-8a03-3268af4a76bb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap120623.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8993480205535889, "token_count": 195, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Do not imagine the Mona Lisa with a mustache! If you failed to carry out this instruction, it is because your power of visualization is so strong that it takes any suggestion, positive or negative, and turns it into an image. And as the maestro emphasized, \u201cthe thing imagined moves the sense.\u201d If you think you cannot visualize. Chances are you answered these questions easily by drawing on your internal image data bank, the occipital lobe of your cerebral cortex. This data bank has the potential, in coordination with your frontal lobes, to store and create more images, both real and imaginary, than the entire world\u2019s film and television production companies combined.\nFrom How to think like Leonardo da Vinci, by Michael J. Gelb, published by Delacorte Press, 1998.", "id": "<urn:uuid:097f0ef1-6b1f-4c67-a775-c7d9a3dbaab5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://atheistuniverse.net/photo/mona-lisa", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9261102080345154, "token_count": 168, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Matthew Henry's Concise Commentary|\n3:1-10 To expect unchanging happiness in a changing world, must end in disappointment. To bring ourselves to our state in life, is our duty and wisdom in this world. God's whole plan for the government of the world will be found altogether wise, just, and good. Then let us seize the favourable opportunity for every good purpose and work. The time to die is fast approaching. Thus labour and sorrow fill the world. This is given us, that we may always have something to do; none were sent into the world to be idle.\nVerse 8. - A time to love, and a time to hate. This reminds one of the gloss to which our Lord refers (Matthew 5:43), \"Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love thy neighbor, and hate thine enemy,\" the first member being found in the old Law (Leviticus 19:18), the second being a misconception of the spirit which made Israel God's executioner upon the condemned nations. It was the maxim of Bias, quoted by Aristotle, 'Rhet.,' 2:13, that we should love as if about some day to hate, and hate as if about to love. And Philo imparts a still more selfish tone to the gnome, when he pronounces ('De Carit.,' 21, p. 401, Mang.), \"It was well said by them of old, that we ought to deal out friendship without absolutely renouncing enmity, and practice enmity as possibly to turn to friendship. A time of war, and a time of peace. In the previous couplets the infinitive mood of the verb has been used; in this last hemistich substantives are introduced, as being more concise and better fitted to emphasize the close of the catalogue. The first clause referred specially to the private feelings which one is constrained to entertain towards individuals. The second clause has to do with national concerns, and touches on the statesmanship which discovers the necessity or the opportuneness of war and peace, and acts accordingly. In this and in all the other examples adduced, the lesson intended is this - that man is not independent; that under all circumstances and relations he is in the hand of a power mightier than himself, which frames time and seasons according to its own good pleasure. God holds the threads of human life; in some mysterious way directs and controls events; success and failure are dependent upon his will. There are certain laws which, regulate the issues of actions and events, and man cannot alter these; his free-will can put them in motion, but they become irresistible when in operation. This is not fatalism; it is the mere statement of a fact in experience. Koheleth never denies man's liberty, though he is very earnest in asserting God's sovereignty. The reconciliation of the two is a problem unsolved by him.\nGill's Exposition of the Entire Bible\nA time to love, and a time to hate,.... For one to love his friend, and to hate a man, a sinner, as the Targum; to love a friend while he continues such, and hate him, or less love him, when he proves treacherous and unfaithful; an instance of a change of love into hatred may be seen in the case of Amnon, 2 Samuel 13:15. A time of unregeneracy is a time of loving worldly lusts and sinful pleasures, the company of wicked men, and all carnal delights and recreations; and a time of conversion is a time to hate what was before loved, sin, and the conversion of sinners, the garment spotted with the flesh, the principles and practices, though not the persons, of ungodly men; and even to hate, that is, less love, the dearest friends and relations, in comparison of, or when in competition with, Christ;\na time of war, and a time of peace; for nations to be engaged in war with each other, or to be at peace, which are continually revolving; and there is a time when there will be no more war. In a spiritual sense, the present time, or state of things, is a time of war; the Christian's life is a warfare state, though it will be soon accomplished, in which he is engaging in fighting with spiritual enemies, sin, Satan, and the world: the time to come, or future state, is a time of peace, when saints shall enter into peace, and be no more disturbed by enemies from within or from without. In the Midrash, all the above times and seasons are interpreted of Israel, and applied to them.\nJamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary\n8. hate\u2014for example, sin, lusts (Lu 14:26); that is, to love God so much more as to seem in comparison to hate \"father or mother,\" when coming between us and God.\na time of war \u2026 peace\u2014(Lu 14:31).\nEcclesiastes 3:8 Parallel Commentaries\nEcclesiastes 3:8 NIV\nEcclesiastes 3:8 NLT\nEcclesiastes 3:8 ESV\nEcclesiastes 3:8 NASB\nEcclesiastes 3:8 KJV\nBible Hub: Online Parallel Bible", "id": "<urn:uuid:c9ff38dc-f5b1-4183-b6de-cbddc40bf33e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://biblehub.com/ecclesiastes/3-8.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9515957832336426, "token_count": 1114, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Click the Study Aids tab at the bottom of the book to access your Study Aids (usually practice quizzes and flash cards).\nStudy Pass is our latest digital product that lets you take notes, highlight important sections of the text using different colors, create \"tags\" or labels to filter your notes and highlights, and print so you can study offline. Study Pass also includes interactive study aids, such as flash cards and quizzes.\nHighlighting and Taking Notes:\nIf you've purchased the All Access Pass or Study Pass, in the online reader, click and drag your mouse to highlight text. When you do a small button appears \u2013 simply click on it! From there, you can select a highlight color, add notes, add tags, or any combination.\nIf you've purchased the All Access Pass, you can print each chapter by clicking on the Downloads tab. If you have Study Pass, click on the print icon within Study View to print out your notes and highlighted sections.\nTo search, use the text box at the bottom of the book. Click a search result to be taken to that chapter or section of the book (note you may need to scroll down to get to the result).\nView Full Student FAQs\n16.4 Suggested Reading\nAxilrod, Stephen H. Inside the Fed: Monetary Policy and Its Management, Martin Through Greenspan to Bernanke. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009.\nHetzel, Robert L. The Monetary Policy of the Federal Reserve: A History. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.\nMishkin, Frederic S. Monetary Policy Strategy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2007.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c573ec03-8e9f-4bf2-a177-2d7f77553c29>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://catalog.flatworldknowledge.com/bookhub/reader/2894?e=wright-ch16_s04", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8096520304679871, "token_count": 342, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Main Entry:||happy as a clam|\n|Part of Speech:||adj|\n|Example:||Happy as a clam refers to its being dug from its bed of sand only at low tide; at high tide it is quite safe from molestation.|\n|Etymology:||1830+; orig. happy-as-a-clam-at-full-tide|\n|an extraordinary or unusual thing, person, or event; an exceptional example or instance.|\n|a gadget; dingus; thingumbob.|\nDictionary.com presents 366 FAQs, incorporating some of the frequently asked questions from the past with newer queries.", "id": "<urn:uuid:76385286-ad36-4306-b4b7-94f10307622e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/happy+as+a+clam", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8502450585365295, "token_count": 140, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Click link below picture\nVast numbers of cells that can attack cancer and HIV have been grown in the lab, and could potentially be used to fight disease.\nThe cells naturally occur in small numbers, but it is hoped injecting huge quantities back into a patient could turbo-charge the immune system.\nThe Japanese research is published in the journal Cell Stem Cell.\nExperts said the results had exciting potential, but any therapy would need to be shown to be safe.\nThe researchers concentrated on a type of white blood cell known as a cytotoxic T-cell, which can recognise telltale markings of infection or cancer on the surfaces of cells. If a marking is recognised, it launches an attack.\n.Click link below for article:", "id": "<urn:uuid:b38f2634-40d6-45f1-a3bd-e458021a5777>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://jtm71.wordpress.com/2013/01/07/immune-system-booster-may-hit-cancer/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9317734241485596, "token_count": 151, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The pleura are two thin, moist membranes around the lungs. The inner layer is attached to the lungs. The outer layer is attached to the ribs. Pleural effusion is the buildup of excess fluid in the space between the pleura. The fluid can prevent the lungs from fully opening. This can make it difficult to catch your breath.\nPleural effusion may be transudative or exudative based on the cause. Treatment of pleural effusion depends on the condition causing the effusion.\nEffusion is usually caused by disease or injury.\nTransudative effusion may be caused by:\nExudative effusion may be caused by:\nFactors that increase your chance of getting pleural effusion include:\n- Having conditions or diseases listed above\n- Certain medications such as:\n- Nitrofurantoin (Macrodantin, Furadantin, Macrobid)\n- Methysergide (Sansert)\n- Bromocriptine (Parlodel)\n- Procarbazine (Matulane)\n- Amiodarone (Cordarone)\n- Chest injury or trauma\n- Radiation therapy\nSurgery, especially involving:\n- Organ transplantation\nSome types of pleural effusion do not cause symptoms. Others cause a variety of symptoms, including:\n- Shortness of breath\n- Chest pain\n- Stomach discomfort\n- Coughing up blood\n- Shallow breathing\n- Rapid pulse or breathing rate\n- Weight loss\n- Fever, chills, or sweating\nThese symptoms may be caused by many other conditions. Let your doctor know if you have any of these symptoms.\nThe doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done. This may include listening to or tapping on your chest. Lung function tests will test your ability to move air in and out of your lungs.\nImages of your lungs may be taken with:\nYour doctor may take samples of the fluid or pleura tissue for testing. This may be done with:\nTreatment is usually aimed at treating the underlying cause. This may include medications or surgery.\nYour doctor may take a \"watchful waiting\" approach if your symptoms are minor. You will be monitored until the effusion is gone.\nTo Support Breathing\nIf you are having trouble breathing, your doctor may recommend:\n- Breathing treatments\u2014inhaling medication directly to lungs\n- Oxygen therapy\nDrain the Pleural Effusion\nThe pleural effusion may be drained by:\n- Therapeutic thoracentesis \u2014a needle is inserted into the area to withdraw excess fluid.\n- Tube thoracostomy\u2014a tube is placed in the side of your chest to allow fluid to drain. It will be left in place for several days.\nSeal the Pleural Layers\nThe doctor may recommend chemical pleurodesis. During this procedure, talc powder or an irritating chemical is injected into the pleural space. This will permanently seal the two layers of the pleura together. The seal may help prevent further fluid buildup.\nRadiation therapy may also be used to seal the pleura.\nIn severe cases, surgery may be needed. Some of the pleura will be removed during surgery. Suregery options may include:\n- Thoracotomy\u2014traditional, open chest procedure\n- Video-assisted thorascopic surgery (VATS)\u2014minimally-invasive surgery that only requires small keyhole size incisions\nPrompt treatment for any condition that may lead to effusion is the best way to prevent pleural effusion.\n- Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD\n- Review Date: 02/2013 -\n- Update Date: 03/05/2013 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:b050fe6e-cde2-4f69-8178-49ddeb1ead6b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://largomedical.com/your-health/?/2010812305/Pleural-Effusion", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.875046968460083, "token_count": 779, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Osteoarthritis is usually diagnosed after your doctor has taken a careful history of your symptoms. A physical exam will be done. There are no definitive lab blood tests to make an absolute diagnosis of osteoarthritis. Certain tests, specifically x-rays of the joint, may confirm your doctor\u2019s impression that you have developed osteoarthritis.\nX-ray examination of an affected joint \u2014A joint with osteoarthritis will have lost some of the normal space that exists between the bones. This space is called the joint space. This joint space is made up of articular cartilage, which becomes thin. There may be tiny new bits of bone (bone spurs) visible at the end of the bones. Other signs of joint and bone deterioration may also be present. X-rays , however, may not show very much in the earlier stages of osteoarthritis, even when you are clearly experiencing symptoms.\nArthrocentesis \u2014Using a thin needle, your doctor may remove a small amount of joint fluid from an affected joint. The fluid can be examined in a lab to make sure that no other disorder is causing your symptoms (such as rheumatoid arthritis , gout , infection).\nBlood tests \u2014Blood tests may be done to make sure that no other disorder is responsible for your symptoms (such as rheumatoid arthritis or other autoimmune diseases that include forms of arthritis). Researchers are also looking at whether the presence of certain substances in the blood might indicate osteoarthritis and help predict the severity of the condition. These substances include breakdown products of hyaluronic acid (a substance that lubricates joints) and a liver product called C-reactive protein.\n- Reviewer: Rosalyn Carson-DeWitt, MD\n- Review Date: 09/2011 -\n- Update Date: 09/01/2011 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:749fdeae-168d-42c0-a78f-06c62e066a01>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://medtropolis.com/your-health/?/19915/Symptoms-of-Osteoarthritis~Diagnosis", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9203431010246277, "token_count": 382, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tiruvellore Thattai Krishnamachariar\n(1899\u20131974) was the Indian\nFinance Minister from 1956\u20131958 and from 1964-1966. Krishnamachariar, who was born into a Tamil Iyengar\nBrahmin family graduated from Madras Christian College\n(MCC) and was a visiting professor to the department of economics at MCC. He resigned from the position twice. He was popularly known as TTK.He was also a member of drafting committee,and entrepreneur and congress leader\nKrishnamachari was one among the founders of modern India. He was instrumental in building the basic economic and industrial infrastructure of the country and also left his mark on the Indian Constitution as a member of the Drafting Committee. Krishnamachari began his life as a businessman and went on to lay the foundation of the hugely successful firm TT Krishnamachari & Co. in 1928, in Chennai, which is now known as the TTK Group\n. By the mid-thirties, when the company was well established, Krishnamachari decided to turn his attention to politics. He was initially elected to the Madras Legislative Assembly as an independent member, and later joined the Congress. In 1946, he was made a member of the Constituent Assembly at the Centre.\nFrom 1952 to 1965, he served the country twice as a Central Minister. He was the first Minister for Commerce and Industry and then Finance Minister. He also remained in charge of the Steel Ministry for quite some time. He became Minister again in 1962, first without... Read More", "id": "<urn:uuid:75deae57-cedd-4394-b27e-95bebc7ac624>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://pages.rediff.com/t--t--krishnamachari/676679", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9907525777816772, "token_count": 329, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ten thousand people were killed and 10 to 15 million left homeless when a cyclone slammed into India's eastern coastal state of Orissa in October 1999. In the aftermath, CARE and the Catholic Relief Society distributed a high-nutrition mixture of corn and soy meal provided by the U.S. Agency for International Development to thousands of hungry storm victims. Oddly, this humanitarian act elicited cries of outrage.\n\"We call on the government of India and the state government of Orissa to immediately withdraw the corn-soya blend from distribution,\" said Vandana Shiva, director of the New Delhi-based Research Foundation for Science, Technology, and Ecology. \"The U.S. has been using the Orissa victims as guinea pigs for GM [genetically modified] products which have been rejected by consumers in the North, especially Europe.\" Shiva's organization had sent a sample of the food to a lab in the U.S. for testing to see if it contained any of the genetically improved corn and soy bean varieties grown by tens of thousands of farmers in the United States. Not surprisingly, it did.\n\"Vandana Shiva would rather have her people in India starve than eat bioengineered food,\" says C.S. Prakash, a professor of plant molecular genetics at Tuskegee University in Alabama. Per Pinstrup-Andersen, director general of the International Food Policy Research Institute, observes: \"To accuse the U.S. of sending genetically modified food to Orissa in order to use the people there as guinea pigs is not only wrong; it is stupid. Worse than rhetoric, it's false. After all, the U.S. doesn't need to use Indians as guinea pigs, since millions of Americans have been eating genetically modified food for years now with no ill effects.\"\nShiva not only opposes the food aid but is also against \"golden rice,\" a crop that could prevent blindness in half a million to 3 million poor children a year and alleviate vitamin A deficiency in some 250 million people in the developing world. By inserting three genes, two from daffodils and one from a bacterium, scientists at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology created a variety of rice that produces the nutrient beta-carotene, the precursor to vitamin A. Agronomists at the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines plan to crossbreed the variety, called \"golden rice\" because of the color produced by the beta-carotene, with well-adapted local varieties and distribute the resulting plants to farmers all over the developing world.\nLast June, at a Capitol Hill seminar on biotechnology sponsored by the Congressional Hunger Center, Shiva airily dismissed golden rice by claiming that \"just in the state of Bengal 150 greens which are rich in vitamin A are eaten and grown by the women.\" A visibly angry Martina McGloughlin, director of the biotechnology program at the University of California at Davis, said \"Dr. Shiva's response reminds me of... Marie Antoinette, [who] suggested the peasants eat cake if they didn't have access to bread.\" Alexander Avery of the Hudson Institute's Center for Global Food Issues noted that nutritionists at UNICEF doubted it was physically possible to get enough vitamin A from the greens Shiva was recommending. Furthermore, it seems unlikely that poor women living in shanties in the heart of Calcutta could grow greens to feed their children.\nThe apparent willingness of biotechnology's opponents to sacrifice people for their cause disturbs scientists who are trying to help the world's poor. At the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science last February, Ismail Serageldin, the director of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, posed a challenge: \"I ask opponents of biotechnology, do you want 2 to 3 million children a year to go blind and 1 million to die of vitamin A deficiency, just because you object to the way golden rice was created?\"\nVandana Shiva is not alone in her disdain for biotechnology's potential to help the poor. Mae-Wan Ho, a reader in biology at London's Open University who advises another activist group, the Third World Network, also opposes golden rice. And according to a New York Times report on a biotechnology meeting held last March by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Benedikt Haerlin, head of Greenpeace's European anti-biotech campaign, \"dismissed the importance of saving African and Asian lives at the risk of spreading a new science that he considered untested.\"\nShiva, Ho, and Haerlin are leaders in a growing global war against crop biotechnology, sometimes called \"green biotech\" (to distinguish it from medical biotechnology, known as \"red biotech\"). Gangs of anti-biotech vandals with cute monikers such as Cropatistas and Seeds of Resistance have ripped up scores of research plots in Europe and the U.S. The so-called Earth Liberation Front burned down a crop biotech lab at Michigan State University on New Year's Eve in 1999, destroying years of work and causing $400,000 in property damage. (See \"Crop Busters,\" January.) Anti-biotech lobbying groups have proliferated faster than bacteria in an agar-filled petri dish: In addition to Shiva's organization, the Third World Network, and Greenpeace, they include the Union of Concerned Scientists, the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, the Institute of Science in Society, the Rural Advancement Foundation International, the Ralph Nader-founded Public Citizen, the Council for Responsible Genetics, the Institute for Food and Development Policy, and that venerable fount of biotech misinformation, Jeremy Rifkin's Foundation on Economic Trends. The left hasn't been this energized since the Vietnam War. But if the anti-biotech movement is successful, its victims will include the downtrodden people on whose behalf it claims to speak.\n\"We're in a war,\" said an activist at a protesters' gathering during the November 1999 World Trade Organization meeting in Seattle. \"We're going to bury this first wave of biotech.\" He summed up the basic strategy pretty clearly: \"The first battle is labeling. The second battle is banning it.\"\nLater that week, during a standing-room-only \"biosafety seminar\" in the basement of a Seattle Methodist church, the ubiquitous Mae-Wan Ho declared, \"This warfare against nature must end once and for all.\" Michael Fox, a vegetarian \"bioethicist\" from the Humane Society of the United States, sneered: \"We are very clever little simians, aren't we? Manipulating the bases of life and thinking we're little gods.\" He added, \"The only acceptable application of genetic engineering is to develop a genetically engineered form of birth control for our own species.\" This creepy declaration garnered rapturous applause from the assembled activists.\nDespite its unattractive side, the global campaign against green biotech has had notable successes in recent years. Several leading food companies, including Gerber and Frito-Lay, have been cowed into declaring that they will not use genetically improved crops to make their products. Since 1997, the European Union has all but outlawed the growing and importing of biotech crops and food. Last May some 60 countries signed the Biosafety Protocol, which mandates special labels for biotech foods and requires strict notification, documentation, and risk assessment procedures for biotech crops. Activists have launched a \"Five-Year Freeze\" campaign that calls for a worldwide moratorium on planting genetically enhanced crops.\nFor a while, it looked like the United States might resist the growing hysteria, but in December 1999 the Environmental Protection Agency announced that it was reviewing its approvals of biotech corn crops, implying that it might ban the crops in the future. Last May the Food and Drug Administration, which until now has evaluated biotech foods solely on their objective characteristics, not on the basis of how they were produced, said it would formulate special rules for reviewing and approving products with genetically modified ingredients. U.S. Rep. Dennis Kucinich (D-Ohio) has introduced a bill that would require warning labels on all biotech foods.\nIn October, news that a genetically modified corn variety called StarLink that was approved only for animal feed had been inadvertently used in two brands of taco shells prompted recalls, front-page headlines, and anxious recriminations. Lost in the furor was the fact that there was little reason to believe the corn was unsafe for human consumption-only an implausible, unsubstantiated fear that it might cause allergic reactions. Even Aventis, the company which produced StarLink, agreed that it was a serious mistake to have accepted the EPA's approval for animal use only. Most proponents favor approving biotech crops only if they are determined to be safe for human consumption.\nTo decide whether the uproar over green biotech is justified, you need to know a bit about how it works. Biologists and crop breeders can now select a specific useful gene from one species and splice it into an unrelated species. Previously plant breeders were limited to introducing new genes through the time-consuming and inexact art of crossbreeding species that were fairly close relatives. For each cross, thousands of unwanted genes would be introduced into a crop species. Years of \"backcrossing\"-breeding each new generation of hybrids with the original commercial variety over several generations-were needed to eliminate these unwanted genes so that only the useful genes and characteristics remained. The new methods are far more precise and efficient. The plants they produce are variously described as \"transgenic,\" \"genetically modified,\" or \"genetically engineered.\"\nPlant breeders using biotechnology have accomplished a great deal in only a few years. For example, they have created a class of highly successful insect-resistant crops by incorporating toxin genes from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis. Farmers have sprayed B.t. spores on crops as an effective insecticide for decades. Now, thanks to some clever biotechnology, breeders have produced varieties of corn, cotton, and potatoes that make their own insecticide. B.t. is toxic largely to destructive caterpillars such as the European corn borer and the cotton bollworm; it is not harmful to birds, fish, mammals, or people.", "id": "<urn:uuid:96608448-4ecb-4e5b-b285-de526bb85460>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://reason.com/archives/2001/01/01/dr-strangelunch", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9525468945503235, "token_count": 2100, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Student Learning Outcomes\nStudents who complete the French Program will be able to:\n- Communicate in a meaningful context in French.\n- Analyze the nature of language through comparisons of the French language and their own.\n- Demonstrate knowledge of and sensitivity to aspects of behavior, attitudes, and customs of France and other French speaking countries.\n- Connect with the global community through study and acquisition of the French language.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5af48c87-5ebf-40b0-9437-a79124e81436>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sdmesa.edu/instruction/slo/programs.cfm?DeptID=28", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9306011199951172, "token_count": 86, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Published on Monday, April 09, 2012 02:34\nWritten by Los Angeles TravelingMom\nFields of gold and orange poppies swaying in the breeze are a spectacular sight in spring when California\u2019s landscape blooms with a mosaic of colorful wildflowers and shrubs.\nWinter rains determine the intensity and duration of wildflowers such as poppies, lupine, cream cups and towering ocotillos. Round up the kids, pack a picnic and bring your camera. Antelope Valley California Poppy Reserve\nMasses of poppies grow in this western Mojave Desert 15 miles west of Lancaster, a stone\u2019s throw from Los Angeles. Other wildflowers include owl\u2019s clover, goldfields, and the scented grape soda lupine found along the Tehachapi Vista Trail. Singing meadow larks and hawks break the silence of the quiet countryside.\nDuring the wildflower season, the nearby Jane S. Pinheiro Interpretive Center shows a short video, and offers free guided tours. Shaded picnic tables available.\nSeven miles west of the Poppy Reserve is the Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland State Park, where a native Joshua Tree and Juniper Woodland are among the last standing in this habitat that once spread across the Antelope Valley. http://www.parks.ca.gov.Joshua Tree National Park\nA variety of flowers at different elevations brighten the park\u2019s two deserts \u2013 the higher Mojave Desert and lower Colorado Desert. Wildflowers usually begin blooming in the lower elevations of the Pinto Basin and along the park\u2019s south boundary around February, and at higher elevations in March and April.\nWhere there are clusters of rocks, expect plenty of wildflowers. Seen throughout the park is the desert dandelion, a hearty flower that forms brilliant patches of gold across the landscape. The flowers are yellow and some have a red dot in the center. Look carefully, you may even see a desert tortoise snacking on one!\nFor flower updates, call the Joshua Tree National Park 760-367-5500 or visit www.nps.gov/jotr\n.Anza-Borrego Desert State Park\nCalifornia\u2019s largest state park, encompassing more than 600,000 acres, has one of the most spectacular wildflower displays in the west. Here you\u2019ll find a kaleidoscope of flowers from tiny bursts of color and gold poppies to towering ocotillos sprouting fiery spines of scarlet blossoms.\nThe canyons west of Borrego Springs usually have a pageant of wildflowers and colorful clumps of beavertail cactus that sprout hot pink flowers. At Desert Gardens, five miles north of the visitor center, park along the road and explore desert dandelion and desert pincushion blanketing the washes. For information, call the Wildflower Hotline at 760-767-4684 or visit http://www.parks.ca.gov.\nFYI: California Overland (www.californiaoverland.com) offers Wildflower Adventure Tours aboard open-air vehicles into Anza-Borrego Desert\u2019s palm oases and canyons through early April.Santa Monica Mountains\nAn easy jaunt from the city is Franklin Canyon Park, where peaceful trails meander through fields of blue and white flowers, poppies, sticky leaf monkey flowers, canyon sunflowers and purple nightshade. http://www.lamountains.com.Public gardens and nature centers\nFor more travel stories, follow Mimi on Twitter @mimitravelz.\n- Situated on 22 acres, the Theodore Payne Foundation operates a California native plant nursery and offers classes but is also popular for its Wildflower Hill. A short walk leads to buckwheat, sage brush, white sage, sugarbrush, sticky monkey leaf flower, elegant clarkia, gilia and showy penstemon. For 30 years the nonprofit organization has provided a wildflower hotline for the latest flora blooms at 818-768-3533. The website\u2019s Wildflower Hill link provides detailed monthly reports. Amenities: Picnic tables in the sycamore grove, restrooms. Located at 10459 Tuxford St. Sun Valley; www.theodorepayne.org.\n- Eaton Canyon Natural Area has trails brimming with black sage, honeysuckle and yellow pincushion. 1750 N. Altadena Drive, Pasadena; http://www.ecnca.org/.\n- Placerita Canyon Nature Center: There\u2019s usually a good showing of elderberries, golden currant and large bush poppy on the two-mile (one way) Canyon Trail. 19152 Placerita Canyon Road, Newhall; www.placerita.org.\n- Among Descanso Gardens\u2019 many themed areas is the eight-acre California Garden, featuring native plants and the showy matilija poppy. 1418 Descanso Drive, La Canada-Flintridge; www.descansogardens.org.\n- Los Angeles Arboretum & Botanic Garden: Free admission third Tuesday of the month; 302 North Baldwin Ave., Arcadia; www.arboretum.org.\n- The Huntington: Free the first Thursday of every month with advance tickets; 1151 Oxford Road, San Marino; www.huntington.org.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c7a6b3df-8fcf-4386-b44c-c8fe0f26900b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://travelingmom.com/destinations/west/4785-southern-californias-top-picks-for-spring-blossoms.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8269623517990112, "token_count": 1145, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Barbara Heath Land Race \u2013 2012\nBy the time Barbara Heath visited Horsham, the town and the surrounding Wimmera District of Western Victoria were in the process of recovering from a decade-long drought. To inform her work, which was initially to address issues of drought, Heath held a number of planned and fortuitous conversations with the assistance of Horsham Regional Art Gallery staff, which came to focus on the changes in agricultural practices in the area.\nThe list of people with whom Heath consulted is lengthy, but Dr Bob Redden, curator Australian Temperate Field Crops Collection of the Grains Innovation Park became her main contact. In an email of August 2011, Dr Redden wrote to Heath: \u2018Now with unprecedented population levels and growth, there is a risk of disconnect and taking food supply for granted, even with climate change. Humans will need to change if they wish to continue their increasing diverse interests, but will need to prioritise agricultural research, better understanding our available genetic resources, plant growth and development, and imaginative paths to harnessing science and truly earn the title \u2018Homo sapiens\u2019.\nLand race is a direct response to the urgency of maintaining biodiversity. Agriculture today requires economies of scale that change the social landscape and limit population diversity. This results in the erasure of many small communities, loss of connection to the past and cultural loss. Dr Redden explained his department\u2019s work to ensure plant gene diversity by sourcing and saving seed from land race crops. \u2018Land race\u2019 is the term used to describe heritage seed varieties now being displaced by International Seed Uniformity Standards.\nHeath\u2019s Land Race series shows distinct levels, from biodiversity in the soils to the patterns of farming practices above. Each Land Race also features a remnant plant species that reaches up and through the tractor track patterns: briar, apple and aloe.\nThere are numerous hero shots (one above) and details prepared (below), we will wait for the show to get under way and publicise a little later. The preliminary research is in an earlier blog post \u2013 click here.\n2 Responses \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:c1e616f0-c628-4e79-8c4f-63212b07cee3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://viewersite.wordpress.com/2012/02/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9413989186286926, "token_count": 434, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "MIT professor\u2019s book digs into the eclectic, textually linked reading choices of people in medieval London.\nCAMBRIDGE, Mass. -- Following the 1997 creation of the first laser to emit pulsed beams of atoms, MIT researchers report in the May 16 online version of Science that they have now made a continuous source of coherent atoms. This work paves the way for a laser that emits a continuous stream of atoms.\nMIT physicists led by physics professor Wolfgang Ketterle (who shared the 2001 Nobel prize in physics) created the first atom laser. A long-sought goal in physics, the atom laser emitted atoms, similar in concept to the way an optical laser emits light.\n\"I am amazed at the rapid progress in the field,\" Ketterle said. \"A continuous source of Bose-Einstein condensate is just one of many recent advances.\"\nBecause the atom laser operates in an ultra-high vacuum, it may never be as ubiquitous as optical lasers. But, like its predecessor, the pulsed atom laser, a continuous-stream atom laser may someday be used for a variety of applications in fundamental physics.\nIt could be used to directly deposit atoms onto computer chips, and improve the precision and accuracy of atomic clocks and gyroscopes. It could aid in precision measurements of fundamental constants, atom optics and interferometry.\nA continuous stream laser could do all of these things better than a pulsed atomic laser, said co-author Ananth P. Chikkatur , a physics graduate student at MIT. \"Similar to the optical laser revolution, a continuous stream atom laser might be useful for more things than a pulsed laser,\" he said.\nIn addition to Ketterle and Chikkatur, authors include MIT graduate students Yong-Il Shin and Aaron E. Leanhardt; David F. Kielpinski, postdoctoral fellow in the MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE); physics senior Edem Tsikata; MIT affiliate Todd L. Gustavson; and David E. Pritchard, Cecil and Ida Green Professor of Physics and a member of the MIT-Harvard Center for Ultracold Atoms and the RLE.\nA NEW FORM OF MATTER\nAn important step toward the first atom laser was the creation of a new form of matter - the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). BEC forms at temperatures around one millionth of a degree Kelvin, a million times colder than interstellar space.\nKetterle's group had developed novel cooling techniques that were key to the observation of BEC in 1995, first by a group at the University of Colorado at Boulder, then a few months later by Ketterle at MIT. It was for this achievement that researchers from both institutions were honored with the Nobel prize last year.\nKetterle and his research team managed to merge a bunch of atoms into what he calls a single matter-wave, and then used fluctuating magnetic fields to shape the matter-wave into a beam much like a laser.\nTo test the coherence of a BEC, the researchers generated two separate matter-waves, made them overlap and photographed a so-called \"interference pattern\" that only can be created by coherent waves. The researchers then had proof that they had created the first atom laser.\nSince 1995, all atom lasers and BEC have been produced in a pulsed manner, emitting individual pulses of atoms several times per minute. Until now, little progress has been made toward a continuous BEC source.\nWhile it took about six months to create a continuous optical laser after the first pulsed optical laser was produced in 1960, the much more technically challenging continuous source of coherent atoms has taken seven years since Ketterle and colleagues first observed BEC in 1995.\nA NEW CHALLENGE\nCreating a continuous BEC source involved three steps: building a chamber where the condensate could be stored in an optical trap, moving the fresh condensate and merging the new condensate with the existing condensate stored in the optical trap. (The same researchers first developed an optical trap for BECs in 1998.)\nThe researchers built an apparatus containing two vacuum chambers: a production chamber where the condensate is produced and a \"science chamber\" around 30 centimeters away, where the condensate is stored.\nThe condensate in the science chamber had to be protected from laser light, which was necessary to produce a fresh condensate, and also from hot atoms. This required great precision, because a single laser-cooled atom has enough energy to knock thousands of atoms out of the condensate. In addition, they used an optical trap as the reservoir trap, which is insensitive to the magnetic fields used for cooling atoms into a BEC.\nThe researchers also needed to figure out how to move the fresh condensate - chilled to astronomically low temperatures - from the production chamber to the science chamber without heating them up. This was accomplished using optical tweezers - a focused laser light beam that traps the condensate.\nFinally, to merge the new condensate with the existing condensate in the science chamber, they moved the new condensate in the tweezers into the science chamber by merging the condensates together.\nA BUCKET OF ATOMS\nIf the pulsed atom laser is like a faucet that drips, Chikkatur says the new innovations create a sort of bucket that collects the drips without wasting or changing the condensate too dramatically by heating it. This way, a reservoir of condensate is always on hand to replenish an atom laser.\nThe condensate pulses are like a dripping faucet, where the drops are analogous to the pulsed BEC production. \"We have now implemented a bucket (our reservoir trap), where we collect these drips to have continuous source of water (BEC),\" Chikkatur said. \"Although we did not demonstrate this, if we poke a hole in this bucket, we will have a steady stream of water. This hole would be an outcoupling technique from which we can produce a continuous atom laser output.\n\"The big achievement here is that we have invented the bucket, which can store atoms continuously and also makes sure that the drips of water do not cause a lot of splashing (heating of BECs),\" he said.\nThe next step would be to improve the number of atoms in the source, perhaps by implementing a large-volume optical trap. Another important step would be to demonstrate a phase-coherent condensate merger using a matter wave amplification technique pioneered by the MIT group and a group in Japan, he said.\nThis work is funded by the National Science Foundation, the Office of Naval Research, the Army Research Office, the Packard Foundation and NASA.", "id": "<urn:uuid:00cd54cf-be16-4b4b-8800-7d5342159b7a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/atomsource.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9408575892448425, "token_count": 1407, "score": 3.515625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "One of the most significant fault lines in Western culture opened up in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when what we now know as the \u201cmodern\u201d world separated itself from the classical and medieval world. The thinking of Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz, Kant, Newton, Jefferson, and many others represented a sea change in the way Western people looked at practically everything. In almost every telling of the story, this development is presented as an unmitigated good. I rather emphatically do not subscribe to this interpretation. It would be foolish indeed not to see that tremendous advances, especially in the arenas of science and politics, took place because of the modern turn, but it would be even more foolish to hold that modernity did not represent, in many other ways, a severe declension from what came before. This decline is particularly apparent in the areas of the arts and ethics, and I believe that there is an important similarity in the manner in which those two disciplines went bad in the modern period.\nIn his classic text After Virtue\n, the philosopher Alisdair MacIntyre lamented, not so much the immorality that runs rampant in our contemporary society, but something more fundamental and in the long run more dangerous; namely, that we are no longer even capable of having a real argument about moral matters. The assumptions that once undergirded any coherent conversation about ethics, he said, are no longer taken for granted or universally shared. The result is that, in regard to questions of what is right and wrong, we simply talk past one another, or more often, scream at each other.\nIn his masterpiece Brideshead Revisited, Evelyn Waugh implicitly lays out a program of evangelization that has particular relevance to our time. \u201cBrideshead\u201d refers, of course, to a great manor house owned by a fabulously wealthy Catholic family in the England of the 1920\u2019s. In the complex semiotic schema of Waugh\u2019s novel, the mansion functions as a symbol of the Catholic Church, which St. Paul had referred to as the \u201cbride of Christ.\u201d\nJust in advance of Christmas, the film version of J.R.R. Tolkien\u2019s The Hobbit\nappeared. As I and many other commentators have pointed out, Tolkien\u2019s great story, like its more substantive successor The Lord of the Rings\n, is replete with Catholic themes. On Christmas day itself, another film adaptation of a well-known book debuted, namely Victor Hugo\u2019s Les Mis\u00e9rables\n. Though Hugo had a less than perfectly benign view of the Catholic Church, his masterpiece is, from beginning to end, conditioned by a profoundly Christian worldview. It is most important that, amidst all of the \u201cLes Miz\u201d hoopla, the spiritual heart of Hugo\u2019s narrative not be lost.\nLike Star Wars\n, The Divine Comedy\n, and Moby Dick\n, J.R.R. Tolkien's The Hobbit\nis the story of a hero's journey. This helps to explain, of course, why, like those other narratives, it has proved so perennially compelling.", "id": "<urn:uuid:392f43f9-cfd5-441a-89bb-85422e02ff8b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wordonfire.org/Written-Word/articles-commentaries/October-2009.aspx?tagid=509&Page=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9566617608070374, "token_count": 653, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Coming soon! Nanotech on your desktop\nWithin 15 years, desktop nanofactories could pump out anything from a new car to a novel nanoweapon, says a technology commentator.\nAnd he warns that society needs to start preparing for this brave new world.\nMike Treder from the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology (CRN) in New York says advanced nanotechnology, like these nanofactories, could help solve world poverty but it could also wreak economic and social chaos.\n\"It's the biggest challenge we've ever faced as a species,\" says Treder, who has been addressing scientists in Australia this week.\nCRN is a non-profit organisation advised among others by the so-called father of nanotechnology, Dr Eric Drexler.\nThe organisation says it aims to raise awareness about the benefits and dangers of molecular manufacturing, the precise assembly of products atom-by-atom.\nWhile molecular manufacturing is not yet a reality, Treder says researchers are already working on building molecular-scale machines that could eventually move atoms around to make products.\nAnd he says that in less than 15 years, nanoscale factories could be making consumer products from cups and chairs to cars and house bricks.\nRaw materials like carbon would be pumped into the nanofactory, where atoms would be rearranged to make products according to programs downloaded from the internet, says Treder.\nTreder says such desktop nanofactories could help reduce poverty and starvation in developing nations, and provide tremendous medical benefits. But society needs to guard against its potential risks.\nIn particular, he says CRN is concerned that these desktop nanofactories would lead to a nano \"arms race\" in which hard-to-detect nanoweapons could be designed, manufactured and tested much quicker than they are today.\n\"Imagine a suitcase filled with billions of toxin-carrying flying robots that could be released anywhere to target a population,\" he says.\n\"You could make a suitcase full of these things overnight for a few dollars.\"\nThe mass production of consumer goods by private desktop factories could also trigger social chaos due to economic disruption, says Treder.\n\"If I can make my own car at home for a couple of hundred dollars with a design downloaded from the internet that means I'm not a customer of the auto dealer down the road.\"\nWaste from such easy manufacturing, or nanolitter, is another issue that needs to be thought about, he says. As is the prospect of nanospam.\n\"If someone could send you a product online that you don't want but they just make it pump out of your nanofactory, how are we going to prevent that?\"\nExperts are generally sceptical that desktop factories could exist so soon but welcome Treder's discussion of impacts of nanotechnology on society.\nDr Peter Binks of Nanotechnology Victoria, a sponsor for Treder's tour, says his organisation does not \"yet buy into the idea\" of the desktop factory.\n\"But we don't dismiss it either,\" he says. \"We think there are a large number of technical hurdles to be overcome.\"\nWilliam Price, professor of nanotechnology at the University of Western Sydney says desktop factories may be possible but technical issues will mean this will not be within 15 years.\nProfessor Chennupati Jagadish of the Australian Research Council Nanotechnology Network, which is also a sponsor for the tour, thinks Treder's views are imaginative and futuristic.\n\"Expecting those sorts of machines in 15 years is probably too optimistic,\" he says, estimating they would be more like 30 or 40 years away, if at all.\nAnd it's this challenge that makes Professor Ned Seeman, of New York University, who is involved in self-assembling arrays of DNA machines, sceptical of Treder's claims.\n\"I think this suggestion is wildly optimistic,\" he says. \"Most of the basic principles have not been demonstrated, much less in a 'desktop' context.\"\nBut even he is not willing to rule the technology out completely.\n\"One hundred years from now anything is possible.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:8b29f1b2-f3ec-4c61-a471-ce6a42fd2e31>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2006/09/22/1745504.htm?site=science&topic=latest", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9642257690429688, "token_count": 853, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ki Tisa(Exodus 30:11-34:35)\nTwo Types of Religious Encounter\nFraming the epic events of this week's Torah portion are two objects - the two sets of tablets, the first given before, the second after, the sin of the Golden Calf. Of the first, we read:\nThe tablets were the work of God; the writing was the writing of God, engraved on the tablets.\nThese were perhaps the holiest object in history: from beginning to end, the work of God. Yet within hours they lay shattered, broken by Moses when he saw the calf and the Israelites dancing around it.\nThe second tablets, brought down by Moses on the tenth of Tishri, were the result of his prolonged plea to God to forgive the people. This is the historic event that lies behind Yom Kippur (tenth of Tishri), the day marked in perpetuity as a time of favour, forgiveness and reconciliation between God and the Jewish people. The second tablets were different in one respect. They were not wholly the work of God:\nCarve out two stone tablets like the first ones, and I will write on them the words that were on the first tablets, which you broke.\nHence the paradox: the first tablets, made by God, did not remain intact. The second tablets, the joint work of God and Moses, did. Surely the opposite should have been true: the greater the holiness, the more eternal. Why was the more holy object broken while the less holy stayed whole? This is not, as it might seem, a question specific to the tablets. It is, in fact, a powerful example of a fundamental principle in Jewish spirituality.\nThe Jewish mystics distinguished between two types of Divine-human encounter. They called them itaruta de-l'eylah and itaruta deletata, respectively \"an awakening from above\" and \"an awakening from below.\" The first is initiated by God, the second by mankind. An \"awakening from above\" is spectacular, supernatural, an event that bursts through the chains of causality that at other times bind the natural world. An \"awakening from below\" has no such grandeur. It is a gesture that is human, all too human.\nYet there is another difference between them, in the opposite direction. An \"awakening from above\" may change nature, but it does not, in and of itself, change human nature. In it, no human effort has been expended. Those to whom it happens are passive. While it lasts, it is overwhelming; but only while it lasts. Thereafter, people revert to what they were. An \"awakening from below\", by contrast, leaves a permanent mark.\nBecause human beings have taken the initiative, something in them changes. Their horizons of possibility have been expanded. They now know they are capable of great things, and because they did so once, they are aware that they can do so again. An awakening from above temporarily transforms the external world; an awakening from below permanently transforms our internal world. The first changes the universe; the second changes us.\nTwo Examples. The first: Before and after the division of the Red Sea, the Israelites were confronted by enemies: before, by the Egyptians, after by the Amalekites. The difference is total.\nBefore the Red Sea, the Israelites were commanded to do nothing:\nStand still and you will see the deliverance God will bring you today ... God will fight for you; you need only be still. (14:13-14).\nFacing the Amalekites, however, the Israelites themselves had to fight:\nMoses said to Joshua, 'Choose men and go out and fight the Amalekites (17:9).\nThe first was an \"awakening from above\", the second an \"awakening from below.\"\nThe difference was palpable. Within three days after the division of the Sea, the greatest of all miracles, the Israelites began complaining again (no water, no food). But after the war against the Amalekites, the Israelites never again complained when facing conflict (the sole exception - when the spies returned and the people lost heart - was when they relied on hearsay testimony, not on the immediate prospect of battle itself). The battles fought for us do not change us; the battles we fight, do.\nThe second example: Mount Sinai and the Tabernacle. The Torah speaks about these two revelations of \"God's glory\" in almost identical terms:\nThe glory of God settled on Mount Sinai. For six days the cloud covered the mountain, and on the seventh day God called to Moses from within the cloud. Then the cloud covered the Tent of Meeting, and the glory of God filled the tabernacle.\nThe difference between them was that the sanctity of Mount Sinai was momentary, while that of the tabernacle was permanent (at least, until the Temple was built, centuries later). The revelation at Sinai was an \"awakening from above\". It was initiated by God. So overwhelming was it that the people said to Moses, \"Let God not speak to us any more, for if He does, we will die\" (20:16). By contrast, the tabernacle involved human labour. The Israelites made it; they prepared the structured space the Divine presence would eventually fill. Forty days after the revelation at Sinai, the Israelites made a Golden Calf. But after constructing the sanctuary they made no more idols - at least until they entered the land. That is the difference between the things that are done for us and the things we have a share in doing ourselves. The former change us for a moment, the latter for a lifetime.\nThere was one other difference between the first tablets and the second. According to tradition, when Moses was given the first tablets, he was given only Torah shebikhtav, the \"written Torah\". At the time of the second tablets, he was given Torah she-be'al peh, the Oral Torah as well: \"R. Jochanan said: God made a covenant with Israel only for the sake of the Oral Law, as it says : \"For by the mouth of these words I have made a covenant with you and with Israel\" (Ex. 34:27).\nThe difference between the Written and Oral Torah is profound. The first is the word of God, with no human contribution. The second is a partnership - the word of God as interpreted by the mind of man. The following are two of several remarkable passages to this effect:\nR. Judah said in the name of Shmuel: Three thousand traditional laws were forgotten during the period of mourning for Moses. They said to Joshua: \"Ask\" (through ruach hakodesh, the holy spirit). Joshua replied, \"It is not in heaven.\" They said to Samuel, \"Ask.\" He replied, \"These are the commandments - implying that no prophet has the right to introduce anything new.\" (B.T. Temurah 16a) \"If a thousand prophets of the stature of Elijah and Elisha were to give one interpretation of a verse, and one thousand and one sages were to offer a different interpretation, we follow the majority: the law is in accordance with the thousand-and-one sages and not in accordance with the thousand prophets.\" (Maimonides, Commentary to the Mishneh, Introduction)\nAny attempt to reduce the Oral Torah to the Written - by relying on prophecy or Divine communication - mistakes its essential nature as the collaborative partnership between God and man, where revelation meets interpretation. Thus, the difference between the two precisely mirrors that between the first and second tablets. The first were Divine, the second the result of Divine-human collaboration. This helps us understand a glorious ambiguity. The Torah says that at Sinai the Israelites heard a \"great voice velo yasaf\" (Deut. 5:18). Two contradictory interpretations are given of this phrase. One reads it as \"a great voice that was never heard again\", the other as \"a great voice that did not cease\" - i.e. a voice that was always heard again. Both are true. The first refers to the Written Torah, given once and never to be repeated. The second applies to the Oral Torah, whose study has never ceased.\nIt also helps us understand why it was only after the second tablets, not the first, that \"When Moses came down from Mount Sinai with the two tablets of Testimony in his hands, he was unaware that his face was radiant because he had spoken with God\" (34:29). Receiving the first tablets, Moses was passive. Therefore, nothing in him changed. For the second, he was active. He had a share in the making. He carved the stone on which the words were to be engraved. That is why he became a different person. His face shone.\nIn Judaism, the natural is greater than the supernatural in the sense that an \"awakening from below\" is more powerful in transforming us, and longer-lasting in its effects, than is an \"awakening from above.\" That was why the second tablets survived intact while the first did not. Divine intervention changes nature, but it is human initiative - our approach to God - that changes us.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ffaac7e1-e6f5-4e10-bb04-0ea99b4abe7b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.aish.com/tp/i/sacks/191819451.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9735288023948669, "token_count": 1927, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Why are these strange little spheres on Mars?\nrover Opportunity chanced across\nthese unusually shaped beads earlier this month while exploring a place named\nKirkwood near the rim of Mars'\nThe above image taken by Opportunity's\nMicroscopic Imager shows that some ground near the rover is filled with these unusual spheres, each spanning only about 3 millimeters.\nAt first glance, the sometimes-fractured balls appear similar to the small rocks dubbed\nblueberries seen by Opportunity eight years ago, but these spheres are densely compacted and have little iron content.\nAlthough it is thought that\nthese orbs formed naturally, which natural processes formed them remain unknown.\nOpportunity, an older sibling to the recently deployed\nCuriosity rover, will continue to study these spheres with the hope that they will provide a new clue to the ancient history of the surface of the\nMars Exploration Rover Mission,", "id": "<urn:uuid:5098a63f-0b99-4229-a882-704abc277ff4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.astrobio.net/index.php?option=com_galleryimg&task=imageofday&imageId=1263&msg=&id=&pageNo=16", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9328008890151978, "token_count": 186, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "We are banishing darkness from the night. Electric lights have been shining over cities and towns around the world for a century. But, increasingly, even rural areas glimmer through the night, with mixed \u2013 and largely unstudied \u2013 impacts on wildlife. Understanding these impacts is a crucial conservation challenge and bats, as almost exclusively nocturnal animals, are ideal subjects for exploring the effects of light pollution.\nPrevious studies have confirmed what many city dwellers have long noted: some bats enjoy a positive impact of illumination by learning to feed on insects attracted to streetlights. My research, however, demonstrates for the first time an important downside: artificial lighting can disrupt the commuting behavior of a threatened bat species. This project, using a novel experimental approach, was supported in part by BCI Student Research Scholarships.\nArtificial lighting is a global phenomenon and the amount of light pollution is growing rapidly, with a 24 percent increase in England between 1993 and 2000. Since then, cultural restoration projects have brought lighting to old docks and riversides, placing important river corridors used by bats and other wildlife at risk of disturbance.\nStudies of bats' foraging activity around streetlights find that these bats are usually fast-flying species that forage in open landscapes, typically species of Pipistrellus, Nyctalus, Vespertilio and Eptesicus. Such bats are better able than their slower cousins to evade hawks, owls and other birds of prey.\nFor our study, we chose the lesser horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus hipposideros), a shy, slow-?ying bat that typically travels no more than about 1.2 miles (2 kilometers) from its roost to forage each night, often flying no more than 16 feet (5 meters) from the ground. The species is adapted for feeding in cluttered, woodland environments. Its global populations are reported decreasing and the species is endangered in many countries of central Europe. The United Kingdom provides a European stronghold for the lesser horseshoe bat, with an estimated population of around 50,000.\nThese bats' slow flight leaves them especially vulnerable to birds of prey, so they leave their roosts only as the light fades and commute to foraging areas along linear features such as hedgerows. Hedgerows are densely wooded corridors of shrubs and small trees that typically separate fields from each other and from roadways. Such features are important commuting routes for many bat species, which use them for protection from predators and the elements. We suspected that lesser horseshoe bats would avoid illuminated areas, largely because of a heightened risk from raptors.\nWe conducted arti?cial-lighting experiments along hedgerows in eight sites around southern Britain. We first surveyed light levels at currently illuminated hedgerows, then duplicated those levels at our experimental hedgerow sites, all of them normally unlighted. We installed two temporary, generator-powered lights \u2013 about 100 feet (30 meters) apart \u2013 that mimic the intensity and light spectra of streetlights. Each site was near a maternity colony and along confirmed commuting routes of lesser horseshoe bats.\nBat activity at each site was monitored acoustically, with mounted bat detectors, during four specific treatments: control (with no lights); noise (generator on and lights installed but switched off); lit (full illumination all night for four consecutive nights); and another night of noise only. We identified horseshoe bat calls to species and measured relative activity by counting the number of bat passes per species each night.\nWe found no significant difference in activity levels of lesser horseshoe bats between the control nights and either of the two noise nights, when the generators were running but the lights were off. The presence of the lighting units and the noise of the generators had no effect on bat activity.\nThe negative impacts came when we turned on the lights. We documented dramatic reductions in activity of lesser horseshoe bats during all of the illuminated nights. In our study, 42 percent of commuting bats continued flying through the lights; 30 percent reversed direction and left before reaching the lights; 17 percent flew over the hedgerows; 9 percent flew through the thick hedgerow vegetation; and 2 percent circled high or wide to avoid the lights. We also recorded some strange behavior on one night when two bats flew over the hedge in a dark area between two lights, then flew up and down repeatedly, as though trapped between the lights.\nWe examined the effects of light on the timing of bats' commuting activity. The bats began their commute, on average, 29.9 minutes after sunset on control nights, but 78.6 minutes after sunset when the lights were turned on. Light pollution significantly delayed the bats' commuting behavior. Interestingly, the activity began a few minutes earlier (23 minutes after sunset) on the first, but not the second, noise night. It is possible that some bats emerged early to investigate the generator noise.\nWe clearly demonstrated how artificial lighting disrupts the behavior of lesser horseshoe bats. We found no evidence of habituation: at least on our timescale, the bats did not become accustomed to the illumination and begin returning to normal activity or timing.\nThese results suggest that light pollution may fragment the network of commuting routes used by lesser horseshoe bats, causing them to seek alternate, and probably longer, paths between roosting and foraging habitats. For some bats, this increased flight time can increase energy costs and stress, with potential impacts on reproductive success. It is critical, therefore, that light pollution be considered in conservation efforts.\nLight pollution is an increasing global problem with negative impacts on such important animal behaviors as foraging, reproduction and communication. Yet lighting is rarely considered in habitat-management plans and streetlights are specifically excluded from light-pollution legislation in England and Wales.\nI plan to use these results as the basis for recommendations for changes in policy, conservation and management for bat habitat in areas that are subject to development. This knowledge is fundamental for understanding the factors that impact bat populations not only in the United Kingdom but around the world, and in developing effective bat-conservation actions. I hope these findings will also help guide further research.\nScientists need to determine what levels of lighting particular bat species can tolerate, so we can take appropriate measures to limit the impact. These might include reducing illumination at commuting times, directing light away from commuting routes and constructing alternative flight routes.\nWe sincerely hope this research and similar studies will cause both officials and the public to think more about the consequences of artificial lighting on bats and other wildlife.\nEMMA STONE is a Ph.D. student at the University of Bristol and a researcher at the university's School of Biological Sciences. This project earned her the national Vincent Weir Scientific Award from the Bat Conservation Trust of the United Kingdom. Visit her project website for more information: www.batsandlighting.co.uk.\nThis research was originally published in the journal Current Biology, with co-authors Gareth Jones and Stephen Harris.", "id": "<urn:uuid:28ac1264-a7a3-4f42-b3f0-d3aa321f1dcf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.batcon.org/index.php/media-and-info/bats-archives.html?task=viewArticle&magArticleID=1066", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9497933387756348, "token_count": 1430, "score": 3.71875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Mexico scrambles to cope with egg shortage\nA city worker sells eggs at government subsidized prices as people line up outside the city truck in Mexico City, Friday, Aug. 24, 2012. The Mexican government is battling an egg shortage and hoarding that have caused prices to spike in a country with the highest per-capita egg consumption on earth. About 11 million chickens were slaughtered after a June outbreak of bird flu. / AP Photo/Alexandre Meneghini\n(AP) MEXICO CITY - The Mexican government is battling an egg shortage and hoarding that have caused prices to spike in a country with the highest per-capita egg consumption on Earth.\nA summer epidemic of bird flu in the heart of Mexico's egg industry has doubled the cost of a kilo (2.2 pounds), or about 13 eggs, to more than 40 pesos ($3), a major blow to working- and middle-class consumers in a country that consumes more than 350 eggs per person each year. That's 100 more eggs per person than in the United States.\nEgg prices have dominated the headlines here for a week, spurring Mexico City's mayor to ship tons of cheap eggs to poor neighborhoods and the federal government to announce emergency programs to get fresh chickens to farms hit by bird flu and to restock supermarket shelves with eggs imported from the U.S. and Central America.\nThe national dismay over egg prices has revealed the unappreciated importance of a cheap, easy source of protein that's nearly as important to Mexican kitchens as tortillas, rice and beans. Added boiled to stewed chicken, raw to a fruit-juice hangover cure and in every other conceivable form to hundreds of other foods, the once-ubiquitous egg has disappeared from many street-side food stands and middle-class kitchens in recent days.\n\"Eggs, as you know, are one of Mexicans' most important foods and make up a core part of their diet, especially in the poorest regions of the country,\" President Felipe Calderon said Friday as he announced about $227 million in emergency financing and commercial measures to restore production and replace about 11 million chickens slaughtered after the June outbreak of bird flu.\nCalderon said he was sending inspectors to stop speculation that he blamed for high egg prices, which have almost single-handedly driven up the national rate of inflation.\nHe said that the government had already begun large-scale importation of eggs and that about 3 million hens were being sent to farms hit by the flu outbreak.\nThe Mexico City government has sent a refrigerated trailer-truck of eggs into working-class neighborhoods over the last three days, selling kilo packets for less than half the current market price. Several thousand people lined up for about two hours Friday morning to buy eggs from the truck in southeastern Mexico City's Iztacalco neighborhood.\nIsidro Vasquez Gonzalez, an unemployed 43-year-old cook, waited with his niece and nephew to buy three kilos of eggs that they said they would eat almost immediately in a lunch of meatballs with chopped eggs.\n\"You can make eggs with anything scrambled eggs, with pork rinds, eggs with beans, green chiles, poached eggs, green beans with eggs, eggs with tomato sauce, \" Vazquez said, with a wistful look in his eyes. \"People here eat a lot of eggs. They were the cheapest, but now they're the most expensive. They're more expensive than meat.\"\nThe crisis began with the June detection of bird flu in the western state of Michoacan, which produces roughly half of Mexico's eggs. Some 11 million birds were killed to prevent the spread of the disease, sharply cutting into the national supply of more than 2 million tons of eggs a year.\nGovernment officials blame speculators in the wholesale egg business for driving up prices beyond the hike resulting from bird flu.\nAfter existing stocks of eggs ran out, prices rose sharply in August.\n\"Eggs are what we eat the most these days,\" said Gertrudis Rodriguez, 68. But with the higher prices, she said, \"if we eat beans, we don't eat eggs, or if we eat eggs, we don't eat beans with them.\"\nMexico City's public Food Supply Center, which provides government-subsidized fresh food to low-income residents, dropped other ingredients from its truck this week in favor of eggs, and will distribute 18 tons by the time its current stocks run out Monday, director-general Raymundo Collins said.\nCalderon said more than 150 tons of eggs had already crossed the border from the U.S. and 100 trailers carrying 500 more tons would arrive in the country over the weekend.\n\"The federal government will keep using every tool in its power to keep family's quality of life from being eroded by unfair increases in the price of eggs,\" the president said.\nPopular on CBSNews.com\n- U.K. official: London attack suspects probed before\n- Mexico's drug war 20 Photos\n- London soldier slaying homegrown Islamic extremism?\n- Man dead in \"truly shocking\" London attack 230 Comments\n- Graphic video: Man dead in \"truly shocking\" London attack Play Video\n- Who were the 4 U.S. citizens killed in drone strikes? 88 Comments\n- Mexican volcano on verge of eruption 15 Photos\n- Man, 80, becomes oldest to climb to top of Mount Everest", "id": "<urn:uuid:b97479be-7b5b-44a9-a4b8-4d6c4535aefc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-202_162-57500290/mexico-scrambles-to-cope-with-egg-shortage/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9730890393257141, "token_count": 1123, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Asthma is a lifelong disease that causes wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing. It can limit a person's quality of life. While we don't know why asthma rates are rising, we do know that most people with asthma can control their symptoms and prevent asthma attacks by avoiding asthma triggers and correctly using prescribed medicines, such as inhaled corticosteroids.\nThe number of people diagnosed with asthma grew by 4.3 million from 2001 to 2009. From 2001 through 2009 asthma rates rose the most among black children, almost a 50% increase. Asthma was linked to 3,447 deaths (about 9 per day) in 2007. Asthma costs in the US grew from about $53 billion in 2002 to about $56 billion in 2007, about a 6% increase. Greater access to medical care is needed for the growing number of people with asthma.\nAsthma is increasing every year in the US.\nToo many people have asthma.\n- The number of people with asthma continues to grow. One in 12 people (about 25 million, or 8% of the population) had asthma in 2009, compared with 1 in 14 (about 20 million, or 7%) in 2001.\n- More than half (53%) of people with asthma had an asthma attack in 2008. More children (57%) than adults (51%) had an attack.\n- 185 children and 3,262 adults died from asthma in 2007.\n- About 1 in 10 children (10%) had asthma and 1 in 12 adults (8%) had asthma in 2009. Women were more likely than men and boys more likely than girls to have asthma.\n- About 1 in 9 (11%) non-Hispanic blacks of all ages and about 1 in 6 (17%) of non-Hispanic black children had asthma in 2009, the highest rate among racial/ethnic groups.\n- The greatest rise in asthma rates was among black children (almost a 50% increase) from 2001 through 2009.\nAsthma Action Plan Stages\nGreen Zone: Doing Well\nNo cough, wheeze, chest tightness, or shortness of breath; can do all usual activities. Take prescribed longterm control medicine such as inhaled corticosteroids.\nYellow Zone: Getting Worse\nCough, wheeze, chest tightness, or shortness of breath; waking at night; can do some, but not all, usual activities. Add quick-relief medicine.\nRed Zone: Medical Alert!\nVery short of breath; quick-relief medicines don't help; cannot do usual activities; symptoms no better after 24 hours in Yellow Zone. Get medical help NOW.\nFull Action Plan: http://www.cdc.gov/asthma/actionplan.html\nAsthma has a high cost for individuals and the nation.\n- Asthma cost the US about $3,300 per person with asthma each year from 2002 to 2007 in medical expenses.\n- Medical expenses associated with asthma increased from $48.6 billion in 2002 to $50.1 billion in 2007. About 2 in 5 (40%) uninsured people with asthma could not afford their prescription medicines and about 1 in 9 (11%) insured people with asthma could not afford\ntheir prescription medicines.\n- More than half (59%) of children and one-third (33%) of adults who had an asthma attack missed school or work because of asthma in 2008. On average, in 2008 children missed 4 days of school and adults missed 5 days of work because of asthma.\nBetter asthma education is needed.\n- People with asthma can prevent asthma attacks if they are taught to use inhaled corticosteroids and other prescribed daily long-term control medicines correctly and to avoid asthma triggers. Triggers can include tobacco smoke, mold, outdoor air pollution, and colds and flu.\n- In 2008 less than half of people with asthma reported being taught how to avoid triggers. Almost half (48%) of adults who were taught how to avoid triggers did not follow most of this advice.\n- Doctors and patients can better manage asthma by creating a personal asthma action plan that the patient follows.\nAsthma by age and sex US, 2001-2009\nPercentages are age-adjusted\nSOURCE: National Center for Health Statistics; 2010.\nAsthma self-management education by age, US, 2008\nSOURCE: National Health Interview Survey, 2008, asthma supplement.\nAdults with asthma in the US, 2009\nSOURCE: Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System, 2009\nFederal, state, and local health officials can:\n- Track asthma rates and the effectiveness of control measures so continuous improvements can be made in prevention efforts.\n- Promote influenza and pneumonia vaccination for people with asthma.\n- Promote improvements in indoor air quality for people with asthma through measures such as smoke-free air laws and policies, healthy schools and workplaces, and improvements in outdoor air quality.\nHealth care providers can:\n- Determine the severity of asthma and monitor how much control the patient has over it.\n- Make an asthma action plan for patients. Use this to teach them how to use inhaled corticosteroids and other prescribed medicines correctly and how to avoid asthma triggers such as tobacco smoke, mold, pet dander, and outdoor air pollution.\n- Prescribe inhaled corticosteroids for all patients with persistent asthma.\nPeople with asthma and parents of children with asthma can:\n- Receive ongoing appropriate medical care.\n- Be empowered through education to manage their asthma and asthma attacks.\n- Avoid asthma triggers at school, work, home, and outdoors. Parents of children with asthma should not smoke, or if they do, smoke only outdoors and not in their cars.\n- Use inhaled corticosteroids and other prescribed medicines correctly.\nSchools and school nurses can:\n- Use student asthma action plans to guide use of inhaled corticosteroids and other prescribed asthma medicines correctly and to avoid asthma triggers.\n- Make students' quick-relief inhalers readily available for them to use at school as needed.\n- Take steps to fix indoor air quality problems like mold and outdoor air quality problems such as idling school buses.\nEmployers and insurers can:\n- Promote healthy workplaces by reducing or eliminating known asthma triggers.\n- Promote measures that prevent asthma attacks such as eliminating co-payments for inhaled corticosteroids and other prescribed medicines.\n- Provide reimbursement for educational sessions conducted by clinicians, health educators, and other health professionals both within and outside of the clinical setting.\n- Provide reimbursement for long-term control medicines, education, and services to reduce asthma triggers that are often not covered by health insurers.", "id": "<urn:uuid:444d36d1-9d94-4ee6-a229-05bf8f8ca759>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cdc.gov/VitalSigns/Asthma/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9483214020729065, "token_count": 1374, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Beginning with the establishment of a glass factory at Jamestown in 1608, manufacturing grew slowly during the colonial era to include flour mills and, by 1715, an iron foundry. During the 19th century, the shipbuilding industry flourished, and many cotton mills, tanneries, and ironworks were built; light industries producing a wide variety of consumer goods developed later. The strength of the Commonwealth's diversified manufacturing sector is shown in its 10.2% employment increase between 1970 and 1993. During this time period, national manufacturing employment declined by 8.3%.\nRichmond is a principal industrial area for tobacco processing, paper and printing, clothing, and food products; nearby Hopewell is a locus of the chemical industry. Newport News, Hampton, and Norfolk are centers for shipbuilding and the manufacture of other transportation equipment. In the western part of the state, Lynchburg is a center for electrical machinery, metals, clothing, and printing, and Roanoke for food, clothing, and textiles. In the south, Martinsville has a concentration of furniture and textile-manufacturing plants, and textiles are also dominant in Danville.\nThe total value of manufacturing shipments in 1997 totaled $87 billion, or 15th in the nation. In 1997, Virginia was the headquarters for 16 Fortune 500 companies.\nEarnings of persons employed in Virginia increased from $129 billion in 1997 to $138.3 billion in 1998, an increase of 7.2%. The largest industries in 1998 were services, 29.6% of earnings; state and local government, 10.5%; and retail trade, 8.7%. Of the industries that accounted for at least 5% of earnings in 1998, the slowest growing from 1997 to 1998 was federal civilian government (7.0% of earnings in 1998), which increased 0.4%; the fastest was finance, insurance, and real estate (7.0% of earnings in 1998), which increased 9.9%.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7b213df4-44a4-423e-986f-9a38e39a36c8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.city-data.com/states/Virginia-Industry.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9633927941322327, "token_count": 403, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(CNN) -- Months after rescuers found them struggling and covered in oil, 33 endangered and threatened young sea turtles are finally going home to the Gulf of Mexico.\nScientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries and the Audubon Nature Institute freed the turtles Thursday in waters about 40 miles southwest of Grand Isle, Louisiana.\nThis marked the latest mass release of turtles since about 500 were rescued in the weeks and months after the massive months-long oil spill.\n\"We were able to release these turtles because they're now healthy, and we're seeing recovery in the surface habitats of the Gulf of Mexico,\" NOAA Administrator Jane Lubchenco said in a news release.\nThe spill began after an April 20 explosion on the offshore drilling platform Deepwater Horizon that killed 11 men. Two days later, the platform sank and oil started gushing into the Gulf. In early August, owner BP used cement and mud to plug the damaged Gulf of Mexico well.\nOfficials formally declared an end to the oil spill disaster on September 19, though considerable efforts remained to clean up area waters and revive wildlife affected by the spill.\nEarlier this month, NOAA reopened federal waters off the Louisiana coast to fishing. Thursday's release marked another milestone in the area's recovery, according to those involved.\n\"Returning this group of sea turtles to their home waters is ... a sign that Louisiana is on the path towards recovery,\" said Randy Pausina, an assistant secretary for Louisiana's office of fisheries.\nThe 33 turtles had been rescued more than three months ago by federal officials and state wildlife authorities from Louisiana, Florida and Georgia, as well as the Riverhead Foundation and the In-Water Research Group. They were rehabilitated at the Audubon Nature Institute in New Orleans.\nThey included green, Kemp's ridley and hawksbill sea turtles, which are classified as endangered species. There also were loggerheads, which are a threatened species.\nWith 270 turtles having been cleaned, nursed back to health and released, there are more than 200 still in rehabilitation sites around the area.\nScientists did extensive aerial and shipboard tests earlier this week on the waters near the release point, making sure the sargassum algae was clean. Young turtles thrive in such areas, which provide protection from predators and ample food, including small crabs, snails and other creatures.\n\"Six months ago, it was nearly impossible to imagine this day would ever come,\" said Ron Forman, the Audubon Nature Institute's CEO and president.", "id": "<urn:uuid:175d2a4c-efc9-4cbc-bc2e-5701d5cd4d07>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cnn.com/2010/US/10/21/gulf.turtles.oil/index.html?iref=allsearch", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9703086018562317, "token_count": 519, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In July 2004, the Cranfills Gap Independent School District (Cranfills Gap ISD), located in Hamilton County, Texas, was identified as one of 54 school districts in the state meeting the criteria that initiate an Appraisal Standards Review (ASR) of the county appraisal district that served them. In April 2005, the Comptroller's Property Tax Division (PTD) began an Appraisal Standards Review of the Hamilton County Appraisal District (Hamilton CAD).\nAppraisal Standards Reviews\nThe 78th Legislature, Regular Session, directed the Comptroller's office to conduct appraisal standards reviews of county appraisal districts if the Comptroller's office finds in its annual Property Value Study (PVS) that the appraisal district has one or more \"eligible\" school districts. Eligible school districts are those that meet all of the following conditions:\n- the district's values are invalid in the most recent property value study;\n- the district's values were valid in the two studies preceding the most recent study; and\n- the district's local value is above 90 percent of the lower threshold of the margin of error.\nIn Texas, public education is paid for by a combination of state and local funds. Local funding comes from local property taxes. The chief appraiser of each county appraisal district (CAD) determines local property values, and school districts set tax rates that determine the amount of local tax revenue. Appraisal districts, under most circumstances, are required by law to appraise property at or near market value. Market value, in simple terms, is the price for which a property would sell under normal conditions. State funding is based on the total taxable property value within each school district as determined by the PVS.\nThe PVS independently estimates the taxable property value in each school district to ensure that state values reflect market value, which in turn ensures that school districts have approximately the same number of dollars to spend per student, regardless of the school district's property wealth or lack of property wealth. School districts with less taxable property value per student receive more state dollars for each pupil than districts with more value per student. The state's fair distribution of school funding depends largely on the Comptroller's taxable value findings.\nBy conducting appraisal standards reviews, the Comptroller's office helps school districts to understand the reason for the invalid finding so they can effectively work with the appraisal district to correct the problems and achieve market values. ASRs identify problems and recommend changes in procedures or methods to improve appraisal accuracy.\nAn ASR examines and evaluates a county appraisal district's appraisal practices, including appraisal planning, appraisal procedures and methodology, and application and adherence to appraisal standards. The Tax Code and Comptroller rules are the major criteria used to measure the appraisal district's performance. The evaluation of the appraisal district's appraisal methods are based on a comparison of local methods and procedures to those generally accepted by the mass appraisal industry in Texas. The Tax Code dictates certain appraisal procedures or standards such as the Uniform Standards for Professional Appraisal Practices (USPAP), specifically Standard 6: Mass Appraisal and Standard 7: Personal Property. Also the International Association of Assessing Officers Standards (IAAO) Standards on Assessment are used as guidelines on the operation of an assessment office.\nThe two principal focuses of the review are to determine why a school district served by the CAD was deemed eligible and to make recommendations to improve appraisal practices so the school district's values can be determined valid in future studies. The review evaluates five broad functional areas of CAD operations: information processing systems, district staffing, property mapping and discovery, appraisals and appraisal standards.\nThe review methodology includes a self-assessment completed by the CAD, staff interviews, reviews of written policies, procedures, plans, financial and management audits, and assessments of manual and automated records systems.\nAs the result of the review process, the Comptroller's office is issuing this report of its findings that includes recommendations for change and commendations for exemplary district appraisal practices. The appraisal district is required by law to comply with the recommendations within one year of the release of this report. If the Comptroller determines that the appraisal district board of directors failed to take remedial action within one year after the issuance of the review, the Comptroller shall notify the district judges serving in the county, who shall appoint a five-member board of conservators to implement the recommendations. The board of conservators shall exercise supervision and control over the operations of the appraisal district until the Comptroller determines pursuant to the annual property value study, Section 403.302, Government Code, that in the same year the taxable value of each school district for which the appraisal district appraises property is the local value for the school district. The appraisal district shall bear the costs related to the supervision and control of the district by the board of conservators.\nWhile the review team found several commendable practices implemented by dedicated and hardworking district employees, Hamilton CAD is facing a number of challenges in achieving and maintaining consistent valid findings, including:\n- improving the management of office operations;\n- documenting procedures; and\n- enhancing reappraisal tools and appraisal methods.\nKey Findings and Recommendations\nImprove the Management Office Operations\nExpand the detail of the budget presented to the board of directors for adoption to include the benefits for each position and a detailed list of each proposed capital expenditure. The district's budget lacks the detail necessary to comply with Section 6.06 of the Tax Code. The budget does not outline each set of benefits associated with each employee position. With 60 percent of the CAD's budget going to salaries, it's important for taxing units to understand where the money is being spent and ensure the district hires sufficient staff to perform appraisal functions.\nDevelop board procedures to evaluate the chief appraiser, insert a line for the chief appraiser's signature on the evaluation tool and use the newly developed tool to evaluate the chief appraiser annually. The board has not historically evaluated the chief appraiser in writing. After the onsite visit by the review team, the district developed an evaluation tool to allow the board to collectively evaluate the chief appraiser. The chief appraiser had not been evaluated with this tool. Setting annual expectations and evaluating the chief appraiser allows the board to communicate more effectively with the chief appraiser. The district should develop procedures to support the evaluation of the chief appraiser and begin annually assessing the chief appraiser's performance using the new tool.\nDevelop a comprehensive written policy and procedures manual for district operations. Hamilton CAD lacks well-documented policies and procedures to guide the day-to-day operations of the district in areas such as payroll processing, accounting, purchasing and related functions. Written procedures help guarantee tasks are performed correctly and provide useful training tools for new employees. By having a written policy and procedures manual for district operations, the district ensures consistency in performing daily functions and the procedures act as an internal control mechanism.\nContinually update and review the personnel manual against current employment law. Hamilton CAD's personnel manual is currently being updated and is ready for the board of director's approval. The current manual is the board's by-laws and lacks information on the American with Disabilities Act and the Family Medical Leave Act, among more recent personnel law changes. An updated personnel manual protects management and staff from arbitrary employment practices and guarantees CAD employees are aware of their rights and responsibilities.\nEnhance Reappraisal Tools and Appraisal Methods\nAdopt and implement a detailed reappraisal plan. Hamilton CAD lacks a detailed reappraisal plan to ensure the execution of timely and accurate reappraisals. The CAD's reappraisal plan does not outline staffing requirements, a detailed work plan, a budget or how the district's ratio studies will be used in establishing reappraisals. A detailed plan assures management is aware of the process that the district will use in conducting reappraisals, ensures resources are available for conducting reappraisals and provides a roadmap for completing the reappraisals.\nDevelop and implement effective appraisal maintenance programs based on ratio studies to identify and correct market value deviations. The 2003 PVS results indicate that Hamilton CAD's appraisal maintenance programs for at least one of its school districts did not achieve the desired result of identifying market areas whose values no longer reflect the market, so adjustments can be made. Cranfills Gap ISD's 2003 PVS eligibility was primarily attributed to under valuing rural residences while other property categories were inconsistently valued, or consistently over- or under-valued. Appraisal districts use ratio studies to plan appraisal maintenance programs. The ratio study results indicate those market areas in the appraisal district whose values no longer reflect the market. Frequent ratio studies and the appraisal maintenance that follows enable an appraisal district to keep its values at or near the market.\nThe review team identified commendable practices in Hamilton CAD that other county appraisal districts may do well to review and implement where appropriate.\nHamilton CAD backs up appraisal data and stores it in a secure location. The district has an established process for storing daily backed up appraisal data. In the event of a disaster, the district would be able to get back to work quickly because its records are stored offsite and only a small amount of data would be potentially lost.", "id": "<urn:uuid:aaeded40-db73-464b-966c-d92e0823fa88>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cpa.state.tx.us/taxinfo/proptax/cadreports/asr/hamilton/execsum.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9370890855789185, "token_count": 1870, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Doctors Urge Parents to Lower Volume Controls on Holiday Electronics\nMONDAY Dec. 21, 2009 -- If you're giving your teenager an iPod or other music player this holiday season, consider a bonus present to help their hearing: Preset the top volume level to one-half or two-thirds of the actual maximum.\nThat's the advice from specialists at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. They warn that sound over 85 decibels -- well short of the volume limit some music players carry -- can cause hearing loss. People are also at risk when they listen to music for too long.\n\"As parents, we can't hear how loud their music is when they have the earbuds in, so this is an important step,\" Dr. Ron Eavey, chair of the medical center's Department of Otolaryngology, said in a Vanderbilt news release. \"I can tell you that if you hear the music coming from their headphones, it is too loud, but an easier way to know for sure is to preset the device. This will still allow them to listen to and enjoy their music but will safeguard against ear-damaging volume levels.\"\nMany music players can be programmed to not allow their volume to go beyond a specified level.\nAnne Marie Tharpe, professor and chair of hearing and speech sciences at Vanderbilt, said in the same release that hearing loss isn't always obvious, especially in kids. \"The symptoms can initially be subtle and include difficulty hearing when there is background noise. Such losses can result in significant challenges for children in classroom settings.\"\nLearn more about hearing loss from MedlinePlus.\nPosted: December 2009", "id": "<urn:uuid:a9ec098f-ba12-4603-bd6d-c569d111e57f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.drugs.com/news/doctors-urge-parents-lower-volume-controls-holiday-electronics-21618.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9552271366119385, "token_count": 333, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Studies suggest that only 31% of Europe is thought to have a water supply that is either plentiful or sufficient to meet demands until 2015, and water stress indexes show a number of countries with traditionally wet climates such as Belgium and Bulgaria, under significant water stress. Therefore, there is both a desire and a need to reduce the consumption of water over much of Europe. For industry, often economics determine the viability of water recycling, which does not necessarily fall under the standards currently being set for the major water reuse schemes. While the additional annual recycling capacity in Western Europe is set to increase by 10%, much of the Global market is focussed on major reuse facilities based on the municipal sector. Within the industrial sector there are opportunities to achieve major changes in the water cycle which can have a significant impact on total water consumption. The impact on regional water consumption by industries efforts can be massive, as industry accounts for 50% of the water consumption in Western Europe. When benchmarked data across industry sectors is analysed, we find that industries ranging from paper mills, dairy, beverage, ceramic and electronics have opportunities to reduce their water consumption by around 50%. But what are the mechanisms that drive actions in the industry water cycle, and how great can the impact be? This paper explores industrial water costs across Europe, and the drivers leading to reduced water consumption. As operators of water and wastewater facilities for many industrial customers across Europe, Ondeo Industrial Solutions examine the raw water costs and the viability of recycle schemes. Economics is not the only driver towards the reduction in water consumption on industrial sites. There are political and legislative drivers that can often override the economics such as the European PPC (Pollution Prevention and Control) directive that can often lead to a programme of water consumption reductions.\nWater Science and Technology: Water Supply is published as an adjunct to Water Science and Technology, in 6 issues per year, covering new developments in water supply. Papers are selected by a rigorous peer review procedure and the journal publi \u00bb Read more", "id": "<urn:uuid:41724091-cd04-47e6-8629-7a92e8345dbb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.environmental-expert.com/articles/the-sustainable-industrial-water-cycle-a-review-of-the-economics-and-approach-236349", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9568292498588562, "token_count": 401, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Jamaican sprinter Usain Bolt's record-setting performances have unleashed a wave of interest in the ultimate limits to human running speed. A new study published in the Journal of Applied Physiology offers intriguing insights into the biology and perhaps even the future of human running speed.\nThe newly published evidence identifies the critical variable imposing the biological limit to running speed, and offers an enticing view of how the biological limits might be pushed back beyond the nearly 28 miles per hour speeds achieved by Bolt to speeds of perhaps 35 or even 40 miles per hour.\nThe new paper, \"The biological limits to running speed are imposed from the ground up,\" was authored by Peter Weyand of Southern Methodist University; Rosalind Sandell and Danille Prime, both formerly of Rice University; and Matthew Bundle of the University of Wyoming.\n\"The prevailing view that speed is limited by the force with which the limbs can strike the running surface is an eminently reasonable one,\" said Weyand, associate professor of applied physiology and biomechanics at SMU in Dallas.\n\"If one considers that elite sprinters can apply peak forces of 800 to 1,000 pounds with a single limb during each sprinting step, it's easy to believe that runners are probably operating at or near the force limits of their muscles and limbs,\" he said. \"However, our new data clearly show that this is not the case. Despite how large the running forces can be, we found that the limbs are capable of applying much greater ground forces than those present during top-speed forward running.\"\nIn contrast to a force limit, what the researchers found was that the critical biological limit is imposed by time -\u2013 specifically, the very brief periods of time available to apply force to the ground while sprinting. In elite sprinters, foot-ground contact times are less than one-tenth of one second, and peak ground forces occur within less than one-twentieth of one second of the first instant of foot-ground contact.\nThe researchers took advantage of several experimental tools to arrive at the new conclusions. They used a high-speed treadmill capable of attaining speeds greater than 40 miles per hour and of acquiring precise measurements of the forces applied to the surface with each footfall. They also had subjects' perform at high speeds in different gaits. In addition to completing traditional top-speed forward running tests, subjects hopped on one leg and ran backward to their fastest possible speeds on the treadmill.\nThe unconventional tests were strategically selected to test the prevailing beliefs about mechanical factors that limit human running speeds \u2013- specifically, the idea that the speed limit is imposed by how forcefully a runner's limbs can strike the ground.\nHowever, the researchers found that the ground forces applied while hopping on one leg at top speed exceeded those applied during top-speed forward running by 30 percent or more, and that the forces generated by the active muscles within the limb were roughly 1.5 to 2 times greater in the one-legged hopping gait.\nThe time limit conclusion was supported by the agreement of the minimum foot-ground contact times observed during top-speed backward and forward running. Although top backward vs. forward speeds were substantially slower, as expected, the minimum periods of foot-ground contact at top backward and forward speeds were essentially identical.\nAccording to Matthew Bundle, an assistant professor of biomechanics at the University of Wyoming, \"The very close agreement in the briefest periods of foot-ground contact at top speed in these two very different gaits points to a biological limit on how quickly the active muscle fibers can generate the forces necessary to get the runner back up off the ground during each step.\"\nThe researchers said the new work shows that running speed limits are set by the contractile speed limits of the muscle fibers themselves, with fiber contractile speeds setting the limit on how quickly the runner's limb can apply force to the running surface.\n\"Our simple projections indicate that muscle contractile speeds that would allow for maximal or near-maximal forces would permit running speeds of 35 to 40 miles per hour and conceivably faster,\" Bundle said.\nPeter Weyand is an associate professor of applied physiology and biomechanics in SMU's Annette Caldwell Simmons School of Education & Human Development.\nMatthew Bundle is an assistant professor of biomechanics in the College of Health Sciences at the University of Wyoming.\nAAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f82eb1f3-8151-440f-805f-fe0f77c884ce>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-01/smu-nsh012110.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9624035954475403, "token_count": 929, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "9.0 SleepWatch \u00ae ( Actigraphy) Measure of Sleep on Workdays and Non-Workdays\nIt was hypothesized that deployment of a combination of four fatigue management technologies would result in increased sleep time (actigraph determined) under both Canadian hours-of-service (Study Phase 1) and U.S. hours-of-service (Study Phase 2). However, analyses of actigraphy data for sleep episodes in the NO FEEDBACK versus FEEDBACK conditions revealed no statistically significant differences in sleep duration in either the Canada study phase or the U.S. study phase (see \"Prior Sleep\" variable in Tables 13 and 24). \"Prior Sleep\" was defined by all the sleep time found in each 24-hour period (from noon to noon, across consecutive days in the 2-week period for each condition) using an actigraphic software program called \"Action 4\" (developed by Ambulatory Monitoring, Inc., Ardsley, NY), as well as software that could recognize and eliminate from consideration periods of time when the actigraph was not on the wrist of a driver.\nAlthough the overall comparisons of actigraphically-defined 24-hour cumulative sleep time (Prior Sleep) were not different between the FEEDBACK and NO FEEDBACK conditions, it was clear that the U.S. study phase drivers had an average of 50 minutes less sleep per day than their Canadian counterparts during the NO FEEDBACK condition, and 39 minutes less sleep per day than their Canadian counterparts during the FEEDBACK condition (compare \"Prior Sleep\" in Tables 13 and 24). The reduced daily sleep times in the U.S. drivers were consistent with the differences between study phases in the predominant time-of-day for driving-Canada drivers had approximately 75% of their driving in daylight (and therefore, slept mostly in the nighttime), while U.S. drivers had approximately 90% of their driving at night (and therefore slept more in the daytime). It has long been established that sleep duration is reduced when people work nights, owing to circadian biological forces and environmental factors, which alone or together can truncate daytime sleep durations.\nAnalyses were performed to determine whether the actigraphically-defined sleep duration differences of 50 minutes (NO FEEDBACK difference between Canada and U.S.) and 39 minutes (FEEDBACK difference between Canada and U.S.) were statistically significantly different from each other. In addition, sleep durations would likely be affected by workdays and non-workdays, especially in the night driving U.S. subjects, such that non-workdays would likely involve significantly more sleep than workdays. As a result of these considerations, a series of analyses were conducted comparing actigraph-defined sleep obtained by Canada drivers and U.S. drivers on workdays and non-workdays, during the NO FEEDBACK 2-week period and the FEEDBACK 2-week period. These analyses yielded important new insights into the impact of FMT FEEDBACK on drivers' sleep durations. Tables 49 through 58, and Tables 7 through 9, display the results these analyses.\n9.1 Sleep Durations on workdays and non-workdays\nTables 51, 52, 53, and 54 reveal that drivers slept significantly more on non-workdays than on workdays. During the NO FEEDBACK 2-week period of the Canada study phase, drivers averaged 7 hours and 17 minutes sleep per 24 hour period on non-workdays compared to 6 hours and 15 minutes on workdays (p = 0.023), a mean difference of 1 hours and 2 minutes (Table 51). Similarly, during the FEEDBACK 2-week period of the Canada study phase, drivers averaged 7 hours and 31 minutes of sleep per 24 hours on non-workdays compared to 6 hours and 14 minutes on workdays (p = 0.0005), a mean difference of 1 hour and 17 minutes (Table 53). Comparable results were obtained in the U.S. study phase. During the NO FEEDBACK 2-week period of Study Phase 2, the U.S. drivers averaged 6 hours and 32 minutes of sleep per 24 hours on non-workdays compared to 5 hours and 14 minutes on workdays (p = 0.018), a mean difference of 1 hour and 18 minutes (Table 52). Similarly, during the FEEDBACK period, U.S. drivers averaged 7 hours and 32 minutes sleep compared to 5 hours and 1 minute on workdays (p = 0.0004), a mean difference of 2 hours and 31 minutes (Table 54). These are relatively large differences in 24-hour sleep durations, suggesting that drivers developed sleep debts across the workweek.\nFigure 7 graphically displays the workday versus non-workday sleep durations controlling for feedback condition. It reveals that the differences in mean daily sleep between workdays and non-workdays significantly differed between U.S. and Canada study phases (p = 0.028), which are referred to as \"location\" in Figure 7. Therefore, the NO FEEDBACK vs. FEEDBACK comparisons between U.S. and Canada were performed separately for workdays and non-workdays. Figure 8 reveals that during workdays, the NO FEEDBACK vs. FEEDBACK comparison did not significantly differ between U.S. and Canada study phases (p = 0.392) (Tables 55, 56, 57, 58). After removing the interaction, there was no main effect for feedback (p = 0.916), but mean sleep duration was significantly less for U.S. drivers compared to Canadian drivers (p = 0.011). Figure 9 shows that during non-workdays, the NO FEEDBACK vs. FEEDBACK comparison did not significantly differ between U.S. and Canada study phases (p = 0.506), and differences between U.S. and Canada were not significant during non-workdays (p = 0.460). Most importantly, in contrast to workdays, there was a significant increase in mean sleep duration during non-workdays in the FEEDBACK condition relative to the NO FEEDBACK condition (p = 0.046). In other words, FMT FEEDBACK resulted in drivers in both countries significantly increasing their non-workday daily sleep durations by an average of 45 minutes per day over what was the case in the NO FEEDBACK condition. This finding provides clear support for the hypothesis that a combination of four fatigue management technologies would result in more sleep (actigraph determined) under both Canadian hours-of-service (phase 1) and U.S. hours-of-service (phase 2).\nWhile it might have been expected that increased sleep time would also have occurred on workdays when FMT FEEDBACK was provided, this did not occur. It is possible that workday schedules prevent drivers from acting on information from FMT devices indicating they need more sleep. Barriers to obtaining sleep may be absent on non-workdays, allowing drivers to increase sleep time. It remains uncertain if this pattern of increased sleep on non-workdays would be sustained over months and years with FMT FEEDBACK. Much more needs to be understood about the factors that determine when and where drivers obtain sleep on workdays and non-workdays, on the barriers to obtaining adequate sleep on workdays, and on the factors that convince them to get more recovery sleep on non-workdays. An average of 45 minutes (both study phases) more sleep per non-workday was associated with FMT FEEDBACK. While this may seem modest, research suggests it is especially beneficial in promoting recovery from chronic sleep debt in persons sleeping less than 6.5 hours per day, which was the case for virtually all drivers participating in the study during workday period.", "id": "<urn:uuid:87e7e0b3-d1a6-4b14-a690-53562e6c7232>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fmcsa.dot.gov/facts-research/research-technology/publications/pilot-test/measure-sleep-workday.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9661599397659302, "token_count": 1596, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Con Ed to Get the Lead Out\nThe project will remove about 2,400 tons of underground lead sheathing through 2009 as part its membership in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's National Partnership for Environmental Priorities Program. The voluntary program aims to reduce or eliminate chemicals that can linger for decades when released into the environment. The private-public program has targeted 31 priority chemicals, such as lead and PCBs.\nCon Edison plans to replace 2,400 sections of underground lead-clad electric feeder cables this year with solid dielectric cables made of copper conductors encased in synthetic rubber. The new cables are easier to splice and better for electricity distribution.\nIn 2009, the company will continue replacing an additional 2,400 sections, each of which is estimated to have about 1,000 pounds of encased lead sheathing that will be recycled nearby.\nEventually the company wants to replace all lead-clad cables -- about 20 percent of the company's underground network -- by 2020, which could account for as much as 15,000 tons of reclaimed lead sheathing.\nFaced with a tide of post-consumer plastic trash, organizations are thinking up innovative ways to profitably harness this potentially vast revenue stream. Read more\nThe sixth annual edition of research has been expanded to include data on 1,600 companies worldwide, as well as on the U.S.-based S&P 500. Find out where the world of sustainable business is headed -- and the leading indicators of future progress.\nRead the stories and download the report.\nSimran Sethi shares how our psychology and geography shape the ways we engage and share with each other. See our entire video collection", "id": "<urn:uuid:56db57cb-e06f-4cec-888a-0c52535f2a12>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.greenbiz.com/news/2008/05/29/con-ed-get-lead-out", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9448566436767578, "token_count": 340, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- HHMI NEWS\n- SCIENTISTS & RESEARCH\n- JANELIA FARM\n- SCIENCE EDUCATION\n- RESOURCES & PUBLICATIONS\nBROWSE ALL RESOURCES\nBY TYPEAnimation (3) Book/Manual (4) CD (1) Classroom Activity (12) College Course (6) Curriculum (11) Game (1) Kit (1) Lab (9) Lesson Plan (5) Publication (23) Software (3) Tutorial (5) Video (24) Website (47) Wiki (2)\nBY TOPICBiochemistry (14) Biodiversity (3) Bioengineering (3) Bioethics (3) Bioinformatics (8) Biology (104) Biotechnology (9) Cell Biology (3) Chemistry (17) Earth Science (1) Ecology (9) Engineering (1) Evolution (10) General Science (15) Genetics (29) Genomics (13) Immunology (2) Infectious Diseases (1) Life Science (65) Mathematics (9) Medicine (6) Microarrays (5) Microbiology (3) Molecular biology (34) Neuroscience (7) Physics (5) Plants (2) Professional Development (35) Research methods (12) Science Communication (2) Systems Biology (1)\nBY GRADE LEVELK-16 (1) 4-8 (1) K-5 (6) Medical School (6) K-3 (2) K-8 (2) K-12 (9) 6-8 (18) 9-12 (52) College (101) Graduate (21)\nFolded-List Study Tool\nThis article describes the Folded-List Study Technique, a method designed by Professor of Biology Paul Heideman at the College of William and Mary, to give students a fast and efficient way to learn, recall, and apply key science concepts. (It is designed to be used in conjunction with the \u201cMinute Sketch\u201d tool, which is available within this database.) This document explains the method: Using a blank piece of paper folded lengthwise into four sections, students create one column for words and one for sketches or images. In the words column, they write the term or phrase for the first key concept. In the next column, they create a simple sketch to represent the concept. They keep adding words and sketches until the page is filled (although, over time, they should be able to condense all the essential material from one entire lecture on the top half of one sheet). Next, students fold the earlier columns behind and engage in repeated sketching and writing of these concepts in columns three and four. The recopying and rethinking of these concepts engages a student\u2019s motor memory and visual cortex. Dr. Heideman says that his method forces students to extract the essentials from a large amount of material and learn the key concepts as sequential events. It is an active-learning method that engages students\u2019 attention and allows them to review material quickly and to assess how much they have accomplished within a given time. Dr. Heideman says the method can be applied to other study techniques, such as concept mapping.\nProgram Director: Margaret Somosi Saha, Ph.D.\nAward Years: 1989, 1998, 2002, 2006\nSummary: The College of William and Mary is a public research university in Williamsburg, Virginia. Its HHMI-funded educational initiatives emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary and integrative approaches to education and research. They include:\n- The development of a Biological Mathematics program (which includes substantial curricular changes and the addition of new faculty positions), the strengthening of the interdisciplinary Neuroscience major, and the establishment of a new undergraduate Applied Science minor.\n- The enhancement of both Introductory Biology and Chemistry and upper-level immunology, molecular genetics, physiology, and neurophysiology laboratories through new equipment and expanded laboratory exercises.\n- The HHMI Freshman Research Program in Biology and Chemistry and related sciences, which allows participating students to conduct independent research with a faculty mentor very early in their college careers\u2014as freshmen. Many of these students have the opportunity to continue their research during the following summer and throughout the next three years.\n- Student participation in the National Genomics Research Initiative (NGRI), a national experiment in both research and education sponsored by HHMI\u2019s Science Education Alliance. Through this initiative, groups of freshmen at selected colleges participate in an authentic research experience\u2014integrated into an introductory laboratory course\u2014on the genetics of phages or bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria). Freshmen in the College of William and Mary\u2019s program discovered a new life form, a bacteriophage they named CrimD.\n- The expansion of a summer fellowship program to include students at Thomas Nelson Community College and three neighboring HBCU\u2014Hampton University, Norfolk State University, and Virginia State University. Students in this program have the option of continuing their research project throughout the academic year and receive an hourly stipend and weekend transportation and carpooling.\n- Partnerships with Hampton University, Norfolk State University, and Virginia State University to enable faculty to work together with research students at both the home campus and the College of William and Mary. The objective and anticipated outcomes are to establish lasting collaborations that improve opportunities for publication and the development of ideas for competitive grant proposals, either independently or in collaboration with faculty from the College of William and Mary.\n- The Saturday and Summer Enrichment Programs, which allow young children with high abilities to explore specialized areas of science, mathematics, and the arts and humanities.\n- The Science Training and Research Program (STAR), a four-week residential summer enrichment program that serves high-school juniors from disadvantaged backgrounds. The program, which offers core science and mathematics courses and an opportunity to visit research centers and laboratories, is designed to introduce students to the world of science, research, and technology.\n- A series of \u201cUpdate Courses\u201d tailored to help middle and high-school teachers develop both a knowledge base and practical experience with topics\u2014such as microbiology and molecular biotechnology\u2014that are the stated components of the Standards of Learning for the Commonwealth of Virginia. Participants also help design Teaching Modules that help integrate the science topics into the classroom.", "id": "<urn:uuid:57b75815-58af-4193-aab3-5055aea95477>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hhmi.org/coolscience/resources/SPT--FullRecord.php?ResourceId=177&AxisPHP=c7578c880e9fccb955b9cd6886799d87", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9014173746109009, "token_count": 1299, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Human expansion and interference have detrimental effects as civilizations continue to encroach on previously undisturbed habitats. As a result, many species of animals and plants must struggle to survive.\nBiodiversity reveals the important role each of these life forms plays in its ecosystem as well as the irreversible and extensive consequences that would result from a massive loss of biodiversity. It explores the ecological and evolutionary processes, how these processes depend on the cohabitation of a wide range of life forms within an ecosystem, and how the existence of these diverse organisms maintains a crucial stability in the natural world. Beginning with an introduction to biodiversity, this new volume discusses its importance and history, the difficulties in maintaining it, and past and current efforts to protect ecosystems from greater destruction. It examines five specific case studies, including the United States, Indonesia, New Zealand, Madagascar, and Costa Rica, describing the current status and history of biodiversity, obstacles, and conservation efforts in the country at hand.\nMaps. Index. Bibliography. Glossary. Chronology. Tables and graphs.\nAbout the Author(s)\nNatalie Goldstein is a freelance writer who has written numerous books for the educational market, including textbooks and teacher's guides for the middle school and encyclopedias for the high school. She also wrote Globalization and Free Trade and Global Warming in the Global Issues series.\nForeword author Julie L. Lockwood is director of the graduate program in ecology and evolution and associate professor in the Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Natural Resources at Rutgers University. She is the coauthor of Avian Invasions: The Ecology and Evolution of Exotic Birds and Invasion Ecology.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8e291587-fa26-42d6-8a00-914854f8bb35>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.infobasepublishing.com/Bookdetail.aspx?ISBN=0816082421&eBooks=0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9266213774681091, "token_count": 333, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Participatory Video created by members of various indigenous communities in Itogon, Philippines, tracking the impacts of large-scale mining and now climate change on their environment and culture.\nThis film was created by members of various indigenous communities in the Cordillera region of the Philippines, during a Participatory Video project facilitated by InsightShare. The participants were taught to use video cameras during an intensive 9-day PV workshop in the barangay of Garrison, in Itogon, and created this 24-minute film to communicate the devastating impacts of large-scale mining wrought on their communities by various companies over the years, and now the increasingly alarming impacts of climate change.\nThis project was part of Conversations with the Earth project. Launched in April 2009, Conversations with the Earth is a collective opportunity to build a global movement for an indigenous-controlled community media network. CWE works with a growing network of indigenous groups and communities living in critical ecosystems around the world, from the Atlantic Rainforest to Central Asia, from the Philippines to the Andes, from the Arctic to Ethiopia. Through CWE, these indigenous communities are able to share their story of climate change. Through the creation of sustainable autonomous indigenous media hubs in these regions, CWE fosters a long-term relationship with these communities, based on principles of local control and supporting indigenous media capacity.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8e21dd22-c3b3-4956-ade9-66549e3c9812>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.insightshare.org/watch/video/voices-experience", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9539486169815063, "token_count": 274, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Last reviewed by Faculty of Harvard Medical School on January 24, 2013\nBy Harvey B. Simon, M.D.\nHarvard Medical School\nChronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States. It's also the only disease among the top 10 killers that is seeing an increase in deaths each year. About 15 million Americans suffer from COPD. Men are affected about twice as often as women because male smokers have outnumbered female smokers.\nCOPD is not curable, but it is treatable. Lifestyle changes and medication can help people cope with chronic lung disease and live longer, fuller lives. But as you'll see, most cases of COPD can be prevented.\nBack to top\nWhat Is COPD?\nCOPD refers to chronic illnesses that block the flow of air and make breathing difficult. The two major forms of COPD are chronic bronchitis and emphysema. In both, narrowed air passages or bronchi make it hard to exhale. (Bronchi are wider during inhalation and narrow during exhalation.) Narrowed bronchi also cause asthma, but the narrowing is temporary and reversible. In COPD, it's permanent.\nIn chronic bronchitis, the mucous glands in the air passages are enlarged and produce too much mucous, which narrows the bronchi. In emphysema, the narrowing of the bronchi is caused by damage to the lung tissue and is more severe than in chronic bronchitis. Most patients with COPD have a mixture of chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Inflammation triggered by irritants that are inhaled also contributes to COPD. White blood cells try to fight off the irritation, but instead of controlling the damage caused by the irritant, they release chemicals that damage and eventually destroy lung tissue.\nSmoking causes about 85% of COPD cases. Heavy smokers have the highest risk of developing COPD. Secondhand smoke and other inhaled toxins can cause COPD in some nonsmokers. In others, an inherited protein deficiency is to blame. But in some cases, no cause is apparent.\nBack to top\nWhat Are the Symptoms of COPD?\nCOPD starts gradually and progresses slowly over time. That's why the number of cases of COPD continues to increase years after many American men quit smoking.\nAt first, there are no symptoms. But little by little, symptoms appear, usually in middle age. A morning \"smoker's cough\" is often the first complaint. The cough gradually gets worse and occurs throughout the day. Next, shortness of breath develops. In the beginning, it only occurs during exercise, but as the disease progresses, breathing becomes a chore even at rest. Wheezing is another common symptom. Most patients also become tired and weak.\nPatients with chronic bronchitis have a recurrent cough that brings up large amounts of thick, discolored phlegm almost every day for three months or longer. Over time, the lung disease puts a strain on the heart and men may develop cor pulmonale, a form of congestive heart failure. As a result, they accumulate fluid and gain weight. Their lips and skin may eventually turn bluish due to low blood oxygen levels.\nMen with emphysema have a scant and dry cough, severe shortness of breath and they breathe faster than normal. Their skin stays pink and they dont retain fluid, but their appearance changes: they lose weight, their muscles tend to waste away, and they develop large, barrel-shaped chests.\nMost patients with COPD have symptoms of both chronic bronchitis and emphysema. In addition to daily symptoms, most patients have two to three exacerbations each year. These are abrupt flares that are often triggered by lung infections. Symptoms get much worse and aggressive treatment is needed.\nBack to top\nHow Is COPD Diagnosed?\nThe best way to diagnose COPD is with a simple, safe lung-function test, called the forced expiratory volume at one second (FEV1). It measures the amount of air you can breathe out with maximum effort in one second. Doctors can also use this test to check the results of treatment. X-rays, blood oxygen mearurements, and other tests may also help.\nBack to top\nPeople with COPD can take steps to control symptoms, and minimize complications and disability. The first rule is the most important: Avoid tobacco and secondhand smoke. This is a hard and fast rule. There are no exceptions.\nGood nutrition is also important. A diet high in fruits, vegetables, and fish may actually help the lungs. There is no evidence that vitamin supplements help. In fact beta-carotene actually increases a male smoker's risk of lung cancer. Patients with chronic bronchitis and heart strain must avoid sodium (salt). Men with severe emphysema may benefit from high-calorie nutritional supplements. Drinking plenty of fluids will help keep phlegm loose and make it easy to clear out by coughing.\nA program of low-to-moderate intensity exercise can help the muscles get the most from the oxygen that damaged lungs can deliver. Walking is best. Start with 5 just minutes of walking three to four times a day and build up to 45 minutes a day. Patients with severe COPD or heart disease may also need a structured pulmonary rehabilitation program, which can teach breathing exercises that strengthen chest muscles.\nPreventing infection is essential. Be sure your flu and pneumonia shots are up to date. Keep your distance from folks with respiratory infections. Wash your hands carefully with an alcohol-based hand rub.\nBack to top\nMedications for COPD\nPrescription medications can do a lot for patients with COPD. Your doctor will explain the benefits and possible side effects. Here is a summary of the major groups of medications.\n- Bronchodilators - These relax the muscles in the walls of the bronchi, widening the tubes and easing the passage of air. The most popular short-acting bronchodilator is albuterol (Proventil). It is inhaled through a metered-dose inhaler (MDI) up to four times a day for quick relief of wheezing, coughing, or shortness of breath. Patients with mild COPD may need only a short-acting bronchodilator, but patients with more advanced disease also benefit from a long-acting bronchodilator. They help prevent symptoms rather than provide immediate relief. Salmeterol (Serevent) or formoterol (Foradil) can be inhaled twice a day as a spray or from a dry powder inhaler (DPI). Patients taking salmeterol or formoteral should continue using their short-acting albuterol MDI for that purpose.\n- Anticholinergics - These are drugs that widen the bronchial tubes and reduce the amount of mucus without making it thick and difficult to bring up. They provide long-term control and are the most important medication for many men with COPD. The newer drug tiotropium (Spiriva) can be used just once a day, while ipratropium (Atrovent) requires more frequent use . Because anticholinergics and bronchodilators work in different ways, patients can benefit from using both types of drugs.\n- Corticosteroids (\"steroids\") - These medications reduce inflammation in the bronchial tubes. Inhaled steroids can help many, but not all, patients with moderate-to-severe COPD. They are most effective for patients who are also taking long-acting bronchodilators. A combination of a steroid (fluticasone ) and a long-acting bronchodilator (salmeterol) is available for twice-a-day dry powder inhalation.\n- Antibiotics - These can be critically important for flare-ups but are not helpful for maintenance therapy. Notify your doctor right away if your breathing becomes worse, if you develop a fever, or if your phlegm becomes thicker, discolored, or more plentiful.\nBack to top\nDoes Oxygen Really Help?\nPeople with COPD who have low blood oxygen levels can benefit greatly from long-term, round-the-clock oxygen therapy. At home, oxygen can be stored in cylinders or generated by machines called oxygen concentrators. Portable tanks can provide several hours of oxygen away from home. Oxygen therapy needs careful supervision by a physician. Because oxygen can be a fire hazard, patients and household members need to follow certain safety precautions.\nBack to top\nThe Bottom Line\nThe average person will take some 600 million breaths during a lifetime. Most men can keep their lungs healthy simply by avoiding tobacco smoke and other harmful fumes. Early diagnosis and treatment can slow the damage, ward off complications, and improve the quality of life. New therapies are on the way, but simple prevention is the best treatment of all. And, after all, what's more important than preserving the breath of life?\nHarvey B. Simon, M.D. is an Associate Professor of Medicine at Harvard Medical School and a member of the Health Sciences Technology Faculty at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He is the founding editor of the Harvard Men's Health Watch newsletter and author of six consumer health books, including The Harvard Medical School Guide to Men's Health (Simon and Schuster, 2002) and The No Sweat Exercise Plan, Lose Weight, Get Healthy and Live Longer (McGraw-Hill, 2006). Dr. Simon practices at the Massachusetts General Hospital; he received the London Prize for Excellence in Teaching from Harvard and MIT.", "id": "<urn:uuid:39e2e8cd-237d-41a8-ac5a-69202c34ac3f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW011/35320/75768/537058.html?d=dmtHMSContent", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9400015473365784, "token_count": 2004, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "IOWA CITY, Iowa (AP) \u2014 Groundbreaking pollster George Gallup may be known for founding the survey organization that tracks people's opinions on the president, but he began his career with a more personal concern: getting his mother-in-law elected to statewide office.\nOla Babcock Miller was a huge underdog in the 1932 race for Iowa Secretary of State. Gallup conducted an informal poll of voters for her and learned that highway safety was a top concern. Miller campaigned successfully on the issue and went on to found the Iowa State Patrol.\nThat campaign is recounted in a collection of papers that Gallup's family recently donated to the University of Iowa documenting the life of the father of modern political polling.\nThe papers are expected to be used by researchers studying early polling on elections and marketing.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f272a1f3-8625-4a42-b53e-1b30cfb66534>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.khou.com/news/national/183705421.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9799492955207825, "token_count": 161, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "DefinitionBy Mayo Clinic staff\nCLICK TO ENLARGE\n|Visual acuity test|\n|Manual visual field testing|\nA complete eye exam involves a series of tests designed to evaluate your vision and check for eye diseases. Your eye doctor may use a variety of instruments, shine bright lights directly at your eyes and request that you look through an array of lenses. Each test during an eye exam evaluates a different aspect of your vision or eye health.\n- Pediatric eye evaluations. San Francisco, Calif.: American Academy of Ophthalmology. http://one.aao.org/printerfriendly.aspx?cid=2e30f625-1b04-45b9-9b7c-c06770d02fe5. Accessed Jan. 24, 2013.\n- Comprehensive eye and vision examination. American Optometric Association. http://www.aoa.org/eye-exams.xml. Accessed Jan. 24, 2013.\n- Clinical practice guidelines: Comprehensive adult eye and vision examination. St. Louis, Mo.: American Optometric Association. http://www.aoa.org/eye-exams.xml Accessed Jan. 24, 2013.\n- Riordan-Eva P, et al. Vaughan & Asbury's General Ophthalmology. 18th ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2011. http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=720. Accessed Jan. 24, 2013.\n- What is a doctor of optometry? American Optometric Association. http://www.aoa.org/x4891.xml. Accessed Jan. 24, 2013.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f4385a87-3762-4552-9e50-5589e339b22a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/eye-exam/MY00245", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.679851233959198, "token_count": 355, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Women with heart disease are at greater risk than other women when going through a pregnancy, but most still have positive outcomes, a registry showed.\nCompared with healthy pregnant women, those with structural or ischemic heart disease had higher rates of preterm birth (15% versus 8%), fetal death (1.7% versus 0.35%), and maternal mortality (1% versus 0.007%), but absolute rates remained relatively low, according to Jolien Roos-Hesselink, MD, of Erasmus Medical Center in Rotterdam, and colleagues.\nThe risks conferred by heart disease were magnified in women with cardiomyopathies and in those living in developing countries, the researchers reported online in the European Heart Journal.\nHowever, they wrote, \"most patients with adequate counseling and optimal care should not be discouraged and can go safely through pregnancy.\"\nBecause of a limited amount of data detailing the effects of heart disease on pregnancy outcomes, the European Society of Cardiology started the European Registry on Pregnancy and Heart Disease in 2007. The ongoing registry enrolls pregnant women who have valvular heart disease, congenital heart disease, ischemic heart disease, or cardiomyopathies.\nFor the current analysis, the researchers looked at data on 1,321 pregnant women who were enrolled from 60 hospitals in 28 countries from 2007 to 2011. The median age was 30.\nMost of the patients (72%) were in New York Heart Association class I, and only 0.3% were in NYHA class IV.\nThe most frequent diagnosis was congenital heart disease (66%), followed by valvular heart disease (25%), cardiomyopathy (7%), and ischemic heart disease (2%).\nThe median duration of pregnancy was 38 weeks, and the median birth weight was 3,010 grams (6 pounds 10 ounces).\nThirteen of the mothers died -- seven from cardiac causes, three from thromboembolic events, and three from sepsis. The highest mortality rate occurred in patients with cardiomyopathy, who also carried higher rates of heart failure and ventricular arrhythmias.\n\"Cardiomyopathy is uncommon during pregnancy, but it is difficult to manage a pregnancy in the context of left ventricular dysfunction or peripartum cardiomyopathy with a high risk of an adverse outcome for both the mother and the baby,\" the authors noted. \"Our study shows that more attention needs to be paid to this group.\"\nDuring pregnancy, 26% of the women were hospitalized, a much higher rate than seen in healthy pregnant women (2%). More than one-third of the admissions (39%) were for heart failure; 31% were for obstetric reasons, including pregnancy-induced hypertension, vaginal bleeding, pregnancy-induced diabetes, and abortion/missed abortion; 21% were for cardiac reasons other than heart failure; and 9% were for other reasons.\nThe rate of cesarean delivery was significantly higher among the women with heart disease than has previously been seen in healthy pregnant women (41% versus 23%, P<0.001).\nFetal mortality beyond 22 weeks of gestation or when the fetus was greater than 500 grams (1 pound 2 ounces) occurred at a higher rate in the women with heart disease. Most of those cases (62%) were listed as intrauterine fetal death without any further information, 21% were attributed definitely to the mother's condition, and 17% were related to structural fetal abnormalities.\nNeonatal mortality (within the first 30 days of life) occurred in 0.6%, a rate that was not significantly higher compared with historical controls (0.4%, P=0.27).\nWomen living in developing countries (185 of the registry patients) carried greater risks of both maternal mortality (3.9% versus 0.6%, P<0.001) and fetal mortality (6.5% versus 0.9%, P<0.001).\nThe authors noted that developed countries have much greater access than developing countries to optimal prenatal care and preconception counseling, even if it isn't used in all cases.\n\"This is a very complex issue, but if achievable, pre-conception counseling focusing on the severity of the heart disease with a clear statement of the consequences of pregnancy may save lives,\" they wrote.\nThe researchers acknowledged some limitations of the study, including the inability to perform extensive subgroup analyses because of small patient numbers, the fact that the input and quality of data was checked in only 5% to 10% of cases, and uncertainty about how representative the patient population is, considering the voluntary participation in the registry.\nFrom the American Heart Association:\nPrimary source: European Heart Journal\nRoos-Hesselink J, et al \"Outcome of pregnancy in patients with structural or ischemic heart disease: results of a registry of the European Society of Cardiology\" Eur Heart J 2012; DOI: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehs270.", "id": "<urn:uuid:67590eca-3da1-4574-b25c-3566d00461e4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.medpagetoday.com/OBGYN/Pregnancy/34726", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9523318409919739, "token_count": 1022, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Looking for a fun, kid-friendly activity to help your family appreciate the outdoors? Backyard birding is a great way to get the kids outside and learning more about the beautiful birds in your area. Here are a few helpful backyard birding tips to get started.\nEducate with games\nStart your birding adventures by learning which birds are native to your state. There are numerous online resources that include species listings, like the Bird Library from Perky-Pet. Once you have your list, make it a game. Print out the different types of birds and let your kids check them off as they see them. Whoever spots the most species could win a prize, like a birdfeeder. Making it a game will help motivate them to get outside and start bird watching.\nNature is full of sounds and smells. While outside, have your kids close their eyes and sit quietly for a few moments. Discuss the sounds you hear and try to recreate bird sounds as you heard them. Since our feathered friends are attracted to flowers, seeds and berries, identify which plants will invite birds. Encourage your kids to research other plants that might attract new birds to your backyard.\nBackyard birding is a great tool to encourage responsibility. If your birdfeeders are not cleaned weekly it's possible for dangerous bacteria to grow. This can have a disastrous effect on a community of birds. Create a birdfeeder-cleaning calendar for your child and make note of days when the feeders should be refilled. Depending on weather and the time of the year, your feeders may need to be filled with fresh seed daily.\nHelp with nesting\nBirds appreciate being able to keep clean as well as being provided with nesting materials. Help your kids collect lint or strips of fabric to set outside for birds to use when building their nests. As a family, set up a birdbath or bird waterer, like the new Perky-Pet Droplet Bird Waterer, and take turns keeping it cleaned and filled with fresh water.\nAttract new birds\nHave your kids select a new bird species they would like to see and learn how to attract them to your yard. One fun choice for young birders is the hummingbird.\nHummingbird feeder kits, like the Perky-Pet Oasis Hummingbird Feeder Complete Set, include all the essentials for feeding these tiny birds and will help your child become familiar with this species. Have your child take notes on the hummingbird behavior they witness including the birds' swift movements, territorial nature and whether they eat while perched or while flying.\nConnecting kids with nature is always a good idea, and birding is a fun way to start. So now, equipped with these kid-friendly ideas, it's time to start your backyard birding adventure. It's the perfect way to get your kids outside and the birds will enjoy the extra attention as well.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3862f7d8-fd53-4a44-aedc-c3d8dec3687d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mysoutex.com/view/full_story_landing/19147332/article-Summertime-is-perfect-for-backyard-birding-with-kids?instance=all_articles", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9532220959663391, "token_count": 595, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "NetWellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. NetWellness is commercial-free and does not accept advertising.\nThursday, May 23, 2013\nInjury Prevention and Safety\nwhich color bruise is considered to be the worst?\nHealth professionals used to rely on bruise color to estimate how recently an injury occurred. However, it is well known now that bruise color is not at all a reliable measure of how bad a bruise is or when the injury occurred.\nLarge bruises over the abdomen and pelvis that may signal that serious damage has been done to the organs underlying the bruise. The bruise itself is deceptive because you can't see the underlying damage that is far more serious than the visible discoloration. This can be deadly, especially if organs rich in blood supply such as the liver and spleen are damaged and the person bleeds to death internally.\nOf course, bruises over the bone can mean that a hemorrhage occurs under the bony covering called the periosteum and also may lead to a fracture of the bone underneath. These are certainly painful but do not lead to death very often. They can look worse because of the impact of the blood vessels onto the bone as compared to soft tissue bruising over the abdomen. Bruises around the eyes and ears can damage vision and hearing if the force of the injury was significant.\nThe bottom line is that color is not what is so important. It is much more important what the force of the injury was and what parts of the body are underneath the force of the injury. I hope this answers your question.\nMary M Gottesman, PhD, RN, CPNP, FAAN\nProfessor of Clinical Nursing\nCollege of Nursing\nThe Ohio State University", "id": "<urn:uuid:56c72567-b87d-48b8-b87a-7aabda38c9fe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.netwellness.uc.edu/question.cfm/59757.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511160850524902, "token_count": 366, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "help with a lesson plan\nby, 03-18-2008 at 04:44 PM (2410 Views)\nI'm currently planning a lesson to do with 4th-6th graders as part of a practicum in my Education program at university. I was hoping to select a poem that is very descritive to read to the kids as they draw what they see through the words. My initial idea was to use Coleridge's \"Kubla Kahn,\" but I've since decided that this will probably be too difficult a poem for 4th-6th graders (based on experience I've had with 'em).\nI'm looking for something that won't be too easy, preferably something with metaphors so that I may seque to brief instruction on those. I want to make the activity somewhat challenging, and one of my ideas is to mandate that I will only read the poem perhaps three times and they must come to agreement on when those three repetitions can be used.", "id": "<urn:uuid:863a5925-342e-4218-9827-3f32ac3d44b9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.online-literature.com/forums/entry.php?4875-help-with-a-lesson-plan&bt=19051", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9880972504615784, "token_count": 202, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "PBS KIDS\u00ae HOSTS \u201cSHARE THE EARTH\u201d CELEBRATION IN HONOR OF EARTH DAY\nNew eco-focused episodes and classic favorites airing April 18 \u2013 22\nArlington, VA \u2013 March 16, 2011 \u2013 PBS KIDS will host its sixth annual PBS KIDS \u201cShare the Earth\u201d celebration in honor of Earth Day by featuring new and favorite episodes encouraging children to care for and respect the environment. From April 18 \u2013 22, families can view brand new eco-friendly episodes on-air from SID THE SCIENCE KID, CURIOUS GEORGE\u00ae, MARTHA SPEAKS, WILD KRATTS, and ARTHUR, while learning about recycling, habitats, alternative energy and more. In addition, favorite Earth-focused episodes from SUPER WHY!, WORDGIRL\u00ae, and more will also be airing throughout the week.\n\u201cAs a leader in educational children\u2019s media, PBS KIDS offers many resources to get kids excited about exploring science and the natural world around them,\u201d said Lesli Rotenberg, senior vice president, Children\u2019s Media, PBS. \u201cThis year, we\u2019re celebrating Earth Day with content on-air, online, and beyond to help families discover that their next learning adventure could be as close as their own backyard.\u201d\nThe \u201cShare the Earth\u201d celebration continues online for both kids and parents. PBSPARENTS.org will feature a special \u201cSimple Ways to Protect the Earth\u201d page with new ideas for activities parents can do with their kids in celebration of Earth Day, such as gardening and craft ideas. An Earth Day channel on both PBSKIDS.org/video and PBSKIDSGO.org/video will feature Earth-themed episodes from favorite shows such as THE CAT IN THE HAT KNOWS A LOT ABOUT THAT! and WORDGIRL from April 15 through 22. In addition, a new web exclusive episode of DESIGN SQUAD NATION, \u201cSustainable South Bronx,\u201d will run on PBSKIDSGO.org, along with accompanying eco activity ideas for kids.\nFollowing is a listing of the episodes airing the week of April 18 -22 (Check local listings for air dates and times).\nSID THE SCIENCE KID\nNEW \u201cWhere Did The Water Go?\" (\"What happens to water that goes down the drain?\")\nWhile brushing his teeth, Sid wonders what happens to all the dirty water when it goes down the drain. At The Science Center, Sid and his friends explore how water travels in and out of our homes through pipes. And here's something Sid and his friends never realized: there's lots of water in the world, but you can't drink it all! We can only use fresh water, and there aren't a lot of fresh water sources in the world. That's why it's important not to waste water!\nNEW \"Clean Air!\" (\"Why does Sid's Dad wear a mask when he paints?\")\nSid the roving reporter is investigating something strange in his backyard--his Dad is wearing a mask while painting. Sid discovers that his Dad is protecting his face so he doesn't breathe in the dirty fumes. At school, Sid and his friends discover that people and animals on Earth need to breathe clean air, and when we pollute the air around us, it affects the air that everyone breathes. The kids also discover that trees have a really important role in keeping our air clean!\nNEW \u201cReused Robot\" (\"Where does trash go when we throw it away?\")\nSid's toy robot is broken, so he wants to throw it \"away.\" Sid's Mom tells him there is no such thing as \"away,\" and when we put something in the trash, we are actually creating waste. Sid and his friends explore the idea that everything we throw away goes somewhere. This leads to an investigation of how to recycle and reuse items so that we make less trash.\nNEW \u201cSave The Stump\" (\"Can an old stump be a home for tiny creatures?\")\nSid is super excited because his Dad is clearing out space in the yard for a basketball court! While Sid and Dad are surveying the land, Sid notices a big stump teeming with little creatures! During a special field trip to The Science Center, Sid and his friends discover that there are animal habitats all around us, even in old stumps, and if one habitat is destroyed, all of the other habitats and animals are affected.\nNEW \u201cWagstaff Races\u201d/ \u201cThe Missing Metal Mystery\u201d\n\u201cWagstaff Races\u201d - Wagstaff City's environmental club is having a \"Go Green Go-Cart Race,\" fueled by alternative energy. Using sun, wind, and pond scum, the gang gathers at the starting line. Who will win the trophy \u2014 and most importantly, how?\n\u201cThe Missing Metal Mystery\u201d - Who\u2019s been stealing things from the local junkyard? When Detective TD announces the identity of his main suspect, everyone is shocked.\nNEW \u201dFalcon City\u201d\nThe Kratt brothers are itching to fly with the world\u2019s fastest animal, the Peregrine falcon, which can hit top speeds of 240 mph. But their efforts are side-tracked when the rest of the Wild Kratts team challenges them to find the falcon in the city instead of in the wild, and Chris\u2019 Creature Power Suit is accidentally activated with Pigeon Powers! But then they discover that Zach is sending his Zachbots to clean off a building that has a peregrine falcon nests with chicks. Martin and Chris must activate their Peregrine falcons powers and harness the force of gravity to pull off a high flying creature rescue!\nNEW \u201cThe Blue and the Gray\u201d\nMartin and Chris are absorbed in a hilarious competition to discover who is the best acorn planter, blue jays or gray squirrels, when a strange Creature Power Suit malfunction transforms Martin into an acorn and grows him into an Oak tree! Chris activates the squirrel powers of his Creature Power Suit, but gets waylaid by a bobcat and goshawk, and Aviva, Koki, and Jimmy can\u2019t find them. It\u2019ll take some animal-loving Wild Kratts kids to get them out of this mess\nNEW \u201cFollow the Bouncing Ball\u201d/ \u201cBuster Baxter and the Letter from the Sea\u201d\n\u201cFollow the Bouncing Ball\u201d - Alberto Molina\u2019s beloved soccer ball, signed by his favorite Ecuadorian soccer star, El Boomerang, is lost! Is it the same soccer ball bouncing all over town, eluding potential captors?! This kicks off the first of 10 stories which follow the incredible journey of \u201cEl Boomerang\u201d around the world! Come, follow the bouncing ball!\n\u201cBuster Baxter and the Letter from the Sea\u201d - While on vacation with the Read family, Buster discovers a message in a bottle on the shore. Could it be an urgent message from the people of the Lost City of Atlantis? Buster is determined to find out and sends them a message back\u2026by throwing his own bottles in the ocean! Will he learn that keeping the beach and waters clean is the real message?\n\u201cThe Cherry Tree\u201d\nMuffy will do anything to have a gigantic Dream Bouncy Castle at her party, or so she thinks. When her favorite cherry tree is cut down to make room for the castle in her yard, she starts to have regrets. Then to make matters worse, she learns that cutting down trees hurts the environment, too. What can Muffy do to fix the damage she\u2019s done?\nNEW \u201cFollow That Boat\u201d/\u201cWindmill Monkey\u201d\n\u201cFollow That Boat\u201d \u2013 Steve needs an A to pass his history class and his model papyrus boat is sure to make the grade. George helps him test the boat in Endless Park\u2019s pond, but a sudden rainstorm sweeps it down the sewer grate! While searching for the boat, Steve and George learn that debris from the street ends up in the ocean. Will they ever find Steve\u2019s little boat in the big ocean or will he be taking history again next year?\n\u201cWindmill Monkey\u201d \u2013 George proudly finishes planting his rooftop garden when he turns around to find that Compass and his friends have eaten all the seeds. The scarecrow overlooking the garden didn\u2019t scare them at all! While buying more seeds, George spots a windmill and learns how the wind can power just about anything. The inspired monkey sets out to create the world\u2019s first wind powered scarecrow in hopes that will keep his seeds safe. But some things are more easily planned than done!\n\u201cTiddalick the Frog\u201d\nWhyatt\u2019s mom tells him that he\u2019s wasting water. This is a really big problem and he's not sure how to fix it. So the Super Readers dash into the Australian folk tale of Tiddalick the Frog and make the acquaintance of a funny amphibian whose puddle jumping is using up all the water and leaving his neighbors in the dust \u2013 literally! As the Super Readers help Tiddalick and his dry friends, they learn how important water is to the planet, along with a valuable lesson about conservation.\nAll is not well in Perfectamundo, a dome-enclosed cybersite, when orange spots are discovered building up on the dome\u2019s interior surface, blocking the site\u2019s precious sunlight. What source could be responsible for the spots multiplying so fast? Is it Hacker\u2019s new factory that pours out orange clouds through smoky stacks? It can\u2019t be that new Digifizz toy, with its tiny burst of colorful sparkles shooting into the air each time it gets used. With time running out, the CyberSquad must come to grips with the power of multiplication and use it to undo the site\u2019s pollution problem.\nANGELINA BALLERINA\u2122 THE NEXT STEPS\n\u201cAngelina and the Dance-a-thon\u201d\nAngelina and her friends organize a dance marathon for the Chipping Cheddar Earth Club as part of their \"Camembert Cares\" school project. After Gracie accidentally recycles the pledge sheet, Angelina uses her ingenuity to save the day!\n\u201cEARTH DAY GIRL\u201d\nWhen the villainous (and very large) Birthday Girl learns that planet Earth is having a special celebration on the same day as her happy occasion, she decides to wreak environmental havoc, just to teach the Earth a lesson. Can WordGirl find a way to stop the Birthday Girl\u2019s eco-rampage and save Earth Day?\nMAYA & MIGUEL\u2122\n\u201cEVERY DAY IS EARTH DAY\u201d\nFor a school Earth Day project, the kids decide to clean up an old lot and plant a community garden. But as the deadline approaches, a rainstorm hits, turning the patch of dirt into a muddy mess. How will Maya get her friends out of the muck this time?\nTHE ELECTRIC COMPANY\n\u201cThe Flube Whisperer\u201d\nKeith sends away for a Skeleckian pet that lives in a biosphere. But when the biosphere malfunctions, will Manny save the day?\nCLIFFORD THE BIG RED DOG\u00ae\nIt\u2019s Keep Birdwell Beautiful month and the kids are doing their part by planting a flower garden. Seeing this, the dogs decide to create a doggie flower garden of their own. But when Cleo hears that almost anything grows in Birdwell Island soil, she decides she\u2019d much rather grow a garden full of dog toys! She soon learns, however, that working alone for a selfish end is not nearly as rewarding as working together for the whole community.\nBARNEY & FRIENDS\u2122\n\u201cHome Sweet Earth: The Rainforest\u201d\nIt\u2019s Earth Day, a great time for everyone to learn how to help take care of our world, but Ben is wasting paper while BJ isn\u2019t too concerned about cutting down a tree to make room for a new playground. After a trip to the rainforest and a meeting with Mother Nature, everyone learns the importance of taking care of our world. As Earth Day comes to an end, Barney reminds us all that taking good care of our Earth is the natural thing to do for the people we love.\nAbout PBS KIDS\nPBS KIDS, the number one educational media brand for kids, offers all children the opportunity to explore new ideas and new worlds through television, online and community-based programs. More than 21 million children watch PBS KIDS on TV, and more than 21 million engage with PBS KIDS online each quarter. For more information on specific PBS KIDS programs supporting literacy, science, math and more, visit PBS.org/pressroom, and follow PBS KIDS on Twitter and Facebook.\nCurious George is a production of Imagine, WGBH and Universal. Curious George and related characters, created by Margret and H.A. Rey, are copyrighted and trademarked by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company and used under license. Licensed by Universal Studios Licensing LLLP. Television Series: (c) 2011 Universal Studios. All Rights Reserved.\n# # #", "id": "<urn:uuid:8faefe37-70dd-408e-998e-c86acda5d5ca>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.pbs.org/about/news/archive/2011/pbs-kids-earth-day/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9293407797813416, "token_count": 2810, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ray Tracing and Gaming - Quake 4: Ray Traced Project\nQuake 4: Ray traced\nAn algorithm was invented for this work that uses rays for collision detection (CD). A polygon-exact CD is quite easy for direct weapons. Only one ray is needed to determine the target. Shooting this ray works through the exact same mechanisms and data structures as shooting a ray to get a color value in rendering.\n(Polygon exact collision detection using ray tracing)\nFor the player model a bounding sphere was approximated through many rays like in a radar system.\n(Bounding sphere approximated through rays)\nAn interesting special effect which I want to present here in more detail is water. As we expect it from nature water should reflect the surrounding environment and it should be possible to look through the water with some refractions going on. Water in motion should not look flat; there should be some visible height differences in the waves. I want to present you some examples of water in games that we have seen the last years. Of course these 'optimizations' had to be done to make the game render fast enough, so this should not be a critic of the game or company itself. It should just show how water looks today in some games, what it lacks and how it could look in ray tracing games.\n('Far Cry' (2004): The reflection in the water shows only the mountains, not the trees.)\n('Far Cry': Taking a close look at the reflections you see that the resolution is lower then the rest of the world.)\n('Gothic 3' from 2006: Quite unspectacular water without any reflections)\nThe water in 'Quake 4: Ray traced' (http://www.q4rt.de/) uses an animation set of many normal maps to simulate the height differences from the waves. One ray is used for reflection on that normal maps, one ray is used to get the refraction through the water. The result is nice looking water.\n('Quake 4: Ray traced': The water reflects the environment and the player)\nSamples from Q4RT in action can be seen in this video:", "id": "<urn:uuid:66434d82-fa1d-46e1-bec2-495a6fcc3f25>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.pcper.com/reviews/Graphics-Cards/Ray-Tracing-and-Gaming-Quake-4-Ray-Traced-Project/Quake-4-Ray-traced?pcper_ajax_tabs_block_tab=0&referer=node%2F36157&args=", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9370315074920654, "token_count": 441, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Let's Talk About: Cosmic collisions\nShare with others:\nIt has been almost 100 years since Edwin Hubble measured the universe beyond the Milky Way Galaxy. Today, astronomers believe that as many as 100 billion other galaxies are sharing the cosmos. Most of these cosmic islands are classified by shape as either spiral or elliptical, but stargazing scientists have discovered galaxies that don't quite fit these molds.\nCommon to this \"irregular\" category are galaxies that interact with other galaxies. These gravitational interactions are often referred to as mergers, and their existence invites the question: Is the Milky Way collision-prone? To evaluate the probability, look to the Andromeda Galaxy. Located more than 2.5 million light-years away, Andromeda appears as a small fuzzy patch in the sky. However, there is nothing miniature about it. Similar to the shape (spiral), size and mass of the Milky Way, Andromeda is home to a trillion other stars.\nAstronomers have known for decades that our galactic neighbor is rapidly closing in on us -- at approximately 250,000 miles per hour. They know this because of blueshift, a measured decrease in electromagnetic wavelength caused by the motion of a light-emitting source, in this case Andromeda, as it moves closer to the observer.\nRecently, data collected from the Hubble Space Telescope has allowed astronomers to predict a merger with certainty, in 4 billion years. Our sun will still be shining, and Earth will most likely survive the impact. Reason being, galaxies, although single units of stars gravitationally tied together, are mostly gigantic voids. One can compare a galaxy-on-galaxy collision to the pouring of one glass of water into another. The end result is a larger collection of water, or in the case of a cosmic collision, a larger galaxy. Future Earth inhabitants, billions of years from now, could look up and observe only small portions of such an event because it will take 2 billion years for these cosmic islands to become one.\nFirst Published November 29, 2012 12:00 am", "id": "<urn:uuid:ebb1ace8-11cc-4b0f-87f2-0f8f23923491>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.post-gazette.com/stories/news/science/lets-talk-about-cosmic-collisions-664068/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9489831328392029, "token_count": 415, "score": 3.9375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Network With Us\nJoin us on Facebook to get the latest news and updates.\nLauren Boulden's Story\nUsing Think-Alouds to Get Inside Langston Hughes' Head\nOver my past few years of teaching, there have been multiple occasions where I have been stumped on how to present a particular concept to my students. I've always been able to turn to ReadWriteThink.org for hands-on, engaging lessons. For example, I knew I wanted my students to develop their skills when it came to interacting with text, particularly with poetry. While searching through the myriad options on ReadWriteThink, I came upon \"Building Reading Comprehension Through Think-Alouds.\"\nAt first, I planned to use the lesson exactly as written: Read Langston Hughes's poem \"Dream Variation\" and model a think-aloud with students; then have the students try their hand at some think-alouds using other poetry. After working out all of the details, I realized I could develop some additional skills, which would fit perfectly into the scope and sequence of my class. After completing the think-aloud to \"Dream Variation,\" I broke students into selected groups. Each group was given a different Langston Hughes poem and asked to complete a think-aloud. The next day, the students were put into a new jigsaw group where they were solely responsible for sharing what their Langston Hughes poem conveyed. Based on the meanings behind their group mates' poems, along with using the knowledge of both their poem and \"Dream Variation,\" students were asked to figure out who Langston Hughes was as a man. What did he stand for? What were his beliefs? What did he want out of life? Students used clues from the various poems to fill in a head-shaped graphic organizer to depict their understanding of who Hughes could be. This simple lesson of working with poems and think-alouds turned into a few days of group communication, text deciphering, inferences, and even an author study!\nWithout great lessons available on ReadWriteThink.org, such as \"Building Reading Comprehension Through Think-Alouds,\" my students would never have been able to tackle so many key reading strategies in such a short amount of time.\nGrades 6 \u2013 8 | Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson\nStudents learn components of think-alouds and type-of-text interactions through teacher modeling. In the process, students develop the ability to use think-alouds to aid in reading comprehension tasks.\nLauren describes how she used ReadWriteThink in her classroom.\nI have been teaching seventh- and eighth-grade language arts in Delaware for the past five years. I grew up in Long Island, New York, but have called Delaware my home since completing my undergraduate and master\u2019s work at the University of Delaware. Teaching and learning have become my prime passions in life, which is why my days are spent teaching English, directing plays, organizing the school newspaper, and teaching yoga in the evenings.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d55ba202-34fa-4fe6-b6ae-698c282eb244>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.readwritethink.org/about/community-stories/using-think-alouds-inside-36.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9695732593536377, "token_count": 625, "score": 3.5625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Adopting a New Flight Plan Whooping Crane Migration Route Shifted West into Safer Air Space\nBy LEN WELLS Courier & Press correspondent (618) 842-2159 or firstname.lastname@example.org\nThe route of the annual 1,250-mile migration of endangered whooping crane juveniles, led by an ultralight aircraft, has been shifted this fall to a more westerly route because of concerns about pilot and bird safety.\nThe route, from the Necedah National Wildlife Refuge in central Wisconsin to a closed area of the Chassahowitzka National Wildlife Refuge on the west coast of Florida, will bring the birds through parts of the Tri-State.\nIt will take the birds the entire length of Illinois and across Western Kentucky, with overnight stops in Wayne County, Ill., and Union County, Ky.\n\u201cThe route was shifted west because the easterly route was pretty scary,\u201d said Liz Condie, director of communications for Operation Migration, the group that works to ensure the birds\u2019 survival.\n\u201cGoing over the Cumberland Ridge, there was no place to set down to retrieve a bird if there had been a problem,\u201d she said.\nOfficials hope, too, for better weather along the westerly route by picking up more favorable winds.\n\u201cFor the safety of the birds, we\ncannot divulge the exact location of each stopover other than down to the county level,\u201d Condie said. \u201cAt each stop, the birds will be housed overnight in portable pens to protect them from predators and to keep them far away from human contact.\u201d\nWhile the stopover locations are kept secret, Operation Migration officials try to schedule gathering sites for local residents to catch a glimpse of the birds as they lift off to continue their southerly trek.\n\u201cA few days before the scheduled stopover, we try to alert the local residents of where they can congregate to watch a flyover,\u201d Condie said.\nBecause of fluctuating weather conditions, those interested in tracking the birds should check Operation Migration\u2019s Web site at www.operationmigration.org for a more specific date and time.\nThe whooping crane chicks that take part in the reintroduction project are hatched at the U.S. Geological Survey\u2019s Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Md. There, imprinting begins with the chicks still inside their eggs being exposed to ultralight aircraft sounds. Once hatched, the young chicks are reared in total isolation from humans.\nTo ensure the impressionable cranes remain wild, each handler and pilot wears a crane puppet on one arm that can dispense food, or by example, show the young chicks how to forage as would their real mother.\nAt 45 days of age, the young birds are transported by air, in individual containers, to the reintroduction area at the Necedah National Wildlife Refuge in Wisconsin.\nBecause of differing age ranges, the birds usually are moved in three shipments and housed at three separate locations within a closed area of the refuge. Over the summer, the Operation Rescue crew of pilots, biologists, veterinarians and interns conditions the birds to follow the aircraft, which, along with its pilot, has been accepted as a surrogate parent.\nOnce the birds\u2019 dominance structure has been established and their endurance is sufficient, the migration begins, typically in October. Using four ultralight aircraft, Operation Migration\u2019s pilots, along with a ground crew consisting of biologists, handlers, veterinarians and drivers, cover up to 200 miles a day, depending on weather conditions.\nThis year\u2019s migration to Florida has been scheduled to begin Oct. 17. The shortest migration has taken 48 days to complete. The longest, 97 days, was recorded last year.\nBecause of destruction of habitat and overhunting, whooping cranes were on the verge of extinction in the 1940s when their population was reduced to only 15 birds. Since falling under the protection of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, the only naturally occurring population of migrating whooping cranes has grown to more than 200 birds.\nNamed for their loud and penetrating unison calls, whooping cranes live and breed in wetland areas where they feed on crabs, clams, frogs and aquatic plants.\nAn adult whooping crane stands 5 feet tall, with a white body, black wing tips and a red crest on its head.\nAnyone encountering a whooping crane in the wild is asked to avoid approaching it, staying back at least 600 feet. In all cases, officials ask that people remain concealed and not speak loudly enough for the birds to hear them. Especially during the migration, residents are warned not to trespass on private property in an attempt to view the cranes.\n(c) 2008 Evansville Courier & Press. Provided by ProQuest LLC. All rights Reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1fea6546-1d45-4f80-b956-022db1d4eed7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1559276/adopting_a_new_flight_plan_whooping_crane_migration_route_shifted/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9453749656677246, "token_count": 1012, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "King James II of England (who was also James VII of Scotland) inherited the throne in 1685 upon the death of his brother, Charles II. James II was unpopular because of his attempts to increase the power of the monarchy and restore the Catholic faith. Deposed in the \"Glorious Revolution\" of 1688-89, he fled to France. His daughter and son-in-law succeeded him as Queen Mary II and King William III. James II died in 1701.\nUnless otherwise noted, these books are for sale at Amazon.com. Your purchase through these links will help to support the continued operation and improvement of the Royalty.nu site.\nJames II by John Miller. Biography from the Yale English Monarchs series.\nJames II: The Triumph and the Tragedy by John Callow. Charts James' life using little-known material from the UK National Archives. Includes James' own description of the Battle of Edgehill, his reasons for his conversion to Catholicism, and his correspondence with William of Orange.\nA Court in Exile: The Stuarts in France, 1689-1718 by Edward Corp. After James II was deposed, he established his court in France. The book describes his court and the close relationships between the British and French royal families.\nKing in Exile: James II: Warrior, King and Saint by John Callow. Reassesses James's strategy for dealing with his downfall and exile, presenting a portrait of a man who planned for great political rewards and popular acclaim.\nJames II and the Trial of the Seven Bishops by William Gibson. The trial of seven bishops in 1688 was a prelude to the Glorious Revolution, as popular support for the bishops led to widespread welcome for William of Orange's invasion.\nThe Making of King James II by John Callow is about the formative years of the fallen king. Out of print, but sometimes available from Alibris.\nThe Countess and the King: A Novel of the Countess of Dorchester and King James II by Susan Holloway Scott. Novel about Katherine Sedley, a royal mistress forced to make the most perilous of choices: to remain loyal to the king, or to England.\nThe Crown for a Lie by Jane Lane. Novel about how James II lost his throne. Out of print, but sometimes available from Alibris.", "id": "<urn:uuid:be22c535-4fcb-4d7e-9507-2ace71b51909>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.royalty.nu/Europe/England/Stuart/JamesII.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9606069326400757, "token_count": 484, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "RWJF Priority: Use pricing strategies\u2014both incentives and disincentives\u2014to promote the purchase of healthier foods\nPrices can significantly affect family food choices and are emerging as an important strategy in the movement to reverse the childhood obesity epidemic. For example, when healthy foods like fruits and vegetables are more affordable, children are less likely to gain excess weight. And leading health authorities, including the Institute of Medicine, recommend new policies to reduce overconsumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, which are one of the top sources of calories in the American diet.\nThe resources below, from RWJF grantees and partners, explore the possible health and economic impacts of using pricing strategies to promote consumption of healthy foods and beverages and discourage consumption of unhealthy products.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3cd46b83-2936-49a0-9b1f-a7fc2baa9e50>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rwjf.org/en/about-rwjf/program-areas/childhood-obesity/strategy/policy-priority-pricing-strategies.html?t=topics%3A499&t=topics%3A260&t=topics%3A1813", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9314009547233582, "token_count": 152, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Standard DefinitionStandard-definition television (SDTV) is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be either high-definition television (HDTV 720p and 1080p) or enhanced-definition television (EDTV 480p). The two common SDTV signal types are 576i, with 576 interlaced lines of resolution, derived from the European-developed PAL and SECAM systems; and 480i based on the American National Television System Committee NTSC system.\nHigh DefinitionHD video has higher resolution than SD video, which results in a sharper picture. Typical HD display resolution will be 1,280\u00d7720 pixels (720p) or 1,920\u00d71,080 pixels (1080i/1080p).\nFor our latest tips, offers and competitions join us on", "id": "<urn:uuid:c566f6e8-568e-48d8-92b9-45ee8cc9a01b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sainsburysentertainment.co.uk/en/Books/search.html?t=9780091900380&section=books", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9173039793968201, "token_count": 161, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Indian removal had been taking place in the United States since the 18th Century as more Americans made the move westward. In the early 19th Century, Andrew Jackson and the majority of white Americans like him, wanted the Indians to move west of the Mississippi, out of the way from white expansion. Popular thought was that the Indians were savages who could not be civilized, and integration with the white culture was not a possibility.\nThrough the next several years, Indian tribes all over the eastern front were forced to reservations of proportional inequality compared with land once owned. The United States bought the land from the Indians while using its brute power to force unruly tribes west. No matter how much they tried, the Indians were no match for the strength of the United States.\nIndians of the Sauk and Fox tribes tried to take back land that was ceded to the United States wrongfully. When they inhabited the vacant land, Americans saw them as a threat to the white settlements close-by. Illinois state militia was sent in to destroy the so-called \"invaders.\" The Indians retreated back and the militia continued to attack until most had been killed.\nWere Americans justified in the mass movement of Indian tribes? I would have to say they were not. I cannot see the logic in their assumptions of the Indians. For the most part, little interaction took place with the Indians. Yet, Americans still believed they were uncivilized.\nPerhaps the problem was in terms of envy. Indians had been capable of adapting to land and using the land efficiently for years at a time. I think Americans saw how the Indians were able to do this, and became jealous of their superior farming abilities. Land was becoming useless in the east, and Indians had been able to use their land repeatedly. Americans saw this fertile land as rich in potential profit and were willing to go to any length in acquiring it.\nEvidence of the two cultures working together in a society was apparent in New Mexico, Texas, and California. If these people were able to survive and live off each other, I would have to assume that had the United States made an effort, they could have resolved this situation in an easier manner. Unless it was jealousy that was driving them to take the Indian land. Something tells me it was exactly that which caused such a debacle. Superior in farming techniques and land use, the Indians efficient ways were the downfall of their land availability.", "id": "<urn:uuid:323ada14-c2ab-40ad-a3b6-39c9c51e30e5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.shvoong.com/humanities/history/6283-removal-indians-north-america/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9907050728797913, "token_count": 489, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "All Property Taxes\nReal, Public Utility and Tangible Personal Property\nTaxes Assessed Value and Taxes Levied for Taxes Payable in\nCalendar Year 1988, by County\nTable PD-30 shows total assessed value of, and taxes levied\non, real, public utility personal, and tangible personal\nproperty for taxes payable in calendar year 1988. Taxes for\nreal and public utility personal property were levied in tax\nyear 1987, but payable in calendar year 1988. Special\nassessments were also levied in tax year 1987 and payable in\ncalendar year 1988. In contrast, personal property taxes\n(excluding public utility personal property) are levied and\npayable in the same year - in this case 1988.\nTotal taxes levied on the three categories of property were\n$6.6 billion on a total assessed value of $106.7 billion.\nSpecial assessments totalled $107.9 million.\nTotal real property taxes levied were $5.0 billion, while\npublic utility personal property and tangible personal\nproperty taxes totalled $613.4 million and $1.0 billion,\nThe value of real property was $78.9 billion compared to\n$10.8 billion and $17.0 billion for public utility personal\nand tangible personal property, respectively.\nReal property taxes shown in the table are prior to\napplication of \"tax reduction factors\" and are prior to\nsubtracting the 10 percent property tax rollback for all real\nproperty, the 2.5 percent rollback for residential real\nproperty, and the homestead exemption deduction.\nAmong all Ohio counties, Cuyahoga County had the highest\nproperty value ($14.8 billion of which real property\naccounted for $11.3 billion) and the highest amount of taxes\nlevied ($929.5 million in real property taxes and $1.2\nbillion in total property taxes).\nVinton County had the lowest value of real property ($57.4\nmillion) and the lowest total property value ($99.1 million);\nCuyahoga County also levied the lowest amount of taxes ($2.1\nmillion in real property taxes and $3.6 million in total\nLucas County led all Ohio counties in the amount of special\nassessments levied, with $21.8 million. Four counties -\nAdams, Morgan, Pike, and Vinton- recorded no special\nData for this table were taken from abstracts filed by county\nauditors with the Ohio Department of Taxation.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0a65295c-9691-4fd1-9c21-d639a27f613d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.tax.ohio.gov/tax_analysis/tax_data_series/tangible_personal_property/pd30/pd30cy88", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9022682309150696, "token_count": 520, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Does exercise help you detox?\nExplore This Story\nThe word \u201cdetoxification\u201d is flung around the fitness community as frequently as kettlebells.\nYoga teachers regularly speak of detoxifying twists, aerobics instructors of detoxifying sweat, dieters of detoxifying fasts. But health professionals are skeptical.\n\u201cIf you start talking about exercising to detoxify, there\u2019s no scientific data,\u201d said Dr. Elizabeth Matzkin, chief of women\u2019s sports medicine at Harvard Medical School. \u201cThe human body is designed to get rid of what we don\u2019t need.\u201d\nThe same applies to fasting.\n\u201cNo good scientific data supports any of those cleanses, where you drink juice, or (only) water for a week,\u201d she said.\nExercise is important, Matzkin added, because it enables our body to do what it is made to do, but the kidneys and colon get rid of waste. The role of exercise in that process is unclear.\n\u201cIn general exercise helps our lungs; kidneys get rid of things that can cause us onset of disease,\u201d she said.\nA healthy lifestyle \u2014 eating healthy, drinking plenty of water and exercising \u2014 is important to detoxifying because it enables our body to do what is intended to do.\n\u201cAs for specific yoga moves, I\u2019m not so sure,\u201d she said.\nYoga instructor and fitness expert Shirley Archer, an author and spokeswoman for the American Council on Exercise (ACE) said the theory behind the effectiveness of detoxifying twists in yoga is that they squeeze the organs, which push the blood out so fresh blood can rush in.\n\u201cBetter circulation equals better health,\u201d said Archer, who is based in Florida. \u201cIf detox means to eliminate from the body what it no longer needs, then certain yogic practices can help.\u201d\nShe said yogic deep breathing with strong exhalations can empty the lungs of unneeded carbon dioxide and allow for a fresh breath of more oxygenated air. \u201cThis nourishes all of our cells,\u201d she said. \u201cIt is also a method of cleansing because better circulation equals better health.\u201d\nMeditative movement practices, such as yoga and tai chi, she added, can detox your attitude because they require staying in the present moment and discourage dwelling on the past.\nLast summer, celebrity trainer Tracy Anderson began taking groups of 40-odd women on what she calls Detox Weeks, which involve at least three hours of workouts each day, as well as lectures on fitness and nutrition aimed mainly at encouraging lifestyle changes.\nSimilar weeks in other cities are planned for 2013.\n\u201cWomen work out and think \u2018Why can\u2019t my love handles, muffin tops go away\u2019?\u201d said Anderson, creator of the Tracy Anderson Method and a co-owner, with actress Gwyneth Paltrow, of fitness centres in Los Angeles and New York. \u201cThe most important thing is if you can become a consistent exerciser.\u201d\n\u201cA good workout is not five to 10 yoga poses,\u201d she explained. \u201cYou have to learn to scale up your endurance. If you can only jump for five minutes straight, we\u2019ll go to 10 minutes, then 20 minutes.\u201d\nAnderson said she uses the term detoxification broadly to include everything from working up a good sweat to clearing the mind of destructive thoughts.\n\u201cDetoxification is a big topic,\u201d she said.\nNancy Clark, a registered dietitian in Boston, Massachusetts and a member of the American College of Sports Medicine, said the body generally does a fine job of detoxifying itself through the liver and kidneys. Sweating has nothing to do with it.\n\u201cWhen you sweat you really don\u2019t detoxify anything,\u201d she explained. \u201cIf someone goes on a crash diet, then maybe toxins are released but then the body would take care of them. When you sweat you lose sodium.\u201d\n- NEW RCMP probing Senate expense scandal, Senate speaker says\n- NEW Mayor Rob Ford fires chief of staff Mark Towhey\n- Toronto terror suspect asks for defence lawyer who is guided by \u2018holy book\u2019\n- Updated London attack: Two more people arrested, police say\n- Tim Bosma homicide: Second suspect Mark Smich appears in court\n- Updated City councillor Paul Ainslie's licence suspended after roadside check\n- DiManno: No matter how it seems on Planet Ford, it\u2019s over\n- Updated As world gawks at Rob Ford scandal, Toronto police wait and watch", "id": "<urn:uuid:2acad750-3515-4c82-bebf-b9def96040ac>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thestar.com/life/health_wellness/2012/12/17/does_exercise_help_you_detox.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9486384987831116, "token_count": 975, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There are many techniques available to help students get started with a\npiece of writing. Getting started can be hard for all levels of writers.\nFreewriting is one great technique to build fluency. That was\nexplored in an earlier lesson plan: http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/adulted/lessons/lesson18.html\nThis unit offers some other techniques. These techniques may be especially\nhelpful with students who prefer a style of learning or teaching that could\nbe described as visual, spatial, or graphic. Sometimes those styles or overlooked\nin favor of approaches that are very linguistic or linear. The approaches\nhere will attend to a broader range of learning styles as they add variety.\n- Writing: Writing Process, Pre-Writing, Autobiography, Exposition,\nPersonal Narrative, Argumentation, Comparison and Contrast, Description.\nStudents will be able to:\n- Write more fluently (writing more with greater ease)\n- Generate writing topics\n- Select topics that will yield strong pieces of writing\n- Connect personal experience, knowledge, and examples to an assigned\n- Produce better organized pieces of writing\nNational Reporting System of Adult Education standards are applicable here.\nThese are the standards required by the 1998 Workforce Investment Act. See\nPencils, colored pencils, pens, markers, crayons, unlined paper, magazines\nand newspapers with pictures inside, glue or paste, and paper. Big paper\nor poster board can make the pre-writing exercises more eye-catching,\nmore of a project, and better for display.\nVideo and TV:\nPrep for Teachers\nMake sure you try each of the activities yourself before you ask students\nto do them. That will give you a better understanding of the activities\nand help you recognize any potential points that may be confusing or difficult.\nThis also gives you a sample to show the students. Its much easier\nto create a diagram if you are shown an example of one.\nHere are some Web sites that give background and even more ideas about you\npre-writing, diagrams, graphic organizers, and other ideas to get started\nwith writing. There is some repetition here. You dont have to read\nthem all. But check them out and see what you think.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8337696e-d794-475f-9207-8e5f70d2fabe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/adulted/lessons/lesson19.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.90614914894104, "token_count": 475, "score": 4.28125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "No one knows how the first organisms or even the first organic precursors formed on Earth, but one theory is that they didn't. Rather, they were imported from space. Scientists have been finding what looks like biological raw material in meteorites for years, but it's usually been shown to be ground contamination. This year, however, investigators studying a dozen meteorites that landed in Antarctica found traces of adenine and guanine two of the four nucleobases that make DNA. That's not a big surprise, since nucleobases have been found in meteorites before. But these were found in the company of other molecules that were similar in structure but not identical. Those had never been detected in previous meteorite samples and they were also not found on the ground where the space rocks landed. That rules out contamination and rules in space organics. A little adenine and guanine in the company of other mysterious stuff is a long, long way from something living but it's closer than we were before.\nNext Star Wars Gets Real", "id": "<urn:uuid:3687b7dc-36d0-40be-aad4-b342f2eaf02b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2101344_2101210_2101220,00.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9834376573562622, "token_count": 213, "score": 3.78125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Poor sanitary conditions lead to increase in skin disease in SyriaListen /\nThere has been an increase in cases of leishmaniasis in Syria, according to Dr. Glen Thomas of the World Health Organization, (WHO).\nLeishmaniasis is a disease transmitted by the bite of the sand fly and characterized by skin sores.\nDr. Thomas says the disease is spreading because of poor waste and hygiene management caused by the continuing conflict in the country.\nThe form of the disease which affects the skin is not life-threatening and not a priority disease, says the doctor, but it is a concern.\nThe symptoms are sores and scars on the body and they come into effect a couple of weeks after the sand flies have transmitted the disease. And we are now helping and trying to get deliveries of treatments to the affected areas. But obviously because of the situation, it is very difficult.\nDr. Thomas says the Aleppo area is where the increase in leishmaniasis has been seen.\nGerry Adams, United Nations", "id": "<urn:uuid:f73f07a2-b29c-4a45-a867-f16cfaebe423>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.unmultimedia.org/radio/english/2013/02/poor-sanitary-conditions-lead-to-increase-of-skin-disease-in-syria/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9599119424819946, "token_count": 210, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "New Class of Tuberculosis-Fighting Antibiotics\nSuggested By Biochemical-Pathway Study\n(Philadelphia, PA) - A worldwide health problem, tuberculosis kills more\npeople than any other bacterial infection. The World Health Organization\nestimates that two billion people are infected with TB, and that two million\npeople die each year from the disease.\nHowever, due to multi-drug resistance and a protracted medication regimen,\nit is extremely difficult to treat. Hence, there is still a great deal\nof interest in developing new anti-tubercular drugs. Researchers at the\nUniversity of Pennsylvania School of Medicine have identified\na biochemical target that could lead to a new class of antibiotics to\nfight TB. They report their findings in this week\u2019s online edition\nof the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.\nIn a proof-of-principle study, Harvey Rubin, MD, PhD,\nProfessor of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, and colleagues\nwere able to stop the bacteria from multiplying by inhibiting the first\nstep in a common biochemical pathway. This pathway is responsible for\nmaking the energy molecules all cells need to survive. First author Edward\nWeinstein, an MD/PhD student, Rubin, and colleagues characterized\nthe pathway and showed that an important enzyme in it is a key target\nfor anti-TB agents.\nThe pathway, explains Rubin, is like a series of links in a chain, with\nenzymes facilitating reactions along the way. \u201cWe discovered that\nif you inhibit the very first enzyme in the chain, you inhibit everything\nelse downstream and eventually the bacteria die,\u201d he explains.\nThe research group tested phenothiazine, a drug used in the past to treat\nschizophrenia, in cultures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the\nbacterium that causes TB. They found that phenothiazines killed the bacterium\nin culture and suppressed its growth in mice with acute TB infection.\nWhile the effect on the growth of TB in mice was small, it suggested that\na valid target was identified. The research group went on to show that\nthe enzyme disabled by the phenothiazines is called type II NADH dehydrogenase\nand is a unique and important antimicrobial target.\n\u201cWhat we have now is a new target in TB,\u201d says Rubin.\n\u201cWe\u2019ve been able to find at least the beginnings of a class\nof compounds that we can start working with and that we know is biochemically\nactive against the TB bacteria in culture and in small animals.\u201d\nIs it a new drug for tuberculosis? Not yet, cautions Rubin. It\u2019s\npremature to say that this class of drugs will cure TB, but it does represent\nthe start of basic research towards that, he concludes. Next steps include\nmore investigations on inhibitors of the NADH biochemical pathway in TB,\nand the development of high-throughput screens to find better and safer\ninhibitors of type II NADH dehydrogenase.\nThis work was supported by grants from the National Institutes of Health.\nRubin and Weinstein\u2019s coauthors are Takahiro Yano, Lin-Sheng Li,\nDavid Avarbock, Andrew Avarbock and Douglas Helm from Penn, and Andrew\nMcColm, Ken Duncan, and John T. Lonsdale from GlaxoSmithKline (Collegeville,\nPA and Stevenage, UK). Animal studies were conducted at GlaxoSmithKline.\nPenn researchers report no conflicts of interest.\nPENN Medicine is a $2.7 billion enterprise dedicated\nto the related missions of medical education, biomedical research, and\nhigh-quality patient care. PENN Medicine consists of the University of\nPennsylvania School of Medicine (founded in 1765 as the nation\u2019s\nfirst medical school) and the University of Pennsylvania Health System\n(created in 1993 as the nation\u2019s first integrated academic health\nPenn\u2019s School of Medicine is ranked #3 in the nation for receipt\nof NIH research funds; and ranked #4 in the nation in U.S. News &\nWorld Report\u2019s most recent ranking of top research-oriented medical\nschools. Supporting 1,400 fulltime faculty and 700 students, the School\nof Medicine is recognized worldwide for its superior education and training\nof the next generation of physician-scientists and leaders of academic\nPenn Health System is comprised of: its flagship hospital, the Hospital\nof the University of Pennsylvania, consistently rated one of the nation\u2019s\n\u201cHonor Roll\u201d hospitals by U.S. News & World Report; Pennsylvania\nHospital, the nation's first hospital; Presbyterian Medical Center; a\nfaculty practice plan; a primary-care provider network; two multispecialty\nsatellite facilities; and home health care and hospice.", "id": "<urn:uuid:377aa195-0948-42ba-87ba-9074dbdbbd32>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/news/News_Releases/mar05/TBNADH_print.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.934686005115509, "token_count": 1022, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Search: Nuclear chemistry, Darmstadtium, Germany\nIn honour of scientist and astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543), the discovering team around Professor Sigurd Hofmann suggested the name copernicium with the element symbol Cp for the new element 112, discovered at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum f\u00fcr Schwerionenforschung (Center for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt. It was Copernicus who discovered that the Earth orbits the Sun, thus paving the way for our modern view of the world. Thirteen years ago, element 112 was discovered by an international team of scientists at the GSI accelerator facility. A few weeks ago, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, IUPAC, officially confirmed their discovery. In around six months, IUPAC will officially endorse the new element's name. This period is set to allow the scientific community to discuss the suggested name copernicium before the IUPAC naming.\n\"After IUPAC officially recognized our discovery, we \u2013 that is all scientists involved in the discovery \u2013 agreed on proposing the name copernicium for the new element 112. We would like to honor an outstanding scientist, who changed our view of the world\", says Sigurd Hofmann, head of the discovering team.\nCopernicus was born 1473 in Torun; he died 1543 in Frombork, Poland. Working in the field of astronomy, he realized that the planets circle the Sun. His discovery refuted the then accepted belief that the Earth was the center of the universe. His finding was pivotal for the discovery of the gravitational force, which is responsible for the motion of the planets. It also led to the conclusion that the stars are incredibly far away and the universe inconceivably large, as the size and position of the stars does not change even though the Earth is moving. Furthermore, the new world view inspired by Copernicus had an impact on the human self-concept in theology and philosophy: humankind could no longer be seen as the center of the world.\nWith its planets revolving around the Sun on different orbits, the solar system is also a model for other physical systems. The structure of an atom is like a microcosm: its electrons orbit the atomic nucleus like the planets orbit the Sun. Exactly 112 electrons circle the atomic nucleus in an atom of the new element \"copernicium\".\nElement 112 is the heaviest element in the periodic table, 277 times heavier than hydrogen. It is produced by a nuclear fusion, when bombarding zinc ions onto a lead target. As the element already decays after a split second, its existence can only be proved with the help of extremely fast and sensitive analysis methods. Twenty-one scientists from Germany, Finland, Russia and Slovakia have been involved in the experiments that led to the discovery of element 112.\nSince 1981, GSI accelerator experiments have yielded the discovery of six chemical elements, which carry the atomic numbers 107 to 112. The discovering teams at GSI already named five of them: element 107 is called bohrium, element 108 hassium, element 109 meitnerium, element 110 darmstadtium, and element 111 is named roentgenium.\nThe new element 112 discovered by GSI has been officially recognized and will be named by the Darmstadt group in due course. Their suggestion should be made public over this summer.\nThe element 112, discovered at the GSI Helmholtzzentrum f\u00fcr Schwerionenforschung (Centre for Heavy Ion Research) in Darmstadt, has been officially recognized as a new element by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). IUPAC confirmed the recognition of element 112 in an official letter to the head of the discovering team, Professor Sigurd Hofmann. The letter furthermore asks the discoverers to propose a name for the new element. Their suggestion will be submitted within the next weeks. In about 6 months, after the proposed name has been thoroughly assessed by IUPAC, the element will receive its official name. The new element is approximately 277 times heavier than hydrogen, making it the heaviest element in the periodic table.\n\u201cWe are delighted that now the sixth element \u2013 and thus all of the elements discovered at GSI during the past 30 years \u2013 has been officially recognized. During the next few weeks, the scientists of the discovering team will deliberate on a name for the new element\u201d, says Sigurd Hofmann. 21 scientists from Germany, Finland, Russia and Slovakia were involved in the experiments around the discovery of the new element 112.\nSince 1981, GSI accelerator experiments have yielded the discovery of six chemical elements, which carry the atomic numbers 107 to 112. GSI has already named their officially recognized elements 107 to 111: element 107 is called Bohrium, element 108 Hassium, element 109 Meitnerium, element 110 Darmstadtium, and element 111 is named Roentgenium.\nRecommendation for the Naming of Element of Atomic Number 110\nPrepared for publication by J. Corish and G. M. Rosenblatt\nA joint IUPAC-IUPAP Working Party confirms the discovery of element number 110 and this by the collaboration of Hofmann et al. from the Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Schwerionenforschung mbH (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany.\nIn accord with IUPAC procedures, the discoverers have proposed a name and symbol for the element. The Inorganic Chemistry Division Committee now recommends this proposal for acceptance. The proposed name is darmstadtium with symbol Ds. This proposal lies within the long established tradition of naming an element after the place of its discovery.", "id": "<urn:uuid:149ab25b-f1f4-4231-88ea-4e1968ed8a9d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.webelements.com/nexus/search/results/taxonomy%3A20%2C538%2C198.212", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368703682988/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516112802-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9182897210121155, "token_count": 1178, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Member States were next asked a series of questions related to safety and herbal medicines. The first question asked countries to describe those regulatory requirements used for the safety assessment of herbal medicines. The following options were given: same requirements as for conventional pharmaceuticals, special requirements or no requirements. If Member States chose the option \u201cspecial requirements\u201d, they were further asked to choose all that applied from the following options: traditional use without demonstrated harmful effects, reference to documented scientific research on similar products, and other requirements. If other requirements were selected, the respondents were asked to describe the requirement.\nA total of 130 Member States responded to this question: however, as respondents were asked to choose all that applied, there are more responses than respondents for this question (Figure 30). Eighty two countries indicated that special regulatory requirements exist for herbal medicine. Of the remaining responses, 57 countries indicated that the same regulatory requirements for safety assessment apply to herbal medicines as to conventional pharmaceuticals. Finally, 28 countries indicated that no regulatory requirements for safety assessment exist in their country.\nFigure 30. Regulatory requirements for safety assessment of herbal medicines\nWhen selecting the category \u201cspecial requirements\u201d, countries were further asked to choose the relevant categories of special requirement, or to describe other special requirements. Sixty-six countries of the 82 that chose the category of special requirements indicated that their laws and regulations employ the regulatory requirement of traditional use without demonstrated harmful effects, while 53 countries indicated that they had a regulatory requirement for reference to documented scientific research (Figure 31). Please note that, as countries were able to choose all options that apply, the number of responses exceeds the number of responding countries.\nFigure 31. Special regulatory requirements for safety assessment of herbal medicines\nTwenty-one countries chose the option \u201cother\u201d and provided details on other regulatory requirements for safety assessment. These included the following: clinical studies, bibliographical documents, screening of herbs not suitable for food use, screening for toxic elements, radioactivity and heavy metals, well-established use, traditional literature documentation and toxicological studies.\nFinally, countries were asked whether control mechanisms exist for the regulatory requirements for safety assessment detailed above and, if so, a brief description was requested. Though 125 Member States responded, the figure below only includes 106 since it excludes those that did not respond to the previous question, or responded solely that that there are no requirements. Of the responding countries, 67%, or 71 countries, indicated that such control mechanisms exist (Figure 32). The control mechanisms were also specified in some cases, of which licensing and registration, laboratory testing and pharmacovigilance centres were among the most frequently cited.\nFigure 32. Existence of a control mechanism for safety requirements", "id": "<urn:uuid:eabfecf5-97a3-43d0-9edc-e3ed41a4db64>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://apps.who.int/medicinedocs/es/d/Js7916e/7.7.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9469102025032043, "token_count": 547, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "As the years tick by with most of the planet doing little in the way of reducing carbon emissions, researchers are getting increasingly serious about the possibility of carbon sequestration. If it looks like we're going to be burning coal for decades, carbon sequestration offers us the best chance of limiting its impact on climate change and ocean acidification. A paper that will appear in today's PNAS describes a fantastic resource for carbon sequestration that happens to be located right next to many of the US' major urban centers on the East Coast.\nAssuming that capturing the carbon dioxide is financially and energetically feasible, the big concern becomes where to put it so that it will stay out of the atmosphere for centuries. There appear to be two main schools of thought here. One is that areas that hold large deposits of natural gas should be able to trap other gasses for the long term. The one concern here is that, unlike natural gas, CO2 readily dissolves in water, and may escape via groundwater that flows through these features. The alternative approach turns that problem into a virtue: dissolved CO2 can react with minerals in rocks called basalts (the product of major volcanic activity), forming insoluble carbonate minerals. This should provide an irreversible chemical sequestration.\nThe new paper helpfully points out that if we're looking for basalts, the East Coast of the US, home to many of its major urban centers and their associated carbon emissions, has an embarrassment of riches. The rifting that broke up the supercontinent called Pangea and formed the Atlantic Ocean's basin triggered some massive basalt flows at the time, which are now part of the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, or CAMP. The authors estimate that prior to some erosion, CAMP had the equivalent of the largest basalt flows we're currently aware of, the Siberian and Deccan Traps.\nSome of this basalt is on land\u2014anyone in northern Manhattan can look across the Hudson River and see it in the sheer cliffs of the Palisades. But much, much more of it is off the coast under the Atlantic Ocean. The authors provide some evidence in the form of drill cores and seismic readings that indicate there are large basalt deposits in basins offshore of New Jersey and New York, extending up to southern New England.\nThese areas are now covered with millions of years of sediment, which should provide a largely impermeable barrier that will trap any gas injected into the basalt for many years. The deposits should also have reached equilibrium with the seawater above, which will provide the water necessary for the chemical reactions that precipitate out carbonate minerals.\nUsing a drill core from an onshore deposit, the authors show that the basalt deposits are also composed of many distinct flows of material. Each of these flows would have undergone rapid cooling on both its upper and lower surface, which fragmented the rock. The core samples show porosity levels between 10 and 20 percent, which should allow any CO2 pumped into the deposits to spread widely.\nThe authors estimate that New Jersey's Sandy Hook basin, a relatively small deposit, is sufficient to house 40 years' worth of emissions from coal plants that produce 4GW of electricity. And the Sandy Hook basin is dwarfed by one that lies off the Carolinas and Georgia. They estimate that the South Georgia Rift basin covers roughly 40,000 square kilometers.\nThe authors argue that although laboratory simulations suggest the basic idea of using basalts for carbon sequestration is sound, the actual effectiveness in a given region can depend on local quirks of geology, so pilot tests in the field are absolutely essential for determining whether a given deposit is suitable. So far, only one small-scale test has been performed on any of the CAMP deposits.\nGiven the area's proximity to significant sources of CO2 and the infrastructure that could be brought into play if full-scale sequestration is attempted, it seems like one of the most promising proposals to date.\nPNAS, 2010. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0913721107", "id": "<urn:uuid:0f4b5328-483d-437b-b4b6-8cf4bfa3968b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://arstechnica.com/science/2010/01/pangea-era-rift-makes-east-coast-perfect-for-carbon-storage/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9447677731513977, "token_count": 823, "score": 3.90625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This section provides primary sources that document how Indian and European men and one English and one Indian woman have described the practice of sati, or the self-immolation of Hindu widows.\nAlthough they are all critical of self-immolation, Francois Bernier, Fanny Parks, Lord William Bentinck, and Rev. England present four different European perspectives on the practice of sati and what it represents about Indian culture in general, and the Hindu religion and Hindu women in particular. They also indicate increasing negativism in European attitudes toward India and the Hindu religion in general. It would be useful to compare the attitudes of Bentinck and England as representing the secular and sacred aspects of British criticism of sati. A comparison of Bentinck\u2019s minute with the subsequent legislation also reveals differences in tone between private and public documents of colonial officials. Finally, a comparison between the Fanny Parks and the three men should raise discussion on whether or not the gender and social status of the writer made any difference in his or her appraisal of the practice of self-immolation.\nThe three sources by Indian men and one by an Indian woman illustrate the diversity of their attitudes toward sati. The Marathi source illuminates the material concerns of relatives of the Hindu widow who is urged to adopt a son, so as to keep a potentially lucrative office within the extended family. These men are willing to undertake intense and delicate negotiations to secure a suitably related male child who could be adopted. This letter also documents that adoption was a legitimate practice among Hindus, and that Hindu women as well as men could adopt an heir. Ram Mohan Roy\u2019s argument illustrates a rationalist effort to reform Hindu customs with the assistance of British legislation. Roy illustrates one of the many ways in which Indians collaborate with British political power in order to secure change within Indian society. He also enabled the British to counter the arguments of orthodox Hindus about the scriptural basis for the legitimacy of self-immolation of Hindu widows. The petition of the orthodox Hindu community in Calcutta, the capital of the Company\u2019s territories in India, documents an early effort of Indians to keep the British colonial power from legislating on matters pertaining to the private sphere of Indian family life. Finally, Pandita Ramabai reflects the ways in which ancient Hindu scriptures and their interpretation continued to dominate debate. Students should consider how Ramabai\u2019s effort to raise funds for her future work among child widows in India might have influenced her discussion of sati.\nTwo key issues should be emphasized. First, both Indian supporters and European and Indian opponents of the practice of self-immolation argue their positions on the bodies of Hindu women, and all the men involved appeal to Hindu scriptures to legitimate their support or opposition. Second, the voices of Indian women were filtered through the sieve of Indian and European men and a very few British women until the late 19th century.\n- How do the written and visual sources portray the Hindu women who commit self-immolation? Possible aspects range from physical appearance and age, motivation, evidence of physical pain (that even the most devoted woman must suffer while burning to death), to any evidence of the agency or autonomy of the Hindu widow in deciding to commit sati. Are any differences discernible, and if so, do they seem related to gender or nationality of the observer or time period in which they were observed?\n- How are the brahman priests who preside at the self-immolation portrayed in Indian and European sources? What might account for any similarities and differences?\n- What reasons are used to deter Hindu widows from committing sati? What do these reasons reveal about the nature of family life in India and the relationships between men and women?\n- What do the reasons that orthodox Hindus provide to European observers and to Indian reformers reveal about the significance of sati for the practice of the Hindu religion? What do their arguments reveal about orthodox Hindu attitudes toward women and the family?\n- How are Hindu scriptures used in various ways in the debates before and after the prohibition of sati?\n- What is the tone of the petition from 800 Hindus to their British governor? Whom do they claim to represent? What is their justification for the ritual of self-immolation? What is their attitude toward the Mughal empire whose Muslim rulers had preceded the British? What is their characterization of the petitioners toward those Hindus who support the prohibition on sati? How do the petitioners envision the proper relationship between the state and the practice of religion among its subjects?\n- Who or what factors do European observers, British officials, and Indian opponents of sati hold to be responsible for the continuance of the practice of sati?\n- What were the reasons that widows gave for committing sati? Were they religious, social or material motives? What is the evidence that the widows were voluntarily committing sati before 1829? What reasons did the opponents of sati give for the decisions of widows to commit self-immolation? What reasons did opponents give for widows who tried to escape from their husbands\u2019 pyres?\n- What are the reasons that Lord Bentinck and his Executive Council cite for their decision to declare the practice of sati illegal? Are the arguments similar to or different from his arguments in his minute a month earlier? What do these reasons reveal about British attitudes toward their role or mission in India? Do they use any of the arguments cited by Ram Mohan Roy or Pandita Ramabai?\n- What do these sources, both those who oppose sati and those who advocate it, reveal about their attitudes to the Hindu religion in particular and Indian culture in general?", "id": "<urn:uuid:672e69ee-fd10-42dc-8e01-f4fde95914a0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://chnm.gmu.edu/wwh/modules/lesson5/lesson5.php?menu=1&c=strategies&s=0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.957252025604248, "token_count": 1164, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bundelkhand\u2019s ravine wastelands. Photo: Keya Acharya/IPS\nBUNDELKHAND, India \u2013 Narrow, cobblestoned lanes separate the rows of mud houses with cool interiors and mud-smoothened patios, some with goats tethered to the wooden posts. This is Tajpura village, deep in this water-stressed, drought-prone region of northern India.\nAn area of stark beauty marked by deep ravines in central India, Bundelkhand spans the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. The ruins of stone fortresses dotting the landscape betray a history of constant warfare just as the remnants of water courses and irrigation systems speak of peaceable and prosperous times gone by.\nBundelkhand suffers from manmade problems, starting with the government\u2019s misplaced land and water policies that have worsened an already stressed climatic situation caused by prolonged droughts and erratic rainfall.\nAir dropping of \u2018Prosopis juliflora\u2019 seeds as a soil-conservation measure in the 1960s resulted in the plant becoming an invasive species that killed indigenous shrubs and trees, making the soft soils of the ravines leach water rapidly and turned vast areas into wastelands.\nThoughtless promotion by the government of water-intensive crops like mentha (mint) encouraged richer farmers to dig deep tube wells while neglecting groundwater recharge, resulting in a disastrous lowering of the water table.\nMarginalised farmers, unable to afford expensive infrastructure and inputs, suffer as groundwater depletion adds to problems caused by the ancient rainwater storage and distribution systems going defunct.\nDrought is now a familiar spectre in this region and less than half of its one million hectare arable spread is now cultivable, causing distress to its mainly farming population of 50 million people.\n\u201cWhat you have is very high water consumption in an area suffering from water crisis,\u201d says Anil Singh, coordinator of Parmarth, an organisation working to revive traditional systems of water and cropping among marginalised communities that inhabit the ravines of Bundelkhand.\nIn Tajpura village, as though in denial of Bundelkhand\u2019s stark conditions, 36-year-old Mamtadevi, wife of Ajan Singh, serves up a meal of steaming hot chappatis (Indian flat bread) smeared with clarified butter, a cool, green salad and a dish of smoked brinjal, boiled potato, fresh tomato and green chilli.\n\u201cThat extra taste in the vegetables is because they are grown sustainably and without chemicals,\u201d explains Mamtadevi.\nAjan Singh and Mamtadevi were among the first to adopt Parmarth\u2019s \u2018low external input sustainable agriculture\u2019 (LEISA) which is now standing them in good stead as rainfall becomes scantier and average temperatures rises.\nLEISA involves such practices as efficient recycling of nitrogen and other plant nutrients, managing pests through natural means, maintaining ideal soil conditions and ensuring that local farmers are aware of the environment and the value of preserving ecosystems.\nThe soundness of this method shows in the freshness of Ajan Singh\u2019s vegetable crops, in biodiversity conservation through the use of hardy indigenous seeds and avoiding chemicals for maintaining soil health.\nAjan Singh is also able to beat the vagaries of the weather and this year\u2019s drought, caused by failure of the monsoons, holds no great terror for him or for other farmers who follow LEISA.\nBhartendu Prakash, steering committee member of the Organic Farmers Association of India (OFAI) and in-charge of its northern branch based in Bundelkhand, says the region was hit by frost last winter but organic farmlands using LEISA were the least affected.\n\u201cI did not know this system previously. I would grow \u2018gehu\u2019 (wheat) and manage 200-300 kg on this same plot,\u201d says Ajan Singh.\nParmarth helped the community in contouring the lands for rainwater run-off and storage and constructed a well for irrigation. Its volunteers also taught farmers like Ajan Singh how to make vermicompost and set up pheromone traps to catch insects.\nMost farmers though, already had their own methods of making biopesticide \u2013 usually a mix of neem leaves and garlic soaked in buffalo buttermilk. \u201cBut before the pheromone traps were laid, the spraying had to be done once every three days, now once a week is enough,\u201d says Mamtadevi.\nBy 2009, the couple\u2019s vegetables had such a reputation for quality that they sold at the local market 10 km away at higher than prevailing rates, earning them nearly 80,000 Indian rupees (then approximately 1,800 dollars) yearly.\nThree years later, Ajan Singh bought another \u2018bigha\u2019 (approximately 2.2 acres) of land. He now takes his produce to two markets and also sells milk from five buffaloes that he bought with his earnings.\nFifteen more farmers from Tajpura are now following Ajan Singh\u2019s methods.\nAlong with this, the women of the community have banded together into self-help groups that maintain a savings and loan account to assist women find simple livelihood alternatives like livestock rearing.\nThe women also run a grain bank that sells surplus grain in the open market and give grain free to distressed families in times of need.\n\u201cWe are now trying to link the community to government schemes wherever possible, such as obtaining sprinklers, and getting some benefit from the state-run Bundelkhand Relief Package which does help with drought-proofing,\u201d says Anil Singh who works for Parmarth.\nReleased in 2009 by the federal government, the package worth 1.5 billion dollars supports rainwater harvesting, proper utilisation of river systems, irrigation canals and water bodies over a three-year period.\nBut Bundelkhand\u2019s natural farming methods need to get more support as the funding period comes to an end.\n\u201cBundelkhand is too entrenched in northern Indian chemical farming methods,\u201d says OFAI\u2019s Prakash. In contrast, OFAI is deluged with requests for training in organic farming methods from farmers in Punjab and Haryana, the \u2018mother zone\u2019 of the so-called \u2018green revolution\u2019 that transformed agriculture in India after introduction in the 1960s.\nRajesh Krishnan, campaigner for Greenpeace in India, is optimistic that the government will see the wisdom of promoting organic agriculture as a counter measure to the numerous fallouts of chemical agriculture that fuelled the green revolution.\nKrishnan is hopeful for the probable financing of sustainable agriculture in India\u2019s 12th Five- Year Plan, due to be rolled out in November.\nPrakash is confident that sustainable agricultural farming will survive through a growing demand for organically-grown crops.", "id": "<urn:uuid:34eabe1a-7864-4b64-9b8b-dce88b0f492c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://climate-connections.org/2012/08/22/india-beating-the-weather-with-sustainable-crops/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9458027482032776, "token_count": 1469, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Scientists have long projected that areas north and south of the tropics will grow drier in a warming world \u2013- from the Middle East through the European Riviera to the American Southwest, from sub-Saharan Africa to parts of Australia.\nThese regions are too far from the equator to benefit from the moist columns of heated air that result in steamy afternoon downpours. And the additional precipitation foreseen as more water evaporates from the seas is mostly expected to fall at higher latitudes. Essentially, a lot of climate scientists say, these regions may start to feel more like deserts under the influence of global warming.\nNow scientists have measured a rapid recent expansion of desert-like barrenness in the subtropical oceans \u2013- in places where surface waters have also been steadily warming. There could be a link to human-driven climate change, but it\u2019s too soon to tell, the scientists said.\n[UPDATED below, 3/6, 1 p..m] Read more\u2026", "id": "<urn:uuid:71855304-2f8a-4425-8945-02a9b90be1ae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/tag/deserts/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9223676919937134, "token_count": 203, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The white, mottled area in the right-center of this image from NASA\u2019s Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) is Madrid, the capital of Spain. Located on the Meseta Central, a vast plateau covering about 40 percent of the country, this city of 3 million is very near the exact geographic center of the Iberian Peninsula. The Meseta is rimmed by mountains and slopes gently to the west and to the series of rivers that form the boundary with Portugal. The plateau is mostly covered with dry grasslands, olive groves and forested hills.\nMadrid is situated in the middle of the Meseta, and at an elevation of 646 meters (2,119 feet) above sea level is the highest capital city in Europe. To the northwest of Madrid, and visible in the upper left of the image, is the Sistema Central mountain chain that forms the \u201cdorsal spine\u201d of the Meseta and divides it into northern and southern subregions. Rising to about 2,500 meters (8,200 feet), these mountains display some glacial features and are snow-capped for most of the year. Offering almost year-round winter sports, the mountains are also important to the climate of Madrid.\nThree visualization methods were combined to produce this image: shading and color coding of topographic height and radar image intensity. The shade image was derived by computing topographic slope in the northwest-southeast direction. North-facing slopes appear bright and south-facing slopes appear dark. Color coding is directly related to topographic height, with green at the lower elevations, rising through yellow and brown to white at the highest elevations. The shade image was combined with the radar intensity image in the flat areas.\nSize: 172 by 138 kilometers (107 by 86 miles)\nLocation: 40.43 degrees North latitude, 3.70 degrees West longitude\nOrientation: North toward the top\nImage Data: shaded and colored SRTM elevation model, with SRTM radar intensity added\nOriginal Data Resolution: SRTM 1 arcsecond (about 30 meters or 98 feet)\nDate Acquired: February 2000\nImage Courtesy SRTM Team NASA/JPL/NIMA", "id": "<urn:uuid:e494080f-4b89-4fa9-91cc-95cd733c7b72>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=3045", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9389345645904541, "token_count": 462, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A crocodile large enough to swallow humans once lived in East Africa, according to a May 2012 paper in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.\nPaper author Christopher Brochu is an associate professor of geoscience at University of Iowa. He said:\nIt\u2019s the largest known true crocodile. It may have exceeded 27 feet in length. By comparison, the largest recorded Nile crocodile was less than 21 feet, and most are much smaller.\nThe newly-discovered species lived between two and four million years ago in Kenya. It resembled its living cousin, the Nile crocodile, but was more massive.\nBrochu recognized the new species from fossils that he examined three years ago at the National Museum of Kenya in Nairobi. Some were found at sites known for important human fossil discoveries. Brochu said:\nIt lived alongside our ancestors, and it probably ate them. He explains that although the fossils contain no evidence of human/reptile encounters, crocodiles generally eat whatever they can swallow, and humans of that time period would have stood no more than four feet tall.\nWe don\u2019t actually have fossil human remains with croc bites, but the crocs were bigger than today\u2019s crocodiles, and we were smaller, so there probably wasn\u2019t much biting involved.\nBrochu added that there likely would have been ample opportunity for humans to encounter crocs. That\u2019s because early man, along with other animals, would have had to seek water at rivers and lakes where crocodiles lie in wait.\nThe crocodile Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni is named after John Thorbjarnarson, famed crocodile expert and Brochu\u2019s colleague who died of malaria while in the field several years ago.\nBrochu says Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni is not directly related to the present-day Nile crocodile. This suggests that the Nile crocodile is a fairly young species and not an ancient \u201cliving fossil,\u201d as many people believe. Borchu said:\nWe really don\u2019t know where the Nile crocodile came from. But it only appears after some of these prehistoric giants died out.\nBottom line: A paper in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology in May, 2012 reports the discovery of an ancient crocodile large enough to swallow humans that lived two to four million years ago in East Africa.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f9cc2710-09a0-4ee3-8011-9574d0e64b2a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://earthsky.org/earth/biggest-crocodile-that-ever-lived/comment-page-1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9651105999946594, "token_count": 500, "score": 3.4375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Seine, the scenic river running through Paris, has inspired artists, attracted tourists and served as the soul of the city, and now it will also be a source of renewable energy. Paris officials have announced a plan to place river turbines beneath four bridges on the Seine.\nThe Pont du Garigliano, Pont de la Tournelle, Pont Marie and Pont au Change will each have two turbines installed underwater at their base. These bridges were chosen because the speed of the current accelerates in those locations. While river currents don't produce the kind of electricity that wave power can, the current-harvesting technology has come a long way and more devices are being introduced that can generate energy from even the slowest moving waters.\nCity officials have put a call out to power companies to come up with the best plan for installing the turbines, with a winner being chosen in January and installations starting next spring.\nvia The Guardian\nwritten by Quiet-Environmentalist, June 29, 2010\nwritten by David Brockes, July 08, 2010\n|< Prev||Next >|", "id": "<urn:uuid:e338e7ab-37e4-40ee-98f0-254c81baa630>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ecogeek.org/component/content/article/3207-paris-putting-turbines-in-the-seine", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9541372656822205, "token_count": 220, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On 26 June 2012 it is the International Day Against Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking.\nThis important day was created by the United Nations General Assembly to help create a society free of illegal drugs and drug abuse. The date raises awareness of two important world issues -World Drug Day and theBlue Heart Campaign against Human Trafficking.Established in 1987, the day is now in its 25th year and its pro-health campaign is stronger than ever.\nEach year the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) selects a theme for the day and this year it is Health.\nEvents will be held all over the world, from Australia to Vietnam, to look at the effects of drugs in local communities and how we can stop them.\nFrom the dangerous effects of cannabis to the prevention of HIV/AIDS and needle sharing, there will be lots of information available to get educated and join the fight against drug abuse.", "id": "<urn:uuid:63c7c11e-2f34-44bf-82d7-4bd289e35b9f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://feliciancjpo.wordpress.com/2012/06/25/26-june-2012-international-day-against-drug-abuse-and-illicit-trafficking/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9346922636032104, "token_count": 188, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Most Americans believe that the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776 began American independence. While this date announced the formal break between the American colonists and the \u201cmother country,\u201d it did not guarantee independence. Not all Americans favored independence and most historical estimates place the number of Loyalist, or Tory, Americans near one-third of the population. Winning independence required an eight-year war that began in April, 1775 and ended with a peace treaty finalized on September 3, 1783. Unfortunately the infant nation found itself born in a world dominated by a superpower struggle between England and France. The more powerful European nations viewed the vulnerable United States, correctly, as weak and ripe for exploitation. Tragically, few Americans know of this period of crisis in our nation\u2019s history because of the irresponsible neglect of the American education system.\nAmerican independence marked the end of one chapter in American history and the beginning of another. As with all historical events this declaration continued the endless cycle of action and reaction, because nothing occurs in a vacuum. Tragically, most Americans\u2019 historical perspective begins with their birth, rendering everything that previously occurred irrelevant. Furthermore, most educators conveniently \u201ccompartmentalize\u201d their subjects and do not place them in the proper historical context. Since most Americans only remember the United States as a superpower they do not know of our previous struggles. Unfortunately our agenda driven education system also ignores this period and often portrays America in the most negative light.\nWithout delving too deeply into the deteriorating relations between the American colonists and their \u201cmother country,\u201d declaring independence came slowly. None of the thirteen colonies trusted the other colonies and rarely acted in concert, even during times of crisis. Regional and cultural differences between New England, mid-Atlantic and the Southern colonies deeply divided the colonists. Even in these early days of America slavery proved a dividing issue, although few believed in racial equality. The \u201cumbilical cord\u201d with England provided the only unifying constant that bound them together culturally and politically.\nThe colonies further possessed different forms of government as well, although they steadfastly expressed their liberties and \u201crights as Englishmen.\u201d Some colonies existed as royal colonies, where the English monarch selected the governor. Proprietary colonies formed when merchant companies or individuals, called proprietors, received a royal grant and appointed the governor. Charter colonies received their charters much as proprietary colonies with individuals or merchants receiving royal charters and shareholders selected the governor. Each colony elected its own legislature and local communities made their laws mostly based on English common law. Any form of national, or \u201ccontinental,\u201d unity remained an illusion largely in the minds of the delegates of the First Continental Congress.\nThe Second Continental Congress convened on May 10, 1775 because England ignored the grievances submitted by the First Continental Congress. Furthermore, open warfare erupted in Massachusetts between British troops and the colonial militia at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. Known today as Patriot\u2019s Day few Americans outside of Massachusetts celebrate it, or even know of it. Setting forth their reasons for taking up arms against England, they established the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. For attempting a united front, they appointed George Washington, a Virginian, as commander-in-chief. On July 10, 1775, the Congress sent Parliament one last appeal for resolving their differences, which proved futile.\nWhile Congress determined the political future of the colonies fighting continued around Boston, beginning with the bloody battle on Breed\u2019s Hill on June 17, 1775. Known as the Battle of Bunker Hill in our history the British victory cost over 1,000 British and over 400 American casualties. This battle encouraged the Americans because it proved the \u201ccolonials\u201d capable of standing against British regulars. British forces withdrew from Boston in March, 1776 and awaited reinforcements from England as fighting erupted in other colonies.\nWhile Washington and the Continental Army watched the British in Boston, Congress authorized an expedition against Canada. They hoped for significant resentment of British rule by the majority of French inhabitants, something they misjudged. In September, 1775 the fledgling Continental Army launched an ambitious, but futile, two-pronged invasion of Canada. Launched late in the season, particularly for Canada, it nevertheless almost succeeded, capturing Montreal and moving on Quebec. It ended in a night attack in a snowstorm on December 31, 1775 when the commander fell dead and the second-in-command fell severely wounded. American forces did breach the city walls, however when the attack broke down these men became prisoners of war.\nFor disrupting the flow of British supplies into America Congress organized the Continental Navy and Continental Marines on October 13, 1775 and November 10, 1775, respectively. Still, no demands for independence despite the creation of national armed forces, the invasion of a \u201cforeign country\u201d and all the trappings of a national government.\nThe full title of the Declaration of Independence ends with \u201cthirteen united States of America,\u201d with united in lower case. I found no evidence that the Founding Fathers did this intentionally, or whether it merely reflected the writing style of the time. Despite everything mentioned previously regarding \u201ccontinental\u201d actions, the thirteen colonies jealously guarded their sovereignty.\nAlthough Congress declared independence England did not acknowledge the legality of this resolution and considered the colonies \u201cin rebellion.\u201d England assembled land and naval forces of over 40,000, including German mercenaries, for subduing the \u201cinsurrection.\u201d This timeless lesson proves the uselessness of passing resolutions with no credible threat of force backing them up. Unfortunately our academic-dominated society today believes merely the passage of laws and international resolutions forces compliance.\nWe hear much in the news today about \u201cintelligence failures\u201d regarding the war against terrorism. England definitely experienced an \u201cintelligence failure\u201d as it launched an expedition for \u201csuppressing\u201d this \u201cinsurrection\u201d by a \u201cfew hotheads.\u201d First, they under estimated the extent of dissatisfaction among the Americans, spurred into action by such \u201crabble rousers\u201d as John Adams. They further under estimated the effectiveness of Washington and the Continental Army, particularly after the American victories at Trenton and Princeton.\nBritish officials further under estimated the number of Loyalists with the enthusiasm for taking up arms for the British. While Loyalist units fought well, particularly in the South and the New York frontier, they depended heavily on the support of British regulars. Once British forces withdrew, particularly in the South, the Loyalist forces either followed them or disappeared. A perennial lesson for military planners today, do not worry about your \u201cfootprint,\u201d decisively defeat your enemy. This hardens the resolve of your supporters, influences the \u201cneutrals\u201d in your favor and reduces the favorability of your enemies.\nRegarding the \u201cnational defense\u201d the Continental Congress and \u201cstates\u201d did not fully cooperate against the superpower, England. The raising of the Continental Army fell on the individual colonies almost throughout the war with the Congress establishing quotas. Unfortunately, none of the colonies ever met their quota for Continental regiments, with the soldiers negotiating one-year enlistments.\nContinental Army recruiters often met with competition from the individual colonies, who preferred fielding their militias. The Congress offered bounties in the almost worthless \u201cContinental Currency\u201d and service far from home in the Continental Army. Colonial governments offered higher bounties in local currencies, or British pounds, and part-time service near home.\nCongress only possessed the authority for requesting troops and supplies from the colonial governors, who often did not comply. For most of the war the Continental Army remained under strength, poorly supplied, poorly armed and mostly unpaid. Volumes of history describe the harsh winters endured by the Continentals at Valley Forge and Morristown, New Jersey the following year.\nColonial governments often refused supplies for troops from other colonies, even though those troops fought inside their borders. As inflation continued devaluing \u201cContinental Currency\u201d farmers and merchants preferred trading with British agents, who often paid in gold. This created strong resentment from the soldiers who suffered the hardships of war and the civilians who profited from this trade. In fairness, the staggering cost of financing the war severely taxed the colonial governments and local economies, forcing hard choices.\nCongress further declared independence as a cry for help from England\u2019s superpower rival, France, and other nations jealous of England. Smarting from defeat in the Seven Years War (French and Indian War in America), and a significant reduction in its colonial empire, France burned for revenge. France\u2019s ally, Spain, also suffered defeat and loss of territory during this war and sought advantage in the American war. However, France and Spain both needed American victories before they risked their troops and treasures. With vast colonial empires of their own they hesitated at supporting a colonial rebellion in America. As monarchies, France and Spain held no love of \u201crepublican ideals\u201d or \u201cliberties,\u201d and mostly pursued independent strategies against England. Fortunately their focus at recouping their former possessions helped diminish the number of British forces facing the Americans.\nOn the political front the Congress knew that the new nation needed some form of national government for its survival. Unfortunately the Congress fell short on this issue, enacting the weak Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777. Delegates so feared the \u201ctyranny\u201d of a strong central government, as well as they feared their neighbors, that they rejected national authority. In effect, the congressional delegates created thirteen independent nations instead of one, and our nation suffered from it. Amending this confederation required the approval of all thirteen states, virtually paralyzing any national effort. This form of government lasted until the adoption of the US Constitution on September 17, 1787.\nDespite these weaknesses the fledgling \u201cUnited States\u201d survived and even achieved some success against British forces. Particularly early in the war, the British forces possessed several opportunities for destroying the Continental Army and ending the rebellion. Fortunately for us British commanders proved lethargic and complacent, believing the \u201ccolonial rabble\u201d incapable of defeating them. Furthermore, as the Continental Army gained experience and training it grew more professional, standing toe-to-toe against the British. Since the US achieved superpower status it fell into the same trap, continuously underestimating less powerful enemies.\nThe surrender of British forces at Yorktown, Virginia on October 19, 1781 changed British policy regarding its American colonies. British forces now controlled mainly three enclaves: New York City; Charleston, South Carolina and Savannah, Georgia. Loyalist forces, discouraged by British reverses, either retreated into these enclaves, departed America or surrendered. Waging a global war against France and Spain further reduced the number of troops available for the American theater. This serves another modern lesson for maintaining adequate forces for meeting not only your superpower responsibilities, but executing unforeseen contingencies.\nIronically, the victory at Yorktown almost defeated the Americans as well, since the civil authorities almost stopped military recruitment. Washington struggled at maintaining significant forces for confronting the remaining British forces in their enclaves. An aggressive British commander may still score a strategic advantage by striking at demobilizing American forces. Fortunately, the British government lost heart for retaining America and announced the beginning of peace negotiations in August, 1782.\nThe Treaty of Paris, signed on September 3, 1783 officially ended the American Revolution; however it did not end America\u2019s struggles. American negotiators proved somewhat na\u00efve in these negotiations against their more experienced European counterparts. Of importance, the British believed American independence a short-lived situation, given the disunity among Americans. Congress began discharging the Continental Army before the formal signing of the treaty, leaving less than one hundred on duty.\nInstead of a united \u201callied\u201d front, America, France and Spain virtually negotiated separate treaties with England, delighting the British. They believed that by creating dissension among the wartime allies they furthered their position with their former colonies. If confronted with a new war with more powerful France and Spain, America might rejoin the British Empire.\nWhen England formally established the western boundary of the US at the Mississippi River it did not consult its Indian allies. These tribes did not see themselves as \u201cdefeated nations,\u201d since they often defeated the Americans. Spanish forces captured several British posts in this territory and therefore claimed a significant part of the southeastern US.\nFrance, who practically bankrupted itself in financing the American cause and waging its own war against England, expected an American ally. Unfortunately, the US proved a liability and incapable of repaying France for the money loaned during the war. France soon faced domestic problems that resulted in the French Revolution in 1789.\nFor several reasons England believed itself the winner of these negotiations, and in a more favorable situation, globally. England controlled Canada, from where it closely monitored the unfolding events in the US, and sowed mischief. It illegally occupied several military forts on American territory and incited the Indian tribes against the American frontier. By default, England controlled all of the American territory north of the Ohio River and west of the Appalachian Mountains.\nEconomically, England still believed that the US needed them as its primary trading partner, whether independent or not. A strong pro-British faction in America called for closer economic ties with the former \u201cmother country.\u201d As England observed the chaos that gripped the US at this time, they felt that its collapse, and reconquest by England, only a matter of time.\nMost Americans today, knowing only the economic, industrial and military power of America cannot fathom the turmoil of this time. The weak central government and all the states accumulated a huge war debt, leaving them financially unstable. While the US possessed rich natural resources it lacked the industrial capabilities for developing them, without foreign investment. With no military forces, the nation lacked the ability of defending its sovereignty and its citizens. From all appearances our infant nation seemed stillborn, or as the vulnerable prey for the more powerful Europeans.\nAs stated previously the Articles of Confederation actually created thirteen independent nations, with no national executive for enforcing the law. Therefore each state ignored the resolutions from Congress and served its own self-interest. Each state established its own rules for interstate commerce, printed its own money and even established treaties with foreign nations. No system existed for governing the interactions between the states, who often treated each other like hostile powers.\nThe new nation did possess one thing in abundance, land; the vast wilderness between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. Conceded by the British in the Treaty of Paris, the Americans looked at this as their economic solution. The nation owed the veterans of the Revolution a huge debt and paid them in the only currency available, land grants. Unfortunately, someone must inform the Indians living on this land and make treaties regarding land distribution.\nFor the Americans this seemed simple, the Indians, as British allies, suffered defeat with the British and must pay the price. After all, under the rules of European \u201ccivilized\u201d warfare, defeated nations surrendered territory and life went on. Unfortunately no one, neither American nor British, informed the Indians of these rules, because no one felt they deserved explanation. Besides, the British hoped that by inciting Indian troubles they might recoup their former colonies.\nWith British arms and encouragement the tribes of the \u201cOld Northwest\u201d raided the western frontier with a vengeance. From western New York down through modern Kentucky these Indians kept up their war with the Americans. In Kentucky between 1783 and 1790 the various tribes killed an estimated 1,500 people, stole 20,000 horses and destroyed an unknown amount of property.\nOur former ally, Spain, controlled all of the territory west of the Mississippi River before the American Revolution. From here they launched expeditions that captured British posts at modern Vicksburg and Natchez, Mississippi, and the entire Gulf Coast. However, they claimed about two-thirds of the southeastern US based on this \u201cconquest\u201d including land far beyond the occupation of their troops. Like the British, they incited the Indians living in this region for keeping out American settlers.\nSpain also controlled the port of New Orleans and access into the Mississippi River. Americans living in Kentucky and other western settlements depended on the Mississippi River for their commerce. The national government seemed unable, or unwilling, at forcing concessions from Spain, and many westerners considered seceding from the Union. Known as the \u201cSpanish Conspiracy\u201d this plot included many influential Americans and only disappeared after the American victory at Fallen Timbers.\nWhile revisionist historians ignore the \u201cSpanish Conspiracy\u201d they illuminate land speculation by Americans in Spanish territory. Of course they conveniently ignore the duplicity of Spanish officials in these plots, and their acceptance of American money. In signing the Declaration of Independence the Founding Fathers pledged \u201ctheir lives, their fortunes and their sacred honor.\u201d Many Continental Army officers bankrupted themselves when Congress and their states proved recalcitrant at reimbursing them for incurred expenses. These officers often personally financed their troops and their expeditions because victory required timely action. Of importance for the western region, George Rogers Clark used his personal credit for financing his campaigns, which secured America\u2019s claim. It takes no \u201clettered\u201d historian for determining that without Clark\u2019s campaign that America\u2019s western boundary ends with the Appalachian Mountains, instead of the Mississippi River. With the bankrupt Congress and Virginia treasuries not reimbursing him he fell into the South Carolina Yazoo Company. Clark\u2019s brother-in-law, Dr. James O\u2019Fallon, negotiated this deal for 3,000,000 acres of land in modern Mississippi. This negotiation involved the Spanish governor of Louisiana, Don Estavan Miro, a somewhat corrupt official. When the Spanish king negated the treaty, Clark, O\u2019Fallon and the other investors lost their money and grew hateful of Spain.\nAnother, lesser known, negotiation involved former Continental Army Colonel George Morgan and the Spanish ambassador, Don Diego de Gardoqui. Morgan received title for 15,000,000 acres near modern New Madrid, Missouri for establishing a colony. Ironically, an unscrupulous American, James Wilkinson, discussed later in the document, working in conjunction with Miro, negated this deal.\nBoth of these land deals involved the establishment of American colonies in Spanish territory, with Americans declaring themselves Spanish subjects. Few Spaniards lived in the area west of the Mississippi River and saw the growing number of American settlers as a threat. However, if these Americans, already disgusted with their government, became Spanish subjects, they now became assets. If they cleared and farmed the land, they provided revenue that Spanish Louisiana desperately needed. Since many of these men previously served in the Revolution, they provided a ready militia for defending their property. This included defending it against their former country, the United States, with little authority west of the Appalachian Mountains.\nInternationally, the weak US became a tragic pawn in the continuing superpower struggle between England and France. With no naval forces for protection, American merchant mariners became victims of both nations on the high seas. British and French warships stopped American ships bound for their enemy, confiscating cargo and conscripting sailors into their navies. In the Mediterranean Sea, our ships became the targets of the Barbary Pirates, the ancestors of our enemies today. Helpless, our government paid ransoms for prisoners and tribute for safe passage until the Barbary Wars of the early 19th Century.\nDespite all of these problems most influential Americans still \u201clooked inward,\u201d and feared a strong central government more than foreign domination. When the cries of outrage came from the western frontiers regarding Indian depredations, our leaders still more feared a \u201cstanding army.\u201d In the world of the Founding Fathers the tyranny of King George III\u2019s central government created their problem. The king further used his \u201cstanding army\u201d for oppressing the colonists and infringing on their liberties.\nCongress also possessed more recent examples of the problems with a \u201cstanding army\u201d during the American Revolution. First came the mutiny of the Pennsylvania Line in January, 1781 for addressing their grievances. Since the beginning of the war, in 1775, the Continental soldiers endured almost insurmountable hardships, as explained previously. The soldiers rarely received pay, and then received the almost worthless \u201cContinental Currency,\u201d which inflation further devalued. This forced severe hardships also on the soldiers\u2019 families, and many lost their homes and farms. The soldiers marched on the then-capital, Philadelphia, for seeking redress for these grievances. Forced into action, Congress addressed their problems with pay and the soldiers rejoined the Army.\nA second, though less well known, mutiny occurred with the New Jersey Line shortly thereafter with different results. For \u201cnipping\u201d a growing problem \u201cin the bud,\u201d Washington ordered courts-martial and the execution of the ring leaders. The last such trouble occurred in the final months of the war in the Continental Army camp at Newburgh, New York. Dissatisfied with congressional inaction on their long-overdue pay, many officers urged a march on Philadelphia. Fortunately, Washington defused this perceived threat against civil authority, and squashed the strong possibility of a military dictatorship.\nHowever, Congress realized that it needed some military force for defending the veterans settling on their land grants. The delegates authorized the First United States Regiment, consisting of 700 men drawn from four state militias for a one year period. I read countless sources describing the inadequacy of this force, highlighting congressional incompetence and non-compliance by the states. The unit never achieved its authorized strength, the primitive conditions on the frontier hindered its effectiveness and corrupt officials mismanaged supplies. Scattered in small garrisons throughout the western territories, it never proved a deterrent against the Indians.\nNo incentives existed for enlisting in this regiment, and it attracted a minority of what we call today \u201cquality people.\u201d Again, confirming state dominance over the central government, this \u201carmy\u201d came from a militia levy from four states, a draft. A tradition at the time provided for the paying of substitutes for the men conscripted during these militia levies. Sources reflect that most of these substitutes came from the lowest levels of society, including those escaping the law. From whatever source these men came, at least they served and mostly did their best under difficult circumstances.\nRoutinely, once the soldiers assembled they must learn the skills needed for performing their duties. For defending the western settlements the small garrisons must reach their destination via river travel. Once at their destination they must often construct their new installations using the primitive tools and resources available. The primitive transportation system often delayed the arrival of the soldiers\u2019 pay and supplies, forcing hardships on the troops. Few amenities existed at these frontier installations and the few settlements provided little entertainment for the troops. Unfortunately, once the soldiers achieved a level of professionalism, they reached the end of their enlistment. With few incentives for reenlistment, the process must begin again, with recruiting and training a new force.\nFortunately many prominent Americans saw that the country needed a different form of government for ensuring its survival. Despite the best intentions and established rules, few people followed these rules or respected our intentions. The Constitutional Convention convened in Philadelphia in May, 1787 with George Washington unanimously elected as its president. As the delegates began the process of forming a \u201cmore perfect Union,\u201d the old, traditional \u201ccolonial\u201d rivalries influenced the process.\nWhile most Americans possess at least ancillary knowledge of the heated debates among the delegates, few know the conditions. Meeting throughout the hot summer, the delegates kept the windows of their meeting hall closed, preventing the \u201cleaking\u201d of information. We must remember that this occurred before electric-powered ventilation systems or air conditioning. They kept out the \u201cmedia,\u201d and none of the delegates spoke with \u201cjournalists,\u201d again for maintaining secrecy. Modern Americans, often obsessed with media access, do not understand why the delegates kept their deliberations secret.\nMost of the delegates felt they possessed one chance for creating this new government and achieving the best possible needed their focus. \u201cMedia access\u201d jeopardized this focus and \u201cleaked\u201d information, with potential interruptions, jeopardized their chance for success. We find this incomprehensible today, with politicians running toward television cameras, \u201cleaking\u201d information and disclosing national secrets. Unfortunately a \u201cjournalistic elite\u201d exists today, misusing the First Amendment, with many \u201cmedia moguls\u201d believing themselves the \u201ckingmakers\u201d of favorite politicians.\nThe delegates sought the best document for satisfying the needs of the most people, making \u201cspecial interest groups\u201d secondary. Creating a united nation proved more important than prioritizing regional and state desires. These delegates debated, and compromised, on various issues; many of which remain important today. They worried over the threat of dominance by large, well-populated states over smaller, less-populated states. Other issues concerned taxation, the issue that sparked the American Revolution, and import duties, which pitted manufacturing states against agricultural states. Disposition of the mostly unsettled western land, claimed by many states, proved a substantial problem for the delegates. The issue of slavery almost ended the convention and the delegates compromised, achieving the best agreement possible at the time. On September 17, 1787 the delegates adopted the US Constitution and submitted it for approval by the individual states.\nAgain, merely passing laws and adopting resolutions does not immediately solve the problems, or change people\u2019s attitudes. Ratification of the Constitution required the approval of nine states, (three-fourths) which occurred on June 21, 1788. However, two important large states, New York and Virginia, still debated ratification. Several signers of the Declaration of Independence, and delegates at the Constitutional Convention, urged the defeat of the Constitution. Fiery orator, Patrick Henry, of \u201cGive me liberty, or give me death,\u201d fame worked hard for defeating it in Virginia. Even the most optimistic supporters gave the Constitution, and the nation, only a marginal chance at survival.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fcd8384e-97df-45dc-baf6-0742150406b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://frontierbattles.wordpress.com/2008/09/20/battle-of-fallen-timbers-confirms-american-independence-part-i/?like=1&_wpnonce=24a0599870", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.952681839466095, "token_count": 5420, "score": 4.125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A young person named K. asks Yahoo, How do I go about writing a research paper on the JFK assassination?\nWhat would President John F. Kennedy have thought about the enigmatic circumstances of his murder?\nFifty years later, I think we don\u2019t ask this question often enough. Instead we argue about what Rachel Maddow and Bill O\u2019Reilly think. Media criticism is important, but it is no substitute for historical analysis. There are certainly other ways to think about the story.\nCounterfactually, for example.\nImagine JFK had survived the gunfire in Dealey Plaza. What would he have said about its causes?\nKennedy, of course, did not have time to comment on the gunfire that claimed his life, other than to say, after a bullet struck him in the back, \u201cMy God, I\u2019m hit.\u201d But that exclamation illuminated his instantaneous awareness of a lethal situation. JFK had been a soldier/sailor in World War II. Twenty years before he had faced gunfire. He had seen men die from it. He knew that he had been shot. Before he could say anything more another bullet struck him in the head, fatally wounding him.\nThat was not inevitable.\nEarlier this month Rachel Maddow told the little-known story of how Senator John F. Kennedy introduced legislation to ban the importation of weapons produced for foreign armies, only to be thwarted by pro-gun legislators. Then, on November 22, 1963, Maddow said, Lee Oswald used an Italian-made military rifle to shoot and kill President Kennedy. For the popular MSNBC anchor, this story illuminates the enduring and pernicious effects of the gun lobby from Dallas to Newtown.\nAs a contemporary polemic, this novel interpretation of JFK\u2019s assassination \u2014 the Gun Lobby Did It \u2014 is strong. As history it is weak. It\u2019s hard not to agree with Maddow\u2019s broad point: the gun manufacturers and gun violence have had a pernicious effect on American life for a long time. She is correct that an Italian-made rifle, cheap and easily obtained under permissive U.S. gun laws, played a central role in the JFK assassination story.\nBut her implication that the gun lobby, as a power sector in American politics, was an important causal factor in enabling JFK\u2019s assassination is not founded in historical fact. Read more\nA lot of people at the scene of the crime thought so. But don\u2019t take my word for it.\nIn the latest installment of Len Osanic\u2019s \u201c50 Reasons for 50 Years\u201d video series, JFK photo expert Robert Groden compiles photographic imagery from the first few minutes after the assassination of President Kennedy. View the pictures and decide for yourself.\nThe Pittsburgh Tribune Review recently asked Dr. Cyril Wecht of Duquesne University a question:\nThe ONI, according to researacher Bill Kelly, is withholding records of its own internal investigations of Oswald after he defected to the Soviet Union in 1959 and after JFK was killed in 1963. The latter reports would be explosive if they showed that U.S. Marine Corps investigators doubted that Oswald acted alone in killing Kennedy.\nONI representatives assert that America\u2019s oldest intelligence service doesn\u2019t have any such records. That claim is dubious, for a number of reasons.\nNo. Read this unpersuasive (some would say nutty) article and you will find proof that even the piously Paulite advocates of this theory have no actual evidence for it.\nRobert F. Kennedy Jr.\u2019s comments that his father did not believe that a \u201clone-gunman\u201d killed his uncle, President John F. Kennedy, have now been covered by all four television networks (CBS, NBC, Fox, and ABC), and gone viral on the internet. The remarks marked the first time a Kennedy family member has publicly questioned the official theory that JFK was killed by a lone gunman.\nWere RFK Jr.\u2019s remarks factually accurate? Read more\nYes. The tape was probably destroyed in January 1986.\nThis question, prompted by a comment from reader JSA, is a natural follow up to yesterday\u2019s question, \u201cDid the CIA track Oswald before JFK was killed?\u201d And there is a lot of evidence to support our answer. Read more\nYes, closely and constantly.\nThis is one of the biggest JFK revelations of the past 20 years, and one that we need talk up in social and news media the 50th anniversary of JFK\u2019s assassination.\nWhile the CIA assured Congress in the 1970s that its interest in Lee Harvey Oswald before JFK was killed was \u201croutine,\u201d the newest documents tell a very different story: Oswald was monitored closely and constantly by an supersecret office within the CIA\u2019s Counterintelligence Staff from 1959 to 1963, known as the Special Investigations Group.\nSomebody did talk. His name was John Martino. In 1963 he was an anti-Castro militant who mixed with organized crime figures and CIA officers. His story is one of the clearest indicators that opponents of JFK\u2019s Cuba policy had foreknowledge that President Kennedy might be assassinated in Dallas.\nTo put it another way, those who doubt there was a conspiracy, need to address John Martino\u2019s story. It is corroborated in multiple ways.\nMartino, a native of New Jersey, was a petty racketeer as a young man with arrests for gambling and loan sharking. In the 1950s, he developed an expertise in electronic equipment related to gambling. He gravitated to south Florida and then to Havana where his skills won him a security job at the casino in the new Deauville Hotel in the Cuban capital. Havana was then dominated by organized crime syndicates who reaped big profits from gambling and related tourist attractions.\nIn this balanced, if breathless, 1998 History Channel video entitled \u201cMissing Files,\u201d we learn what the government sought to hide from public view. The approach is skeptical without crazy conspiracy mongering.\nOperation Northwoods was a Pentagon plan to provoke a U.S. invasion of Cuba in 1963 through the use of deception operations. First disclosed by the Assassination Records Review Board in 1997, the Northwoods plans are among the most significant new JFK documents to emerge since Oliver Stone\u2019s \u201cJFK\u201d movie.\nOperation Northwoods envisioned U.S. intelligence operatives staging violent attacks on U.S. targets and arranging for the blame for the mayhem to fall on Fidel Castro and his communist government. The idea, wrote one planner, was to creates a \u201cjustification for U.S. intervention in Cuba,\u201d by orchestrating a crime that placed the U.S. government \u201cin the apparent position of suffering defensible grievances from a rash and irresponsible government\u201d in Cuba.\nThese plans included the use of violence on American soil against American citizens.\nThe question is still \u201chotly debated\u201d says the JFK Library and Museum, not the least because the question has become part of the debate over the causes of JFK\u2019s assassination.\nWhat does the record show about Kennedy\u2019s thinking and actions on Vietnam? Read more", "id": "<urn:uuid:693fda2f-cdb9-4135-897d-1ab9f7457ca9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://jfkfacts.org/category/question/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.967049777507782, "token_count": 1498, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What Is Tetanus?\nTetanus is a bacterial infection that attacks the nervous system. Tetanus may result in severe muscle spasms, and this can lead to a condition known as lockjaw, which prevents the mouth from opening and closing. Tetanus can be fatal.\nTetanus is caused when the bacterium, Clostridium tetani , enters the body through a break in the skin. The bacterium can come from soil, dust, or manure. It produces a toxin that causes the illness.\nIn the United States and other countries with tetanus vaccination programs, the condition is rare.\nWhat Is the Tetanus Vaccine?\nThe tetanus vaccine is an inactivated toxoid (a substance that can create an antitoxin). There are different types of the vaccines to prevent tetanus, including:\nWho Should Get Vaccinated and When?\nThe DTaP vaccine is generally required before starting school. The regular immunization schedule is to give the vaccine at:\n- 2 months\n- 4 months\n- 6 months\n- 15-18 months\n- 4-6 years\nTdap is routinely recommended for children aged 11-12 years who have completed the DTaP series. Tdap can also be given to:\n- Children aged 7-10 years who have not been fully vaccinated\n- Children and teens aged 13-18 years who did not get the Tdap when they were 11-12 years old\n- Adults under 65 years who have never received Tdap\n- Pregnant women after 20 weeks gestation who have not previously received Tdap\n- Adults who have not been previously vaccinated and who have contact with babies aged 12 months or younger\n- Healthcare providers who have not previously received Tdap\nTd is given as a booster shot every 10 years. The vaccine may also be given if you have a severe cut or burn.\nIf you or your child has not been fully vaccinated against tetanus, talk to the doctor.\nWhat Are the Risks Associated With the Tetanus Vaccine?\nMost people tolerate the tetanus-containing vaccines without any trouble. The most common side effects are pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site, mild fever, headache, tiredness, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea , or stomachache.\nRarely, a fever of more than 102\u00baF, severe gastrointestinal problems, or severe headache may occur. Nervous system problems and severe allergic reactions are extremely rare. Localized allergic reactions (redness and swelling) at the injection site may occur, while anaphylaxis (life-threatening, widespread allergic reaction) is extremely rare.\nAcetaminophen (eg, Tylenol) is sometimes given to reduce pain and fever that may occur after getting a vaccine. In infants, the medicine may weaken the vaccine's effectiveness. However, in children at risk for siezures, a fever lowering medicine may be important to take. Discuss the risks and benefits of taking acetaminophen with the doctor.\nWho Should Not Get Vaccinated?\nThe vast majority of people should receive their tetanus-containing vaccinations on schedule. However, individuals in whom the risks of vaccination outweigh the benefits include those who:\n- Have had a life-threatening allergic reaction to DTP, DTap, DT, Tdap, or Td vaccine\n- Have had a severe allergy to any component of the vaccine to be given\n- Have gone into a coma or long seizure within seven days after a dose of DTP or DTaP\nTalk with your doctor before getting the vaccine if you have:\n- Allergy to latex\n- Epilepsy or other nervous system problem\n- Severe swelling or severe pain after a previous dose of any component of the vaccination to be given\n- Guillain-Barre syndrome\nWait until you recover to get the vaccine if you have moderate or severe illness on the day your shot is scheduled.\nWhat Other Ways Can Tetanus Be Prevented Besides Vaccination?\nCaring properly for wounds, including promptly cleaning them and seeing a doctor for medical care, can prevent a tetanus infection.\n- Reviewer: Lawrence Frisch, MD, MPH\n- Review Date: 06/2012 -\n- Update Date: 00/61/2012 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:13959b93-c035-4ff4-abfa-6088611bbe5c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://jfkmc.com/your-health/?/187042/DTaP-vaccine-tetanus", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9237750768661499, "token_count": 885, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Kawasaki disease is an illness that involves the skin, mouth, and lymph nodes, and most often affects kids under age 5. The cause is unknown, but if the symptoms are recognized early, kids with Kawasaki disease can fully recover within a few days. Untreated, it can lead to serious complications that can affect the heart.\nKawasaki disease occurs in 19 out of every 100,000 kids in the United States. It is most common among children of Japanese and Korean descent, but can affect all ethnic groups.\nSigns and Symptoms\nKawasaki disease can't be prevented, but usually has telltale symptoms and signs that appear in phases.\nThe first phase, which can last for up to 2 weeks, usually involves a persistent fever higher than 104\u00b0F (39\u00b0C) and lasts for at least 5 days.\nOther symptoms that typically develop include:\nsevere redness in the eyes\na rash on the stomach, chest, and genitals\nred, dry, cracked lips\nswollen tongue with a white coating and big red bumps\nsore, irritated throat\nswollen palms of the hands and soles of the feet with a purple-red color\nswollen lymph nodes\nDuring the second phase, which usually begins within 2 weeks of when the fever started, the skin on the hands and feet may begin to peel in large pieces. The child also may experience joint pain, diarrhea, vomiting, or abdominal pain. If your child shows any of these symptoms, call your doctor.\nDoctors can manage the symptoms of Kawasaki disease if they catch it early. Symptoms often disappear within just 2 days of the start of treatment. If Kawasaki disease is treated within 10 days of the onset of symptoms, heart problems usually do not develop.\nCases that go untreated can lead to more serious complications, such as vasculitis, an inflammation of the blood vessels. This can be particularly dangerous because it can affect the coronary arteries, which supply blood to the heart.\nIn addition to the coronary arteries, the heart muscle, lining, valves, and the outer membrane that surrounds the heart can become inflamed. Arrhythmias (changes in the normal pattern of the heartbeat) or abnormal functioning of some heart valves also can occur.\nNo single test can detect Kawasaki disease, so doctors usually diagnose it by evaluating the symptoms and ruling out other conditions.\nMost kids diagnosed with Kawasaki disease will have a fever lasting 5 or more days and at least four of these symptoms:\nredness in both eyes\nchanges around the lips, tongue, or mouth\nchanges in the fingers and toes, such as swelling, discoloration, or peeling\nTreatment should begin as soon as possible, ideally within 10 days of when the fever begins. Usually, a child is treated with intravenous doses of gamma globulin (purified antibodies), an ingredient of blood that helps the body fight infection. The child also might be given a high dose of aspirin to reduce the risk of heart problems.", "id": "<urn:uuid:75809dd8-de11-4a38-a503-938979a6c1b8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=Nemours&lic=60&cat_id=141&article_set=22916&ps=104", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9344236254692078, "token_count": 614, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "At a Glance\nWhy Get Tested?\nTo screen for or diagnose a chlamydia infection\nWhen to Get Tested?\nFor screening: may be recommended if you are sexually active, pregnant or considering pregnancy, or at increased risk for this sexually transmitted disease (STD)\nFor diagnosis: when you have symptoms of this STD, such as such as vaginal discharge and abdominal pain (for women) or unusual discharge from the penis or pain on urination (for men); when a newborn has conjunctivitis\nA swab or brush of cells or secretion from the infected area or a first-catch urine sample\nTest Preparation Needed?\nTell your doctor about use of antibiotics or, for women, douches or vaginal creams within 24 hours before testing vaginal samples, as they may affect test results. You may be instructed to wait one to two hours after you last urinated before collecting a urine sample. Follow any instructions you are given.\nThe Test Sample\nWhat is being tested?\nThis test is looking for evidence of infection by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis. Chlamydia is the most common bacterial sexually transmitted disease (STD) in the United States and is especially common among people 15 to 25 years of age. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that 2.8 million Americans are infected with chlamydia each year and notes that women are frequently re-infected if their partners don't get treatment. Actual incidence may be higher since many people do not experience any symptoms and their cases go undiagnosed and unreported. Still, over one million new cases are reported each year. Diagnosing and treating chlamydia is very important to prevent long-term complications and spread of the infection to others.\nChlamydia is generally transmitted through sexual contact (oral, vaginal, or anal) with an infected partner. Risk factors include having multiple sex partners, coinfection or previous infection with another STD, and not using barrier contraception consistently. An infected mother can pass the infection to her baby during childbirth. These babies are in danger of developing conjunctivitis, an inflammation that can threaten eyesight, and pneumonia.\nAbout 75% of infected women and 50% of infected men have no symptoms; some may experience only mild symptoms. For women, symptoms, if they occur, include bleeding between menstrual periods and after sexual intercourse, abdominal pain, painful intercourse, and an abnormal vaginal discharge. For men, symptoms include pus or milky discharge from the penis and inflammation of the prostate (prostatitis) or of the rectal area (proctitis). Both sexes can experience painful or frequent urination.\nChlamydia is easily treated with a course of antibiotics, but if left untreated, it can cause severe reproductive and other health problems. If left untreated, women may develop pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) from infections that start on the cervix but that can spread to the fallopian tubes and ovaries. This can cause infertility and increase the risk of tubal (ectopic) pregnancy, which is often fatal. Women who are infected and pregnant may experience heavy bleeding before delivery and premature rupture of the membranes. Men may become sterile. Both sexes may develop rectal itching and red, swollen, itchy eyes.\nHow is the sample collected for testing?\nMany different kinds of samples may be used for testing, but not all laboratories can test every kind of sample. A doctor may use a swab or brush to collect a sample of cells or secretion from the infected area, such as the urethra, penis, anus, throat, cervix or vagina. Sometimes a vaginal sample may be collected with a swab by the woman who is undergoing testing (self-collection). A first-catch urine sample may be collected in a container provided by the doctor or laboratory.\nNOTE: If undergoing medical tests makes you or someone you care for anxious, embarrassed, or even difficult to manage, you might consider reading one or more of the following articles: Coping with Test Pain, Discomfort, and Anxiety, Tips on Blood Testing, Tips to Help Children through Their Medical Tests, and Tips to Help the Elderly through Their Medical Tests.\nAnother article, Follow That Sample, provides a glimpse at the collection and processing of a blood sample and throat culture.\nIs any test preparation needed to ensure the quality of the sample?\nTell your doctor about use of antibiotics or, if you are a woman, douches or vaginal creams within 24 hours before testing vaginal samples, as they may affect test results. You may be instructed to wait one to two hours after you last urinated before collecting a urine sample. Follow any instructions you are given.\nAsk a Laboratory Scientist\nThis form enables you to ask specific questions about your tests. Your questions will be answered by a laboratory scientist as part of a voluntary service provided by one of our partners, American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science. If your questions are not related to your lab tests, please submit them via our Contact Us form. Thank you.\n* indicates a required field\nNOTE: This article is based on research that utilizes the sources cited here as well as the collective experience of the Lab Tests Online Editorial Review Board. This article is periodically reviewed by the Editorial Board and may be updated as a result of the review. Any new sources cited will be added to the list and distinguished from the original sources used.\nSources Used in Current Review\nKimberly A. Workowski and Stuart Berman. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Guidelines, 2010. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. PDF available for download at http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/STD-Treatment-2010-RR5912.pdf through http://www.cdc.gov. Published December 27, 2010. Accessed July 2, 2012.\nUnited States Preventive Service Task Force. USPSTF Recommendations for STI Screening. Available online at http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf08/methods/stinfections.htm through http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org. Last updated March 2008. Accessed July 2, 2012.\nLaboratory Procedure Manual. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. PDF available for download at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhanes/nhanes_05_06/chlmda_d_met_chlamydia.pdf through http://www.cdc.gov. Published October 2007. Accessed July 2, 2012.\nSexual Conditions Health Center: Chlamydia Tests. Medscape. Available online at http://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/chlamydia-tests?page=3 through http://www.webmd.com. Last Updated: December 15, 2010. Accessed Jul 2, 2012.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention.Chlamydia - CDC Fact Sheet. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/std/chlamydia/stdfact-chlamydia.htm through http://www.cdc.gov. Last updated February 8, 2012. Accessed July 2, 2012.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Chlamydia and Gonorrhea \u2014 Two Most Commonly Reported Infectious Diseases in the United States. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/Features/dsSTDData/ through http://www.cdc.gov. Last updated April 22, 2011. Accessed July 2, 2012.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. 2010 Treatment Guidelines, Special Populations. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/specialpops.htm#msm through http://www.cdc.gov. Accessed September 2012.\n(January 13, 2009) Association for Public Health Laboratories. Expert Consultation Meeting Summary Report, Laboratory Diagnostic Testing for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. PDF available for download at http://www.aphl.org/aphlprograms/infectious/std/Documents/CTGCLabGuidelinesMeetingReport.pdf through http://www.aphl.org. Accessed Sept 2012.\nSources Used in Previous Reviews\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Chlamydia Fact Sheet. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/std/Chlamydia/STDFact-Chlamydia.htm through http://www.cdc.gov.\nArnot Ogden Medical Center. Chlamydia. Available online at http://www.aomc.org/chlamydia.html through http://www.aomc.org.\nAmerican Social Health Association. Learn Chlamydia Facts. Available online at http://www.ashastd.org/learn/learn_chlamydia_facts.cfm through http://www.ashastd.org.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually transitted diseases treatment guidelines 2002. MMWR 2002;51 (No. RR-6) [32-41].\nPlanned Parenthood. Chlamydia. Available online at http://www.plannedparenthood.org/health-topics/stds-hiv-safer-sex/chlamydia-4266.htm through http://www.plannedparenthood.org. Accessed February 2009.\nCenters for Disease Control and Prevention. Chlamydia - CDC Fact Sheet. Available online at http://www.cdc.gov/std/Chlamydia/STDFact-Chlamydia.htm through http://www.cdc.gov. Accessed February 2009.\nTeensHealth. Chlamydia. Available online at http://kidshealth.org/teen/sexual_health/stds/std_chlamydia.html through http://kidshealth.org. Accessed February 2009.\nARUP Consult. Sexually Transmitted Infections, Bacteria. Available online at http://www.arupconsult.com/Topics/InfectiousDz/Bacteria/STIs.html# through http://www.arupconsult.com. Accessed February 2009.\nWebMD. Chlamydia Tests. Available online at http://www.webmd.com/sexual-conditions/chlamydia-tests through http://www.webmd.com. Accessed February 2009.", "id": "<urn:uuid:056e739a-cc8b-4a3c-9c70-6884cb64e266>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://labtestsonline.org/index.php/understanding/analytes/chlamydia/tab/test", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.869447648525238, "token_count": 2162, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sketch the graph of the following.\nAny help would be appreciated!\nYou know that there are two vertical asymptotes at x = 5 and x = -3, then the graph also tends to the line y = x as x becomes large.\nSince there are two asymptotes, the graph is in three parts and as similar graphs, the central part is fairly similar to the numerator, that is a cubic.\nNow what you can do is try out what is the value of y slightly to the left and slightly to the right of the asymptotes to know the shape of the graph, whether it's ascending or descending.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b6dc6fda-e814-45bf-8df1-b4f612a1c966>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://mathhelpforum.com/pre-calculus/169389-sketching-graph-y-x-3-2x-2-10x-1-x-2-2x-15-a.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9759359955787659, "token_count": 136, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hepatitis A is an infection of the liver. It can be passed easily from contaminated food, water, or close contact with an infected person..\nHepatitis A is caused by a specific virus. It may be spread by:\n- Drinking water contaminated by raw sewage\n- Eating food contaminated by the hepatitis A virus, especially if it has not been properly cooked\n- Eating raw or partially cooked shellfish contaminated by raw sewage\n- Sexual contact with a partner infected with the hepatitis A virus, especially as oral-anal contact\nHepatitis A is present in stool of people with the infection. They can spread the infection if they do not wash their hands after using the bathroom and touch other objects or food.\nFactors that increase your chance of a hepatitis A infection include:\n- Having close contact with an infected person\u2014although the virus is generally not spread by casual contact\n- Using household items that were used by an infected person and not properly cleaned\n- Having oral-anal sexual contact with an infected person\n- Traveling to or spending long periods of time in a country where hepatitis A is common or where sanitation is poor\n- Working as a childcare worker, changing diapers or toilet training children\n- Being in daycare centers\n- Being institutionalized\n- Injecting drugs\u2014especially if you share needles\n- Receiving plasma products, common in conditions like hemophilia\nHepatitis A does not always cause symptoms. Adults are more likely to have them than children.\n- Loss of appetite\n- Nausea and vomiting\n- Abdominal pain or discomfort\n- Yellowing of the eyes and skin\n- Darker colored urine\n- Light or chalky colored stools\nThe doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done.\nTests may include:\n- Blood test\u2014to look for signs of hepatitis A\n- Liver function studies\nHepatitis A usually goes away on its own within two months. There are no lasting effects in most once the infection passes.\nThe goals of hepatitis A treatments are to:\n- Help you stay as comfortable as possible\n- Prevent the infection from being passed to others\n- Prevent stress on the liver while it's healing. Mainly done by avoiding certain substances like specific medications or alcohol\nYou will be immune to the virus once you are well.\nIn rare cases, the infection is very severe. A liver transplant may be needed in these cases if the liver is severely damaged.\nTo decrease your chance of hepatitis A:\n- Wash your hands often with soap and water.\n- Wash your hands before eating or preparing food.\n- Avoid using household utensils that a person with hepatitis A may touch. Make sure all household utensils are carefully cleaned.\n- Avoid sexual contact with a person with hepatitis A.\n- Avoid injected drug use. If you do, do not share needles.\nIf you travel to a high risk region, take the following precautions:\n- Drink bottled water\n- Avoid ice chips\n- Wash fruits well\n- Eat well-cooked food\nMedical treatments that may help prevent infection include:\n- Immune (Gamma) Globulin\u2014temporary protection from hepatitis A. It can last about 3-6 months. It must be given before exposure to the virus or within two weeks after exposure.\nHepatitis A Vaccine\u2014highly effective in preventing infection. It provides full protection four weeks after the first injection. A second injection provides long-term protection.\nThe vaccine should be considered for:\n- All children aged 12-23 months\n- Children aged 24 months or older who are at high risk and have not been previously vaccinated\n- People traveling to areas where hepatitis A is prevalent (The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Traveler's Health website shows which areas have a high prevalence of hepatitis A.)\n- Men who have sex with men\n- Injection drug users\n- People who are at risk because of their job, such as lab workers\n- People with chronic liver disease\n- People with blood-clotting disorders, such as hemophilia\n- People who will have close contact with an adopted child from a medium- or high-risk area\n- People who desire immunity to hepatitis A\nCheck with your doctor to see if you should receive the vaccine.\n- Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD\n- Review Date: 02/2013 -\n- Update Date: 02/20/2013 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:3cb6b1ba-520e-4bcb-b5a0-1322328afb04>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://medtropolis.com/your-health/?/11800/Hepatitis-A", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9312431812286377, "token_count": 928, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A Reference Resource\nCyrus Vance (1977\u20131980): Secretary of State\nCyrus Roberts Vance was born in Clarksburg, Virginia, in 1917 and earned both his B.A. (1939) and LL.B. (1942) from Yale University. During World War II, he fought in the U.S. Navy; he then went on to practice law.\nVance became secretary of the army in the Kennedy administration (1961-1962), deputy secretary of defense (1964-1967), and U.S. negotiator to the Paris Peace Conference on the Vietnam War (1968-1969). He was also special envoy to Cyprus (1967) and then to Korea (1968).\nVance served as secretary of state in the Carter administration from 1977 to 1980, resigning in April 1980 over the armed attempt to extricate American hostages from Iran. After a stint as chairman of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York (1988-1990), he headed the U.N. mission to negotiate an end to the violence that erupted after the dissolution of Yugoslavia (1991-1992). Cyrus Vance died on January 12, 2002.", "id": "<urn:uuid:477003f0-a152-4446-8996-fc4b39d999b5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://millercenter.org/president/carter/essays/cabinet/748", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9664471745491028, "token_count": 232, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The EDX examination is a test that measures the electrical activity in your nerves and muscles. It consists of two parts:\n- Nerve conduction studies that measure the ability of specific nerves to transmit electrical impulses, or messages, to muscles.\n- Needle electrode examinations that measure the electrical activity in muscles along nerves..\nMeasuring the electrical activity in nerves and muscles helps detect the presence, location and extent of nerve and muscle disorders. Muscle weakness, nerve pains, and numbness may be due to a problem in the brain, spinal cord, the nerve supplying the muscle, the junction between the nerve and muscle (called the neuromuscular junction) and muscle. The EDX examination can help physicians distinguish where the problem lies.\nYou will be asked to lie on an examination table. The technician will tape several small, flat metal discs, called electrodes, on your skin. Repeated brief electrical stimuli are administered to the nerve. Electrical waveforms are recorded from muscles or from nerves and measured. You will feel a tingling sensation and twitching in your muscle each time the electrical stimulus is applied. Once the testing has been completed, the skin electrodes are removed.\nThe nerve conduction studies are then followed by the needle examination by the physician. A small thin needle (about the size of a straight pin) attached by wires to a recording machine will be inserted in the specific muscles being examined. No electrical stimuli or injections are passed through this needle; they simply record your muscle activity. You will be asked to relax and contract the muscles that are being examined. The electrical activity of the muscle will be displayed as electrical waves on a screen that the physician will view. The more relaxed you are, the easier the tests will be. The physician and technician will try to make you as comfortable as possible.\nBefore the EDX Examination\nThis test should not be performed until at least three weeks (21 days) have passed since the onset of your symptoms. If it has been less than that, please notify the EMG lab at 216.444.5544, or toll free 1.800.CCF.CARE ext.45544. You may be asked to reschedule at a later date.\n- Take medications as prescribed, including any for pain.\n- If you are taking anticoagulant medications (coumadin, heparin, lovenox, or crystalline warfarin) or medication for myasthenia gravis (mestinon or pyridostigmine bromide) and have not received instructions from your physician to discontinue your medications for the EDX examination, please call 216.444.5544 or toll free 1.800.223.2273 ext.45544. You may be asked to discontinue these medications for several days before the test. However, DO NOT discontinue medications without first consulting your physician.\n- The EDX examination cannot be performed on patients with a bleeding disorder or lymphedema.\n- Nerve conduction studies cannot be performed on patients with internal defibrillators. If you have an internal defibrillator and have been scheduled for this test, please call 216.444.5544 or toll free 1.800.223.2273 ext.45544. It will be necessary to assess whether the device can be turned off prior to undergoing this test.\n- Patients with internal nerve stimulators must be able to turn them off before nerve conduction studies can be performed If you have an internal nerve stimulator and have been scheduled for this test, please call 216.444.5544.\nOn the Day of the Test\nEat a normal breakfast and/or lunch. Do not apply any lotions or oils to the skin; it could hinder the electrode connection to the skin.\nAfter the Test\nThe Neuromuscular Staff evaluates the data collected and the final report is sent to the doctor who referred you for the test (usually between 1-2 working days). Your doctor will provide you with the results.\nNeurology appointment office 216.636.5860, or toll free 1.800.CCF.CARE ext.65860.\nDesk S90, Ninth floor of the \u201cS\u201d building.\nPlease call the EDX Laboratory if you have any concerns or questions or wish to speak to a technician: 216.444.5544, or toll free 1.800.CCF.CARE ext.45544.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4c95dfe5-9a8d-4fff-a4ea-2cd709972687>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://my.clevelandclinic.org/services/electrodiagnostic_exam/ns_overview.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9219334721565247, "token_count": 921, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "No doubt Native Americans took advantage of the\nnatural bounty of the Suwannee and the neighboring forest. By\naround 7500 BC the Native American population increased, and people\nbegan to settle, at least for a time, along rivers and lakes. They\nfished, gathered freshwater snails, and hunted deer. Within Andrews\non the bluff above the Suwannee are the remains of an ancient\nhunting and fishing camp. When Spanish explorer Narvarez crossed\nthe Suwannee thousands of years later, his men called it \"River of\nthe Deer.\" Later, Indians escaping to Florida from other parts of\nthe Southeast named it \"Suwani,\" meaning \"echo river\" in Creek.\nSound echoes from the river's limestone bluffs, especially when the\nwater is low.\nPostcard, 1936 - Florida Photo Archives\nFerry on the Suwannee ca 1882 - Florida Photo Archives\nBy the 1830s the tranquil, tree-lined Suwannee\nbecame an important navigation route. Steamboats carried lumber to\nCedar Key for transport by steamship to Europe and the Northeast.\nMuch of the virgin cypress in the Suwannee floodplain was harvested\nin the early 1900s. Furrows created by \"snaking\" huge cypress logs\nare still visible along the banks of the Suwannee.\nIn the early part of the 1900s what was later to\nbecome Andrews was subject to a wide range of uncontrolled uses,\nincluding open range livestock grazing. Range hogs readily adapted\nto the habitat and are still present on Andrews today as hunters\nrediscover each fall.\nIn 1945 the Andrews family purchased the area. They\nmanaged the land for outdoor recreation and were careful to protect\nnatural resources. Limited weekend hunts were held for deer,\nturkey, and squirrel, and no mining or significant timber harvest\noccurred. The Andrews family created four, five-acre clearings in\nthe upland hardwoods and scattered roadside openings.\nIn the late 1970s the deer density approached one\ndeer per ten acres, which resulted in severe over-browsing of\nunderstory vegetation and a decline in the physical condition of\nthe deer. Doe harvest was initiated in the early 1980s to reduce\nthe population and to achieve a more balanced sex ratio.\nThe state purchased the land in 1985 through the\nSave Our Rivers and Conservation and Recreation Lands programs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4fe663df-1197-40be-995f-a78704bce4af>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://myfwc.com/viewing/recreation/wmas/lead/andrews/history/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9510742425918579, "token_count": 502, "score": 3.75, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Theophany (from Greek theophania, meaning \"appearance of God\") is one of the Great Feasts of the Orthodox Church, celebrated on January 6. It is the feast which reveals the Most Holy Trinity to the world through the Baptism of the Lord (Mt.3:13-17; Mark 1:9-11; Luke 3:21-22).\nBaptism of Christ\nThis observance commemorates Christ's baptism by John the Forerunner in the River Jordan, and the beginning of Christ's earthly ministry. The Feast of Theophany is the culmination of the Christmas Season, which starts on December 25 and ends on January 6. In mystic commemoration of this event, the Great Blessing of Water is performed on this day, and the holy water so blessed is used by the local priest to bless the homes of the faithful.\nThe feast is called Theophany because at the baptism of Christ the Holy Trinity appeared clearly to mankind for the first time -- the Father's voice is heard from Heaven, the Son of God is incarnate and standing physically in the Jordan, and the Holy Spirit descends on Him in the form of a dove.\nThis feast is also sometimes referred to as Epiphany by English-speaking Orthodox Christians, but that name more properly refers to the Western Christian feast falling on that same day and commemorating the visit of the Magi to the child Jesus. The term \"Epiphany\" does appear in the services for this feast, however.\nOriginally, there was just one Christian feast of the shining forth of God to the world in the human form of Jesus of Nazareth. It included the celebration of Christ's birth, the adoration of the Wisemen, and all of the childhood events of Christ such as his circumcision and presentation to the temple as well as his baptism by John in the Jordan. There seems to be little doubt that this feast, like Easter and Pentecost, was understood as the fulfillment of a previous Jewish festival, in this case the Feast of Lights.\nCelebration of the feast\nThe services of Theophany are set up exactly as those of the Nativity. Historically the Christmas services were established later.\n- For as many as been baptized into Christ,\n- have put on Christ\nThe gospel readings of all the services tell of the Lord's baptism by John in the Jordan River. The epistle reading of the Divine Liturgy tells of the consequences of the Lord's appearing which is the divine epiphany.\nSince the main feature of the feast is the blessing of water. It is prescribed to follow both the Divine Liturgy of the eve of the feast and the Divine Liturgy of the day itself. But most local parishes do it only once when most of the parishioners can be present. The blessing verifies that mankind, and all of creation, were created to be filled with the sanctifying presence of God.\n- When You, O Lord were baptized in the Jordan\n- The worship of the Trinity was made manifest\n- For the voice of the Father bore witness to You\n- And called You His beloved Son.\n- And the Spirit, in the form of a dove,\n- Confirmed the truthfulness of His word.\n- O Christ, our God, You have revealed Yourself\n- And have enlightened the world, glory to You!\nKontakion (Tone 4)\n- Today You have shown forth to the world, O Lord,\n- and the light of Your countenance has been marked on us.\n- Knowing You, we sing Your praises.\n- You have come and revealed Yourself,\n- O unapproachable Light.\nTroparion (Tone 4)\n- Today the Lord enters the Jordan and cries out to John:\n- \"Do not be afraid to baptize me.\n- For I have come to save Adam, the first-formed man.\"\nKontakion (Tone 4)\n- Prepare, O Zebulon,\n- And adorn yourself, O Naphtali;\n- River Jordan, cease flowing\n- And receive with joy the Master coming to be baptized.\n- Adam, rejoice with our First Mother\n- And do not hide yourself as you did of old in Paradise;\n- For having seen you naked,\n- He has appeared to clothe you with the first garment.\n- Christ has appeared to renew all creation.\nEve and Afterfeast hymn\nTroparion (Tone 4)\n- Of old, the river Jordan\n- Turned back before Elisha's mantle at Elijah's ascension.\n- The waters were parted in two\n- And the waterway became a dry path.\n- This is truly a symbol of baptism\n- By which we pass through this mortal life.\n- Christ has appeared in the Jordan to sanctify the waters!\n- Discourse On the Day of the Baptism of Christ Saint John Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople\n- Epiphany The Orthodox Faith by Fr. Thomas Hopko\n- Feast of the Theophany of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ - OCA website\n- The Baptism of Christ - Uncovering Bethany beyond the Jordan - 47 min Documentary\n- Icons of Theophany", "id": "<urn:uuid:9da2a26b-b56b-4ffb-aa5e-042948b5bbcf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Theophany&oldid=59226", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9578996896743774, "token_count": 1092, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ariel Schalit / AP\nLocusts land on a sand dune in Negev Desert, southern Israel, near the border with Egypt, March 5. A swarm of locusts crossed into Israel from neighboring Egypt Monday, raising fears that Israel could be hit with a biblical plague ahead of the Passover holiday. Israel sent out planes to spray pesticides over agricultural fields to prevent damage by the small swarm of about 2,000 locusts, said Dafna Yurista, a spokeswoman for the Agriculture Ministry. The ministry also set up an emergency hotline and asked Israelis to be vigilant in reporting locust sightings.\nScientists can learn a lot about the locusts swarming over Egypt and Israel just by looking at the pictures. Keith Cressman, senior locust forecasting officer for the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization, is based hundreds of miles away in Rome \u2014 but he can tell that these particular bugs may be on their last legs.\n\"The few good pics I have seen of the locusts show that they are a brick red rather than pinkish,\" Cressman told NBC News in an email. \"Both colors indicate they are immature adults, but the dark color suggests they are old and tired rather than young and hungry. Hence, the infestations arriving in northeast Egypt and Israel will probably come to nothing.\" That's the good news. The bad news is that other locust swarms could pose a more serious threat to the region's agriculture later this year. To get the details, check out the full story in Cosmic Log.\nIbraheem Abu Mustafa / Reuters\nA Palestinian farmer displays locusts at a farm in Khan Younis in the southern Gaza Strip, March 5. Palestinian officials said locusts had not hit Gaza in several decades and numbers of locusts that reached Gaza on Tuesday were small but the Agriculture Ministry said they have taken all necessary steps to fight it if larger numbers hit the Gaza Strip.\nAmir Cohen / Reuters\nA swarm of locusts fly near Kmehin in Israel's Negev desert.\nAriel Schalit / AP\nA locust on a sand dune in Negev Desert, southern Israel.\nExperts estimate that a swarm of 30 million locusts in Egypt will cause severe crop damage. The correlation to the plague of locusts in the Bible has the Internet buzzing.\nMore about locusts:\n- Locusts hit Egypt and Israel before Passover\n- Gaddafi's fall leads to desert locusts' rise\n- Locusts illustrate the science of swarming\nAlan Boyle is NBCNews.com's science editor. Connect with the Cosmic Log community by \"liking\" the log's Facebook page, following @b0yle on Twitter and adding the Cosmic Log page to your Google+ presence. To keep up with Cosmic Log as well as NBCNews.com's other stories about science and space, sign up for the Tech & Science newsletter, delivered to your email in-box every weekday. You can also check out \"The Case for Pluto,\" my book about the controversial dwarf planet and the search for new worlds.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ee9a435-1d0b-4f50-b13b-ee879d69a5ef>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://photoblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/03/05/17197055-get-a-closer-look-at-the-middle-easts-plague-of-locusts", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9425590634346008, "token_count": 648, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is API?\nAPI is an interface that allows software programs to interact with each other. It defines a set of rules that should be followed by the programs to communicate with each other. APIs generally specify how the routines, data structures, etc. should be defined in order for two applications to communicate. APIs differ in the functionality provided by them. There are general APIs that provide library functionalities of a programming language such as the Java API. There are also APIs that provides specific functionalities such as the Google Maps API. There are also language dependent APIs, which could only be used by a specific programming language. Furthermore, there are language independent APIs that could be used with several programming languages. APIs needs to be implemented very carefully by exposing only the required functionality or data to the outside, while keeping the other parts of the application inaccessible. Usage of APIs has become very popular in the internet. It has become very common to allow some of the functionality and data through an API to the outside on the Web. This functionality can be combined to offer an improved functionality to the users.\nWhat is SDK?\nSDK is a set of tools that can be used to develop software applications targeting a specific platform. SDKs include tools, libraries, documentation and sample code that would help a programmer to develop an application. Most of the SDKs could be downloaded from the internet and many of the SDKs are provided free to encourage the programmers to use the SDK\u2018s programming language. Some widely used SDKs are Java SDK (JDK) that includes all the libraries, debugging utilities, etc., which would make writing programs much easier in Java. SDKs make the life of a software developer easy, since there is no need to look for components/ tools that are compatible with each other and all of them are integrated in to a single package that is easy to install.\nWhat is the difference between API and SDK?\nAPI is an interface that allows software programs to interact with each other, whereas a SDK is a set of tools that can be used to develop software applications targeting a specific platform. The simplest version of a SDK could be an API that contains some files required to interact with a specific programming language. So an API can be seen as a simple SDK without all the debugging support, etc.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7cf35450-4a45-4a04-92c2-84c70317cbd0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://programmers.stackexchange.com/questions/101873/whats-the-difference-between-an-api-and-an-sdk", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9537018537521362, "token_count": 462, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fled from Syria with 300 Catholic companions to Italy due to Monophysite persecution of Severus in 514. Ordained in Rome, Italy. Preacher in Umbria, Italy. Founded a monastery at Spoleto, Italy. Bishop of Spoleto for 20 years. When he arrived to assume his see, the people rejected him as a foreigner, but the city gates miraculously opened on their own to let him in, and the people realized that God wanted him there. He later resigned to found the abbey of Farfa in the Sabine hills near Rome. A renowned peacemaker, Lawrence had the gift of healing blindness, both physical and spiritual, which led to the title Illuminator.\n- \u201cSaint Lawrence the Illuminator\u201d. Saints.SQPN.com. 2 February 2010. Web. 26 May 2013. <http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-lawrence-the-illuminator/>", "id": "<urn:uuid:6f9b50a1-e701-47e0-867f-6103ef9beeab>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://saints.sqpn.com/saint-lawrence-the-illuminator/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9717733263969421, "token_count": 198, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Light glowing from a \"super-Earth\" planet beyond our solar system has been detected by Nasa\u2019s Spitzer Telescope.\nUntil now, scientists have never been able to detect infrared light emanating from 55 Cancri E, a super-hot extrasolar planet twice the size and eight times the mass of our own.\n55 Cancri E is one of five exoplanets orbiting a bright star named 55 Cancri in a solar system lying in the constellation of Cancer (The Crab).\nPreviously, Spitzer and other telescopes were able to study the planet by observing how the light from 55 Cancri changed as the planet passed in front of the star.\nIn the new study, Spitzer instead measured how much infrared light came from the planet itself \u2013 revealing some of the planet\u2019s major features.\nAt 41-light years from Earth, the giant planet is considered uninhabitable.\nThe giant planet is tidally locked, so one side always faces the star. The telescope found that the sun-facing side is extremely hot, indicating the planet probably does not have a substantial atmosphere to carry the sun's heat to the unlit side.\n[Related content: Amazing Nasa footage shows how the Earth looks from space]\nOn its sun-facing side, the surface has a temperature of 1,727 Celsius \u2013 or 3,140 degrees Fahrenheit \u2013 That\u2019s hot enough to melt silver or aluminium.\nThe new findings are consistent with a previous theory that 55 Cancri E is a water world: A rocky core surrounded by a layer of water in a \"supercritical\" state where it is both liquid and gas, and topped by a blanket of steam.\nBill Danchi, Spitzer programme scientist at NASA, said: \u201cSpitzer has amazed us yet again. The spacecraft is pioneering the study of atmospheres of distant planets and paving the way for NASA's upcoming James Webb Space Telescope to apply a similar technique on potentially habitable planets.\u201d\nMichael Werner, who also works on the Spitzer project, added: \u201cWhen we conceived of Spitzer more than 40 years ago, exoplanets hadn't even been discovered. Because Spitzer was built very well, it's been able to adapt to this new field and make historic advances such as this.\u201d\nThe planet was first discovered in 2004 and the new findings are published in the current issue of Astrophysical Journal Letters.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ee2e220e-a6e4-4be3-b81d-28773e170e84>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://uk.news.yahoo.com/light-detected-from-super-earth-planet-55-cancri-e-by-nasa-spitzer-telescope.html?.tsrc=yahoo", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9330523610115051, "token_count": 497, "score": 3.953125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Alternate Names : Sexual Abuse, Sexual Assault\nRape is the physical act of attacking another person and forcing that person to have sex. It is the illegal sexual penetration of any body opening. Rape can happen to men, women, and children. It is often violent, although sometimes the threat is only implied. Rape can also occur without the victim knowing about it. This can happen if the victim is unconscious, intoxicated, or high on drugs.\nMale rapists usually have an extreme hatred for women. They may feel inadequate and have problems with sexual performance. At least half the time, the rapist knows the victim and works or lives near the victim. Most rapes are planned ahead of time by the attacker. More than half of sexual assaults involve a weapon.\nWhat is the information for this topic?\nFollowing are some safety measures to help prevent rape when you are at home or in your car:\nDon't let a stranger into the house without proper identification.\nDon't list a first name on a mailbox or in a phone book.\nHave the key ready before reaching the door of a car or house.\nKeep a light on at all entrances.\nKeep doors and windows locked.\nLook in the car before entering.\nMake arrangements with a neighbor for assistance in emergency situations.\nSet the house lights to go on and off with a timer.\nOther safety measures you can take to help prevent rape are as follows:\nAppear strong and confident.\nAvoid isolated and secluded areas.\nDon't walk or jog alone at night.\nLook for unusual behavior in those around you.\nScream loudly if attacked.\nSit in lighted areas and near other people such as the driver when using public transportation.\nWhen someone has been raped, the rape should immediately be reported to the police. The victim should be taken to a medical facility and examined. The person should not bathe before this examination, as evidence might be destroyed. Additionally, clothing or samples of clothing might be collected by the police as evidence.\nDuring this exam, a healthcare provider will take the following steps:\ncheck for bruises, bite marks, and other trauma\nremove pubic hair samples\ntake swabs from the anus and mouth\ntake swabs from the vaginal area if the victim is a female\ntest for pregnancy if the victim is a female, and provide emergency contraception as needed\ntest for sexually transmitted diseases and provide treatment as needed\nThe provider will treat all cuts and wounds. But often the emotional wounds are more severe than the physical wounds. It is very important that the victim get counseling and therapy. A local rape crisis center can help the victim through this trauma.\nRecovery from rape varies from person to person. Usually the physical wounds heal quickly. Mental wounds can last for many years after the attack. A rape victim may be viewed as suffering a posttraumatic stress disorder. This usually has an acute phase, lasting a few days to a few weeks, which is followed by a long-term process of recovery. Many rape victims suffer from the following:\nIf the person doesn't receive effective treatment, he or she may experience these difficulties:\ninability to establish long-term relationships\nproblems with sex\nRape victims can go on to lead normal lives. But it's very important to their mental health that they get proper counseling. Healthcare providers can help the victim work through many of the problems that result from rape. They help monitor the victim's healing, both physically and mentally.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e6437144-d5c4-4976-ae15-419bda125a5c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.3-rx.com/rape/default.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9528385996818542, "token_count": 710, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by Jos Van der Poel\nDown\u2019s syndrome is a genetic disorder (in stead of two these persons have three chromosomes 21) that besides a number of physical characteristics leads to intellectual impairment.\nIt occurs in one out of every 1.000 births. Life expectancy of people with Down\u2019s syndrome has increased substantially over the last century: about 50 % of them will reach the age of 60. Because of the trisomie 21 people with Down\u2019s syndrome have an overexpression of the amyloid precursor protein. Amyloid is the main ingredient of the plaques, which are found in the brains of people with Alzheimer\u2019s disease.\nSymptoms and course\nNot all persons with Down\u2019s syndrome show evidence of cognitive deterioration or other clinical evidence of dementia even after extended periods of observation.\nClinical symptoms at first are increasing depression, indifference and a decline in social communication. Later symptoms are: seizures in previously unaffected persons, changes in personality, loss of memory and general functions, long periods of inactivity or apathy, hyperactive reflexes, loss of activity of daily skills, visual retention deficits, loss of speech, disorientation, increase in stereotyped behaviour and abnormal neurological signs.\nEspecially for brothers and sisters who are confronted with the responsibility for (the care of) their sibling with Down\u2019s syndrome when their parents have died. It is distressing when this person develops Alzheimer\u2019s disease at a relatively young age. Not only are they loosing the person they (often) love very much, but the burden of care gets heavier.\nCauses and risk factors\nIn Down\u2019s syndrome the development of Alzheimer\u2019s disease seems to be linked directly to the overexposure to APP. The ApoE2 gene seems to have a protective effect in Down\u2019s syndrome too, but whether ApoE4 increases the risk of Alzheimer\u2019s disease in Down\u2019s syndrome is not clear yet. Men and women seem to be equally susceptible.\nDown\u2019s syndrome originates in an extra copy of chromosome 21.\nAt least 36 % of the people with Down\u2019s syndrome aged 50 \u2013 59 years and 65 % aged 60 and older are affected by dementia. Brain changes associated with Alzheimer\u2019s disease are found in 96 % of all adults with Down\u2019s syndrome.\nDiagnosing dementia in people with Down\u2019s syndrome is very difficult, as the dementia symptoms are often masked by the existing intellectual impairment. Several screening and evaluation procedures have been developed. These evaluations must be performed at select intervals, thus comparing with the person\u2019s previous score. Definitive diagnosis is only available after death.\nCare and treatment\nBecause of limited personel in small scale living settings for people with an intellectual impairment, persons with dementia often have to move (back) to an institution for mentally retarded people. Research has shown that donepezil (Aricept\u00ae) has a positive though not significant effect.\nOngoing research/Clinical trials\nErasmus University Rotterdam (Evenhuis HM)\n- Beer EFG de; De effecten van donepezil bij Downsyndroom; Down + Up 2003; 62\n- Lott IT, Head E; Down syndrome and Alzheimer\u2019s disease: a link between development and aging; Ment Ret Dev Dis 2001; 7\n- Visser FE; Down en Alzheimer in perspectief; dissertation 1996\n- Down\u2019s Syndrome and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease; Briefing North West Training & Development Team (1995)\n- Dementia an Intellectual Disabilities; Fact sheet Alzheimer\u2019s Disease International (s.a.)\nLast Updated: vendredi 09 octobre 2009", "id": "<urn:uuid:df06c0b9-a581-421c-8651-92c6b918c8b9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.alzheimer-europe.org/FR%C3%84%C2%BC%C4%86%C2%A6%C4%80%C2%BD%C3%84%C2%BC%C4%86%C2%A6%C4%80%C2%BD%20%C3%84%C2%BC%C4%86%C2%A6%C4%80%C2%BD%C3%84%C2%BC%C4%86%C2%A6%C4%80%C2%BD%C3%84%20%C4%80%C2%B3/Dementia/Other-forms-of-dementia/Neuro-Degenerative-Diseases/Down-syndrome", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8896155953407288, "token_count": 774, "score": 3.71875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Every generation has to reinvent the practice of computer programming. In the 1950s the key innovations were programming languages such as Fortran and Lisp. The 1960s and '70s saw a crusade to root out \"spaghetti code\" and replace it with \"structured programming.\" Since the 1980s software development has been dominated by a methodology known as object-oriented programming, or OOP. Now there are signs that OOP may be running out of oomph, and discontented programmers are once again casting about for the next big idea. It's time to look at what might await us in the post-OOP era (apart from an unfortunate acronym).\nThe Tar Pit\nThe architects of the earliest computer systems gave little thought to software. (The very word was still a decade in the future.) Building the machine itself was the serious intellectual challenge; converting mathematical formulas into program statements looked like a routine clerical task. The awful truth came out soon enough. Maurice V. Wilkes, who wrote what may have been the first working computer program, had his personal epiphany in 1949, when \"the realization came over me with full force that a good part of the remainder of my life was going to be spent in finding errors in my own programs.\" Half a century later, we're still debugging.\nThe very first programs were written in pure binary notation: Both data and instructions had to be encoded in long, featureless strings of 1s and 0s. Moreover, it was up to the programmer to keep track of where everything was stored in the machine's memory. Before you could call a subroutine, you had to calculate its address.\nThe technology that lifted these burdens from the programmer was assembly language, in which raw binary codes were replaced by symbols such as load, store, add, sub. The symbols were translated into binary by a program called an assembler, which also calculated addresses. This was the first of many instances in which the computer was recruited to help with its own programming.\nAssembly language was a crucial early advance, but still the programmer had to keep in mind all the minutiae in the instruction set of a specific computer. Evaluating a short mathematical expression such as x2+y2 might require dozens of assembly-language instructions. Higher-level languages freed the programmer to think in terms of variables and equations rather than registers and addresses. In Fortran, for example, x2+y2 would be written simply as X**2+Y**2. Expressions of this kind are translated into binary form by a program called a compiler.\nWith Fortran and the languages that followed, programmers finally had the tools they needed to get into really serious trouble. By the 1960s large software projects were notorious for being late, overbudget and buggy; soon came the appalling news that the cost of software was overtaking that of hardware. Frederick P. Brooks, Jr., who managed the OS/360 software program at IBM, called large-system programming a \"tar pit\" and remarked, \"Everyone seems to have been surprised by the stickiness of the problem.\"\nOne response to this crisis was structured programming, a reform movement whose manifesto was Edsger W. Dijkstra's brief letter to the editor titled \"Go to statement considered harmful.\" Structured programs were to be built out of subunits that have a single entrance point and a single exit (eschewing the goto command, which allows jumps into or out of the middle of a routine). Three such constructs were recommended: sequencing (do A, then B, then C), alternation (either do A or do B) and iteration (repeat A until some condition is satisfied). Corrado B\u00f6hm and Giuseppe Jacopini proved that these three idioms are sufficient to express essentially all programs.\nStructured programming came packaged with a number of related principles and imperatives. Top-down design and stepwise refinement urged the programmer to set forth the broad outlines of a procedure first and only later fill in the details. Modularity called for self-contained units with simple interfaces between them. Encapsulation, or data hiding, required that the internal workings of a module be kept private, so that later changes to the module would not affect other areas of the program. All of these ideas have proved their worth and remain a part of software practice today. But they did not rescue programmers from the tar pit.\nNouns and Verbs\nThe true history of software development is not a straight line but a meandering river with dozens of branches. Some of the tributaries\u2014functional programming, declarative programming, methods based on formal proofs of correctness\u2014are no less interesting than the mainstream, but here I have room to explore only one channel: object-\nConsider a program for manipulating simple geometric figures. In a non-OOP environment, you might begin by writing a series of procedures with names such as rotate, scale, reflect, calculate-area, calculate-perimeter. Each of these verblike procedures could be applied to triangles, squares, circles and many other shapes; the figures themselves are nounlike entities embodied in data structures separate from the procedures. For example, a triangle might by represented by an array of three vertices, where each vertex is a pair of x and y coordinates. Applying the rotate procedure to this data structure would alter the coordinates and thereby turn the triangle.\nWhat's the matter with this scheme? One likely source of trouble is that the procedures and the data structures are separate but interdependent. If you change your mind about the implementation of triangles\u2014perhaps using a linked list of points instead of an array\u2014you must remember to change all the procedures that might ever be applied to a triangle. Also, choosing different representations for some of the figures becomes awkward. If you describe a circle in terms of a center and a radius rather than a set of vertices, all the procedures have to treat circles as a special case. Yet another pitfall is that the data structures are public property, and the procedures that share them may not always play nicely together. A figure altered by one procedure might no longer be valid input for another.\nObject-oriented programming addresses these issues by packing both data and procedures\u2014both nouns and verbs\u2014into a single object. An object named triangle would have inside it some data structure representing a three-sided shape, but it would also include the procedures (called methods in this context) for acting on the data. To rotate a triangle, you send a message to the triangle object, telling it to rotate itself. Sending and receiving messages is the only way objects communicate with one another; outsiders are not allowed direct access to the data. Because only the object's own methods know about the internal data structures, it's easier to keep them in sync.\nThis scheme would not have much appeal if every time you wanted to create a triangle, you had to write out all the necessary data structures and methods\u2014but that's not how it works. You define the class triangle just once; individual triangles are created as instances of the class. A mechanism called inheritance takes this idea a step further. You might define a more-general class polygon, which would have triangle as a subclass, along with other subclasses such as quadrilateral, pentagon and hexagon. Some methods would be common to all polygons; one example is the calculation of perimeter, which can be done by adding the lengths of the sides, no matter how many sides there are. If you define the method calculate-perimeter in the class polygon, all the subclasses inherit this code.\nObject-oriented programming traces its heritage back to simula, a programming language devised in the 1960s by Ole-Johan Dahl and Kristen Nygaard. Some object-oriented ideas were also anticipated by David L. Parnas. And the Sketchpad system of Ivan Sutherland was yet another source of inspiration. The various threads came together when Alan Kay and his colleagues created the Smalltalk language at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in the 1970s. Within a decade several more object-oriented languages were in use, most notably Bjarne Stroustrup's C++, and later Java. Object-oriented features have also been retrofitted onto older languages, such as Lisp.\nAs OOP has transformed the way programs are written, there has also been a major shift in the nature of the programs themselves. In the software-engineering literature of the 1960s and '70s, example programs tend to have a sausage-grinder structure: Inputs enter at one end, and outputs emerge at the other. An example is a compiler, which transforms source code into machine code. Programs written in this style have not disappeared, but they are no longer the center of attention. The emphasis now is on interactive software with a graphical user interface. Programming manuals for object-oriented languages are all about windows and menus and mouse clicks. In other words, OOP is not just a different solution; it also solves a different problem.\nAspects and Objects\nMost of the post-OOP initiatives do not aim to supplant object-oriented programming; they seek to refine or improve or reinvigorate it. A case in point is aspect-oriented programming, or AOP.\nThe classic challenge in writing object-oriented programs is finding the right decomposition into classes and objects. Returning to the example of a program for playing with geometric figures, a typical instance of the class pentagon might look like this: . But this object is also a pentagon: . And so is this: . To accommodate the differences between these figures, you could introduce subclasses of pentagon\u2014perhaps named convex-pentagon, non-convex-pentagon and five-pointed-star. But then you would have to do the same thing for hexagons, heptagons and so forth, which soon becomes tedious. Moreover, this classification would give you no way to write methods that apply, say, to all convex polygons but to no others. An alternative decomposition would divide the polygon class into convex-polygon and non-convex-polygon, then subdivide the latter class into simple-polygon and self-intersecting-polygon. With this choice, however, you lose the ability to address all five-sided figures as a group.\nOne solution to this quandary is multiple inheritance\u2014allowing a class to have more than one parent. Thus a five-pointed star could be a subclass both of pentagon and of self-intersecting-polygon and could inherit methods from both. The wisdom of this arrangement is a matter of eternal controversy in the OOP community.\nAspect-oriented programming takes another approach to dealing with \"crosscutting\" issues that cannot easily be arranged in a treelike hierarchy. An example in the geometry program might be the need to update a display window every time a figure is moved or modified. The straightforward OOP solution is to have each method that changes the appearance of a figure (such as rotate or scale) send a message to a display-manager object, telling the display what needs to be redrawn. But hundreds of methods could send such messages. Even apart from the boredom of writing the same code over and over, there is the worry that the interface to the display manager might change someday, requiring many methods to be revised. The AOP answer is to isolate the display-update \"aspect\" of the program in a module of its own. The programmer writes one instance of the code that calls for a display update, along with a specification of all the occasions on which that code is to be invoked\u2014for example, whenever a rotate method is executed. Then even though the text of the rotate method does not mention display updating, the appropriate message is sent at the appropriate time.\nAn AOP system called AspectJ, developed by Gregor Kiczales and a group of colleagues at Xerox PARC, works as an extension of the Java language. AOP is particularly attractive for implementing ubiquitous tasks such as error-handling, the logging of events, and synchronizing multiple threads of execution, which might otherwise be scattered throughout a program. But there are dissenting views. J\u00f6rg Kienzle and Rachid Guerraoui report on an attempt to build a transaction-\nprocessing system with AspectJ, where the key requirement is that transactions be executed completely or not at all (so that the system cannot debit one account without crediting another). They found it difficult to cleanly isolate this property as an aspect.\nSurely the most obvious place to look for help with programming a computer is the computer itself. If Fortran can be compiled into machine code, then why not transform some higher-level description or specification directly into a ready-to-run program? This is an old dream. It lives on under names such as generative programming, metaprogramming and intentional programming.\nIn general, fully automatic programming remains beyond our reach, but there is one area where the idea has solid theoretical underpinnings as well as a record of practical success: in the building of compilers. Instead of hand-crafting a compiler for a specific programming language, the common practice is to write a grammar for the language and then generate the compiler with a program called a compiler compiler. (The best-known of these programs is Yacc, which stands for \"yet another compiler compiler.\")\nGenerative programming would adapt this model to other domains. For example, a program generator for the kind of software that controls printers and other peripheral devices would accept a grammar-like description of the device and produce an appropriately specialized program. Another kind of generator might assemble \"protocol stacks\" for computer networking.\nKrzysztof Czarnecki and Ulrich W. Eisenecker compare a generative-programming system to a factory for manufacturing automobiles. Building the factory is more work than building a single car by hand, but the factory can produce thousands of cars. Moreover, if the factory is designed well, it can turn out many different models just by changing the specifications. Likewise generative programming would create families of programs tailored to diverse circumstances but all assembled from similar components.\nThe Quality Without a Name\nAnother new programming methodology draws its inspiration from an unexpected quarter. Although the term \"computer architecture\" goes back to the dawn of the industry, it was nonetheless a surprise when a band of software designers became disciples of a bricks-and-steel architect, Christopher Alexander. Even Alexander was surprised.\nAlexander is known for the enigmatic thesis that well-designed buildings and towns must have \"the quality without a name.\" He explains: \"The fact that this quality cannot be named does not mean that it is vague or imprecise. It is impossible to name because it is unerringly precise.\" Does that answer your question?\nEven if the quality had a name, it's not clear how one would turn it into a prescription for building good houses\u2014or good software. Fortunately, Alexander is more explicit elsewhere in his writings. He urges architects to exploit recurrent patterns observed in both problems and solutions. For the pattern of events labeled \"watching the world go by,\" a good solution is probably going to look something like a front porch. Taken over into the world of software, this approach leads to a catalogue of design patterns for solving specific, recurring problems in object-oriented programming. For example, a pattern named Bridge deals with the problem of setting up communications between two objects that may not know of each other's existence at the time a program is written. A pattern named Composite handles the situation where a single object and a collection of multiple objects have to be given the same status, as is often the case with files and directories of files.\nOver the past 10 years a sizable community has grown up around the pattern idea. There are dozens of books, web sites and an annual conference called Pattern Languages of Programming, or PLoP. Compared with earlier reform movements in computing, the pattern community sounds a little unfocused and New Age. Whereas structured programming was founded on a proof that three specific structures suffice to express all algorithms, there is nothing resembling such a proof to justify the selection of ideas included in catalogues of design patterns. As a matter of fact, the whole idea of proofs seems to be out of favor in the pattern community.\nSoftware Jeremiahs usually preach that programming should be an engineering profession, guided by standards analogous to building codes, or else it should be a branch of applied mathematics, with programs constructed like mathematical proofs. The pattern movement rejects both of these ideals and suggests instead that programmers are like carpenters or stonemasons\u2014stewards of a body of knowledge gained by experience and passed along by tradition and apprenticeship. This is a movement of practitioners, not academics. Pattern advocates express particular contempt for the notion that programming might someday be taken over entirely by the computer. Automating a craft, they argue, is not only infeasible but also undesirable.\nThe rhetoric of the pattern movement may sound like the ranting of a fringe group, but pattern methods have been adopted in several large organizations producing large\u2014and successful\u2014software systems. (When you make a phone call, you may well be relying on the work of programmers seeking out the quality without a name.) Moreover, beyond the rhetoric, the writings of the software-patterns community can be quite down-to-earth and pragmatic.\nIf the pattern community is on the radical fringe, how far out is extreme programming (or, as it is sometimes spelled, eXtreme programming)? For the leaders of this movement, the issue is not so much the nature of the software itself but the way programming projects are organized and managed. They want to peel away layers of bureaucracy and jettison most of the stages of analysis, planning, testing, review and documentation that slow down software development. Just let programmers program! The recommended protocol is to work in pairs, two programmers huddling over a single keyboard, checking their own work as they go along. Is it a fad? A cult? Although the name may evoke a culture of body piercing and bungee jumping, extreme programming seems to have gained a foothold among the pinstriped suits. The first major project completed under the method was a payroll system for a transnational automobile manufacturer.\nAsk Me About My OOP Diet\nFrederick Brooks, who wrote of the tar pit in the 1960s, followed up in 1987 with an essay on the futility of seeking a \"silver bullet,\" a single magical remedy for all of software's ills. Techniques such as object-oriented programming might alleviate \"accidental difficulties\" of software development, he said, but the essential complexity cannot be wished away. This pronouncement that the disease is incurable made everyone feel better. But it deterred no one from proposing remedies.\nAfter several weeks' immersion in the how-to-program literature, I am reminded of the shelves upon shelves of diet books in the self-help department of my local bookstore. In saying this I mean no disrespect to either genre. Most diet books, somewhere deep inside, offer sound advice: Eat less, exercise more. Most programming manuals also give wise counsel: Modularize, encapsulate. But surveying the hundreds of titles in both categories leaves me with a nagging doubt: The very multiplicity of answers undermines them all. Isn't it likely that we'd all be thinner, and we'd all have better software, if there were just one true diet, and one true programming methodology?\nMaybe that day will come. In the meantime, I'm going on a spaghetti-code diet.\n\u00a9 Brian Hayes", "id": "<urn:uuid:810d86e4-c8e4-4ea2-a9e6-937895141aaa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.americanscientist.org/issues/id.3315,y.0,no.,content.true,page.3,css.print/issue.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9523331522941589, "token_count": 4038, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Overspending can be very stressful when it comes time to pay your credit card bill. However, it's the added interest that makes overspending just that much more expensive.\nSpending your future income\nOne survey of 21- to 35-year-old college graduates found that this group owes an average of $30,000 in student loans. The several hundred dollars these graduates pay each month to pay off the loan is money that can't be saved or invested for the future. It can't be spent on other necessities, such as emergency car repairs or household expenses either. It's money that's tied up until the debt is repaid.\nWhile debt for education is considered \"good\" debt because it's an investment in your future, all debt obligates your future income because of the payments that must be made. So make sure you use debt wisely-eliminate \"bad\" debt (debt for depreciating assets, such as car loans and credit card debt) and limit the \"good\" debt to reasonable amounts.\nPaying the price of debt\nInterest payments on debt work against you. New college graduates carry an average credit card balance of $3,000. Let's say you're lucky\u2014or better yet, careful\u2014and you accumulate only $2,200 in credit card debt. Your interest rate is 18% and you pay the minimum amount each month on your card ($40) without any further purchases on your card. How long will it take to pay off your balance? Did you guess five years? Try 10. It will take almost 10 years to pay off the debt. Your total cost will be $4,680 (original balance of $2,200 plus $2,480 in interest).\nGetting into debt is easy\nIt's easy to run up a credit card. How many times have you gone to dinner, put the whole bill on your credit card, collected money from friends for their portion of the bill, and then found that money gone by the time the bill arrives in the mail? How easy is it to buy another sweater on sale, not so much because you need it but because it was a good bargain? Pretty soon you've built up a large balance on your credit card. You could easily charge $2,200 on your credit card in two months, but it will take 10 years to pay it off if you only pay the minimum balance each month. Two months versus 10 years. Now that's downright scary!", "id": "<urn:uuid:2e18c3ce-2288-47e2-ab44-e3d3bbb6457c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cashcourse.org/northwestern/articles/id/1791/categoryid/110/overspending-dangers", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9708448052406311, "token_count": 504, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is skin testing for allergies?\nThe most common way to test for allergies is on the skin, usually the forearm or the back. In a typical skin test, a doctor or nurse will place a tiny bit of an allergen (such as pollen or food) on the skin, then make a small scratch or prick on the skin.\nThe allergist may repeat this, testing for several allergens in one visit. This can be a little uncomfortable, but not painful.\nIf your child reacts to one of the allergens, the skin will swell a little in that area. The doctor will be able to see if a reaction occurs within about 15 minutes. The swelling usually goes down within about 30 minutes to a few hours. Other types of skin testing include injecting allergens into the skin or taping allergens to the skin for 48 hours.\nWith a skin test, an allergist can check for these kinds of allergies:\n- environmental, such as mold, pet dander, or tree pollen\n- food, such as peanuts or eggs\n- medications, such as penicillin\nSome medications (such as antihistamines) can interfere with skin testing, so check with the doctor to see if your child's medications need to be stopped before the test is done. While skin testing is useful and helpful, sometimes additional tests (like blood tests or food challenges) also must be done to see if a child is truly allergic to something.\nWhile skin tests are usually well tolerated, in rare instances they can cause a more serious allergic reaction. This is why skin testing must always be done in an allergist's office, where the doctor is prepared to handle a reaction.\nReviewed by: Larissa Hirsch, MD\nDate reviewed: May 2012", "id": "<urn:uuid:b4e1e560-c929-419e-ad52-5e1396468d93>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.childrenscolorado.org/wellness/info/parents/89105.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9347458481788635, "token_count": 359, "score": 3.421875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Some of our most interesting prints were once given away in a magazine. Today they comprise an important social history resource for the nineteenth century, illustrating spectacles and other visual devices in use by some of the most significant people of the day.\nVanity Fair was a Victorian magazine, founded in 1868 and aimed at the middle and upper sections of society. From the very beginning its illustrations included a distinctive satirical portraiture of a type which was new to English journalism. These portraits were designed to be collectible and many households or clubs enjoyed gathering their own gallery of the most distinguished politicians, clergymen and lawyers of the day. The artists became well-known by their pseudonyms such as 'Spy' and indeed their works are often known by the shorthand label 'Spy cartoons'. The caricatures were reproduced by the relatively new colour printing process of chromolithography.\nMany of the Vanity Fair portraits include spectacles, monocles or pince-nez, often with a neck cord attached. In some cases the depiction is indistinct; the artist, usually working in watercolour, was interested only in providing an impression of the device. In other portraits however, the optical device is very clearly shown or else exaggerated such that it becomes a defining motif for the person concerned. An example would be the huge monocle filling the socket of Mr Maguire, the campaigner for Irish Home Rule.\nThe portraits are a useful source for studying the spectacle fashions of the second half of the nineteenth century and the Edwardian period. The manner in which a frame is worn, held or suspended is often clearly shown. This may be from a cord, or a coat button. The spectacles may be flourished in the hand or parked out of the way on the forehead. In one instance, the son of the novelist Charles Dickens is illustrated actually cleaning his spectacle lenses with a cloth.\nEducated Victorian readers held contemporary scientists in a level of esteem that would be unfamiliar today. In consequence, certain distinguished names in the fields of optics and ophthalmology are to be found amongst the Vanity Fair portraits. This includes Mr Frank Crisp, the well-known collector of microscopes, Sir George Airy, reputedly the first to use a cylindrical lens for his own correction, Sir William Crookes the Chemist (a former Superintendent of the Radcliffe Observatory) and R Brudenell Carter who found fame through his operations on corneal staphyloma.\nThere are so many relevant Vanity Fair portraits (the BOA Museum has 68 for example) that a comprehensive listing would seem superfluous. Below is attached a list of some of the best that an enthusiast might consider including in his collection. It should be noted that many of these prints are available quite cheaply as modern reproductions.\nWearing Pince-Nez or Nose spectacles\nWearing a monocle\nOther optical devices\nThe MusEYEum Guide to the pseudonyms of Vanity Fair cartoonists:\n|Ao||= L\u2019Estrange. Floruit 1903-7.|\n|APE||= Carlo Pellegrini (1839-1889). Born Capua. Came to England 1864. Adopted name \u2018APE\u2019 from 1869.|\n|F.C.G.||= Sir Francis Carruthers Gould (1844-1925).|\n|F.T.D.||= F.T. Dalton. Floruit 1890.|\n|GUTH||= Jean Baptiste Guth. Floruit 1883-1921.|\n|Hay||= Floruit 1888-1893.|\n|Lib||= Liberio Prosperi. Floruit 1886-1903.|\n|PAL||= Jean de Paleogu. Born 1855.|\n|SPY||= Sir Leslie Ward (1851-1922). Adopted name \u2018SPY\u2019 from 1873, working 36 years for Vanity Fair. Knighted 1918.|\n|STUFF||= Possibly H.C. Sepping Wright (i.e. his name becomes the \u2018wright stuff\u2019). Floruit 1894-1900.|\n|T||= Theobald Chartran (1849-1907).|\n|w.a.g.||= A.G. Witherby. Floruit 1894-1901.|", "id": "<urn:uuid:c1ed48bd-9c35-4500-8cf0-74140fc68226>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.college-optometrists.org/en/knowledge-centre/museyeum/online_exhibitions/printroom/spy.cfm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9384812116622925, "token_count": 905, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "At the University of Dubuque, students learn Environmental Science by getting wet, getting muddy, and getting their hands on fish, birds, soil, prairie plants, and rocks. We believe that field-oriented, hands-on courses prepare students for jobs following graduation, while providing real life experiences that lead to internships and undergraduate research projects. Students are exposed to the latest technologies, such as water quality analysis, toxicological assays, and radio telemetry.\nOur fleet of field boats provides an excellent opportunity to explore the Mississippi River ecosystem, and yearly field trips to the Audubon Center of the North Woods, Boundary Waters -- and other fun spots, as well as study trips to interantional locations, provide an opportunity to learn about other habitats. Through integrated classroom work and hands-on research, students are prepared to be leaders in the environmental science field after graduation.\nWe also love field trips. See some of our photos at http://www.geocities.com/daleeasley/FieldTrips/Page.html", "id": "<urn:uuid:74825520-8ca5-4b86-9533-b7a748519838>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dbq.edu/academics/academicdepartments/naturalandappliedsciences/environmentalscience/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9277748465538025, "token_count": 213, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Image: Walter Tape\nColourful light pillars often appear in winter when snow or ice crystals reflect light from a strong source like the sun or moon. Aided by extreme cold, light pillars appear when light bounces off the surface of flat ice crystals floating relatively close to the ground. The pillars look like feathers of light that extend vertically either above or below the light source, or both.\nDiagrams showing the formation of light pillars from street lamps (left) and the reflection of light rays from plate ice crystal surfaces (right):\nImages: Keith C. Heidorn\nLight pillars also form from strong artificial light sources like street lamps, car headlights or the strong light sources of an ice-skating rink as in the picture above of Fairbanks, Alaska. Though they are local phenomena, light pillars can look distant like an aurora. The closer an observer is to the source of the light pillar, the larger it seems.\nNational Geographic has more pictures of recent light pillars in Idaho, California, Belgium, Latvia and Canada. You can also view another Environmental Graffiti article on more incredible light phenomena here.", "id": "<urn:uuid:06327a08-ddb4-419b-908f-4c4688c69b99>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/sciencetech/light-pillars/8084", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8804503083229065, "token_count": 227, "score": 3.875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The involvement of family members in a student\u2019s educational journey plays a crucial part in that student\u2019s success. This page will lead you to a number of resources that can help you shepherd your student through this important step in his or her life. Our FAQ section may answer many of the questions you may have, but also try our A-Z index (on the tab above) for quick access to many topics.\nValuable tips in how you can assist your student, as well as contact information can be found in the links provided. We hope you and your student have a wonderful FSU experience.\nThe Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA), also known as the \u201cBuckley Amendment,\u201d is designed to protect the confidentiality of educational records and give students access to their own information. This access to information does not include parents, unless the student expressly gives you permission each year.\nMore information about FERPA can be found here.\nHow FERPA affects grading policies is addressed online and in the Parents Handbook.", "id": "<urn:uuid:241ad34a-7fb6-474e-89fa-9cc1ef4cd0ad>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.frostburg.edu/parents?tab=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9662187099456787, "token_count": 215, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Types of Explosions\nAny explosion that is the direct result of using a weapon; such as a sword laden with explosive magics, or a gun that's been given explosive bullets. The most obvious example is a grenade or a block of TNT. Most guns can be put into this category, given the common firearm mechanism of propelling a bullet out of the gun's barrel through an explosion in the chamber.\nA larger scale example would be the atomic bomb that a player can detonate on the town of Megaton in Fallout 3.\nThink Final Fantasy or Dragon Warrior for magic-based explosions in games. Spells such as \"Flare\" in Final Fantasy and \"Explodet\" in Dragon Warrior are good examples.\nIn other games, a character may motion with their hand to create a fireball or a beam of powerful light, which will explode upon impact. In Oblivion, the magic-wielding player motions forward with his/her arm and points to create a fireball, which then hurdles through the air, exploding upon any solid surface.\nMagical \"summonings\" also create magical explosions, such as Bahamut's attack in most Final Fantasy games.\nThese explosions emanate from the world around the player. They can activate on their own, or be triggered by the player's actions. Classics, such as the exploding barrel and fuel tank are often large and loud explosions - and in some environments, they can connect with other exploding objects to create a chain-reaction.\nThis also contains objects such as vehicles, booby traps, and mines. This type of explosion can be very important to some games, as explosive environmental objects are often part of objectives or checkpoints in a game.\nThese explosions are the result of any living thing that is able to explode. A simple example of this would be any kamikaze enemy in a game that's willing to run up to a player and detonate themselves.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5a271b9c-be6f-43ff-97ce-be147db2defe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.giantbomb.com/explosion/3015-309/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9461206197738647, "token_count": 392, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Grape mealybug\u2014Pseudococcus maritimus\nGrape mealybugs are soft, oval, flattened insects. Their\nbodies are distinctly segmented; divisions among the head,\nthorax, and abdomen are not distinct. The adult female is\nabout 5 mm long and appears smoothly dusted with a white,\nmealy, wax secretion. Long caudal filaments along the lateral\nmargin of the body become progressively shorter toward the\nA new vine mealybug has\nrecently invaded California vineyards. This species has\nshorter filaments than the grape mealybug.\nMealybugs excrete large quantities of sticky honeydew, which drips onto fruit clusters and later turns\nblack from sooty mold. Some berries may crack. Mealybugs do not injure vines.\nRemove loose bark in winter; young mealybugs and eggs are concealed in such places until spring. High\ntemperatures in June kill much of the most damaging brood. Control\nof ants (which interfere with natural\nenemies) is important. Oils applied during dormancy can reduce numbers somewhat.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dac7e378-3b8d-41a4-a91b-8e9bfa1d67a2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/GARDEN/FRUIT/PESTS/grmealybug.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.902712345123291, "token_count": 236, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The next day we learned that frogs come from eggs. Frog eggs look a little different from the eggs of other animals and it took a little convincing to persuade them that they were actually eggs. We talked about the life cycle of frogs. After that we made frogs, complete with long, curly tongues and wrote about them. Here is how they turned out...\n|I just love these little guys!|\nAfter frogs & turtles, we talked about snakes!\nI am not a fan of snakes, but my students ALWAYS love to learn about them! This year my class is heavy on boys (12 out of 17) and this unit keeps them so engaged! I LOVE teaching through themes. I know that the theme keeps them so engaged that I can slip in writing, reading & math skills without them even realizing it! :) I do not have pictures of our snakes because I couldn't get them to turn out. We colored 2 sides of a paper plate and then cut them in a swirl so that they looked like curly snakes. Then, I hung them from the ceiling. They would twirl when the air kicked in and the kids loved it!\nAll in all, this was a great unit. My kids stayed engaged and excited the entire week. I was able to teach them valuable math, reading, writing, & science skills...what more could I have asked for? :)", "id": "<urn:uuid:2de360b8-1c49-4cf8-aaef-680f2b45bb4d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.jenskinderkids.blogspot.com/2011_05_01_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9828855991363525, "token_count": 278, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "March 30, 2012\nCDC Releases New Report on Autism Prevalence in U.S.\nResearchers at the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health contributed to a new Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) report that estimates the prevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) as affecting 1 in 88 U.S. children overall, and 1 in 54 boys.\nThis is the third such report by the CDC\u2019s Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network (ADDM), which has used the same surveillance methods for more than a decade. Previous ADDM reports estimated the rate of ASDs at 1 in 110 children in the 2009 report that looked at data from 2006, and 1 in 150 children in the 2007 report, which covered data from 2002. The current prevalence estimate, which analyzed data from 2008, represents a 78 percent increase since 2002, and a 23 percent increase since 2006.\nASDs include diagnoses of autistic disorder, Asperger disorder, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder-Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS). ASDs encompass a wide spectrum of conditions, all of which affect communication, social and behavioral skills. The causes of these developmental disorders are not completely understood, although studies show that both environment and genetics play an important and complex role. There is no known cure for ASDs, but studies have shown that behavioral interventions, particularly those begun early in a child\u2019s life, can greatly improve learning and skills.\nThe latest CDC report, \u201cPrevalence of Autism Spectrum Disorders \u2013 Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 14 Sites, United States, 2008,\u201d provides autism prevalence estimates from different areas of the United States, including Maryland. The purpose of the report is to provide high-quality data on the extent and distribution of ASDs in the U.S. population, to promote better planning for health and educational services, and to inform the further development of research on the causes, progression, and treatments.\n\u201cWe continue observing increases in prevalence since the inception of the project in 2000,\u201d said Li-Ching Lee, PhD, a psychiatric epidemiologist with the Bloomberg School\"s Departments of Epidemiology and Mental Health and the principal investigator for the prevalence project\u2019s Maryland site. \u201cIn Maryland, we found 27 percent of children with ASDs were never diagnosed by professionals. So, we know there are more children out there and we may see the increase continue in coming years.\u201d\nThe new report, which focuses on 8-year-olds because that is an age where most children with ASD have been identified, shows that the number of those affected varies widely among the 14 participating states, with Utah having the the highest overall rate (1 in 47) and Alabama the lowest (1 in 210). Across all sites, nearly five times as many boys as girls are affected. Additionally, growing numbers of minority children are being diagnosed, with a 91 percent increase among black non-Hispanic children and a 110 percent increase for Hispanic children. Researchers say better screening and diagnosis may contribute to those increases among minority children.\nThe overall rate in Maryland is 1 in 80 children; 1 in 49 boys and 1 in 256 girls. In Maryland, the prevalence has increased 85 percent from 2002 to 2008. The increase was 41 percent between 2004 and 2008, and 35 percent between 2006 and 2008.\nThe data were gathered through collaboration with the Maryland State Department of Education and participating schools in Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Carroll, Cecil, Harford and Howard counties, as well as clinical sources such as Kennedy Krieger Institute, Mt. Washington Pediatric Hospital, and University of Maryland Medical System.\nWhile the report focuses on the numbers, its authors acknowledge that the reasons for the increase are not completely understood and that more research is needed. They note that the increase is likely due in part to a broadened definition of ASDs, greater awareness among the public and professionals, and the way children receive services in their local communities. \u201cIt\u2019s very difficult, if not impossible, to tease these factors apart to quantify how much each of these factors contributed to the increase,\u201d Dr. Lee said.\nBut whatever the cause, \u201cThis report paints a picture of the magnitude of the condition across our country and helps us understand how communities identify children with autism. One thing the data tell us with certainty \u2013 there are more children and families that need help,\u201d said CDC Director Thomas Frieden, MD, MPH.\nResearchers also identified the median age of ASD diagnosis, documented in records. In Maryland, that age was 5 years and 6 months, compared with 4 years, 6 months nationally. Across all sites, children who have autistic disorder tend to be identified earlier, while those with Asperger Disorder tend to be diagnosed later. Given the importance of early intervention, ADDM researchers carefully track at what age children receive an ASD diagnosis.\n\u201cUnfortunately, most children still are not diagnosed until after they reach age 4. We\u2019ve heard from too many parents that they were concerned long before their child was diagnosed. We are working hard to change that,\u201d said Coleen Boyle, PhD, MSHyg, director of CDC\u2019s National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities.\nTo see the full report: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss6103a1.htm?s_cid=ss6103a1_w\nTo the Community Report with state statistics: http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/documents/ADDM-2012-Community-Report.pdf\nMedia contact for Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health: Natalie Wood-Wright at 410-614-6029 or email@example.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:c63d3de8-6d63-4687-b45d-41b137a97594>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.jhsph.edu/news/news-releases/2012/lee-autism-prevalence.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9460670948028564, "token_count": 1200, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Origin:||, past participle of consolidare, from com- ( COM-) + solidus 'solid'|\ncon\u2027sol\u2027i\u2027date [intransitive and transitive]\nto strengthen the position of power or success that you have, so that it becomes more effective or continues for longer:\nThe company has consolidated its position as the country's leading gas supplier.\nThe team consolidated their lead with a third goal.\nto combine things in order to make them more effective or easier to deal with:\nWe consolidate information from a wide range of sources.\nThey took out a loan to consolidate their debts.\nThe company is planning to consolidate its business activities at a new site in Arizona.\n\u2014consolidation noun [uncountable and countable]\nthe consolidation of political power", "id": "<urn:uuid:7cf14866-bbf7-4a6c-bdac-1fae94751292>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/consolidate", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.934570848941803, "token_count": 170, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Nietzsche on Tragedy by M.S. Silk and J.P. Stern\nCambridge, 441 pp, \u00a327.50, March 1981, ISBN 0 521 23262 7\n- Nietzsche: A Critical Life by Ronald Hayman\nWeidenfeld, 424 pp, \u00a318.50, March 1980, ISBN 0 297 77636 3\n- Nietzsche. Vol. 1: The Will to Power as Art by Martin Heidegger, translated by David Farrell Krell\nRoutledge, 263 pp, \u00a311.50, March 1981, ISBN 0 7100 0744 2\nNietzsche\u2019s first book, The Birth of Tragedy, was published in 1872, when he was 27, and while he was a Professor of Classics at Basel. It had the unusual effect, for him, of attracting some attention at the time of its appearance: after that, Nietzsche\u2019s writings virtually ceased to be noticed until the 1890s, by which time he was, for the last 11 years of his life, insane, virtually without speech, and out of touch with the world.\nNietzsche said to his sister that this book was a \u2018centaur\u2019, a description which emphasises its oddness, underestimates its beauty, and misleads about the number of its components, since it is a blend not only of scholarship and literary prose, but of philosophy and assertive aesthetic judgment. It makes some historical claims in answer to an old question, the origin of tragedy among the Greeks; more importantly, it tries to characterise the nature of the Greek view of the world, how that is expressed in Greek tragedy, and what significance both that view and those plays can now have.\nAccording to Nietzsche, two contrasting spirits stand over Greek, and over all genuine, art \u2013 Apollo and Dionysus. Apollo represents order, civilisation and the determinate image; Dionysus represents nature, fertility, rapture, and the dissolution of individuation into collective expression. Greek tragedy was a highly stylised and formal art which arose nevertheless from the cult of Dionysus, and at its highest, in Nietzsche\u2019s view, it represents a peculiar moment at which the forces of Apollo and Dionysus were balanced \u2013 a balance which expresses a heroic understanding and acceptance of the destructive horror of things, a \u2018pessimism of strength\u2019.\nThese elements, the Dionysiac and the Apollonian (a term surely preferable to Silk and Stern\u2019s \u2018Apolline\u2019), by no means merely represent, as they are often taken to do, a dichotomy of passion and reason, or of emotion and form. The basic element of the Dionysiac is indeed Rausch \u2013 \u2018rapture\u2019 in Krell\u2019s translation of Heidegger, \u2018ecstasy\u2019 in Silk and Stern \u2013 but the corresponding idea of the Apollonian is dream, and the order which Classical art can set upon things itself has roots in a realm of illusion. The balance between these forces, and the consciousness which the tragic outlook involves, of the unity of destructive and creative forces, was embodied only in the earlier period of the Greek Classical Age \u2013 above all, in the tragedians Aeschylus and Sophocles. Of these, Nietzsche tends to emphasise Aeschylus, who was indeed the earlier, but (as Silk and Stern point out) it is certainly Sophocles who most clearly and unpityingly embodies what Nietzsche had in mind.\nThe third great tragedian, Euripides, destroyed tragedy, according to Nietzsche, or rather helped it to destroy itself, in association with the spirit of Socrates, that spirit of \u2018Alexandrian optimism\u2019 which trusted in reason to make the most basic questions of living into matters of discursive knowledge. That same rationalistic optimism led inevitably to a depreciation of art, including Plato\u2019s celebrated rejection of it. The Platonic consciousness, and the later forms of moralism which in various ways Nietzsche assimilated to it, could not stand the power of tragedy, nor the metaphysical conclusion which, in The Birth of Tragedy, Nietzsche saw as implicit in tragedy: that \u2018only as an aesthetic phenomenon can existence and the world be eternally justified.\u2019", "id": "<urn:uuid:1a5e05c7-7a5a-4af6-994e-a0eb0de7bb68>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.lrb.co.uk/v03/n10/bernard-williams/nietzsches-centaur", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9424949288368225, "token_count": 890, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Adam Health Illustrated Encyclopedia Multimedia - TestSearch Health Information\nCreatine phosphokinase test\nCreatine phosphokinase (CPK) is an enzyme found mainly in the heart, brain, and skeletal muscle. This article discusses the test to measure the amount of CPK in the blood.\nCPK test; Creatine kinase; CK test\nHow the test is performed\nA blood sample is needed. This may be taken from a vein. The procedure is called a venipuncture.\nThis test may be repeated over 2 or 3 days for if you are a patient in the hospital.\nHow to prepare for the test\nUsually, no special preparation is necessary.\nTell your doctor about any medications you are taking. Drugs that can increase CPK measurements include amphotericin B, certain anesthetics, statins, fibrates, dexamethasone, alcohol, and cocaine.\nHow the test will feel\nWhen the needle is inserted to draw blood, you may feel moderate pain, or only a prick or stinging sensation. Afterward, there may be some throbbing.\nWhy the test is performed\nWhen the total CPK level is very high, it usually means there has been injury or stress to muscle tissue, the heart, or the brain.\nMuscle tissue injury is most likely. When a muscle is damaged, CPK leaks into the bloodstream. Determining which specific form of CPK is high helps doctors determine which tissue has been damaged.\nThis test may be used to:\n- Diagnose heart attack\n- Evaluate cause of chest pain\n- Determine if or how badly a muscle is damaged\n- Detect dermatomyositis, polymyositis, and other muscle diseases\n- Tell the difference between malignant hyperthermia and postoperative infection\nThe pattern and timing of a rise or fall in CPK levels can be diagnostically significant, particularly if a heart attack is suspected.\nExcept in unusual cases, other tests are used to diagnose a heart attack.\nTotal CPK normal values:\n- 10 - 120 micrograms per liter (mcg/L)\nNormal value ranges may vary slightly among different laboratories. Some labs use different measurements or test different samples. Talk to your doctor about the meaning of your specific test results.\nWhat abnormal results mean\nHigh CPK levels may be seen in patients who have:\n- Brain injury or stroke\n- Delirium tremens\n- Dermatomyositis or polymyositis\n- Electric shock\n- Heart attack\n- Inflammation of the heart muscle (myocarditis)\n- Lung tissue death (pulmonary infarction)\n- Muscular dystrophies\nAdditional conditions may give positive test results:\nWhat the risks are\nThere is very little risk involved with having your blood taken. Veins and arteries vary in size from one patient to another and from one side of the body to the other. Taking blood from some people may be more difficult than from others.\nOther risks associated with having blood drawn are slight but may include:\n- Excessive bleeding\n- Fainting or feeling light-headed\n- Hematoma (blood accumulating under the skin)\n- Infection (a slight risk any time the skin is broken)\nOther tests should be done to determine the exact location of muscle damage.\nFactors that may affect test results include cardiac catheterization, intramuscular injections, trauma to muscles, recent surgery, and heavy exercise.\nAnderson JL. ST segment elevation acute myocardial infarction and complications of myocardial infarction. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 73.\nChinnery PF. Muscle diseases. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 429.\nReviewed By: David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine. Also reviewed by A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc., Editorial Team: David Zieve, MD, MHA, David R. Eltz, Stephanie Slon, and Nissi Wang.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bc6d499a-ae1b-490d-a591-0860650d7e5a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mercydurango.org/body.cfm?id=186&action=detail&AEArticleID=003503&AEProductID=Adam2004_5117&AEProjectTypeIDURL=APT_1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8565375804901123, "token_count": 906, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Watch a video to find out.\nStay logged in\nGo to Navigation\nGo to Content\nGo to Search\nBack to browse highlights\nDoorway from Abbey of Notre-Dame at Nevers\nSeated Virgin and Child\nBrowse current and upcoming exhibitions and events.\nThis artwork is currently on display in Gallery 001\nAccording to tradition, the monastery of Moutiers-Saint-Jean was founded by the first Christian kings of France, Clovis I and his son Clothar I. They are almost certainly depicted in the standing figures presenting their charters, now installed in the embrasures on either side of the portal. The small seated figures in the flanking niches represent biblical personages believed to prefigure or foretell Christ's Crucifixion. The tympanum above the doorway depicts Christ crowning the Virgin as the Queen of Heaven. This portal, probably from the north aisle of the cloister, would have led from the monastic precinct into the abbey church. The portal suffered severe damage during the sixteenth-century Wars of Religion; the heads of the two kings may have been repaired in the seventeenth century.\nFrom the abbey of Moutiers-Saint-Jean, near Dijon, FranceMlle. Cambillarc , Moutiers-St.-Jean, France ; Jean Peslier , V\u00e9zelay, France ; [ Brummer Gallery , Paris and New York (sold 1932)]\n\u00a9 2000\u20132013 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fe283930-927f-476a-957b-f3ba00c36211>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/70010739?high=on&rpp=15&pg=1&rndkey=20130201&ft=*&where=Burgundy&what=Sculpture&pos=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.897212564945221, "token_count": 316, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Since the 1960s, Washington has clamped a strict trade embargo on Cuba in the expectation that economic distress would oust Castro or at least moderate his behavior. Since 1996 the U.S. embargo has been embodied in law (heretofore it was an executive order). Here\u2019s what Uncle Sam says the embargo, enacted on February 3, 1962, by President Kennedy, is about:\nThe fundamental goal of U.S. policy toward Cuba is to promote a peaceful transition to a stable, democratic form of government and respect for human rights. Our policy has two fundamental components: maintaining pressure on the Cuban Government for change through the embargo and the Libertad Act while providing humanitarian assistance to the Cuban people, and working to aid the development of civil society in the country.\nCritics call it a violation of international law that injures and threatens the welfare of Cuban people. The United Nations General Assembly routinely votes to condemn it (the 2009 vote was 187-3, with only Palau and Israel\u2014which trades with Cuba\u2014joining the United States in voting against the resolution).\nUncle Sam even fines foreign companies doing business with Cuba. Talk about shooting oneself in the foot! For example, when Hilton and Sheraton hotels worldwide were banned from accepting Cuban trade delegations, European unions and parliamentarians initiated a boycott of the hotel chains, while the Mexican government even fined Sheraton US$100,000 for expelling Cuban guests in violation of international law. Meanwhile, the ultimate irony and hypocrisy is that although no Cuban goods can be sold to the United States, the U.S. does permit sales of \u201cagricultural\u201d and certain other goods to Cuba under a waiver that runs from daiquiri mix to rolls of newsprint (even the Communist rag, Granma, is printed on paper from Alabama), to the tune of US$718 million in 2008!\nThe effects of the embargo (which Castro calls el bloqueo, or blockade) are much debated. In 1999, Cuba filed a claim for US$181 billion in reparations. However, in 2000, the International Trade Commission (ITC) determined that the embargo has had a minimal impact on the Cuban economy, citing domestic policies as the main cause of Cuba\u2019s economic woes (for three decades, the effects of the embargo were almost entirely offset by massive subsidies from the Soviet Union). As President Carter noted during his visit to Havana  in May 2002: \u201cThese restraints are not the source of Cuba\u2019s economic problems. Cuba can trade with more than 100 countries, and buy medicines, for example, more cheaply in Mexico than in the United States.\u201d\nThe paradox is that the policy achieves the opposite effect to its stated goals: It provides a wonderful excuse for the Communist system\u2019s economic failings, and a rationale to suppress dissidents and civil liberties under the aegis of national security for an island under siege. It also permits Fidel Castro to perform the role of Cuba\u2019s anti-imperialistic savior that he has cast for himself.\nAlthough State Department officials privately admit that the embargo is the fundamental source of Fidel\u2019s hold on power, U.S. presidents are wed to what Ann Louise Bardach calls a \u201ctransparently disastrous policy, trading off sensible and enduring solutions for short-term electoral gains [in Florida]\u201d in response to fanatically anti-Castroite Cuban-American interests.\nU.S. citizens who oppose the embargo and restrictions on U.S. citizens\u2019 constitutional right to travel can make their views known to representatives in Washington.\nContact Your Senator or Representative in Congress (U.S. Congress, Washington, DC 20510, tel. 202/224-3121 or 800/839-5276, www.house.gov  and www.senate.gov ). Write a simple, moderate, straightforward letter to your representative that makes the argument for ending the travel ban and embargo and requests he/she cosponsor a bill to that effect.\nWrite or Call the President (The President, The White House, Washington, DC 20500, tel. 202/456-1414, president [at] whitehouse [dot] gov). Also call or fax the White House Comment Line (202/456-1111, fax 202/456-2461, www.whitehouse.gov ) and the Secretary of State (202/647-4000, www.state.gov/secretary ).\nPublicize Your Concern. Write a simple, moderate, straightforward letter to the editor of your local newspaper as well as any national newspapers or magazines and make the argument for ending the embargo.\nSupport the Freedom to Travel Campaign. Contact the Latin America Working Group (424 C St. NE, Washington, DC 20002, tel. 202/546-7010, www.lawg.org ), which campaigns to lift the travel restrictions and U.S. embargo, monitors legislators, and can advise on how representatives have voted on Cuba-related issues; and sign the Orbitz Open Cuba (www.opencuba.org ) petition.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3b1dd486-de71-442f-bdfe-11e8fe719761>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.moon.com/print/61910", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9338862299919128, "token_count": 1045, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Spider silk can be scary enough to insects to act as a pest repellant, researchers say.\nThese findings could lead to a new way to naturally help protect crops, scientists added.\nSpiders are among the most common predators on land. Although not all spiders weave webs, they all spin silk that may serve other purposes. For instance, many tiny spiders use silk balloons to travel by air.\nScience news from NBCNews.com\nResearchers suspected that insects and other regular prey of spiders might associate silk with the risk of getting eaten. As such, they reasoned silk might scare insects off.\nThe scientists experimented with Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica) and Mexican bean beetles (Epilachna varivestis). These plant-munching pests have spread across eastern North America within the past half-century. [ Ewww! Nature's Biggest Pests ]\nThe beetles were analyzed near green bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris) in both the lab and a tilled field outdoors. The investigators applied two kinds of silk on the plants \u2014 one from silkworms (Bombyx mori) and another from a long-jawed spider (Tetragnatha elongata), a species common in riverbank forests but not in the region the researchers studied.\nBoth spider and silkworm silk reduced insect plant-chewing significantly. In the lab, both eliminated insect damage entirely, while in the field, spider silk had a greater effect \u2014 plants enclosed with beetles and spider silk experienced about 50 percent less damage than leaves without spider silk, while silkworm silk only led to about a 10 to 20 percent reduction. Experiments with other fibers revealed that only silk had this protective effect.\n\"This work suggests that silk alone is a signal to potential prey that danger is near,\" researcher Ann Rypstra, an evolutionary ecologist at Miami University in Ohio, told LiveScience.\nRypstra was most surprised that the effect occurred even though the species involved do not share any evolutionary history together as predator and prey. This suggests \"herbivores are using the silk as some sort of general signal that a spider \u2014 any ol' spider \u2014 is around and responding by reducing their activity or leaving the area,\" she said.\nWhile more work will need to be done before this research might find applied use, the fact that the presence of silk alone reduced damage caused by two economically important pest insects \"suggests that there could be applications in agricultural pest management and biological control,\" Rypstra said.\nRypstra is also interested in the chain reaction of events that silk might trigger in an ecosystem.\n\"For example, if an herbivore encounters a strand of silk and alters its behavior in a particular manner, does that make it more susceptible to predation by a non-spider?\" Rypstra asked. \"Do spiders that leave lots of silk behind have a larger impact in the food web, and how does it vary from habitat to habitat? These are just a couple of questions that we might be exploring in the near future.\"\nRypstra and her colleagues detailed their findings online Wednesday in the journal Biology Letters.\n- Gallery: Spooky Spiders\n- What Really Scares People: Top 10 Phobias\n- Gallery: Dazzling Photos of Dew-Covered Insects\n\u00a9 2012 LiveScience.com. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2bf9f9b2-3cdc-4ce4-979e-a8d74b24efa5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50018574/ns/technology_and_science-science/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9410989284515381, "token_count": 690, "score": 3.96875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "NetWellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. NetWellness is commercial-free and does not accept advertising.\nSaturday, May 25, 2013\nCrackles in Inhaling\nwhat is the cause of crackles? What can be done ?\n\"Crackles\" refers to a non-specific, subjective description of an abnormal sound which is heard when someone listens to the lung. The list of problems which can cause crackles is quite long and varies. If indeed crackles are present, then some investigation to understand what might be causing this abnormal sound is important. This will likely be some picture of the lung. In general, abnormal findings should be investigated until a satisfactory explanation is obtained for the abnormal finding. Once a cause is identified, one can then define an appropriate course of action.\nRobert Schilz, DO, PhD\nAssociate Professor of Medicine\nSchool of Medicine\nCase Western Reserve University", "id": "<urn:uuid:61b7ee4b-a053-4731-b336-7fa2d7ed9e1a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.netwellness.org/question.cfm/82643.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9170376062393188, "token_count": 198, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Liquid armor has been shown to stop bullets more effectively than plain Kevlar, according to British firm BAE Systems. The material could be used to make thinner, lighter armor for military personnel and police officers, the BBC reports.\nMaterials scientists combined a shear-thickening liquid with traditional Kevlar to make a bulletproof material that absorbs the force of a bullet strike by becoming thicker and stickier.\nIts molecules lock together more tightly when it is struck, the scientists explained -- they described it as \"bulletproof custard,\" the BBC reports.Shear-thickening liquids are composed of hard nanoparticles suspended in a liquid, which turns rigid after being struck with a bullet or shrapnel. BAE says their tests provide the first clear evidence that it can actually protect people.\nIn the tests, BAE scientists used a gas gun to fire ball-bearing bullets at nearly 1,000 feet per second at two test materials -- 31 layers of regular Kevlar and 10 layers of Kevlar combined with the shear-thickening liquid.\nThe shear-thickening liquid stopped the bullets more quickly and prevented them from penetrating as deeply, the BBC says. British media got a preview of the materials at a BAE facility in Bristol, England.\nThe U.S. Army Research Laboratory has studied using liquid armor to replace traditional Kevlar armor, which is heavy and bulky.\nFive amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month's energy-focused issue. Also: how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world's smallest arcade, and much more.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d3c505cd-d03d-4414-91ad-4137cd737846>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-07/british-designed-%E2%80%98bulletproof-custard%E2%80%99-better-kevlar-vest", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9418525099754333, "token_count": 340, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "If you look back on your own days as a student, you can recall with ease teachers who made learning fun. You wanted to be in their classes. Best of all, you were certain that those teachers liked you and missed you on those days when you had to be absent. If you succeed at nothing else in your career, you should aim to create that same effect on your students. What makes certain teachers gifted? Charisma. According to a standard definition, charisma is \"a unique personal power belonging to those individuals who secure the allegiance of large numbers of people.\" Fortunately, classroom charisma is a learned trait. It is something that you should begin working on the first day you teach to your last.\nHow do you rate your classroom charisma? How do you create an environment in your classroom in which your students are made to feel that they are accepted and necessary to the proper functioning of the class? How do you create a nurturing, and positive climate in your classroom? Be specific. For example, I smile and greet students as they come into the classroom. I use questioning techniques that engage all students. My lessons are packed with a variety of interesting activities. I dress professionally. I use techniques that appeal to all of my students' learning styles. I establish procedures and routines and stick to them.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2734668d-2672-41ee-976b-b939ca944c81>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rcsnc.org/blog/One.aspx?portalId=9683844", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9690533876419067, "token_count": 260, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Egypt's Mubarak -- from presidency to prison\nREUTERS - Here is a look at Hosni Mubarak from the start of his presidency to when he was sentenced to life imprisonment on Saturday for his role in killing protesters involved in a uprising that toppled him from power last year:\nOctober 6, 1981 - Vice-President Mubarak is thrust into office when Islamist radicals gun down President Anwar Sadat at a military parade. He is approved as president in a referendum in November.\nJune 26, 1995 - Gunmen attack Mubarak's car as he arrives at an African summit in Ethiopia's capital Addis Ababa. He escapes unhurt and returns to Egypt.\nNovember 17, 1997 - Islamist militant group al-Gama'a al-Islamiya (Islamic Group) kills 58 tourists and four Egyptians at an ancient temple near Luxor. It is the most dramatic act in a 1990s rebellion by Islamists seeking to establish an Islamic state. The revolt is eventually crushed by state security.\nMarch 2005 - Street protests by the Kefaya (Enough) Movement draw hundreds across Egypt to oppose a fifth six-year term for Mubarak or any attempt to install his son Gamal in his place.\nMay 11, 2005 - Parliament votes to change the constitution to allow contested presidential elections, dismissing opposition complaints that strict rules would prevent genuine competition.\nSeptember 27, 2005 - Mubarak is sworn in for a fifth consecutive term after winning the first multi-candidate presidential vote on September 7. Rights groups say the vote was marred by abuses. His closest rival, Ayman Nour, comes a distant second and is later jailed on charges he says are politically motivated.\nDecember 8, 2005 - The Muslim Brotherhood wins 20 percent of the seats in parliament, its best showing. Rights groups say the vote was vitiated by irregularities to ensure Mubarak's ruling party retains a big majority.\nApril 2008 - Riots erupt in a number of cities over wages, rising prices and shortages of subsidised bread.\nMarch 27, 2010 - Mubarak reassumes presidential powers after three weeks recovering from gallbladder surgery in Germany.\nNovember 29, 2010 - A parliamentary election virtually eliminates opposition to Mubarak's ruling party in the assembly before a 2011 presidential vote. The Brotherhood and several other opposition groups boycott the parliamentary election.\nJanuary 25, 2011 - Anti-government protests begin across Egypt, driven by discontent over poverty, repression and corruption.\nJanuary 28 - Mubarak orders troops and tanks into cities overnight to quell the demonstrations.\nJanuary 31 - Egypt swears in a new government. New Vice-President Omar Suleiman says Mubarak has asked him to start dialogue with all political forces.\nFebruary 10 - Mubarak says national dialogue under way, transfers powers to vice-president but refuses to leave office immediately. Protesters in Cairo's Tahrir Square are enraged.\nFebruary 11 - Mubarak steps down and a military council takes control.\nApril 12 - Mubarak is hospitalised after being questioned by prosecutors. The next day, Egypt orders Mubarak detained for questioning on accusations he abused his power, embezzled funds and had protesters killed.\nAugust 3 - Mubarak, wheeled into a courtroom cage on a bed to face trial, denies the charges against him. His two sons, Gamal and Alaa, also deny the charges. In subsequent sessions, Mubarak always appears on a hospital stretcher.\nJune 2, 2012 - Mubarak is sentenced to life in prison for his role in the killing of protesters and is flown from the Cairo court to Tora prison on the outskirts of the capital, where he is admitted to a hospital facility.\n(Reporting by David Cutler, London Editorial Reference Unit)\n- Tweet this\n- Share this\n- Digg this", "id": "<urn:uuid:c2eed8c9-2cce-41ab-b987-1c9185fb47fa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/06/03/egypt-mubarak-events-idINDEE85202G20120603", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9561265110969543, "token_count": 752, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A group of researchers at DTU Space is developing an observatory to be mounted on the International Space Station. Called ASIM, the observatory will among other things photograph giant lightning discharges above the clouds. The objective is to determine whether giant lightning discharges affect the Earth\u2019s climate.\nThe question is whether giant lightning discharges, which shoot up from the clouds towards space, are simply a spectacular natural phenomenon, or whether they alter the chemical composition of the atmosphere, affecting the Earth\u2019s climate and the ozone layer.\nIn recent years, scientists at DTU Space have studied giant lightning using high-altitude mountain cameras. From time to time, the cameras have succeeded in capturing low-altitude lightning flashes which have shot up from a thundercloud. The International Space Station provides a clear view of these giant lightning discharges, and the opportunity to study them will be significantly improved with the introduction of the observatory.\nThe researchers will also use ASIM to study how natural and man-made events on the ground \u2013 such as hurricanes, dust storms, forest fires and volcanic eruptions \u2013 influence the atmosphere and climate.", "id": "<urn:uuid:64609457-8d80-4c2f-9854-ad43579b4866>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.space.dtu.dk/English/Research/Climate_and_Environment/Electric_storms.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8855586051940918, "token_count": 231, "score": 3.90625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "HISTORY OF SCULPTURE\nChronological summary of major movements, styles, periods and artists that have contributed to the evolution and development of visual art.\nSTONE AGE ART (c.\n2,500,000 - 3,000 BCE)\nORIGINS OF ART\nSTONE AGE ART\nBRONZE AGE ART\nIRON AGE ART\nDARK AGES/MEDIEVAL ART\nQUESTIONS ABOUT FINE ARTS\nPrehistoric art comes from three epochs of prehistory: Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic. The earliest recorded art is the Bhimbetka petroglyphs (a set of 10 cupules and an engraving or groove) found in a quartzite rock shelter known as Auditorium cave at Bhimbetka in central India, dating from at least 290,000 BCE. However, it may turn out to be much older (c.700,000 BCE). This primitive rock art was followed, no later than 250,000 BCE, by simple figurines (eg. Venus of Berekhat Ram [Golan Heights] and Venus of Tan-Tan [Morocco]), and from 80,000 BCE by the Blombos cave stone engravings, and the cupules at the Dordogne rock shelter at La Ferrassie. Prehistoric culture and creativity is closely associated with brain-size and efficiency which impacts directly on \"higher\" functions such as language, creative expression and ultimately aesthetics. Thus with the advent of \"modern\" homo sapiens painters and sculptors (50,000 BCE onwards) such as Cro-Magnon Man and Grimaldi Man, we see a huge outburst of magnificent late Paleolthic sculpture and painting in France and the Iberian peninsular. This comprises a range of miniature obese venus figurines (eg. the Venuses of Willendorf, Kostenky, Monpazier, Dolni Vestonice, Moravany, Brassempouy, Garagino, to name but a few), as well as mammoth ivory carvings found in the caves of Vogelherd and Hohle Fels in the Swabian Jura. However, the greatest art of prehistory is the cave painting at Chauvet, Lascaux and Altamira.\nThese murals were painted in caves reserved as a sort of prehistoric art gallery, where artists began to paint animals and hunting scenes, as well as a variety of abstract or symbolic drawings. In France, they include the monochrome Chauvet Cave pictures of animals and abstract drawings, the hand stencil art at Cosquer Cave, and the polychrome charcoal and ochre images at Pech-Merle, and Lascaux. In Spain, they include polychrome images of bison and deer at Altamira Cave in Spain. Outside Europe, major examples of rock art include: Ubirr Aboriginal artworks (from 30,000 BCE), the animal figure paintings in charcoal and ochre at the Apollo 11 Cave (from 25,500 BCE) in Namibia, the Bradshaw paintings (from 17,000 BCE) in Western Australia, and the hand stencil images at the Cuevas de las Manos (Cave of the Hands) (from 9500 BCE) in Argentina, among many others.\nAgainst a background of a new climate, improved living conditions and consequent behaviour patterns, Mesolithic art gives more space to human figures, shows keener observation, and greater narrative in its paintings. Also, because of the warmer weather, it moves from caves to outdoor sites in numerous locations across Europe, Asia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas. Mesolithic artworks include the bushman rock paintings in the Waterberg area of South Africa, the paintings in the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka in India, and Australian Aboriginal art from Arnhem Land. It also features more 3-D art, including bas-reliefs and free standing sculpture. Examples of the latter include the anthropomorphic figurines uncovered in Nevali Cori and G\u00f6bekli Tepe near Urfa in eastern Asia Minor, and the statues of Lepenski Vir (eg. The Fish God) in Serbia. Other examples of Mesolithic portable art include bracelets, painted pebbles and decorative drawings on functional objects, as well as ceramic pottery of the Japanese Jomon culture. The greatest Mesolithic work of art is the sculpture \"Thinker From Cernavoda\" from Romania.\nThe more \"settled\" and populous Neolithic era saw a growth in crafts like pottery and weaving. This originated in Mesolithic times from about 9,000 BCE in the villages of southern Asia, after which it flourished along the Yellow and Yangtze river valleys in China (c.7,500 BCE) - see Neolithic Art in China - then in the fertile crescent of the Tigris and Euphrates river valleys in the Middle East (c.7,000), before spreading to India (c.5,000), Europe (c.4,000), China (3,500) and the Americas (c.2,500). Although most art remained functional in nature, there was a greater focus on ornamentation and decoration. For example, calligraphy - one of the great examples of Chinese art - first appears during this period. Neolithic art also features free standing sculpture, bronze statuettes (notably by the Indus Valley Civilization), primitive jewellery and decorative designs on a variety of artifacts. The most spectacular form of Neolithic art was architecture: featuring large-stone structures known as megaliths, ranging from the Egyptian pyramids, to the passage tombs of Northern Europe - such as Newgrange and Knowth in Ireland - and the assemblages of large upright stones (menhirs) such as those at the Stonehenge Stone Circle and Avebury Circle in England. (For more, please see: megalithic art.) However, the major medium of Neolithic art was ceramic pottery, the finest examples of which were produced around the region of Mesopotamia (see Mesopotamian art) and the eastern Mediterranean. Towards the close of this era, hieroglyphic writing systems appear in Sumer, heralding the end of prehistory.\nThe most famous examples of Bronze Age art appeared in the 'cradle of civilization' around the Mediterranean in the Near East, during the rise of Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), Greece, Crete (Minoan civilization) and Egypt. The emergence of cities, the use of written languages and the development of more sophisticated tools led the creation of a far wider range of monumental and portable artworks.\nEgypt, arguably the greatest civilization in the history of ancient art, was the first culture to adopt a recognizable style of art. Egyptian painters depicted the head, legs and feet of their human subjects in profile, while portraying the eye, shoulders, arms and torso from the front. Other artistic conventions laid down how Gods, Pharaohs and ordinary people should be depicted, regulating such elements as size, colour and figurative position. A series of wonderful Egyptian encaustic wax paintings, known as the Fayum portraits, offer a fascinating glimpse of Hellenistic culture in Ancient Egypt. In addition, the unique style of Egyptian architecture featured a range of massive stone burial chambers, called Pyramids. Egyptian expertise in stone had a huge impact on later Greek architecture. Famous Egyptian pyramids include: The Step Pyramid of Djoser (c.2630 BCE), and The Great Pyramid at Giza (c.2550 BCE), also called the Pyramid of Khufu or 'Pyramid of Cheops'.\nIn Mesopotamia and Ancient Persia, Sumerians were developing their own unique building - an alternative form of stepped pyramid called a ziggurat. These were not burial chambers but man-made mountains designed to bring rulers and people closer to their Gods who according to legend lived high up in mountains to the east. Ziggurats were built from clay bricks, typically decorated with coloured glazes.\nFor most of Antiquity, the art of ancient Persia was closely intertwined with that of its neighbours, especially Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq), and influenced - and was influenced by - Greek art. Early Persian works of portable art feature the intricate ceramics from Susa and Persepolis (c.3000 BCE), but the two important periods of Persian art were the Achaemenid Era (c.550-330 BCE) - exemplified by the monumental palaces at Persepolis and Susa, decorated with sculpture, stone reliefs, and the famous \"Frieze of Archers\" (Louvre, Paris) created out of enameled brick - and the Sassanid Era (226-650 CE) - noted for its highly decorative stone mosaics, gold and silver dishes, frescoes and illuminated manuscripts as well as crafts like carpet-making and silk-weaving. But, the greatest relics of Sassanian art are the rock sculptures carved out of steep limestone cliffs at Taq-i-Bustan, Shahpur, Naqsh-e Rostam and Naqsh-e Rajab.\nThe first important strand of Aegean art, created on Crete by the Minoans, was rooted in its palace architecture at Knossos, Phaestus, Akrotiri, Kato Zakros and Mallia, which were constructed using a combination of stone, mud-brick and plaster, and decorated with colourful murals and fresco pictures, portraying mythological animal symbols (eg. the bull) as well as a range of mythological narratives. Minoan art also features stone carvings (notably seal stones), and precious metalwork. The Minoan Protopalatial period (c.1700 BCE), which ended in a major earthquake, was followed by an even more ornate Neopalatial period (c.1700-1425 BCE), which witnessed the highpoint of the culture before being terminated by a second set of earthquakes in 1425. Minoan craftsmen are also noted for their ceramics and vase-painting, which featured a host of marine and maritime motifs. This focus on nature and events - instead of rulers and deities - is also evident in Minoan palace murals and sculptures.\nNamed after the metal which made it prosperous, the Bronze Age period witnessed a host of wonderful metalworks made from many different materials. This form of metallugy is exemplified by two extraordinary masterpieces: The \"Ram in the Thicket\" (c.2500 BCE, British Museum, London) a small Iraqi sculpture made from gold-leaf, copper, lapis lazuli, and red limestone; and The \"Maikop Gold Bull\" (c.2500 BCE, Hermitage, St Petersburg) a miniature gold sculpture of the Maikop Culpture, North Caucasus, Russia. The period also saw the emergence of Chinese bronzeworks (from c.1750 BCE), in the form of bronze plaques and sculptures often decorated with Jade, from the Yellow River Basin of Henan Province, Central China.\nFor Bronze Age civilizations in the Americas, see: Pre-Columbian art, which covers the art and crafts of Mesoamerican and South American cultures.\nThe Iron Age saw a huge growth in artistic activity, especially in Greece and around the eastern Mediterranean. It coincided with the rise of Hellenic (Greek-influenced) culture.\nAlthough Mycenae was an independent Greek city in the Greek Peloponnese, the term \"Mycenean\" culture is sometimes used to describe early Greek art as a whole during the late Bronze Age. Initially very much under the influence of Minoan culture, Mycenean art gradually achieved its own balance between the lively naturalism of Crete and the more formal artistic idiom of the mainland, as exemplified in its numerous tempera frescoes, sculpture, pottery, carved gemstones, jewellery, glass, ornaments and precious metalwork. Also, in contrast to the Minoan \"maritime trading\" culture, Myceneans were warriors, so their art was designed primarily to glorify their secular rulers. It included a number of tholos tombs filled with gold work, ornamental weapons and precious jewellery.\nAncient Greek art is traditionally divided into the following periods: (1) the Dark Ages (c.1100-900 BCE). (2) The Geometric Period (c.900-700 BCE). (3) The Oriental-Style Period (c.700-625 BCE). (4) The Archaic Period (c.625-500 BCE). (5) The Classical Period (c.500-323 BCE). (6) The Hellenistic Period (c.323-100 BCE). Unfortunately, nearly all Greek painting and a huge proportion of Greek sculpture has been lost, leaving us with a collection of ruins or Roman copies. Greek architecture, too, is largely known to us through its ruins. Despite this tiny legacy, Greek artists remain highly revered, which demonstrates how truly advanced they were.\nLike all craftsmen of the Mediterranean area, the ancient Greeks borrowed a number of important artistic techniques from their neighbours and trading partners. Even so, by the death of the Macedonian Emperor Alexander the Great in 323 BCE, Greek art was regarded in general as the finest ever made. Even the Romans - despite their awesome engineering and military skills - never quite overcame their sense of inferiority in the face of Greek craftsmanship, and (fortunately for us) copied Greek artworks assiduously. Seventeen centuries later, Greek architecture, sculptural reliefs, statues, and pottery would be rediscovered during the Italian Renaissance, and made the cornerstone of Western art for over 400 years.\nGreek pottery developed much earlier than other art forms: by 3000 BCE the Peloponnese was already the leading pottery centre. Later, following the take-over of the Greek mainland by Indo-European tribes around 2100 BCE, a new form of pottery was introduced, known as Minyan Ware. It was the first Greek type to be made on a potter's wheel. Despite this, it was Minoan pottery on Crete - with its new dark-on-light style - that predominated during the 2nd Millennium BCE. Thereafter, however, Greek potters regained the initiative, introducing a series of dazzling innovations including: beautifully proportioned Geometric Style pottery (900-725), as well as Oriental (725-600), Black-Figure (600-480) and Red-Figure (530-480) styles. Famous Greek ceramicists include Exekias, Kleitias, Ergotimos, Nearchos, Lydos, the Amasis Painter, Andokides, Euthymides, and Sophilos (all Black-Figure), plus Douris, Brygos and Onesimos (Red-Figure).\nIn Etruria, Italy, the older Villanovan Culture gave way to Etruscan Civilization around 700 BCE. This reached its peak during the sixth century BCE as their city-states gained control of central Italy. Like the Egyptians but unlike the Greeks, Etruscans believed in an after-life, thus tomb or funerary art was a characteristic feature of Etruscan culture. Etruscan artists were also renowned for their figurative sculpture, in stone, terracotta and bronze. Above all Etruscan art is famous for its \"joi de vivre\", exemplified by its lively fresco mural painting, especially in the villas of the rich. In addition, the skill of Etruscan goldsmiths was highly prized throughout Italy and beyond. Etruscan culture, itself strongly influenced by Greek styles, had a marked impact on other cultures, notably the Hallstatt and La Tene styles of Celtic art. Etruscan culture declined from 396 BCE onwards, as its city states were absorbed into the Roman Empire.\nFrom about 600 BCE, migrating pagan tribes from the Russian Steppes, known as Celts, established themselves astride the Upper Danube in central Europe. Celtic culture, based on exceptional trading skills and an early mastery of iron, facilitated their gradual expansion throughout Europe, and led to two styles of Celtic art whose artifacts are known to us through several key archeological sites in Switzerland and Austria. The two styles are Hallstatt (600-450) and La Tene (450-100). Both were exemplified by beautiful metalwork and complex linear designwork. Although by the early 1st Millennium CE most pagan Celtic artists had been fully absorbed into the Roman Empire, their traditions of spiral, zoomorphic, knotwork and interlace designs later resurfaced and flourished (600-1100 CE) in many forms of Hiberno-Saxon art (see below) such as illuminated Gospel manuscripts, religious metalwork, and High Cross Sculpture. Famous examples of Celtic metalwork art include the Gundestrup Cauldron, the Petrie Crown and the Broighter gold torc.\nUnlike their intellectual Greek neighbours, the Romans were primarily practical people with a natural affinity for engineering, military matters, and Empire building. Roman architecture was designed to awe, entertain and cater for a growing population both in Italy and throughout their Empire. Thus Roman architectural achievements are exemplified by new drainage systems, aqueducts, bridges, public baths, sports facilities and amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), characterized by major advances in materials (eg. the invention of concrete) and in the construction of arches and roof domes. The latter not only allowed the roofing of larger buildings, but also gave the exterior far greater grandeur and majesty. All this revolutionized the Greek-dominated field of architecture, at least in form and size, if not in creativity, and provided endless opportunity for embellishment in the way of scultural reliefs, statues, fresco murals, and mosaics. The most famous examples of Roman architecture include: the massive Colosseum, the Arch of Titus, and Trajan's Column.\nIf Roman architecture was uniquely grandiose, its paintings and sculptures continued to imitate the Greek style, except that its main purpose was the glorification of Rome's power and majesty. Early Roman art (c.200-27 BCE) was detailed, unidealized and realistic, while later Imperial styles (c.27 BCE - 200 CE) were more heroic. Mediocre painting flourished in the form of interior-design standard fresco murals, while higher quality panel painting was executed in tempera or in encaustic pigments. Roman sculpture too, varied in quality: as well as tens of thousands of average quality portrait busts of Emperors and other dignitaries, Roman sculptors also produced some marvellous historical relief sculptures, such as the spiral bas relief sculpture on Trajan's Column, celebrating the Emperor's victory in the Dacian war.\nEarly Art From Around the World\nAlthough the history of art is commonly seen as being mainly concerned with civilizations that derived from European and Chinese cultures, a significant amount of arts and crafts appeared from the earliest times around the periphery of the known world. For more about the history and artifacts of these cultures, see: Oceanic art (from the South Pacific and Australasia), African art (from all parts of the continent) and Tribal art (from Africa, the Pacific Islands, Indonesia, Burma, Australasia, North America, and Alaska).\nConstantinople, Christianity and Byzantine Art\nWith the death in 395 CE, of the Emperor Theodosius, the Roman empire was divided into two halves: a Western half based initially in Rome, until it was sacked in the 5th century CE, then Ravenna; and an eastern half located in the more secure city of Constantinople. At the same time, Christianity was made the exclusive official religion of the empire. These two political developments had a huge impact on the history of Western art. First, relocation to Constantinople helped to prolong Greco-Roman civilization and culture; second, the growth of Christianity led to an entirely new category of Christian art which provided architects, painters, sculptors and other craftsmen with what became the dominant theme in the visual arts for the next 1,200 years. As well as prototype forms of early Christian art, much of which came from the catacombs, it also led directly to the emergence of Byzantine art. See also: Christian Art, Byzantine Period.\nByzantine art was almost entirely religious art, and centred around its Christian architecture. Masterpieces include the awesome Hagia Sophia (532-37) in Istanbul; the Church of St Sophia in Sofia, Bulgaria (527-65); and the Church of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki. Byzantine art also influenced the Ravenna mosaics in the Basilicas of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, San Vitale, and Sant' Apollinare in Classe. Secular examples include: the Great Palace of Constantinople, and Basilica Cistern. As well as new architectural techniques such as the use of pendentives to spread the weight of the ceiling dome, thus permitting larger interiors, new decorative methods were introduced like mosaics made from glass, rather than stone. But the Eastern Orthodox brand of Christianity (unlike its counterpart in Rome), did not allow 3-D artworks like statues or high reliefs, believing they glorified the human aspect of the flesh rather than the divine nature of the spirit. Thus Byzantine art (eg. painting, mosaic works) developed a particular style of meaningful imagery (iconography) designed to present complex theology in a very simple way. For example, colours were used to express different ideas: gold represented Heaven; blue, the colour of human life, and so on.\nAfter 600 CE, Byzantine architecture progressed through several periods - such as, the Middle Period (c.600-1100) and the Comnenian and Paleologan periods (c.1100-1450) - gradually becoming more and more influenced by eastern traditions of construction and decoration. In Western Europe, Byzantine architecture was superceded by Romanesque and Gothic styles, while in the Near East it continued to have a significant influence on early Islamic architecture, as illustrated by the Umayyad Great Mosque of Damascus and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.\nIn the absence of sculpture, Byzantine artists specialized in 2-D painting, becoming masters of panel-painting, including miniatures - notably icons - and manuscript illumination. Their works had a huge influence on artists throughout western and central Europe, as well as the Islamic countries of the Middle East.\nLocated on the remote periphery of Western Europe, Ireland remained free of interference from either Rome or the barbarians that followed. As a result, Irish Celtic art was neither displaced by Greek or Roman idioms, nor buried in the pagan Dark Ages. Furthermore, the Church was able to establish a relatively secure network of Irish monasteries, which rapidly became important centres of religious learning and scholarship, and gradually spread to the islands off Britain and to parts of Northern England. This monastic network soon became a major patron of the arts, attracting numerous scribes and painters into its scriptoriums to create a series of increasingly ornate illuminated gospel manuscripts: examples include: the Cathach of Colmcille (c.560), the Book of Dimma (c.625), the Durham Gospels (c.650), the Book of Durrow (c.670), and the supreme Book of Kells (also called the Book of Columba), considered to be the apogee of Western calligraphy. These gospel illuminations employed a range of historiated letters, rhombuses, crosses, trumpet ornaments, pictures of birds and animals, occasionally taking up whole pages (carpet pages) of geometric or interlace patterns. The creative success of these decorated manuscripts was greatly enhanced by the availability of Celtic designs from jewellery and metalwork - produced for the Irish secular elite - and by increased cultural contacts with Anglo-Saxon craftsmen in England.\nAnother early Christian art form developed in Ireland was religious metalwork, exemplified by such masterpieces as the Tara Brooch, the Ardagh Chalice, the Derrynaflan Chalice, and the Moylough Belt Shrine, as well as processional crosses like the 8th/9th century Tully Lough Cross and the great 12th century Cross of Cong, commissioned by Turlough O'Connor. Finally, from the late eighth century, the Church began commissioning a number of large religious crosses decorated both with scenes from the bible and abstract interlace, knotwork and other Celtic-style patterns. Examples include Muiredach's Cross at Monasterboice, County Louth, and the Ahenny High Cross in Tipperary. These scripture high crosses flourished between 900 and 1100, although construction continued as late as the 15th century.\nUnfortunately, with the advent of the Vikings (c.800-1000), the unique Irish contribution to Western Civilization in general and Christianity in particular, began to fade, despite some contribution from Viking art. Thereafter, Roman culture - driven by the Church of Rome - began to reassert itself across Europe.\nA Word About Asian Art\nIn contrast to Christianity which permits figurative representation of Prophets, Saints and the Holy family, Islam forbids all forms of human iconography. Thus Islamic art focused instead on the development of complex geometric patterns, illuminated texts and calligraphy.\nIn East Asia, the visual arts of India and Tibet incorporated the use of highly coloured figures (due to their wide range of pigments) and strong outlines. Painting in India was extremely diverse, as were materials (textiles being more durable often replaced paper) and size (Indian miniatures were a specialty). Chinese art included bronze sculpture, jade carving, Chinese pottery, calligraphic and brush painting, among other forms. In Japan, Buddhist temple art, Zen Ink-Painting, Yamato-e and Ukiyo-e woodblock prints were four of the main types of Japanese art.\nOn the continent, the revival of medieval Christian art began with Charlemagne I, King of the Franks, who was crowned Holy Roman Emperor, by Pope Leo III in 800. Charlemagne's court scriptoriums at Aachen produced a number of magnificent illuminated Christian texts, such as: the Godscalc Evangelistary, the Lorsch Gospels and the Gospels of St Medard of Soissons. Ironically, his major architectural work - the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (c.800) - was influenced not by St Peter's or other churches in Rome, but by the Byzantine-style Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna. The Carolingian empire rapidly dissolved but Carolingian Art marked an important first step in the revitalization of European culture. Furthermore, many of the Romanesque and Gothic churches were built on the foundations of Carolingian architecture. Charlemagne's early Romanesque architectural achievements were continued by the Holy Roman Emperors Otto I-III, in a style known as Ottonian Art, which morphed into the fully fledged \"Romanesque.\" (In England and Ireland, the Romanesque style is usually called Norman architecture.)\nThe Church Invests in Art to Convey Its Message\nThe spread of Romanesque art in the 11th century coincided with the reassertiveness of Roman Christianity, and the latter's influence on secular authorities led to the Christian re-conquest of Spain (c.1031) as well as the Crusade to free the Holy Land from the grip of Islam. The success of the Crusaders and their acquisition of Holy Relics triggered a wave of new cathedrals across Europe. In addition to its influence over international politics, Rome exercised growing power via its network of Bishops and its links with Monastic orders such as the Benedictines, the Cistercians, Carthusians and Augustinian Canons. From these monasteries, its officials exercised growing administrative power over the local population, notably the power to collect tax revenues which it devoted to religious works, particularly the building of cathedrals (encompassing sculpture and metalwork, as well as architecture), illuminated gospel manuscripts, and cultural scholarship - a process exemplified by the powerful Benedictine monastery at Cluny in Burgundy.\nRomanesque Architecture (c.1000-1200)\nAlthough based on Greek and Roman Antiquity, Romanesque architecture displayed neither the creativity of the Greeks, nor the engineering skill of the Romans. They employed thick walls, round arches, piers, columns, groin vaults, narrow slit-windows, large towers and decorative arcading. The basic load of the building was carried not its arches or columns but by its massive walls. And its roofs, vaults and buttresses were relatively primitive in comparison with later styles. Above all, interiors were dim and comparatively hemmed in with heavy stone walls. Even so, Romanesque architecture did reintroduce two important forms of fine art: sculpture (which had been in abeyance since the fall of Rome), and stained glass, albeit on a minor scale. (For details of sculptors, painters, and architects from the Middle Ages, see: Medieval Artists.)\nLargely financed by monastic orders and local bishops, Gothic architecture exploited a number of technical advances in pointed arches and other design factors, in order to awe, inspire and educate the masses. Thus, out went the massively thick walls, small windows and dim interiors, in came soaring ceilings (\"reaching to heaven\"), thin walls and stained glass windows. This transformed the interior of many cathedrals into inspirational sanctuaries, where illiterate congregations could see the story of the bible illustrated in the beautiful stained glass art of its huge windows. Indeed, the Gothic cathedral was seen by architects as representing the universe in miniature. Almost every feature was designed to convey a theological message: namely, the awesome glory of God, and the ordered nature of his universe. Religious Gothic art - that is, architecture, relief sculpture and statuary - is best exemplified by the cathedrals of Northern France, notably Notre Dame de Paris; Reims and Chartres, as well as Cologne Cathedral, St Stephen's Cathedral Vienna and, in England, Westminster Abbey and York Minster.\nStrongly influenced by International Gothic, the European revival of fine art between roughly 1300 and 1600, popularly known as \"the Renaissance\", was a unique and (in many respects) inexplicable phenomenon, not least because of (1) the Black Death plague (1346), which wiped out one third of the European population; (2) the 100 Years War between England and France (1339-1439) and (3) the Reformation (c.1520) - none of which was conducive to the development of the visual arts. Fortunately, certain factors in the Renaissance heartland of Florence and Rome - notably the energy and huge wealth of the Florentine Medici family, and the Papal ambitions of Pope Sixtus IV (1471-84), Pope Julius II (1503-13), Pope Leo X (1513-21) and Pope Paul III (1534-45) - succeeded in overcoming all natural obstacles, even if the Church was almost bankrupted in the process.\nRenaissance art was founded on a new appreciation of the arts of Classical Antiquity, a belief in the nobility of Man, as well as artistic advances in both linear perspective and realism. It evolved in three main Italian cities: first Florence, then Rome, and lastly Venice. Renaissance chronology is usually listed as follows:\nRenaissance architecture employed precepts derived from ancient Greece and Rome, but kept many modern features of Byzantine and Gothic invention, such as domes and towers. Important architects included: Donato Bramante (1444-1514) the greatest exponent of High Renaisance architecture; Baldassare Peruzzi (1481-1536), an important architect and interior designer; Michele Sanmicheli (1484-1559), the leading pupil of Bramante; Jacopo Sansovino (1486-1570), the most celebrated Venetian architect; Giulio Romano (1499-1546), the chief practitioner of Italian Late Renaissance-style building design; Andrea Palladio (1508-1580), an influential theorist; and of course Michelangelo himself, who helped to design the dome for St Peter's Basilica in Rome.\nAmong the greatest sculptors of the Northern Renaissance were: the German limewood sculptor Tilman Riemenschneider (1460-1531), noted for his reliefs and freestanding wood sculpture; and the wood-carver Veit Stoss (1450-1533) noted for his delicate altarpieces.\nIt was during this period that the Catholic Counter-Reformation got going in an attempt to attract the masses away from Protestantism. Renewed patronage of the visual arts and architecture was a key feature of this propaganda campaign, and led to a grander, more theatrical style in both areas. This new style, known as Baroque art was effectively the highpoint of dramatic Mannerism.\nBaroque architecture took full advantage of the theatrical potential of the urban landscape, exemplified by Saint Peter's Square (1656-67) in Rome, in front of the domed St Peter's Basilica. Its architect, Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680) employed a widening series of colonnades in the approach to the cathedral, conveying the impression to visitors that they are being embraced by the arms of the Catholic Church. The entire approach is constructed on a gigantic scale, to induce feelings of awe.\nIn painting, the greatest exponent of Catholic Counter-Reformation art was Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) - \"the Prince of painters and the painter of Princes\". Other leading Catholic artists included Diego Velazquez (1599-1660), Francisco Zurbaran (1598-1664) and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665).\nIn Protestant Northern Europe, the Baroque era was marked by the flowering of Dutch Realist painting, a style uniquely suited to the new bourgeois patrons of small-scale interiors, genre-paintings, portraits, landscapes and still lifes. Several schools of Dutch Realism sprang up including those of Delft, Utrecht, and Leiden. Leading members included the two immortals Rembrandt (1606-1669) and Jan Vermeer (1632-1675), as well as Frans Snyders (1579-1657), Frans Hals (1581-1666), Adriaen Brouwer (1605-38), Jan Davidsz de Heem (1606-84), Adriaen van Ostade (1610-85), David Teniers the Younger (1610-90), Gerard Terborch (1617-81), Jan Steen (1626-79), Pieter de Hooch (1629-83), and the landscape painters Aelbert Cuyp (1620-91), Jacob van Ruisdael (1628-82) and Meyndert Hobbema (1638-1709), among others.\nThis new style of decorative art, known as Rococo, impacted most on interior-design, although architecture, painting and sculpture were also affected. Essentially a reaction against the seriousness of the Baroque, Rococo was a light-hearted, almost whimsical style which grew up in the French court at the Palace of Versailles before spreading across Europe. Rococo designers employed the full gamut of plasterwork, murals, tapestries, furniture, mirrors, porcelain, silks and other embellishments to give the householder a complete aesthetic experience. In painting, the Rococo style was championed by the French artists Watteau (1684-1721), Fragonard (1732-1806), and Boucher (1703-70). But the greatest works were produced by the Venetian Giambattista Tiepolo (1696-1770) whose fantastic wall and ceiling fresco paintings took Rococo to new heights. See in particular the renaissance of French Decorative Art (1640-1792), created by French Designers especially in the form of French Furniture, at Versailles and other Royal Chateaux, in the style of Louis Quatorze (XIV), Louis Quinze (XV) and Louis Seize (XVI). As it was, Rococo symbolized the decadent indolence and degeneracy of the French aristocracy. Because of this, it was swept away by the French Revolution which ushered in the new sterner Neoclassicism, more in keeping with the Age of Enlightenment and Reason.\nIn architecture, Neoclassicism derived from the more restrained \"classical\" forms of Baroque practised in England by Sir Christopher Wren (1632-1723), who designed St Paul's Cathedral. Yet another return to the Classical Orders of Greco-Roman Antiquity, the style was characterized by monumental structures, supported by columns of pillars, and topped with classical Renaissance domes. Employing innovations like layered cupolas, it lent added grandeur to palaces, churches, and other public structures. Famous Neoclassical buildings include: the Pantheon (Paris) designed by Jacques Germain Soufflot (1756-97), the Arc de Triomphe (Paris) designed by Jean Chalgrin, the Brandenburg Gate (Berlin) designed by Carl Gotthard Langhans (1732-1808), and the United States Capitol Building, designed by English-born Benjamin Henry Latrobe (1764-1820), and later by Stephen Hallet and Charles Bulfinch. See also the era of American Colonial Art (c.1670-1800).\nNeoclassicist painters also looked to Classical\nAntiquity for inspiration, and emphasized the virtues of heroicism, duty\nand gravitas. Leading exponents included the French political artist Jacques-Louis\nDavid (1748-1825), the German portrait and history painter Anton Raphael\nMengs (1728-79), and the French master of the Academic\nart style, Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres (1780-1867). Neoclassical\nsculptors included: Antonio Canova (1757-1822),\nIn contrast to the universal values espoused by Neo-Classicism, Romantic artists expressed a more personal response to life, relying more on their senses and emotions rather than reason and intellect. This idealism, like Neoclassism, was encouraged by the French Revolution, thus some artists were affected by both styles. Nature was an important subject for Romantics, and the style is exemplified, by the English School of Landscape Painting, the plein air painting of John Constable (1776-1837), Corot (1796-1875) along with members of the French Barbizon School and the American Hudson River School of landscape painting, as well as the more expressionistic JMW Turner (1775-1851). Arguably, however, the greatest Romantic landscape painter is arguably Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840). Narrative or history painting was another important genre in Romanticism: leading exponents include: Francisco Goya (1746-1828) Henry Fuseli (1741-1825), James Barry (1741-1806), Theodore Gericault (1791-1824) and Eugene Delacroix (1798-63), as well as later Orientalists, Pre-Raphaelites and Symbolists.\nAs the 19th century progessed, growing awareness of the rights of man plus the social impact of the Industrial Revolution caused some artists to move away from idealistic or romantic subjects in favour of more mundane subjects, depicted in a more true-life, style of naturalism. This new focus (to some extent anticipated by William Hogarth in the 18th century, see English Figurative Painting) was exemplified by the Realism style which emerged in France during the 1840s, before spreading across Europe. This new style attracted painters from all the genres - notably Gustave Courbet (1819-77) (genre-painting), Jean Francois Millet (1814-75) (landscape, rural life), Honore Daumier (1808-79) (urban life) and Ilya Repin (1844-1930) (landscape and portraits).\nHistory of Modern Art\nFrench Impressionism, championed above all by Claude Monet (1840-1926), was a spontaneous colour-sensitive style of pleinairism whose origins derived from Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot and the techniques of the Barbizon school - whose quest was to depict the momentary effects of natural light. It encompassed rural landscapes [Alfred Sisley (1839-1899)], cityscapes [Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)], genre scenes [Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919), Edgar Degas (1834-1917), Paul Cezanne (1839-1906), and Berthe Morisot (1841-95)] and both figurative paintings and portraits [Edouard Manet (1832-83), John Singer Sargent (1856-1925)]. Other artists associated with Impressionism include, James McNeil Whistler (1834-1903) and Walter Sickert (1860-1942).\nImpressionists sought to faithfully reproduce fleeting moments outdoors. Thus if an object appeared dark purple - due perhaps to failing or reflected light - then the artist painted it purple. Naturalist \"Academic-Style\" colour schemes, being devised in theory or at least in the studio, did not allow for this. As a result Impressionism offered a whole new pictorial language - one that paved the way for more revolutionary art movements like Cubism - and is often regarded by historians and critics as the first modern school of painting.\nIn any event, the style had a massive impact on Parisian and world art, and was the gateway to a series of colour-related movements, including Post-Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism, Pointillism, Divisionism, Fauvism, Intimism, the American Luminism or Tonalism, as well as American Impressionism, the Newlyn School and Camden Town Group, the French Les Nabis and the general Expressionist movement.\nEssentially an umbrella term encompassing a number of developments and reactions to Impressionism, Post-Impressionism involved artists who employed Impressionist-type colour schemes, but were dissatisfied with the limitations imposed by merely reproducing nature. Neo-Impressionism with its technique of Pointillism (an offshoot of Divisionism) was pioneered by Georges Seurat and Paul Signac (1863-1935), while major Post-Impressionists include Paul Gauguin, Vincent Van Gogh and Paul Cezanne. Inspired by Gauguin's synthetism and Bernard's cloisonnism, the Post-Impressionist group Les Nabis promoted a wider form of decorative art; another style, known as Intimisme, concerned itself with genre scenes of domestic, intimate interiors. Exemplified by the work of Pierre Bonnard (1867-1947) and Edouard Vuillard (1868-1940), it parallels other tranquil interiors such as those by James McNeil Whistler, and the Dutch Realist-influenced Peter Vilhelm Ilsted (1861-1933). Another very important movement - anti-impressionist rather than post-impressionist - was Symbolism (flourished 1885-1900), which went on to influence Fauvism, Expressionism and Surrealism.\nFor more about art politics in France, see: the Paris Salon.\nThe term \"Fauves\" (wild beasts) was first used by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles at the 1905 Salon d'Automne exhibition in Paris when describing the vividly coloured paintings of Henri Matisse (1869-1954), Andre Derain (1880-1954), and Maurice de Vlaminck (1876-1958). Other Fauvists included the later Cubist Georges Braque (1882-1963), Raoul Dufy (1877-1953), Albert Marquet (1875-1947) and Georges Rouault (1871-1958). Most followers of Fauvism moved on to Expressionism or other movements associated with the Ecole de Paris.\nSculptural traditions, although never independent from those of painting, are concerned primarily with space and volume, while issues of scale and function also act as distinguishing factors. Thus on the whole, sculpture was slower to reflect the new trends of modern art during the 19th century, leaving sculptors like Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) free to pursue a monumentalism derived essentially from Neoclassicism if not Renaissance ideology. The public dimension of sculpture also lent itself to the celebration of Victorian values and historical figures, which were likewise executed in the grand manner of earlier times. Thus it wasn't until the emergence of artists like Constantin Brancusi (1876-1957) and Umberto Boccioni (1882-1916) that sculpture really began to change, at the turn of the century.\nExpressionism is a general style of painting that aims to express a personal interpretation of a scene or object, rather than depict its true-life features, it is often characterized by energetic brushwork, impastoed paint, intense colours and bold lines. Early Expressionists included, Vincent Van Gogh (1853-90), Edvard Munch (1863-1944) and Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944). A number of German Expressionist schools sprang up during the first three decades of the 20th century. These included: Die Brucke (1905-11), a group based in Dresden in 1905, which mixed elements of traditional German art with Post-Impressionist and Fauvist styles, exemplified in works by Ernst Ludwig Kirchner, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, Erik Heckel, and Emil Nolde; Der Blaue Reiter (1911-14), a loose association of artists based in Munich, including Wassily Kandinsky, Franz Marc, August Macke, and Paul Klee; Die Neue Sachlichkeit (1920s) a post-war satirical-realist group whose members included Otto Dix, George Grosz, Christian Schad and to a lesser extent Max Beckmann. Expressionism duly spread worldwide, spawning numerous derivations in both figurative painting (eg. Francis Bacon) and abstract art (eg. Mark Rothko). See also: History of Expressionist Painting (c.1880-1930).\nArt Nouveau (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century)\nArt Nouveau (known as Jugendstil in Germany, Sezessionstil in the Vienna Secession, Stile Liberty in Italy, and Modernista in Spain) derived from William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain, and was also influenced by both the Celtic Revival arts movement and Japanonisme. It's popularity stemmed from the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, from where it spread across Europe and the United States. It was noted for its intricate flowing patterns of sinuous asymetrical lines, based on plant-forms (dating back to the Celtic Hallstatt and La Tene cultures), as well as female silhouettes and forms. Art Nouveau had a major influence on poster art, design and illustration, interior design, metalwork, glassware, jewellery, as well as painting and sculpture. Leading exponents included: Alphonse Mucha (1860-1939), Aubrey Beardsley (1872-98), Eugene Grasset (1845-1917) and Albert Guillaume (1873-1942). See also: History of Poster Art.\nThe Bauhaus School (Germany, 1919-1933)\nDerived from the two German words \"bau\" for building and \"haus\" for house, the Bauhaus school of art and design was founded in 1919 by the architect Walter Gropius. Enormously influential in both architecture and design - and their teaching methods - its instructors included such artists as Josef Albers, Lyonel Feininger, Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky, Oskar Schlemmer, Laszlo Moholy-Nagy, Anni Albers and Johannes Itten. Its mission was to bring art into contact with everyday life, thus the design of everyday objects was given the same importance as fine art. Important Bauhaus precepts included the virtue of simple, clean design, massproduction and the practical advantages of a well-designed home and workplace. The Bauhaus was eventually closed by the Nazis in 1933, whereupon several of its teachers emigrated to America: Laszlo Moholy-Nagy settled in Chicago where he founded the New Bauhaus in 1937, while Albers went to Black Mountain College in North Carolina.\nArt Deco (1920s, 1930s)\nThe design style known as Art Deco was showcased in 1925 at the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts in Paris and became a highly popular style of decorative art, design and architecture during the inter-war years (much employed by cinema and hotel architects). Its influence was also seen in the design of furniture, textile fabrics, pottery, jewellery, and glass. A reaction against Art Nouveau, the new idiom of Art Deco eliminated the latter's flowing curvilinear forms and replaced them with Cubist and Precisionist-inspired geometric shapes. Famous examples of Art Deco architecture include the Empire State Building and the New York Chrysler Building. Art Deco was also influenced by the simple architectural designs of The Bauhaus.\nInvented by Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) and Georges Braque (1882-1963) and considered to be \"the\" revolutionary movement of modern art, Cubism was a more intellectual style of painting that explored the full potential of the two-dimensional picture plane by offering different views of the same object, typically arranged in a series of overlapping fragments: rather like a photographer might take several photos of an object from different angles, before cutting them up with scissors and rearranging them in haphazard fashion on a flat surface. This \"analytical Cubism\" (which originated with Picasso's \"Les Demoiselles d'Avignon\") quickly gave way to \"synthetic Cubism\", when artists began to include \"found objects\" in their canvases, such as collages made from newspaper cuttings. Cubist painters included: Juan Gris (1887-1927), Fernand Leger (1881-1955), Robert Delaunay (1885-1941), Albert Gleizes (1881-1953), Roger de La Fresnaye (1885-1925), Jean Metzinger (1883-1956), and Francis Picabia (1879-1953), the avant-garde artist Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), and the sculptors Jacques Lipchitz (1891-1973), and Alexander Archipenko (1887-1964). (See also Russian art.) Short-lived but highly influential, Cubism instigated a whole new style of abstract art and had a significant impact the development of later styles such as: Orphism (1910-13), Collage (1912 onwards), Purism (1920s), Precisionism (1920s, 1930s), Futurism (1909-1914), Rayonism (c.1912-14), Suprematism (1913-1918), Constructivism (c.1919-32), Vorticism (c.1914-15) the De Stijl (1917-31) design movement and the austere geometrical style of concrete art known as Neo-Plasticism.\nLargely rooted in the anti-art traditions of the Dada movement (1916-24), as well as the psychoanalytical ideas of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung, Surrealism was the most influential art style of the inter-war years. According to its chief theorist, Andre Breton, it sought to combine the unconscious with the conscious, in order to create a new \"super-reality\" - a \"surrealisme\". The movement spanned a huge range of styles, from abstraction to true-life realism, typically punctuated with \"unreal\" imagery. Important Surrealists included Salvador Dali (1904-89), Max Ernst (1891-1976), Rene Magritte (1898-1967), Andre Masson (1896-1987), Yves Tanguy (1900-55), Joan Miro (1893-1983), Giorgio de Chirico (1888-1978), Jean Arp (1886-1966), and Man Ray (1890-1976). The movement had a major impact across Europe during the 1930s, was the major precursor to Conceptualism, and continues to find adherents in fine art, literature and cinematography.\nAmerican painting during the period 1900-45 was realist in style and became increasingly focused on strictly American imagery. This was the result of the reaction against the Armory Show (1913) and European hypermodernism, as well as a response to changing social conditions across the country. Later it became a patriotic response to the Great Depression of the 1930s. See also the huge advances in Skyscraper architecture of the early 20th century. For more, see: American architecture (1600-present). Specific painting movements included the Ashcan School (c.1900-1915); Precisionism (1920s) which celebrated the new American industrial landscape; the more socially aware urban style of Social Realism (1930s); American Scene Painting (c.1925-45) which embraced the work of Edward Hopper and Charles Burchfield, as well as midwestern Regionalism (1930s) championed by Grant Wood, Thomas Hart Benton and John Steuart Curry.\nThe first international modern art movement to come out of America (it is sometimes referred to as The New York School - see also American art), it was a predominantly abstract style of painting which followed an expressionist colour-driven direction, rather than a Cubist idiom, although it also includes a number of other styles, making it more of a general movement. Four variants stand out in Abstract Expressionism: first, the \"automatic\" style of \"action painting\" invented by Jackson Pollock (1912-56) and his wife Lee Krasner (19081984). Second, the monumental planes of colour created by Mark Rothko (1903-70), Barnett Newman (1905-70) and Clyfford Still (1904-80) - a style known as Colour Field Painting. Third, the gestural figurative works by Willem De Kooning (19041997). Four, the geometric \"Homage to the Square\" geometric abstracts of Josef Albers (1888-1976).\nHighly influential, Abstract Expressionist painting continued to influence later artists for over two decades. It was introduced to Paris during the 1950s by Jean-Paul Riopelle (1923-2002), assisted by Michel Tapie's book, Un Art Autre (1952). At the same time, a number of new sub-movements emerged in America, such as Hard-edge painting, exemplified by Frank Stella. In the late 1950s/early 1960s, a purely abstract form of Colour Field painting appeared in works by Helen Frankenthaler and others, while in 1964, the famous art critic Clement Greenberg helped to introduce a further stylistic development known as \"Post-Painterly Abstraction\". Abstract Expressionism went on to influence a variety of different schools, including Op Art, Fluxus, Pop Art, Minimalism, Neo-Expressionism, and others.\nThe bridge between modern art and postmodernism, Pop art employed popular imagery and modern forms of graphic art, to create a lively, high-impact idiom, which could be understood and appreciated by Joe Public. It appeared simultaneously in America and Britain, during the late 1950s, while a European form (Nouveau Realisme) emerged in 1960. Pioneered in America by Robert Rauschenberg (1925-2008) and Jasper Johns (b.1930), Pop had close links with early 20th century movements like Surrealism. It was a clear reaction against the closed intellectualism of Abstract Expressionism, from which Pop artists sought to distance themselves by adopting simple, easily recognized imagery (from TV, cartoons, comic strips and the like), as well as modern technology like screen printing. Famous US Pop artists include: Jim Dine (b.1935), Robert Indiana (b.1928), Alex Katz (b.1927), Roy Lichtenstein (1923-97), Claes Oldenburg (b.1929), and Andy Warhol (1928-87). Important Pop artists in Britain were: Peter Blake (b.1932), Patrick Caulfield (1936-2006), Richard Hamilton (b.1922), David Hockney (b.1937), Allen Jones (b.1937), RB Kitaj (b.1932), and Eduardo Paolozzi (1924-2005).\nFrom the early works of Brancusi, 20th century sculpture broadened immeasurably to encompass new forms, styles and materials. Major innovations included the \"sculptured walls\" of Louise Nevelson (1899-1988), the existential forms of Giacometti (1901-66), the biomorphic abstraction of both Barbara Hepworth (1903-75) and Henry Moore (1898-1986), and the spiders of Louise Bourgeois (1911-2010). Other creative angles were pursued by Salvador Dali (1904-89) in his surrealist \"Mae West Lips Sofa\" and \"Lobster Telephone\" - by Meret Oppenheim (1913-85) in her \"Furry Breakfast\", by FE McWilliam (1909-1992) in his \"Eyes, Nose and Cheek\", by Sol LeWitt (b.1928) in his skeletal box-like constructions, and by Pop-artists like Claes Oldenburg (b.1929) and Jasper Johns (b.1930), as well as by the Italians Jonathan De Pas (1932-91), Donato D'Urbino (b.1935) and Paolo Lomazzi (b.1936) in their unique \"Joe Sofa\".\nFor more about the history of painting, sculpture, architecture and crafts during this period, see: Modern Art Movements.\nHistory of Contemporary Art\nThe word \"Postmodernist\" is often used to describe contemporary art since about 1970. In simple terms, postmodernist art emphasizes style over substance (eg. not 'what' but 'how'; not 'art for art's sake', but 'style for stye's sake'), and stresses the importance of how the artist comunicates with his/her audience. This is exemplified by movements such as Conceptual art, where the idea being communicated is seen as more important than the artwork itself, which merely acts as the vehicle for the message. In addition, in order to increase the \"impact\" of visual art on spectators, postmodernists have turned to new art forms such as Assemblage, Installation, Video, Performance, Happenings and Graffiti - all of which are associated in some way or other with Conceptualism- and this idea of impact continues to inspire.\nPainters since the 1970s have experimented with numerous styles across the spectrum from pure abstraction to figuration. These include: Minimalism, a purist form of abstraction which did little to promote painting as an attractive medium; Neo-Expressionism, which encompassed groups like the \"Ugly Realists\", the \"Neue Wilden\", \"Figuration Libre\", \"Transavanguardia\", the \"New Image Painters\" and the so-called \"Bad Painters\", signalled a return to depicting recognizable objects, like the human body (albeit often in a quasi-abstract style), using rough brushwork, vivid colours and colour harmonies; and the wholly figurative styles adopted by groups such as \"New Subjectivity\" and the \"London School\". At the other extreme from Minimalism is the ultra-representational art form of photorealism (superrealism, hyperrealism). Conspicuous among this rather bewildering range of activity are figure painters like Francis Bacon, the great Lucien Freud (b.1922), the innovative Fernando Botero (b.1932), the precise David Hockney (b.1937), the photorealists Chuck Close (b.1940) and Richard Estes (b.1936), and the contemporary Jenny Saville (b.1970). See also: Contemporary British Painting (1960-2000).\nSculpture since 1970 has appeared in a variety of guises, including: the large scale metal works of Mark Di Suvero (b.1933), the minimalist sculptures of Walter de Maria (b.1935), the monumental public forms of Richard Serra (b.1939), the hyper-realist nudes of John De Andrea (b.1941), the environmental structures of Anthony Gormley (b.1950), the site-specific figures of Rowan Gillespie (b.1953), the stainless steel works of Anish Kapoor (b.1954), the high-impact Neo-Pop works of Jeff Koons (b.1955), and the extraordinary 21st century works by Sudobh Gupta (b.1964) and Damian Ortega (b.1967). In addition, arresting public sculpture includes the \"Chicago Picasso\" - a series of metal figures produced for the Chicago Civic Centre and the architectural \"Spire of Dublin\" (the 'spike'), created by Ian Ritchie (b.1947), among many others.\nThe pluralistic \"anything goes\" view of contemporary art (which critics might characterize as exemplifying the fable of the \"Emperor's New Clothes\"), is aptly illustrated in the works of Damien Hirst, a leading member of the Young British Artists school. Renowned for \"The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living\", a dead Tiger shark pickled in formaldehyde, and lately for his diamond encrusted skull \"For the Love of God\", Hirst has managed to stimulate audiences and horrify critics around the world. And while he is unlikely ever to inherit the mantle of Michelangelo, his achievement of sales worth $100 million in a single Sotheby's auction (2008) is positively eye-popping.\nOn a more sobering note, in March 2009 the prestigious Georges Pompidou Centre of Contemporary Art in Paris staged an exhibition entitled \"The Specialisation of Sensibility in the Raw Material State into Stabilised Pictorial Sensibility\". This avant-garde event consisted of 9 completely empty rooms - in effect, a reincarnation of John Cage's completely silent piece of \"musical\" conceptual art entitled \"4.33\". If one of the great contemporary art venues like the Pompidou Centre regards nine completely empty spaces as a worthy art event, we are all in deep trouble.\nFor more about the history of postmodernist painting, sculpture, and avant-garde art forms, see: Contemporary Art Movements.\nOne might say that 19th century architecture aimed to beautify the new wave of civic structures, like railway stations, museums, government buildings and other public utilities. It did this by taking ideas from Neo-Classicism, Neo-Gothic, French Second Empire and exoticism, as well as the new forms and materials of so-called \"industrial architecture\", as exemplified in factories along with occasional landmark structures like the Eiffel Tower. In comparison, 20th century architecture has been characterized by vertical development (skyscrapers), flagship buildings, and post-war reconstruction. More than any other era, its design has been dominated by the invention of new materials and building methods. It began with the exploitation of late 19th century innovations developed by the Chicago School of architecture, such as the structural steel frame, in a style known as Early Modernism. In America, architects started incorporating Art Nouveau and Art Deco design styles into their work, while in Germany and Russia totalitarian architecture pursued a separate agenda during the 1930s. Famous architects of the first part of the century included: Louis Sullivan (1856-1924), Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), Victor Horta (1861-1947), Antoni Gaudi (1852-1926), Peter Behrens (1868-1940), Walter Gropius (1883-1969) and Le Corbusier (1887-1965). After 1945, architects turned away from functionalism and began creating new forms facilitated by reinforced concrete, steel and glass. Thus Late Modernism gave way to Brutalism, Corporate Modernism and High Tech architecture, culminating in structures like the Georges Pompidou Centre in Paris, and the iconic Sydney Opera House - one of the first buildings to use industrial strength Araldite to glue together the precast structural elements. Since 1970, postmodernist architecture has taken several different approaches. Some designers have stripped buildings of all ornamentation to create a Minimalist style; others have used ideas of Deconstructivism to move away from traditional rectilinear shapes; while yet others have employed digital modeling software to create totally new organic shapes in a process called Blobitecture. Famous post-war architects include: Miers van der Rohe (1886-1969), Louis Kahn (1901-74), Jorn Utzon; Eero Saarinen (1910-61), Kenzo Tange (1913-2005), IM Pei (b.1917), Norman Foster (b.1935), Richard Rogers, James Stirling (1926-92), Aldo Rossi (1931-97), Frank O. Gehry (b.1929), Rem Koolhaas (b.1944), and Daniel Libeskind (b.1946). Famous architectural groups or firms, include: Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (est 1936); Venturi & Scott-Brown (est 1925); the New York Five - Peter Eisenman, Michael Graves, Charles Gwathmey, John Hejduk, Richard Meier; and Herzog & de Meuron (est 1950).\nFor our main index, see: Art Encyclopedia.\nENCYCLOPEDIA OF ART", "id": "<urn:uuid:7dbb42f1-28cf-4bd3-b19e-1cbdf4a7ab2f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/history-of-art.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9413376450538635, "token_count": 14008, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Interface with computers using gestures of the human body, typically hand movements. In gesture recognition technology, a camera reads the movements of the human body and communicates the data to a computer that uses the gestures as input to control devices or applications. For example, a person clapping his hands together in front of a camera can produce the sound of cymbals being crashed together when the gesture is fed through a computer.\nOne way gesture recognition is being used is to help the physically impaired to interact with computers, such as interpreting sign language. The technology also has the potential to change the way users interact with computers by eliminating input devices such as joysticks, mice and keyboards and allowing the unencumbered body to give signals to the computer through gestures such as finger pointing.\nUnlike haptic interfaces, gesture recognition does not require the user to wear any special equipment or attach any devices to the body. The gestures of the body are read by a camera instead of sensors attached to a device such as a data glove.\nIn addition to hand and body movement, gesture recognition technology also can be used to read facial and speech expressions (i.e., lip reading), and eye movements.\nFeatured Partners Sponsored\n- Increase worker productivity, enhance data security, and enjoy greater energy savings. Find out how. Download the \u201cUltimate Desktop Simplicity Kit\u201d now.\u00bb\n- Find out which 10 hardware additions will help you maintain excellent service and outstanding security for you and your customers. \u00bb\n- Server virtualization is growing in popularity, but the technology for securing it lags. To protect your virtual network.\u00bb\n- Before you implement a private cloud, find out what you need to know about automated delivery, virtual sprawl, and more. \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:e886e042-6a7d-431e-a669-b88b52d36b9c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.webopedia.com/index.php/TERM/G/gesture_recognition.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9283367991447449, "token_count": 353, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "March 01, 2012\nEnvironmental Protection: New ocean radar treaty of 153 nations covers spilled oil, debris, tsunamis, bodies.\nHere's a positive upshot of America's months-long Gulf of Mexico spill in 2010. At Environmental Protection, do see \"153 Countries Sign Treaty on Ocean Radar Improvements\". The meeting of The International Telecommunication Union\u2019s World Radiocommunication Conference 2012 (WRC-12) took place from Jan. 23 to Feb. 17 in Geneva, Switzerland, and\nconcluded with agreement on a number of items, including improved ocean radar technology. This will yield better tracking of tsunamis, oil spills, ocean debris, and people lost at sea, according to the National Science Foundation (NSF).\nAfter recent destructive tsunamis and the Gulf of Mexico oil spill increased interest in ocean radars, which have operated informally and would be quickly shut down if they caused interference with other radio systems, according to NSF.\nBut action taken at the meeting provides specific radio frequency bands for ocean radars-\u2013small systems typically installed on beaches and using radio signals to map ocean currents to distances as far as 100 miles.\nPosted by JD Hull at March 1, 2012 04:38 PM", "id": "<urn:uuid:09022258-2f63-4466-8c92-0fb3210f40f0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.whataboutclients.com/archives/2012/03/environmental_p_2.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9201889634132385, "token_count": 254, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There\u2019s a song on Bob Dylan\u2019s 1989 album \u201cUnplugged\u201d named \u201cDignity,\u201d which is a lyrical search for honor, worth, and self-respect. \u201dLookin\u2019 into the last forgotten years\u2026 for dignity.\u201d\nThe question has been addressed often: why has respect for the office of president of the United States deteriorated? Several reasons stand out. Media coverage has become bold and intrusive, in the faces of political figures, since advanced technology has become nearly limitless, satiating the public\u2019s hunger for scandal.\nDuring Teddy Roosevelt\u2019s presidency, in the early 1900s, came the expansion of White House power, a closer, more personal look by U.S. citizens at an activist \u201ccelebrity president,\u201d the center of national attention. The human nature of an individual who travels and campaigns extensively soon seeps through their very public persona, revealing their faults, weaknesses, and indiscretions.\nWhat was the fate of the most hated U.S. president, Richard M. Nixon? After a five-year, post-Watergate exile, he emerged from seclusion as a self-named \u201celder statesman.\u201d In July of 1979 he and wife Pat had attempted to purchase a nine-room penthouse in New York City for $1 million. The other 34 residents in an uproar, he was turned down flat.\n\u201cNixon was in constant danger from a multitude of would-be assassins who wanted the honor of taking him down,\u201d Steven Gaines writes in his true chronicle \u201cThe Sky\u2019s the Limit,\u201d from which I found this account. Sacrificing a $92,500 deposit, Nixon was turned away from yet another N.Y. City condominium by would-be neighbors. The Nixons spent several unhappy years in a New York townhouse before Pat\u2019s death. Nixon passed away, in exile from American citizens, in Yorba Linda, California, in April 1994.\nEarly presidents rarely spoke directly to the public. (President Clinton delivered 600 speeches in his first year in office.) From \u201cReason,\u201d a libertarian journal, author Gene Healy states, \u201cThe modern vision of the presidency couldn\u2019t be further from the view of the chief executive\u2019s role held by the framers of the Constitution. In an age long before distrust of power was condemned as cynicism, the founding fathers designed a presidency of modest authority and limited responsibilities.\u201d\nThe expansion of White House power was brought about by crisis situations, namely two World Wars and the Great Depression, when people panicked, consigning social power to one person. \u201cBy the end of his twelve-year reign, FDR had firmly established the president as a national protector and nurturer.\u201d\nIn the 21st century, what or who has bestowed George W. Bush with so much power? Healy answers that question handily. In essence, members of the president\u2019s legal team created an alternative version of the national charter, \u201cin which the president has unlimited power to launch war, wiretap without judicial scrutiny,\u201d and seize and hold American citizens on American soil for the duration of the war on terror \u201cwithout having to answer to a judge.\u201d Ouch!\nAlthough few in the media noted it, the Bush administration was also granted enhanced authority for domestic use of the military. Healy notes, \u201cNo president should have the powers President Bush has sought and seized in the past seven years.\u201d\nPower and leadership are not one and the same. Was it flimsy leadership, for instance, that led to 42% of U.S. adults below age 65 to be underinsured or uninsured for health care coverage in 2007? How about the average mortgage debt for a typical U.S. household now at $84,911; home equity loans of $10,062; and credit card debts averaging $8,565? (Figures from AARP Bulletin.)\nGene Healy\u2019s article \u201cSupreme Warlord of the Earth,\u201d in October\u2019s Utne magazine, is very cogent. \u201cThe Constitution\u2019s architects never conceived of the president as the person in charge of national destiny,\u201d he concludes.\nHow did we, citizens of the United States of America, get from humble grass root\u2019 dignity, devotion to God and country, and liberty and justice for all to extravagant and ruthless political campaigns and distrust in our leaders?\nHow much more debt can a nation endure before the walls come tumbling down?\n(I wrote this before the Stock Market debacle.) That\u2019s a circumstance beyond my capacity to comment on.\nJanet Burns lives in Lewiston. She can be reached at email@example.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3c93a0a7-82d8-4c28-8a6b-dd24cd09de6b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.winonapost.com/stock/functions/VDG_Pub/detail.php?choice=27290&home_page=&archives=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706499548/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516121459-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9622155427932739, "token_count": 1018, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Chapter 5 takes place an estimated 9 years after Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s death and about 36 years after the previous chapter. Belshazzar was Nebuchadnezzar\u2019s grandson who took control of the kingdom as his father was on extended leave fighting the Persians. It appears that Daniel had retired from his high place in government. He would have been pretty old at this point, though he also could have lost his position when Nebuchadnezzar died.\nThe walls of Babylon were 87 feet thick and 100 feet high\nIt was fairly common for the kings to dine with such large numbers of people as you can see in Esther 1. In this case though, the invading armies are right outside the city walls. This would seem to be incredible arrogance similar to his grandfather, but Herodotus tells us that Babylon had two walls surrounding the city with a moat in between. The walls were 87 feet thick and 100 feet high, so conquering Babylon was not something that happened easily. At the end of the chapter we find out that this would be the night it was captured. Herodotus corroborates the Bible and mentions a festival was going on the night the city was conquered.\nRegardless of the city\u2019s security, it was a bad decision to get drunk in front of your lords with an invading army outside. Even worse to taunt a god by desecrating sacred items collected from a temple. Maybe he was doing this to instill a sense of pride to his lords reminding them of past victories, though Daniel seems be very specific about his lack of sobriety.\nThe handwriting on the wall has always stood out to me as a bizarre miracle by God (bizarre by miracle standards that is). This seems like something you would see in a horror movie. The best interpretation I found of the Aramaic writing said it literally translated to \u201cnumbered, numbered, weighed, divided.\u201d\nBelshazzar was not given a message of repentance but rather a proclamation of impending judgement. It is evident to us that although the king is just informed of his doom, God had been moving the Medes and Persians in place to execute his plan for some time.\nExtra-biblical writings tell us that the Persians blocked the flow of the Euphrates and walked on the riverbed to an unguarded portion of the wall where they climbed up without opposition. Since so many were gathered at the festival, the Babylonians were defeated with relative ease.\nNumbered, numbered, weighed, divided\nDarius the Mede is not found anywhere else in extra-biblical writings and is a serious point of contention for Bible critics. Cyrus was definitely the king of Persia, so Darius could either be a Babylonian nickname or title similar to Caesar or Pharoah. It also could be referring to the local ruler that Cyrus put in charge of that area. There is no evidence to identify Darius the Mede, but there is also no hard evidence contradicting it.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ef4017af-49a6-44b3-89ec-059a1f6c3964>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://churchhopping.com/daniel-5", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9849318861961365, "token_count": 614, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "First tropical depression of the season may form from 92L\nAn unusually large and well-developed African tropical wave for so early in the season has developed midway between the coast of Africa and South America. The storm was designated Invest 92L by the National Hurricane Center yesterday, and has a good chance of becoming the first tropical depression of the Atlantic hurricane season. Surface winds measured by the 8:23am EDT pass of the European ASCAT satellite revealed that 92L already has a closed surface circulation, though the circulation is large and elongated. Top winds seen by ASCAT were about 25 mph. METEOSAT visible satellite loops show a large and impressive circulation that is steadily consolidating, with spiral bands building inward towards center, and upper-level outflow beginning to be established to the northwest and north.\nFigure 1. Morning satellite image of Invest 92L.\nClimatology argues against development of 92L, since only one named storm has ever formed between Africa and the Lesser Antilles Islands in the month of June--Tropical Storm Ana of 1979 (Figure 2). However, sea surface temperatures (SSTs) underneath 92L are an extremely high 28 - 30\u00b0C, which is warmer than the temperatures reached during the peak of hurricane season last year, in August - September. In fact, with summer not even here, and three more months of heating remaining until we reach peak SSTs in the Atlantic, ocean temperatures across the entire Caribbean and waters between Africa and the Lesser Antilles are about the same as they were during the peak week for water temperatures in 2009 (mid-September.) While 92L will cross over a 1\u00b0C cooler patch of water on Monday, the storm will encounter very warm SSTs of 28-29\u00b0C again by Tuesday.\nThe disturbance doesn't have to worry about dry air--Total Precipitable Water (TPW) loops show a very moist plume of air accompanies 92L, and water vapor satellite loops show that the center of 92L is at least 300 - 400 miles from any substantial areas of dry air. The 60-day cycle of enhanced thunderstorm activity called the Madden-Jullian Oscillation is currently favoring upward motion over eastern tropical Atlantic, and this enhanced upward motion helps create stronger updrafts and higher chances of tropical cyclone development.\nFigure 2. Tropical Storm Ana of 1979 was the only June named storm on record to form between Africa and the Lesser Antilles Islands.\nThe forecast for 92L\nA major issue for 92L, like it is for most June disturbances, is wind shear. The subtropical jet stream has a branch flowing through the Caribbean and tropical Atlantic north of 10\u00b0 N that is bringing 20 - 40 knots of wind shear to the region. Our disturbance is currently located at 7\u00b0N, well south of this band of high shear, and is only experiencing 5 - 15 knots of shear. This moderate amount of shear should allow for some steady development of 92L over the next few days as it tracks west-northwest at 10 - 15 mph. The National Hurricane Center is giving 92L a medium (30% chance) of developing into a tropical depression by Tuesday morning. Based on visible satellite imagery over the past few hours, I believe this forecast is not aggressive enough, and that 92L has a 50% chance of developing into a tropical depression by Tuesday morning. Another factor holding 92L back is its proximity to the Equator. I would give 92L higher chances of developing if it were not so close to the Equator. The system is organizing at about 7\u00b0N latitude, which is so close to the Equator that it cannot leverage the Earth's spin much to help it get spinning. It is quite unusual for a tropical depression to form south of 8\u00b0N latitude.\nThe farther south 92L stays, the better chance it has at survival. With the system's steady west-northwest movement this week, 92L should begin encountering hostile wind shear in excess of 30 knots by Thursday, which should be able to greatly weaken or entirely destroy the storm before it gets to the Lesser Antilles Islands. However, residents of the islands--particularly the northern Lesser Antilles--should follow the progress of 92L closely, and anticipate heavy rains and high winds moving through the islands by Saturday or Sunday next weekend. The GFDL and HWRF models are predicting that 92L will develop into a moderate strength tropical storm that will then be weakened or destroyed by the end of the week, before it reaches the islands. This looks like a reasonable forecast.\nFigure 3. The departure of sea surface temperature (SST) from average for June 10, 2010. Image credit: NOAA/NESDIS.\nOil spill wind forecast\nThere is little change to the oil spill wind forecast for the coming two weeks. Light winds of 5 - 10 knots mostly out of the south or southeast will blow in the northern Gulf of Mexico all week, according to the latest marine forecast from NOAA. These winds will keep oil near the coast of Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, and the extreme western Florida Panhandle, according to the latest trajectory forecasts from NOAA and the State of Louisiana. The long range 8 - 16 day forecast from the GFS model indicates a typical summertime light wind regime, with winds mostly blowing out of the south or southeast. This wind regime will likely keep oil close to the coastal areas that have already seen oil impacts over the past two weeks.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6de7ce61-5b96-4eb5-aa7f-7fe832fa5540>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://dutch.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1505&page=63&theprefset=BLOGCOMMENTS&theprefvalue=0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9567518830299377, "token_count": 1120, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In computer science and logic, a dependent type is a type that depends on a value. Dependent types play a central role in intuitionistic type theory and in the design of functional programming languages like ATS, Agda and Epigram.\nAn example is the type of n-tuples of real numbers. This is a dependent type because the type depends on the value n.\nDeciding equality of dependent types in a program may require computations. If arbitrary values are allowed in dependent types, then deciding type equality may involve deciding whether two arbitrary programs produce the same result; hence type checking may become undecidable.\nThe Curry\u2013Howard correspondence implies that types can be constructed that express arbitrarily complex mathematical properties. If the user can supply a constructive proof that a type is inhabited (i.e., that a value of that type exists) then a compiler can check the proof and convert it into executable computer code that computes the value by carrying out the construction. The proof checking feature makes dependently typed languages closely related to proof assistants. The code-generation aspect provides a powerful approach to formal program verification and proof-carrying code, since the code is derived directly from a mechanically verified mathematical proof.\n Systems of the lambda cube\nHenk Barendregt developed the lambda cube as a means of classifying type systems along three axes. The eight corners of the resulting cube-shaped diagram each correspond to a type system, with simply typed lambda calculus in the least expressive corner, and calculus of constructions in the most expressive. The three axes of the cube correspond to three different augmentations of the simply typed lambda calculus: the addition of dependent types, the addition of polymorphism, and the addition of higher kinded type constructors (functions from types to types, for example). The lambda cube is generalized further by pure type systems.\n First order dependent type theory\nThe system of pure first order dependent types, corresponding to the logical framework LF, is obtained by generalising the function space type of the simply typed lambda calculus to the dependent product type.\nWriting for -tuples of real numbers, as above, stands for the type of functions which given a natural number n returns a tuple of real numbers of size n. The usual function space arises as a special case when the range type does not actually depend on the input, e.g. is the type of functions from natural numbers to the real numbers, written as in the simply typed lambda calculus.\n Second order dependent type theory\nThe system of second order dependent types is obtained from by allowing quantification over type constructors. In this theory the dependent product operator subsumes both the operator of simply typed lambda calculus and the binder of System F.\n Higher order dependently typed polymorphic lambda calculus\nThe higher order system extends to all four forms of abstraction from the lambda cube: functions from terms to terms, types to types, terms to types and types to terms. The system corresponds to the Calculus of constructions whose derivative, the calculus of inductive constructions is the underlying system of the Coq proof assistant.\n Object-oriented programming\n|Language||Actively developed||Paradigm[fn 1]||Tactics||Proof terms||Termination checking||Types can depend on[fn 2]||Universes||Proof irrelevance||Program extraction||Extraction erases irrelevant terms|\n|ATS||Yes||Functional / imperative||No||Yes||Yes||?||?||?||Yes||?|\n|Cayenne||No||Purely functional||No||Yes||No||Any term||No||No||?||?|\n|Coq||Yes||Purely functional||Yes||Yes||Yes||Any term||Yes[fn 5]||No||Haskell, Scheme and OCaml||Yes|\n|Dependent ML||No[fn 6]||?||?||Yes||?||Natural numbers||?||?||?||?|\n|Epigram 2||Yes||Purely functional||No||Coming soon[dated info]||By construction||Any term||Coming soon[dated info]||Coming soon[dated info]||Coming soon[dated info]||Coming soon[dated info]|\n|Guru||No||Purely functional||hypjoin||Yes||Yes||Any term||No||Yes||Carraway||Yes|\n|Idris||Yes||Purely functional||Yes||Yes||Yes (optional)||Any term||No||No||Yes||Yes, aggressively|\n|Matita||Yes||Purely functional||Yes||Yes||Yes||Any term||Yes||?||OCaml||?|\n|NuPRL||No||Purely functional||Yes||Yes||Yes||Any term||Yes||?||Yes||?|\n|Twelf||Yes||Logic programming||?||Yes||Yes (optional)||Any (LF) term||No||No||?||?|\n See also\n- This refers to the core language, not to any tactic or code generation sublanguage.\n- Subject to semantic constraints, such as universe constraints\n- Ring solver\n- Optional universes, optional universe polymorphism, and optional explicitly specified universes\n- Universes, automatically inferred universe constraints (not the same as Agda's universe polymorphism) and optional explicit printing of universe constraints\n- Has been superseded by ATS\n- Anton Setzer (2007). \"Object-oriented programming in dependent type theory\". In Henrik Nilsson. Trends in Functional Programming, vol. 7. Intellect. pp. 91\u2013108.\n- \"Agda download page\".\n- \"Agda Ring Solver\".\n- \"Announce: Agda 2.2.8\".\n- \"ATS Changelog\".\n- \"email from ATS inventor Hongwei Xi\".\n- \"Coq CHANGES in Subversion repository\".\n- \"Epigram homepage\".\n- \"Guru SVN\".\n- Aaron Stump (6 April 2009). \"Verified Programming in Guru\". Retrieved 28 September 2010.\n- Adam Petcher (1 April 2008). \"Deciding Joinability Modulo Ground Equations in Operational Type Theory\". Retrieved 14 October 2010.\n- \"Idris git repository\".\n- \"Idris, a language with dependent types - extended abstract\".\n- Edwin Brady. \"How does Idris compare to other dependently-typed programming languages?\".\n- \"Matita SVN\".\n- \"Xanadu home page\".\n Further reading\n- Martin-L\u00f6f, Per (1984). Intuitionistic Type Theory. Bibliopolis.\n- Nordstr\u00f6m, Bengt; Petersson, Kent; Smith, Jan M. (1990). Programming in Martin-L\u00f6f's Type Theory: An Introduction. Oxford University Press.\n- Barendregt, Henk (1992). \"Lambda calculi with types\". In S. Abramsky, D. Gabbay and T. Maibaum. Handbook of Logic in Computer Science. Oxford Science Publications.\n- McBride, Conor; McKinna, James (January 2004). \"The view from the left\". Journal of Functional Programming 14 (1): 69\u2013111.\n- Altenkirch, Thorsten; McBride, Conor; McKinna, James (April 2005). Why dependent types matter.\n- Norell, Ulf. Towards a practical programming language based on dependent type theory. PhD thesis, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 G\u00f6teborg, Sweden, September 2007.\n- Oury, Nicolas and Swierstra, Wouter (2008). \"The Power of Pi\". Accepted for presentation at ICFP, 2008.\n- Norell, Ulf (2008). Dependently Typed Programming in Agda.", "id": "<urn:uuid:49bd6b86-3a40-480a-8870-ee3bed0d0e0b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependent_types", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7071228623390198, "token_count": 1635, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Interferon type I\nHuman type I interferons comprise a vast and growing group of IFN proteins.\nMammalian types \nThe IFN-\u03b1 proteins are produced by leukocytes. They are mainly involved in innate immune response against viral infection. They come in 13 subtypes that are called IFNA1, IFNA2, IFNA4, IFNA5, IFNA6, IFNA7, IFNA8, IFNA10, IFNA13, IFNA14, IFNA16, IFNA17, IFNA21. These genes for these IFN-\u03b1 molecules are found together in a cluster on chromosome 9.\nIFN-\u03b1 is also made synthetically as medication. Types are:\nThe IFN-\u03b2 proteins are produced in large quantities by fibroblasts. They have antiviral activity which is mainly involved in innate immune response. Two types of IFN-\u03b2 have been described, IFN-\u03b21 (IFNB1) and IFN-\u03b23 (IFNB3) (a gene designated IFN-\u03b22 is actually IL-6). IFN-\u03b21 is used as a treatment for multiple sclerosis as it reduces the relapse rate.\nIFN-\u03b5, \u2013\u03ba, -\u03c4, -\u03b4, and \u2013\u03b6 \nIFN-\u03b5, \u2013\u03ba, -\u03c4, and \u2013\u03b6 appear, at this time, to come in a single isoform in humans, IFNK. Only ruminants encode IFN-\u03c4, a variant of IFN-\u03c9. So far, IFN-\u03b6 is found only in mice, while a structural homolog, IFN-\u03b4 is found in a diverse array of non-primate and non-rodent placental mammals. Most but not all placental mammals encode functional IFN-\u03b5 and IFN-\u03ba genes.\nIFN-\u03c9, although having only one functional form described to date (IFNW1), has several pseudogenes: IFNWP2, IFNWP4, IFNWP5, IFNWP9, IFNWP15, IFNWP18, and IFNWP19 in humans. Many non-primate placental mammals express multiple IFN-\u03c9 subtypes\nThis subtype of Type I IFN was recently described as a pseudogene in human, but potentially functional in the domestic cat genome. In all other genomes of non-feline placental mammals, IFN-\u03bd is a pseudogene; in some species, the pseudogene is well preserved, while in others, it is badly mutilated or is undetectable. Moreover, in the cat genome, the IFN-\u03bd promoter is deleteriously mutated. It is likely that the IFN-\u03bd gene family was rendered useless prior to mammalian diversification. Its presence on the edge of the Type I IFN locus in mammals may have shielded it from obliteration, allowing its detection.\nSources and functions \nIFN-\u03b1 and IFN-\u03b2 are secreted by many cell types including lymphocytes (NK cells, B-cells and T-cells), macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, osteoblasts and others. They stimulate both macrophages and NK cells to elicit an anti-viral response, and are also active against tumors. Recently, plasmacytoid dendritic cells have been identified as being the most potent producers of type I IFNs in response to antigen, and have thus been coined natural IFN producing cells.\nIFN-\u03c9 is released by leukocytes at the site of viral infection or tumors.\nIFN-\u03b1 acts as a pyrogenic factor by altering the activity of thermosensitive neurons in the hypothalamus thus causing fever. It does this by binding to opioid receptors and eliciting the release of prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2).\nNon-mammalian types \nAvian Type I IFNs have been characterized and preliminarily assigned to subtypes (IFN I, IFN II, and IFN III), but their classification into subtypes should await a more extensive characterization of avian genomes.\nFunctional lizard Type I IFNs can be found in lizard genome databases.\nTurtle Type I IFNs have been purified (references from 1970s needed). They resemble mammalian homologs.\nThe existence of amphibian Type I IFNs have been inferred by the discovery of the genes encoding their receptor chains. They have not yet been purified, or their genes cloned.\nPiscine (bony fish) Type I IFN has been cloned in several teleost species. With few exceptions, and in stark contrast to avian and especially mammalian IFNs, they are present as single genes (multiple genes are however seen in polyploid fish genomes, possibly arising from whole-genome duplication). Unlike amniote IFN genes, piscine Type I IFN genes contain introns, in similar positions as do their orthologs, certain interleukins.\n- Schultz et al., The interferon system of non-mammalian vertebrates. Developmental and Comparative Immunology, Volume 28, pages 499-508.\n- Samarajiwa et al., Type I interferons: genetics and structure. The Interferons: Characterization and Application, 2006 Wiley-VCH, pages 3-34.\n- Oritani and Tomiyama, Interferon-\u03b6/limitin: Novel type I Interferon that displays a narrow range of biological activity. International journal of hematology, 2004, Volume 80, pages 325-331 .\n- Hardy et al., Characterization of the type I interferon locus and identification of novel genes. Genomics, 2004, Volume 84 pages 331-345.\n- Todd and Naylor, New chromosomal mapping assignments for argininosuccinate synthetase pseudogene 1, interferon-beta 3 gene, and the diazepam binding inhibitor gene. Somat. Cell. Mol. Genet. 1992 Volume 18, pages 381-5.\n- Wang et al., Fever of recombinant human interferon-alpha is mediated by opioid domain interaction with opioid receptor inducing prostaglandin E2. J Neuroimmunol. 2004 Nov;156(1-2):107-12.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4c5bcdff-1f9c-4574-9c72-31bc7ba5e853>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon_type_1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9077838659286499, "token_count": 1322, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sawmill process \nA sawmill's basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago; a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end.\n- After trees are selected for harvest, the next step in logging is felling the trees, and bucking them to length.\n- Branches are cut off the trunk. This is known as limbing.\n- Logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill.\n- Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill.\n- Debarking removes bark from the logs.\n- Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size and end use (lumber, plywood, chips).\n- The head saw, head rig or primary saw, breaks the log into cants (unfinished logs to be further processed) and flitches (unfinished planks) with a smooth edge.\n- Depending upon the species and quality of the log, the cants will either be further broken down by a resaw or a gang edger into multiple flitches and/or boards\n- Edging will take the flitch and trim off all irregular edges leaving four-sided lumber.\n- Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths.\n- Drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried.\n- Planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness.\n- Shipping transports the finished lumber to market.\nEarly history \nThe Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey) dating to the second half of the 3rd century AD is the earliest known sawmill. It is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism.\nThe earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, Ausonius who wrote an epic poem about the river Moselle in Germany in the late 4th century AD. At one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, demonstrating a diversified use of water-power in many parts of the Roman Empire.\nSawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. 1250. They are claimed to have been introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c. 1420 and spread widely in Europe in the 16th century.\nPrior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, or more often sawn by two men with a whipsaw, using saddleblocks to hold the log, and a saw pit for the pitman who worked below. Sawing was slow, and required strong and hearty men. The topsawer had to be the stronger of the two because the saw was pulled in turn by each man, and the lower had the advantage of gravity. The topsawyer also had to guide the saw so that the board was of even thickness. This was often done by following a chalkline.\nEarly sawmills simply adapted the whipsaw to mechanical power, generally driven by a water wheel to speed up the process. The circular motion of the wheel was changed to back-and-forth motion of the saw blade by a connecting rod known as a pitman arm (thus introducing a term used in many mechanical applications).\nGenerally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand. An early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade.\nA type of sawmill without a crank is known from Germany called a \"knock and drop\" or \"drop mill\": \"The oldest sawmills in the Black Forest are \"drop sawmills\" also referred to as \"knock and drop sawmills\". They have all disappeared in Europe except for three in the Black Forest, one of which is in the Open Air Museum in Gutach. In these drop sawmills, the frame carrying the saw blade is knocked upwards by cams as the shaft turns. These cams are let into the shaft on which the waterwheel sits. When the frame carrying the saw blade is in the topmost position it drops by its own weight, making a loud knocking noise, and in so doing it cuts the trunk. From 1800 onwards.\u201d \nA small mill such as this would be the center of many rural communities in wood-exporting regions such as the Baltic countries and Canada. The output of such mills would be quite low, perhaps only 500 boards per day. They would also generally only operate during the winter, the peak logging season.\nIn the United States, the sawmill was introduced soon after the colonisation of Virginia by recruiting skilled men from Hamburg. Later the metal parts were obtained from the Netherlands, where the technology was far ahead of that in England, where the sawmill remained largely unknown until the late 18th century. The arrival of a sawmill was a large and stimulative step in the growth of a frontier community.\nIndustrial revolution \nEarly mills had been taken to the forest, where a temporary shelter was built, and the logs were skidded to the nearby mill by horse or ox teams, often when there was some snow to provide lubrication. As mills grew larger, they were usually established in more permanent facilities on a river, and the logs were floated down to them by log drivers. Sawmills built on navigable rivers, lakes, or estuaries were called cargo mills because of the availability of ships transporting cargoes of logs to the sawmill and cargoes of lumber from the sawmill.\nThe next improvement was the use of circular saw blades, and soon thereafter, the use of gangsaws, which added additional blades so that a log would be reduced to boards in one quick step. Circular saw blades were extremely expensive and highly subject to damage by overheating or dirty logs. A new kind of technician arose, the sawfiler. Sawfilers were highly skilled in metalworking. Their main job was to set and sharpen teeth. The craft also involved learning how to hammer a saw, whereby a saw is deformed with a hammer and anvil to counteract the forces of heat and cutting. The circular saw was a later introduction, perhaps invented in England in the late 18th century, but perhaps in 17th century Holland (Netherlands). Modern circular saw blades have replaceable teeth, but still need to be hammered.\nThe introduction of steam power in the 19th century created many new possibilities for mills. Availability of railroad transportation for logs and lumber encouraged building of rail mills away from navigable water. Steam powered sawmills could be far more mechanized. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a ready fuel source for firing the boiler. Efficiency was increased, but the capital cost of a new mill increased dramatically as well.\nBy 1900, the largest sawmill in the world was operated by the Atlantic Lumber Company in Georgetown, South Carolina, using logs floated down the Pee Dee River from as far as the edge of the Appalachian Mountains in North Carolina.\nA restoration project for Sturgeon's Mill in Northern California is underway, restoring one of the last steam-powered lumber mills still using its original equipment.\nCurrent trends \nIn the twentieth century the introduction of electricity and high technology furthered this process, and now most sawmills are massive and expensive facilities in which most aspects of the work is computerized. The cost of a new facility with 2 mmfbm/day capacity is up to CAN$120,000,000. A modern operation will produce between 100 mmfbm and 700 mmfbm annually.\nSmall gasoline-powered sawmills run by local entrepreneurs served many communities in the early twentieth century, and specialty markets still today.\nA trend is the small portable sawmill for personal or even professional use. Many different models have emerged with different designs and functions. They are especially suitable for producing limited volumes of boards, or specialty milling such as oversized timber.\nTechnology has changed sawmill operations significantly in recent years, emphasizing increasing profits through waste minimization and increased energy efficiency as well as improving operator safety. The once-ubiquitous rusty, steel conical sawdust burners have for the most part vanished, as the sawdust and other mill waste is now processed into particleboard and related products, or used to heat wood-drying kilns. Co-generation facilities will produce power for the operation and may also feed superfluous energy onto the grid. While the bark may be ground for landscaping barkdust, it may also be burned for heat. Sawdust may make particle board or be pressed into wood pellets for pellet stoves. The larger pieces of wood that won't make lumber are chipped into wood chips and provide a source of supply for paper mills. Wood by-products of the mills will also make oriented strand board (OSB) paneling for building construction, a cheaper alternative to plywood for paneling.\nAdditional Images \nWood from Victorian mountain ash, Swifts Creek\nA sawmill in Armata, on mount Smolikas, Epirus, Greece.\nA preserved water powered sawmill, Norfolk, England.\nSee also \n- \"Lumber Manufacturing\". Lumber Basics. Western Wood Products Association. 2002. Retrieved 2008-02-12.\n- Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, p. 161\n- Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007, pp. 149\u2013153\n- Wilson 2002, p. 16\n- C. Singer et at., History of Technology II (Oxford 1956), 643-4.\n- Charles E. Peterson, 'Sawdust Trail: Annals of Sawmilling and the Lumber Trade' Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology Vol. 5, No. 2. (1973), pp. 84-5.\n- Adam Robert Lucas (2005), \"Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds: A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe\", Technology and Culture 46 (1): 1-30 [10-1]\n- Peterson, 94-5.\n- Oakleaf p.8\n- Norman Ball, 'Circular Saws and the History of Technology' Bulletin of the Association for Preservation Technology 7(3) (1975), pp. 79-89.\n- Edwardian Farm: Roy Hebdige's mobile sawmill\n- Steam traction engines\n- IN-TIME Timber Supply Chain Optimization http://www.mjc2.com/real-time-manufacturing-scheduling.htm\n- Grewe, Klaus (2009), \"Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steins\u00e4gemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung f\u00fcr die Technikgeschichte. Internationale Konferenz 13.\u221216. Juni 2007 in Istanbul\", in Bachmann, Martin, Bautechnik im antiken und vorantiken Kleinasien, Byzas 9, Istanbul: Ege Yay\u0131nlar\u0131/Zero Prod. Ltd., pp. 429\u2013454, ISBN 978-975-8072-23-1\n- Ritti, Tullia; Grewe, Klaus; Kessener, Paul (2007), \"A Relief of a Water-powered Stone Saw Mill on a Sarcophagus at Hierapolis and its Implications\", Journal of Roman Archaeology 20: 138\u2013163\n- Oakleaf, H.B. (1920), Lumber Manufacture in the Douglas Fir Region, Chicago: Commercial Journal Company\n- Wilson, Andrew (2002), \"Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy\", The Journal of Roman Studies 92: 1\u201332\n|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sawmills|\n- Steam powered saw mills\n- The basics of sawmill (German)\n- Nineteenth century sawmill demonstration\n- Database of worldwide sawmills\n- Reynolds Bros Mill, northern foothills of Adirondack Mountains, New York State\n- L. Cass Bowen Mill, Skerry, New York", "id": "<urn:uuid:f077b2f9-cedd-4343-ad36-cb14791a2c0c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sawmill", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9450712203979492, "token_count": 2574, "score": 3.890625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Th\u00e9odore Simon was born on July 10, 1872 in Dijon, Burgundy, France. During much of his early life, he was fascinated by Alfred Binet's work and constantly read his books. His interest in psychology continually increased, especially as the need for clinical experience in the field decreased.\nIn 1899, he became an intern at the asylum in Perray-Vaucluse where he began his famous work on abnormal children. This drew Binet's attention, who was at the time studying the correlation between physical growth and intellectual development. Binet came to the asylum and continued his work there with Simon. This research led to Simon's medical thesis on the topic in 1900.\nFrom 1901-1905, Simon worked in various hospitals, from Sainte-Anne to Dury-les-Amiens. 1905 is the year during which Simon and Binet made public their famous Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, the first intelligence measuring device ever devised. It premiered in L'Ann\u00e9e psychologique, a journal founded by Binet in 1895.\nThroughout his life after this point, Simon always remained critical of immoderate and improper use of the scale. He believed that its over-use and inappropriate use prevented other psychologists from achieving Binet's ultimate goal: understanding human beings, their nature, and their development.\nThe scale was revised in 1908 and again in 1911, but Simon kept it the same after Binet's death in respect for one of history's greatest psychologists and Simon's true idol.\nAfter 1905 until 1920, Simon worked as the head psychiatrist at St. Yon hospital. In 1920, he returned as medical director at Perray-Vaucluse until 1930. From there, he moved to act as medical director until late 1936, when he retired. Throughout his life (starting in 1912 until 1960) he was also an editor for Bulletin of Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Alfred Binet. He died of natural causes in 1961.\nWolf, T. H. (1961). American Psychologist, 16: 245-248.\n|This article about a psychologist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.|", "id": "<urn:uuid:298577ed-54d5-448b-8e64-b0712bfd8598>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Simon", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9753945469856262, "token_count": 441, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Graphing Random Walk|\nI am trying a produce a random walk for a distance n and my task is to\nfind how many times along the walk the difference between the two values\nproduced is 0. The walk gives a binary output and is linked to two\nselective groups. I feel I have successfully completed this bit, but am\nhaving difficulty plotting a graph to show this. The plot should be the x\nvalue against the natural numbers, thus a visual description of how many\ntimes the graph goes through the x-axis, to prove the Y value produced.\nWhat function should I use to plot this graph?\nDoes the function need to be done within the \"For\" function?\nIf anyone has any ideas or clues as to how I can overcome this problem,\nplease be in touch.\nAttachment: RandomWalk.nb, URL: ,", "id": "<urn:uuid:ba405fca-7a87-437c-bc01-cb88a605d0a3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://forums.wolfram.com/student-support/topics/21870", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9205988645553589, "token_count": 180, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Dossi, Dosso (Giovanni Luteri) (c.1490?-1542). The outstanding painter of the Ferrarese School in the 16th century.\nHis early life and training are obscure, but Vasari's assertion that he was born around 1474 is now thought unlikely. He is first recorded in 1512 at Mantua (the name `Dosso' probably comes from a place near Mantua--he is not called `Dosso Dossi' until the 18th century). By 1514 he was in Ferrara, where he spent most of the rest of his career, combining with the poet Ariosto in devising court entertainments, triumphs, tapestries, etc. Dosso painted various kinds of pictures--mythological and religious works, portraits, and decorative frescos--and is perhaps most important for the part played in his work by landscape, in which he continues the romantic pastoral vein of Giorgione and Titian. The influence from these two artists is indeed so strong that it is thought he must have been in Venice early in his career. Dosso's work, however, has a personal quality of fantasy and an opulent sense of color and texture that gives it an individual stamp (Melissa, Borghese Galleria, Rome, c.1523). His brother Battista Dossi (c.1497-1548) often collaborated with him, but there is insufficient evidence to know whether he made an individual contribution.\nPhotographs by Carol Gerten-Jackson.", "id": "<urn:uuid:edca70c3-130a-4403-bb60-6a8906c86782>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/dossi/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.980566680431366, "token_count": 324, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Yes, this is a good time to plant native grass seed in the ground. You may have to supplement with irrigation if the rains stop before the seeds have germinated and made good root growth.\n- Which grasses should I plant? The wonderful thing about California is that we have so many different ecosystems; the challenging thing about California is that we have so many different ecosystems. It\u2019s impossible for us to know definitively which particular bunchgrasses used to grow or may still grow at your particular site, but to make the best guesses possible, we recommend the following:\n- Bestcase scenario is to have bunchgrasses already on the site that you can augment through proper mowing or grazing techniques.\n- Next best is to have a nearby site with native bunchgrasses and similar elevation, aspect, and soils, that you can use as a model.\n- After that, go to sources such as our pamphlet Distribution of Native Grasses of California, by Alan Beetle, $7.50.\n- Also reference local floras of your area, available through the California Native Plant Society.\nContainer growing: We grow seedlings in pots throughout the season, but ideal planning for growing your own plants in pots is to sow six months before you want to put them in the ground. Though restorationists frequently use plugs and liners (long narrow containers), and they may be required for large areas, we prefer growing them the horticultural way: first in flats, then transplanting into 4\" pots, and when they are sturdy little plants, into the ground. Our thinking is that since they are not tap-rooted but fibrous-rooted (one of their main advantages as far as deep erosion control is concerned) square 4\" pots suit them, and so far our experiences have borne this out.\nIn future newsletters, we will be reporting on the experiences and opinions of Marin ranchers Peggy Rathmann and John Wick, who are working with UC Berkeley researcher Wendy Silver on a study of carbon sequestration and bunchgrasses. So far, it\u2019s very promising. But more on that later. For now, I\u2019ll end with a quote from Peggy, who grows, eats, nurtures, lives, and sleeps bunchgrasses, for the health of their land and the benefit of their cows.\n\u201cIt takes a while. But it\u2019s so worth it.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:c183066d-32a9-42eb-91b6-191fdb0980c2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://judithlarnerlowry.blogspot.com/2009/02/simplifying-california-native.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9567309617996216, "token_count": 495, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Radiation Levels Along the West Coast Not A Concern\nThe unprecedented earthquake occurring in Japan on Friday, March 11, 2011 and subsequent tsunami that devastated Japan\u2019s western seaboard also affected a nuclear power plant in Fukushima. Despite valiant on-going containment efforts, radioactive materials have escaped into the air, elevating radiation levels in surrounding areas. As of March 16, emergency evacuation has been ordered for people who live withing 20 kilometers (12.4 miles) from the troubled nuclear power plant. While these events are occurring more than 4500 miles from the West Coast of the United States, there is growing public concern regarding radiation. However, authorities from the Departments of Health in Washington, Oregon and Alaska (the three states in NN/LM PNR along the coast), state that there is no public health risk from the damaged nuclear reactor.\nVisit the Washington State Department of Health website for more information about the nuclear reactor in Japan and any associated health risks.\nOregonians can visit the Oregon Health Authority\u2019s web site.\nAlaskans can go to the State of Alaska Health and Social Services site to read about radiological preparedness.\nLastly, the journal Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness has published an open-access supplement on nuclear preparedness: http://www.dmphp.org/content/vol5/Supplement_1/index.dtl\nArticles from this and other publications of the Nuclear Detonation Scarce Resources Project Working Group can be accessed through the Radiation Emergency Medical Management (REMM) tool at http://www.remm.nlm.gov/triagetool_intro.htm . REMM is a source of evidence-based, online and downloadable guidance about clinical diagnosis and treatment of radiation injury for health care providers.\nAnd, for resources for disaster planning and response, remember to visit the NN/LM Emergency Preparedness Toolkit \u2013 http://nnlm.gov/ep/", "id": "<urn:uuid:1baaf342-d11a-4dbc-ab67-c02c4388cf54>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nnlm.gov/pnr/dragonfly/2011/03/21/radiation/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.90936279296875, "token_count": 402, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Digital Library is a database of articles about successful VoiceThread projects. Our hope is to create a resource that offers guidance and inspiration for people undertaking new projects. Please contribute a VoiceThread to help the Digital Library grow.\nUsing VoiceThread in an online course from Professor Russ Meade\nVoiceThread \"humanizes\" the on-line classroom experience. As a college Professor, I teach all over the US exclusively asynchronously. One of the drawbacks of online learning has always been that the student feels isolated and unconnected with either his or her classmates...\nHigher Ed from Della Curtis\nAn engaging discussion between graduate students looking to earn a master's degree in education. This example showcases the collaboration that can be captured in a VoiceThread between colleagues...\n7th grade radio advertisements from Terry Casey\nWe explored the power of radio advertising and then students created their own advertisements. VoiceThread allowed us to host our ads and the other students are then able to listen and leave their opinions.\nBook Review: A Single Shard by Linda Sue Park from C Vidor\nThis VoiceThread aims to make these elements a bit more familiar to students with brief explanations and interesting images. The VoiceThread also suggests ways in which some themes of the book are evident in the story's imagery.\n2nd graders play I-Spy\nThe project incorporates many tech skills as well as many literacy skills into a fun project they children loved. The parents and teachers also loved sharing their students work.\nHigher Ed analysis of Tim O'Brien's \"The Things They Carried\"\nThis VoiceThread encouraged my students to critically examine the story and post their insights for the entire world to see. I saw them go from being reluctant and nervous students to enthusiastic and totally engaged teachers of one another.\n8th grade Historical Fiction from Shirley Scamardella\nThis picture book was written, illustrated and told by students. It was entered into the Scholastic Books, Kids are Authors Contest and it won Honorable Mention. I feel this is a good VoiceThread because this is the finished product of a two month project.\nPoetry and Illustration from Constance Vidor\nThe Poetry and Illustration VoiceThread shows how illustration can be used to interpret and illuminate poetry written for young readers. It begins by showing illustrations by two different illustrators of Edward Lear's The Owl and the Pussycat.\nComparing J.S. Bach and Paul McCartney, Constance Vidor\nThe J.S. Bach and Paul McCartney VoiceThread introduces young learners to the great baroque composer by way of a comparison/contrast with a musician with whom they are more familiar.\n1st grade - Reading Analysis from Leanne Windsor\nThis VoiceThread was a culmination of a project we did in library to get the children thinking about the books they were choosing to read and why they liked them. They were also learning about story structure...\nKindergarten Storybook from Leanne Windsor\nThis VoiceThread displays the illustrations that the children drew with author Alison Lester when she visited our school. We followed the pattern of her picture book series about children and what they are doing day to day.\n4th Grade - Where I'm From Poems from Tara McCartney\nStudents shared personally significant poetry against a backdrop of their own self portrait. This VoiceThread gave students a chance to share their work orally, as well as to explore the cultural differences between our students in a safe environment.\n12th Grade - A Day in the Life from Joanie Batts\nThese High-School seniors used VoiceThread to create the final segment to a school wide literacy project, \"A Day in the Life of Dunnellon High School.\"\n4th Grade - I Am Poems from Jackie Gerstein\nThe \"I am\" feedback project demonstrates a method for providing qualitative feedback to students' poetry: students began with a hands-on activity: the magnetic poetry, and later put it into a VoiceThread.\n4th Grade English from Ms. Naugle\nVoiceThread enabled my students to put their poems out in an audio format to be shared with others. They eagerly practiced their speaking fluency to get it \"just right\" because they wanted to impress their \"audience\".\n4th Grade book-reading discussion from Krystina Kelly\nThis VoiceThread shows how a wide number of students from different classes and grades can use VoiceThread to have an asynchronous conversation about books.\nKindergarten reading from Heather Taylor\nI think that this is a good project because the children are able to share some of their experiences with reading and talking about books at home.\n7th Grade from Amy Cobb\nThis is a great example of what a VoiceThread can do when embedded in a blog: foster global conversation.\n7th Grade from Amy Cobb 2\nIn place of a written assessment the students were asked to take all the information they gathered from their study on Edgar Allan Poe and put it all into the \"What do you know about Poe?\" VoiceThread.\n7th Grade from Amy Cobb 3\nThis is a powerful reflection of a young girl's seventh grade experience. It tells a story using six photos that defined her middle school year.\n3rd Grade from Alice Mercer\nThis VoiceThread demonstrates the use of features that are unique to the application. The creator has used both voice and text to \"teach\" the lesson.\n10th grade Chinese language practice from Lilia Hurteau\nVoiceThread can be used to teach Chinese in a high school setting. Students have to repeat the words and then make sentences with the new vocabulary. They record themselves and they have to be creative.\n9th grade Chinese language lesson from James Rolle\nVoiceThread provides a medium for this character-by-character explanation of a commonly used phrase in Chinese that students can listen to and learn on their own time.\nLanguage learners use VoiceThread to practice speaking\nThis is a great example of how an ESL student can practice her computer skills and her language skills to talk about everyday activities. Students can practice speaking as many times as they like before they can show it to their teachers/classmates.\n11th grade - French fluency and history from Hassina Taylor\nStudents found that responding to my questions orally via the Internet was a great way to improve on their fluency, and they found it very challenging to use the visual cues to find answers. They concentrated much better and retained information because it is a \"hands-on\"...\n3rd grade language \"Les Trois Petits Cochons\" from Mme Smith\nUsing VoiceThread, students realized the power of voice as a tool of expression. All students in the class were able to contribute to this VoiceThread presentation of a play they had learned.\nHigher-Ed, Studying Abroad in Ecuador, David Thompson\nThis VoiceThread is a good example of digital storytelling for the purpose of reflecting on a study abroad experience.\n7th Grade Spanish from Eve Millard\nLearning a second or foreign language, these students are introduced to vocabulary via images or text, and engage in oral practice of the language.\nHigher Ed blogs in teaching from Kristen Kozloski, Ph.D.\nWe used blogging as a reflective practice in my course on Designing Multimedia for Learning. This is an example of our final reflection, as a class, of that blogging process.\nHigher Ed online technologies from Jen Hegna\nThe goal of this project was to have each team member reflect upon tools we utilized to collaborate and complete our online project entitled - Disrupting TCS 702.\n7th graders practice Math in Action from Ms Redd\nVoiceThread showcases this great example of Math in Action. My students love the idea that they can comment on a video featuring one of their teachers and it feels like they aren't even doing math!!\n7th Grade - Exploring Probability from Britt Gow\nStudents from two countries were able to comment on the slides which show images of probability problems. My students enjoyed this exercise and another teacher has used it in her class to extend each of the problems.\n7th Grade - Measurement from Britt Gow\nYear 7 students from Hawkesdale P12 college were able to share their knowledge with Grade 5/6 students from a Ballarat Primary School about measurement and ratio. Students were required to articulate their thinking...\n6th Grade math from Jackie Ionno\nThis VoiceThread was created by the student and shows that he really got the intent of the assignment. It shows effort, creativity, organization, and a mathematical knowledge of the the real world.\n4th Grade problem-solving from Krystina Kelly\nThis is a great VoiceThread example because it shows how an entire 4th grade class can work together to develop problem-solving strategies.\nHigher Ed teaching with technology from Ellen Dobson\nThis VoiceThread, entitled \"Surfometry,\" was created by a student-teacher as an assignment for a \"Computers in Education\" course. The creator incorporated images, video and graphics into an engaging geometry lesson.\nLanguage from Carla Arena\nThis VoiceThread shows current and new educators how VoiceThread can be used in English/Language Arts courses by asking students to assemble a creative artifact that weaves in literacy benchmarks: poetry, personification...\nLanguage from Carla Arena 2\nThis professional-development instructor used VoiceThread to introduce new technology for education to her groups of educators.\n9th graders write Children's stories about astronomy, Mrs. Edenstrom\nI had all of my 9th grade science students do a Children's story about astronomy. They had to have facts, but tell it in a creative way that could be read and understood by elementary aged students! I had great success with this.\n4th graders study plants in collaboration with Pakistani students\nStudents from the US collaborate with Pakistani students to learn about a common interest! This project can be used by teachers of any grade level, can be shown to parents, can be a model for showing kids the possibilities of the medium.\n7th Grade - The Water Cycle from Britt Gow\nYear 7 Science students did a unit of work on water and the water cycle. They were asked to draw a picture containing mountains, clouds, the sea, a lake, a forest and an underground water reservoir (aquifer).\n7th graders Go Green from Mrs. Beatrice Reiser\nThis VoiceThread is an excellent example because it is interactive and promotes environmental issues.\n1st Grade Science from Michele Green\nFirst grade students researched fish in the library, used Paint to draw pictures of them, and then recorded their voices.\nThe Silk Road - from Constance Vidor\nThis VoiceThread provides a scaffolding for research and active engagement with an important topic of world history.\nDigital storytelling - Abraham Lincoln's dog, Fido, from Clare Caddell\nVoiceThread brought a little-known story about Lincoln to life, with images as well as voice. It was created in response to my second and third graders, who wanted to know more about Lincoln's dog, Fido.\nHistory Podcast with secondary-ed students from Laurie Cohen\nThis project gives students an opportunity to be creative while demonstrating their content knowledge and technological skills. After developing the Lesson Plan and creating this sample, our US History teacher loved it for his class. He is using it in the 10th grade class.\n5th Grade - Ellis Is. Narratives from Barbara De Santis\nI wanted this project to enable the students to truly feel the immigrant experience. While primary documents are always in their textbook, there is seldom time to closely examine the images looking for clues to foster understanding.\n3rd Grade - School Community from Trish Harrison\nThe objective was for students to learn to express values while looking at different communities. They practiced discussion; brainstorming; writing down ideas; using ideas in small-group talk as conversations.\n11th Grade - Reconstruction from Molly Lynde\nThis is a great VoiceThread foremost because my students were actively engaged and finished with a clearer understanding of what the post Civil War era was really about... they no longer thought of a \"universal freed slave\" dancing in the street.\n4th Grade - Letters from the Internment Camps\nIn this VoiceThread, students explore an historical event that is relevant to their physical community, the removal of Japanese-Americans to internment camps after the bombing of Pearl Harbor.\n8th Grade - Colors of the Night from Mrs. Brosnan\nMy goal was to further enhance their Art History knowledge that by using VoiceThread enabled me to extend my teaching \"outside of the class room\".\nK-12 art, poetry, and music from Erin Berg\nThis VT is an example of the power of collaboration using technology. This encompasses art through words, visuals, and music.\n5th grade music/video project from Elissa Reichstein\nI believe (this VoiceThread) shows an interesting way to use VoiceThread to motivate learning and celebrate student interests and accomplishments.\n2nd Grade from Donna Lubin\nA great example of how a PowerPoint presentation can be uploaded easily and used as an archive of a PowerPoint-assisted lecture...\nHigher Ed Online Learning from Michelle Pacansky-Brock\nAn engaging and dynamic lecture delivered within an interactive environment engages in a way no 'downloadable' lecture can.\nHigher Ed Online Learning from Michelle Pacansky-Brock 2\nBy engaging in discussions, students explore and engage in course material more deeply while practicing critical-thinking and discourse.\n5th and 6th-grade Digital literacy project from Julienne Hogarth\nI gave the learners the images and they researched and posted information and comments about Dale Chihuly's life and art. The learners were thrilled to use Voicethread as a tool in their learning as well as becoming very excited about the art work.\n5th Grade - Digital portfolios for student-led parent confs.\nAs we're an international school, I was looking for a seamless way that relatives in other countries (Grandparents, parents away working etc) could view, comment, give feedback on the digital portfolio.\n8th Grade - Refugee stories from Creative Technology\nVoiceThread has enabled refugee communities to share stories about what it means to come to a new country to live.\n6th Grade Class trip from Jennifer Bamsberger\nWe used VoiceThread to document our class trip to the Maker Faire 2008 in the San Francisco Bay Area as part of our study of the Spirit of Creativity. For some of our sixth graders, this was the first long trip away from home without family.\n10th Grade Child Development from Andrea Holtry\nThis project was a collaboration of the high school students in four Child Development classes, illustrating many of the problems facing children today.", "id": "<urn:uuid:708a3238-d316-42b5-bb76-8a858c51acfa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nypl.voicethread.com/about/library/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9523302912712097, "token_count": 3016, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Image Size is the size of your original digital photo file, measured in pixels and DPI (Dots Per Inch, sometimes referred to as PPI, Pixels Per Inch). What is a pixel? A pixel is a small square dot. DPI refers to the number of dots (pixels) per inch. Why is this important? Well, if an image is too small, you might not be able to order a large size print or other photo product. A general rule of thumb for image size versus print size is: the image size should be at least the size of the print you want multiplied by 300, at 300 DPI. For example, if you want to order a 4x6 print, the image size should be 1200 pixels (4 x 300) by 1800 pixels (6 x 300) at 300 DPI. If the image size was half of that (600 by 900), then the 4x6 print would likely come out distorted or pixilated if you were to order a print.\nCamera Settings Decide in advance what is more important: image quality or room on your memory card. You can set your camera to take photos that are larger or smaller in size. If you know you will only be printing 4x6 photos, then you can reduce the image quality, which allows you to store more photos on your memory card. If you will be printing enlargements or other photo products like photo books, then keep the setting on \"high\" for higher quality images. The image sizes will be larger and you will not be able to store as many on your memory card at one time. Also, set the file type as \"jpeg\" if your camera allows you to control that detail. You might have a \"tiff\" option, but it is not necessary to save the photos as \"tiff\" files, and it will only take up more room on your memory card.\nIf you have a point and shoot camera, open your main menu, and find the setting for \"image quality\" (or something similar). Usually, the options are \"low,\" \"medium,\" and \"high.\" Choose \"high\" for higher quality (larger) photos. If you have an SLR camera, you probably have additional options. Just stick to high quality jpeg images, unless you know you will be doing extensive image editing and post-production. In that case, you might want to shoot RAW files. Resolution The resolution of your photo is directly impacted by the image size. The more pixels your photos have, the higher their resolution is.\nWhen you upload photos to your online account, you are given three upload options: \"Regular,\" \"Fast,\" and \"Fastest.\" When you choose \"Fast\" or \"Fastest,\" the photos are compressed, so the resolution will be less than the original photo file. So, if you are just uploading to order 4x6 prints, \"Fastest\" will be fine. But, if you wish to order enlargements, photo books, calendars, and other photo products, choose the \"Regular\" speed, which uploads the photos at their original resolution.\nOnce the photos are uploaded, you will notice three bars for each photo in your account. If all three bars are green, that means that the resolution of the photo that is in the account is sufficient enough to order just about anything on the site. If the bars are all red, you have uploaded a low resolution photo. Try to find the original photo file and check the size. If the size is sufficient enough to order prints (based on the rule we mentioned above about multiplying the desired print size by 300 and comparing to the actual image size), re-upload the photo at \"Regular\" upload speed. Photos with two or three red bars will generate poor quality prints, especially if you are trying to order anything larger than 4x6 prints. We also will double check the resolution on our end. If we catch a low res file when printing, we always stop and notify you. We want you to be happy with your prints.\nNow that you understand image size and resolution a bit more, and understand why they are important when working in your online photo account, here are a few more extra tips about image size and resolution:\n- Most computer screens display photos at 72 DPI. That means the printed photo will look different than how it appears on your computer screen.\n- If you crop a photo too much (zoom in too much), it will always look pixilated and distorted, no matter how large the image size is.\n- Once you take the photo, you cannot increase the size or resolution by increasing the number of pixels in any photo editing program. If you wish to increase the resolution or file size, you must do so by adjusting your camera settings before you take any more photos.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1e09e4c7-ed1a-4864-90b8-22fc564cbb6d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://persnicketyprints.com/tip/resolution/resolution-part-2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9428684115409851, "token_count": 985, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Wan Ali, Wan Zah and Mohd Ayub, Ahmad Fauzi and Wong, Su Luan and King, Hasnah Yee Tang and Wan Jaafar, Wan Marzuki (2008) Students teacher attitudes towards computer and online learning : are they a factor in students' usage? The International Journal of Learning, 15 (6). pp. 35-41. ISSN 1447-9494\nFull text not available from this repository.\nComputers and online learning are rapidly becoming important components in fundamental curriculum of Malaysian educational systems. In Malaysia, the computer and online learning curriculum have been incorporated into all levels of the educational systems. However, the instructional effectiveness of computer and online learning are related to many factors including students\u2019 attitudes towardsthese technologies. Hence, positive attitudes towards computers and online learning are important variables to be studied among pre-service teachers. The main purpose of this study is to examine the attitudes of pre-service teachers at Universiti Putra Malaysia toward computer and online learning and its relationships. In addition, the relationship between this attitudes and the usage of computer and online learning is also studied. The findings indicate that pre-service teachers have positive attitudes towards computers and online learning. The correlation between students\u2019 attitude towards computers and online learning was significant.\n|Keyword:||Online Learning; Attitudes toward Computer; Attitudes towards Online Learning|\n|Subject:||Computer-assisted instruction - Malaysia|\n|Subject:||College teachers - In-service training|\n|Faculty or Institute:||Faculty of Educational Studies|\n|Publisher:||Common Ground Publishing|\n|Deposited By:||Emelda Mohd Hamid|\n|Deposited On:||25 May 2012 15:08|\n|Last Modified:||12 Nov 2012 14:41|\nRepository Staff Only: item control page", "id": "<urn:uuid:626c380d-582f-47ba-9350-b504f1f0963c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psasir.upm.edu.my/16877/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9062190651893616, "token_count": 382, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(Washington, DC \u2022 11/6/06) \u2013 The second of five Special Sensor Ultraviolet Limb Imager (SSULI) remote sensing instruments, developed by the Naval Research Laboratory, was launched on November 4, 2006 on board the DMSP F-17 satellite. SSULI is the first operational instrument of its kind and provides a new technique for remote sensing of the ionosphere and thermosphere from space. SSULI's measurements will provide scientific data supporting military and civil systems and will assist in predicting atmospheric drag effects on satellites and reentry vehicles.\nA Boeing Delta 4 vehicle launched the Air Force's Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) F-17 satellite and the SSULI sensor into low earth orbit from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California. SSULI will be powered on and start initial sensor checkout 30 days after launch.\n\"Characterization of the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere is a critical goal for Department of Defense (DoD) and civilian users,\" said Andrew Nicholas, the SSULI Principal Investigator at NRL. He discussed the significance of the planned SSULI observations, saying, \"The upper atmosphere affects many systems from global to tactical scales. These systems include GPS positioning, HF radio communications, satellite drag and orbit determination, and over-the-horizon radar. Both the neutral atmosphere and the ionosphere are driven by solar and geomagnetic forcing that occur on many timescales ranging from short (minute, hours) to medium (days to months) to long (years). Real-time global observations that yield altitude profiles of the ionosphere and neutral atmosphere, over an extended period of time (DMSP through the year 2016) will fill a critical need.\"\nSSULI measures vertical profiles of the natural airglow radiation from atoms, molecules, and ions in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere from low earth orbit aboard the DMSP satellite. It builds on the successes of the NRL High Resolution Airglow/Aurora Spectroscopy (HIRAAS) experiment recently flown aboard the Space Test Program (STP) Advanced Research and Global Observations Satellite (ARGOS). SSULI makes measurements from the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) to the far ultraviolet (FUV) over the wavelength range of 80 nm to 170 nm with 2.4 nm resolution. SSULI also measures the electron density and neutral density profiles of the emitting atmospheric constituents. SSULI uses a spectrograph with a mirror capable of scanning below the satellite horizon from 10 degrees to 27 degrees every 90 seconds. These observations represent a vertical slice of the Earth's atmosphere from 750 km to 50 km in depth. Use of these data enables the development of new techniques for global ionospheric remote sensing and new models of global electron density variation.\nCommenting on the practical application of the instrument, Mr. Ken Weldy, the Program Manager at NRL said, \"Since natural atmospheric phenomena can disrupt day-to-day operations in the military use of space, we look forward to providing SSULI operational products to feed into the Global Assimilation of Ionospheric Measurements (GAIM) model. This will provide an important piece of the characterization of the Earth's upper atmosphere and ionosphere.\"\nAn extensive data processing suite was developed to support on-orbit observations and flight operations. It includes data reduction software using unique science algorithms developed at NRL, comprehensive data validation techniques, and graphical interfaces for the user community. After launch, the SSULI sensor, software, and derived atmospheric specification will under go an extensive validation. After validation, SSULI products will be distributed by the Air Force Weather Agency to support operational DoD systems.\nAdditional information about the SSULI instrument and its data processing software is available at http://www.nrl.navy.mil/tira/Projects/ssuli/.\nThe Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) is a Department of Defense (DoD) program run by the Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center (SMC). The program designs, builds, launches, and maintains several near-polar orbiting, sun synchronous satellites monitoring the meteorological, oceanographic, and solar-terrestrial physics environments. Additional information is available at the DMSP web site (http://dmsp.ngdc.noaa.gov/dmsp.html).\nNRL is the Department of the Navy's corporate laboratory. NRL conducts a broad program of scientific research, technology, and advanced development. The Laboratory, with a total complement of approximately 2,500 personnel, is located in southwest Washington, DC, with other major sites at the Stennis Space Center, MS; and Monterey, CA.\nLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009\nPublished on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a168bd55-6030-4ce8-bdae-e503fe05ec37>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2006-11/nrl-nst110606.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.877139151096344, "token_count": 990, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In neuroanatomy, a sulcus (Latin: \"furrow\", pl. sulci) is a depression or fissure in the surface of the brain.\nIt surrounds the gyri, creating the characteristic appearance of the brain in humans and other large mammals.\nLarge furrows (sulci) that divide the brain into lobes are often called fissures. The large furrow that divides the two hemispheres\u2014the interhemispheric fissure\u2014is very rarely called a \"sulcus\".\nThe sulcal pattern varies between human individuals, and the most elaborate overview on this variation is probably an atlas by Ono, Kubick and Abernathey: Atlas of the Cerebral Sulci.\nSome of the larger sulci are, however, seen across individuals - and even species - so it is possible to establish a nomenclature.\nThe variation in the amount of fissures in the brain (gyrification) between species is related to the size of the animal and the size of the brain. Mammals that have smooth-surfaced or nonconvoluted brains are called lissencephalics and those that have folded or convoluted brains gyrencephalics. The division between the two groups occurs when cortical surface area is about 10 cm2 and the brain has a volume of 3\u20134 cm3. Large rodents such as beavers (Template:Convert/lbTemplate:Convert/test/A) and capybaras (Template:Convert/lbTemplate:Convert/test/A) are gyrencephalic and smaller rodents such as rats and mice lissencephalic.\nIn humans, cerebral convolutions appear at about 5 months and take at least into the first year after birth to fully develop. It has been found that the width of cortical sulci not only increases with age , but also with cognitive decline in the elderly. \n\u2191 2.02.1Hofman MA. (1985). Size and shape of the cerebral cortex in mammals. I. The cortical surface. Brain Behav Evol. 27(1):28-40. PMID 3836731\n\u2191 3.03.1Hofman MA. (1989).On the evolution and geometry of the brain in mammals. Prog Neurobiol.32(2):137-58. PMID 2645619\n\u2191Martin I. Sereno, Roger B. H. Tootell, \"From Monkeys to humans: what do we now know about brain homologies,\" Current Opinion in Neurobiology15:135-144, (2005).\nCaviness VS Jr. (1975). Mechanical model of brain convolutional development. Science. 189(4196):18-21. PMID 1135626\nTao Liu, Wei Wen, Wanlin Zhu, Julian Trollor, Simone Reppermund, John Crawford, Jesse S Jin, Suhuai Luo, Henry Brodaty, Perminder Sachdev (2010) The effects of age and sex on cortical sulci in the elderly. Neuroimage 51:1. 19-27 May. PMID 20156569\n\u2191 Tao Liu, Wei Wen, Wanlin Zhu, Nicole A Kochan, Julian N Trollor, Simone Reppermund, Jesse S Jin, Suhuai Luo, Henry Brodaty, Perminder S Sachdev (2011) The relationship between cortical sulcal variability and cognitive performance in the elderly. Neuroimage 56:3. 865-873 Jun. PMID 21397704\n\u2191Gerhardt von Bonin, Percival Bailey, The Neocortex of Macaca Mulatta, The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1947", "id": "<urn:uuid:90017c93-fbd3-4e3b-bf56-08ddb285416b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Sulcus_(neuroanatomy)?oldid=150425", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8113994002342224, "token_count": 767, "score": 4.03125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Table o contents\nChai Nat is locatit in the flat river plain o central Thailand's Chao Phraya River valley. In the sooth o the province the Chao Phraya (umwhile Chai Nat) Dam impunds the Chao Phraya river, baith for flood control as well as tae divert water intae the kintra's lairgest irrigation seestem for the irrigation o rice paddies in the lawer river valley. The dam, pairt o the Greater Chao Phraya Project, wis finished in 1957 an wis the first dam constructit in Thailand.\nOreeginally the ceety wis locatit at Sankhaburi. In the reign o Keeng Mongkut (Rama IV) the main settlement o the province wis moved tae its present-day location. Durin the wars wi the Burmese it wis an important military base for confrontin the Burmese Airmy. As aw these confrontations wur successful the ceety gained the name Chai Nat, which means place o victory.\nThe slogan o the province is Venerable Luangpu Suk, Renouned Chao Phraya Dam, Famous Bird Park an Tasty Khao Taengkwa Pomelo.\nAdmeenistrative diveesions \nStraw Bird Fair, Chai Nat\u2019s Product Fair and Red Cross Fair (\u0e07\u0e32\u0e19\u0e21\u0e2b\u0e01\u0e23\u0e23\u0e21\u0e2b\u0e38\u0e48\u0e19\u0e1f\u0e32\u0e07\u0e19\u0e01\u0e19\u0e32\u0e19\u0e32\u0e0a\u0e32\u0e15\u0e34 \u0e07\u0e32\u0e19\u0e02\u0e2d\u0e07\u0e14\u0e35 \u0e41\u0e25\u0e30\u0e07\u0e32\u0e19\u0e01\u0e32\u0e0a\u0e32\u0e14\u0e08\u0e31\u0e07\u0e2b\u0e27\u0e31\u0e14\u0e0a\u0e31\u0e22\u0e19\u0e32\u0e17) This annual fair is organized bi makin guid uise o straw, a bi-product in rice farmin. Various species o huge straw birds will come perchin on elaborately decoratit floats durin the straw bird procession an the competition is held in front o Chai Nat Ceety Hall. The event is held annually durin Cheenese New Year in Februar.\nChai Nat Pomelo Fair (\u0e07\u0e32\u0e19\u0e2a\u0e49\u0e21\u0e42\u0e2d\u0e0a\u0e31\u0e22\u0e19\u0e32\u0e17) Chai Nat is ane o several provinces famous for producin exceptional pomelo. The best kent are o the Khao Taengkwa variety haein a well-roondit shape, smooth skin, thin peel, sweet-crispy taste an a little sour, but no bitter. The fair is held durin late August - early September in front o Chai Nat Ceety Hall an features mony activities such as pomelo contest, varieties o exhibitions bi provincial authorities, an young shoot an pomelo sales.", "id": "<urn:uuid:67520114-7420-40db-8b1d-23abdcbeb5e1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chainat_Province", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7817580699920654, "token_count": 640, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Locating thermophiles in other parts of the universe could very well aid in the search for extraterrestrial life. Most people have agreed that if life is found among the stars, it will be microbial (at least in the near-term future). Many individuals have also suggested that intelligent life forms might very well be extinct in other parts of the universe. If scientists could locate thermophile microbes, they could piece together an archaeological picture of once powerful civilizations.\nTaiwan is well known for its hot springs. Most tourists that visit the island end up visiting at least one. Many people like to take relaxing baths in them. Hot springs can be great for people with arthritis. New research is proving that they can also be a great place to find astrobiological data.\nPhotosynthetic thermophiles that live in hot springs may potentially be removing significant amounts of industrially produced carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. They\u2019ve thrived because of fundamental changes to the atmosphere caused by humanity. In fact, there are some scientists who feel that these microbes could play a vital role in regulating the planet\u2019s climate. That role might become increasingly important in the future.\nPlanets that were once inhabited by industrially developed civilizations that have since passed might be teeming with life similar to these. If a planet was sufficiently changed by another race of beings, it could have ultimately favored the development of these tiny beings. They could indicate that intelligent lifeforms once inhabited a planet, and that planet could be different today than it was in the past.\nWhile discovering a planet full of microbes would be initially interesting, in the future it could be a relatively common occurrence. Therefore, news services of the future might very well pass by such stories after a few weeks \u2013 much like they do today with the discovery of new exoplanets. Finding sufficient numbers of photosynthetic thermophiles would be telling about the history of a world, but it would also require a great deal of geological activity. Then again, there\u2019s nothing to say that other civilizations wouldn\u2019t also have the ability to increase the amount of geological activity on other planets. They might even do it on purpose, as a way of terraforming for instance.\nFor that matter, humans might want to give that a try. Venus is superheated because of thermal runaway as a result of excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. If water were transported to that very hot world, colonists could use the resulting geysers to grow bacteria that would absorb the atmospheric gas.\nLeu, J., Lin, T., Selvamani, M., Chen, H., Liang, J., & Pan, K. (2012). Characterization of a novel thermophilic cyanobacterial strain from Taian hot springs in Taiwan for high CO2 mitigation and C-phycocyanin extraction Process Biochemistry DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2012.09.019", "id": "<urn:uuid:fb936873-c4b3-4301-85c5-1bd5eb0d9a9c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wiredcosmos.com/2012/10/18/searching-for-extraterrestrial-microbes/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9628398418426514, "token_count": 601, "score": 3.8125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "is a crime\nCrime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction...\n, the essence of which is illicit entry into a building for the purposes of committing an offense. Usually that offense will be theft\nIn common usage, theft is the illegal taking of another person's property without that person's permission or consent. The word is also used as an informal shorthand term for some crimes against property, such as burglary, embezzlement, larceny, looting, robbery, shoplifting and fraud...\n, but most jurisdictions specify others which fall within the ambit of burglary. To engage in the act of burglary is to burgle\n(in British English\nBritish English, or English , is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere...\n) or to burglarize\n(in American English\nAmerican English is a set of dialects of the English language used mostly in the United States. Approximately two-thirds of the world's native speakers of English live in the United States....\nCommon law definition\nThe common law\nCommon law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...\nburglary was defined by Sir Matthew Hale\nSir Matthew Hale SL was an influential English barrister, judge and jurist most noted for his treatise Historia Placitorum Coron\u00e6, or The History of the Pleas of the Crown. Born to a barrister and his wife, who had both died by the time he was 5, Hale was raised by his father's relative, a strict...\n- Breaking can be either actual, such as by forcing open a door, or constructive, such as by fraud or threats. Breaking does not require that anything be \"broken\" in terms of physical damage occurring. A person who has permission to enter part of a house, but not another part, commits a breaking and entering when they use any means to enter a room where they are not permitted, so long as the room was not open to enter.\n- Entering can involve either physical entry by a person or the insertion of an instrument with which to remove property. Insertion of a tool to gain entry may not constitute entering by itself. Note that there must be a breaking and an entering for common law burglary. Breaking without entry or entry without breaking is not sufficient for common law burglary.\n- Although rarely listed as an element, the common law required that entry occur as a consequence of the breaking. For example, if a wrongdoer partially opened a window by using a pry bar and then noticed an open door through which he entered the dwelling, there is no burglary at common law. The use of the pry bar would not constitute an entry even if a portion of the prybar \"entered\" the residence. Under the instrumentality rule the use of an instrument to effect a breaking would not constitute an entry. However, if any part of the perpetrator's body entered the residence in an attempt to gain entry, the instrumentality rule did not apply. Thus, if the perpetrator uses the prybar to pry open the window and then used his hands to lift the partially opened window, an \"entry\" would have taken place when he grasped the bottom of the window with his hands.\n- House includes a temporarily unoccupied dwelling, but not a building used only occasionally as a habitation\n- Night time is defined as hours between half an hour after sunset and half an hour before sunrise\n- Typically this element is expressed as the intent to commit a felony \u201ctherein\u201d. The use of the word \u201ctherein\u201d adds nothing and certainly does not limit the scope of burglary to those wrongdoers who break and enter a dwelling intending to commit a felony on the premises. The situs of the felony does not matter, and burglary occurs if the wrongdoer intended to commit a felony at the time he broke and entered.\nThe common law elements of burglary often vary between jurisdictions. The common law definition has been expanded in most jurisdictions, such that the building need not be a dwelling or even a building in the conventional sense, physical breaking is not necessary, the entry does not need to occur at night, and the intent may be to commit any felony or theft.\nEtymology is the study of the history of words, their origins, and how their form and meaning have changed over time.For languages with a long written history, etymologists make use of texts in these languages and texts about the languages to gather knowledge about how words were used during...\noriginates from Anglo-Saxon\nAnglo-Saxon may refer to:* Anglo-Saxons, a group that invaded Britain** Old English, their language** Anglo-Saxon England, their history, one of various ships* White Anglo-Saxon Protestant, an ethnicity* Anglo-Saxon economy, modern macroeconomic term...\nor Old English, one of the Germanic languages\nThe Germanic languages constitute a sub-branch of the Indo-European language family. The common ancestor of all of the languages in this branch is called Proto-Germanic , which was spoken in approximately the mid-1st millennium BC in Iron Age northern Europe...\n. According to one textbook, \"The word burglar\ncomes from the two German\nGerman is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 \u2013 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....\n, meaning \"house,\" and laron\n, meaning \"thief\" (literally \"house thief\"). Another suggested etymology is from the later Latin word burgare\n, \"to break open\" or \"to commit burglary\", from burgus\n, meaning \"fortress\" or \"castle\", with the word then passing through French and Middle English, with influence from the Latin latro\n, \"thief\". The British verb \"burgle\" is a late back-formation.\nBurglary is prosecuted as a felony\nA felony is a serious crime in the common law countries. The term originates from English common law where felonies were originally crimes which involved the confiscation of a convicted person's land and goods; other crimes were called misdemeanors...\nA misdemeanor is a \"lesser\" criminal act in many common law legal systems. Misdemeanors are generally punished much less severely than felonies, but theoretically more so than administrative infractions and regulatory offences...\nand involves trespassing and theft, entering a building or automobile, or remaining unlawfully with intent to commit theft or any crime, not necessarily a theft for example, vandalism\nVandalism is the behaviour attributed originally to the Vandals, by the Romans, in respect of culture: ruthless destruction or spoiling of anything beautiful or venerable...\n. Even if nothing is stolen in a burglary, the act is a statutory offense. Buildings can include sheds, barns, and coops; burglary of boats, aircraft, and railway cars is possible. Burglary may be an element in crimes involving rape\nRape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse, which is initiated by one or more persons against another person without that person's consent. The act may be carried out by physical force, coercion, abuse of authority or with a person who is incapable of valid consent. The...\nArson is the crime of intentionally or maliciously setting fire to structures or wildland areas. It may be distinguished from other causes such as spontaneous combustion and natural wildfires...\nIn criminal law, kidnapping is the taking away or transportation of a person against that person's will, usually to hold the person in false imprisonment, a confinement without legal authority...\n, identity theft\nIdentity theft is a form of stealing another person's identity in which someone pretends to be someone else by assuming that person's identity, typically in order to access resources or obtain credit and other benefits in that person's name...\n, or violation of civil rights; indeed the \"plumbers\" of the Watergate scandal\nThe Watergate scandal was a political scandal during the 1970s in the United States resulting from the break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C., and the Nixon administration's attempted cover-up of its involvement...\nwere technically burglars. As with all legal definitions in the U.S., the foregoing description may not be applicable in every jurisdiction, since there are 50 separate state criminal codes, plus Federal and territorial codes in force.\nTechnically, a burglary committed during the hours of daylight is not burglary, but housebreaking.\nIn many jurisdictions in the U.S., burglary is punished more severely than housebreaking. In California\nCalifornia is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...\n, for example, burglary was punished as burglary in the first degree, while housebreaking was punished as burglary in the second degree. California now distinguishes between entry into a residence and into a commercial building, with the burglary into a residence with heavier punishment.\nIn states that continue to punish burglary more severely than housebreaking twilight\nTwilight is the time between dawn and sunrise or between sunset and dusk, during which sunlight scattering in the upper atmosphere illuminates the lower atmosphere, and the surface of the earth is neither completely lit nor completely dark. The sun itself is not directly visible because it is below...\n, night is traditionally defined as hours between 30 minutes after sunset and 30 minutes before sunrise.\nSome academics consider burglary as an inchoate crime. Others say that because the intrusion itself is harmful, this justifies punishment even when no further crime is committed.\nPossession of burglar's tools, in jurisdictions that make this an offense, has also been viewed as an inchoate crime:\nUnder Florida State Statutes\nThe Florida law is based on the Florida Constitution , which defines how the statutes must be passed into law, and defines the limits of authority and basic law that the Florida Statutes must be complied with...\n, \"burglary\" occurs when a person \"enter[s] a dwelling, a structure, or a conveyance with the intent to commit an offense therein, unless the premises are at the time open to the public or the defendant is licensed or invited to enter. Depending on the circumstances of the crime, burglary can be classified as third-, second-, or first-degree felonies, with maximum sentences of five years, fifteen years, and life, respectively.\nA person commits the offense of burglary when, without authority and with the intent to commit a felony or theft therein, he enters or remains within the dwelling house of another or any building, vehicle, railroad car, watercraft, or other such structure designed for use as the dwelling of another or enters or remains within any other building, railroad car, aircraft, or any room or any part thereof. A person convicted of the offense of burglary, for the first such offense, shall be punished by imprisonment for not less than one nor more than 20 years. For the purposes of this Code section, the term \"railroad car\" shall also include trailers on flatcars, containers on flatcars, trailers on railroad property, or containers on railroad property. O.C.G.A. \u00a7 16-7-1\nBurglary and the intended crime, if carried out, are treated as separate offenses. Burglary is a felony, even when the intended crime is a misdemeanor, and the intent to commit the crime can occur when one \"enters or remains unlawfully\" in the building, expanding the common law definition. It has three degrees. Third-degree burglary is the broadest, and applies to any building or other premises. Second-degree burglary retains the common-law element of a dwelling, and first-degree burglary requires one to be in a dwelling and to be armed with a weapon or to cause injury. A related offense, criminal trespass, covers unlawful entry to buildings or premises without the intent to commit a crime, and is a misdemeanor or, in the third degree, a violation. Possession of burglar's tools, with the intent to use them to commit burglary or theft, is a misdemeanor.\nThe Commonwealth of Massachusetts\nThe Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...\nuses the term \"burglary\" to refer to a night-time breaking and entering of a dwelling with the intent to commit a felony. Burglary is a felony punishable by not more than twenty years; should the burglar enter with a dangerous weapon, they may be imprisoned for life. Unlawful entries of a structure other than a dwelling are labeled \"breaking and entering\" and punishments vary according to structure.\nIn Maryland, under title 6, subtitle 2 of the criminal law code, the crime of burglary is divided into four degrees. The first three degrees are felonies, while fourth-degree burglary is a misdemeanor. Breaking and entering into a dwelling with intent to commit theft or a crime of violence is first-degree burglary. Breaking and entering into a \"storehouse\" (a structure other than a dwelling, also including watercraft, aircraft, railroad cars, and vessels) with intent to commit theft, arson, or a crime of violence is second-degree burglary. Third-degree burglary is defined as breaking and entering into a dwelling with intent to commit a crime.\nSimple breaking and entering into a dwelling or storehouse without specific intent to commit an additional crime is fourth-degree burglary. This degree also includes two other offenses that do not have breaking and entering as an element: Being in or on the yard, garden, or other property of a storehouse or dwelling with the intent to commit theft, or possession of burglar's tools with the intent to use them in a burglary offense.\nIn the criminal code of New Hampshire\nNew Hampshire is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. The state was named after the southern English county of Hampshire. It is bordered by Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Canadian...\n, \"A person is guilty of burglary if he enters a building or occupied structure, or separately secured or occupied section thereof, with purpose to commit a crime therein, unless the premises are at the time open to the public or the actor is licensed or privileged to enter.\"\nUnder the penal law\nIn the most general sense, penal is the body of laws that are enforced by the State in its own name and impose penalties for their violation, as opposed to civil law that seeks to redress private wrongs...\nin New York, burglary is always a felony, even in third degree. It is more serious if the perpetrator uses what appears to be a dangerous weapon, or if he or she enters a dwelling.\nIn Pennsylvania, it is a defense to prosecution if the building or structure in question is rendered abandoned\nIn Virginia, there are degrees of burglary, described as \"Common Law Burglary\" and \"Statutory Burglary.\"\nCommon Law Burglary is defined as: if any person breaks and enters the dwelling of another, in the nighttime, with intent to commit a felony or any larceny (Theft < 200$) therein, shall be guilty of burglary, punishable as a class 3 felony; provided, however, that if such person was armed with a deadly weapon at the time of such entry, he shall be guilty of a class 2 felony.\nStatutory Burglary is defined as: If any person in the nighttime enters without breaking, or in the daytime breaks and enters or enters and conceals himself in a dwelling house or an adjoining, occupied outhouse, or, in the nighttime enters without breaking or at any time breaks and enters or enters and conceals himself in any office, shop, manufactured home, storehouse, warehouse, banking house, church or other house, or any ship, vessel or river craft, or any railroad car, or any automobile, truck, or trailer, if such automobile, truck or trailer is used as a dwelling or place of human habitation, with intent to commit murder, rape, robbery or arson in violation of Virginia State code section 18.2-77, 18.2-79, or 18.2-80, shall be deemed guilty of statutory burglary, which offense shall be a class 3 felony. However, if such person was armed with a deadly weapon at the time of such entry, he shall be guilty of a class 2 felony.\nAdditionally, if any person commits any of the acts mentioned in the VA state code section 18.2-90 with intent to commit larceny, or any felony other than murder, rape, robbery or arson in violation of VA state code section 18.2-77, 18.2-79, or 18.2-80, or if any person commits any acts mentioned in 18.2-89 or 18.2-90 with intent to commit assault and battery, shall be guilty of statutory burglary, punishable by confinement in a state correctional facility for not less than one or more than twenty years, or, in the discretion of the jury or the court trying the case without a jury, be confined in jail for a period not exceeding twelve months or fined not more than $2,500, either or both. However, if the person was armed with a deadly weapon at the time of such entry, he shall be guilty of a Class 2 felony.\nFinally, if any person break and enter a dwelling house while said dwelling is occupied, either in the day or nighttime, with intent to commit any misdemeanor except assault and battery or trespass (which falls under the previous paragraph), shall be guilty of a class 6 felony. However, if the person was armed with a deadly weapon at the time of such entry, he shall be guilty of a class 2 felony.\nIn Wisconsin, burglary is committed by one who enters a building without consent and with intent to steal or to commit another felony. Burglary may also be committed by entry to a locked truck or trailer or a ship. The crime of burglary is treated as being more serious if the burglar is armed with a dangerous weapon when the burglary is committed or arms himself/herself during the commission of the burglary.\nEngland and Wales\nBurglary is defined by section 9 of the Theft Act 1968\nThe Theft Act 1968 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It creates a number of offences against property in England and Wales.On 15 January 2007 the Fraud Act 2006 came into force, redefining most of the offences of deception.-History:...\nwhich created two variants:\nThe offence is defined in similar terms to England and Wales by the\nTheft Act (Northern Ireland) 1969.\nUnder Scots law\nScots law is the legal system of Scotland. It is considered a hybrid or mixed legal system as it traces its roots to a number of different historical sources. With English law and Northern Irish law it forms the legal system of the United Kingdom; it shares with the two other systems some...\n, the crime of burglary does not exist. Instead theft by housebreaking\ncovers theft where the security of the building is overcome. It does not include any other aspect of burglary found in England and Wales. It is a crime usually prosecuted under solemn procedure\nAn indictment , in the common-law legal system, is a formal accusation that a person has committed a crime. In jurisdictions that maintain the concept of felonies, the serious criminal offence is a felony; jurisdictions that lack the concept of felonies often use that of an indictable offence\u2014an...\nin a superiour court. Another common law crime still used is Hamesukin which covers forced entry into a building where a serious assault on the occupant takes place. Common law\nCommon law is law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive branch action...\ncrimes in Scotland are gradually being replaced by statutes.\nIn Canada, burglary is labelled as \"Breaking and Entering\" under section 348 of the Criminal Code\nA criminal code is a document which compiles all, or a significant amount of, a particular jurisdiction's criminal law...\nand is a hybrid offence\nA hybrid offence, dual offence, Crown option offence, dual procedure offence, or wobbler are the special class offences in the common law jurisdictions where the case may be prosecuted either summarily or as indictment...\n. Breaking and entering is defined as trespassing with intent to commit an indictable offence\nIn many common law jurisdictions , an indictable offence is an offence which can only be tried on an indictment after a preliminary hearing to determine whether there is a prima facie case to answer or by a grand jury...\n. The crime is commonly referred to in Canada as \"break and enter\" which in turn is often shortened to \"B and E\".\nIn Sweden, burglary does not exist as an offence in itself, instead there are two available offences. If a person simply breaks into any premise, he is technically guilty of either unlawful intrusion\nor breach of domiciliary peace\n), depending on the premise in question. Breach of domiciliary peace is only applicable when a person \"unlawfully intrudes or remains where another has his living quarters\"\nThe only punishment available for any of these offences is fines, unless the offence is considered gross. In that case, the maximum punishment is two years in prison.\nHowever, if the person who has forced himself into a house, steals anything\n(literally \"takes what belongs to another with intent to acquire it\"\n), he is guilty of (ordinary) theft\n). However, the section regarding gross theft\n(Chapter 6, 4s of the Penal Code, grov st\u00f6ld\n) states \"in assessing whether the crime is gross, special consideration shall be given to whether the unlawful appropriation took place after intrusion into a dwelling.\"\nFor theft, the punishment is imprisonment of at most two years, while gross theft carries a punishment of between six months and six years.\nAs in Sweden, there is no crime of burglary as such in Finland. In the case of breaking and entering, the Finnish penal code states that\nA person who unlawfully\n(1) enters domestic premises by force, stealth or deception, or hides or stays in\nsuch premises [...]\nshall be sentenced for invasion of domestic premises to a fine or to imprisonment for at most six months.\nHowever, if theft is committed during unlawful entering, then a person is guilty of theft or aggravated theft depending on the circumstances of the felony.\n(1) If in the theft the offender breaks into an occupied residence,\nand the theft is aggravated also when assessed as a whole, the offender shall be\nsentenced for aggravated theft to imprisonment for at least four months and at most\n- R v Collins\nR v Collins 1973 QB 100 is a case decided by the Court of Appeal of England and Wales which examined the meaning of \"enters as a trespasser\" in the definition of burglary...\nTrespass is an area of tort law broadly divided into three groups: trespass to the person, trespass to chattels and trespass to land.Trespass to the person, historically involved six separate trespasses: threats, assault, battery, wounding, mayhem, and maiming...\n- Home Invasion\nHome Invasion is the fifth solo album by Ice-T. Released in 1993, the album Home Invasion is the fifth solo album by Ice-T. Released in 1993, the album Home Invasion is the fifth solo album by Ice-T. Released in 1993, the album (which was originally set to be released in 1992 under the deal with...\n- Watergate burglaries\n- \"Cat burglar\" at Wiktionary\nWiktionary is a multilingual, web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in 158 languages...", "id": "<urn:uuid:57d7671f-998e-45cc-be3c-f9daa3b6982a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Burglary", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9487447142601013, "token_count": 4998, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cleaner Water: North Carolina's Straight-Pipe Elimination Project\nby Fred D. Baldwin\nSome years ago, William and Elizabeth Thomas tried unsuccessfully to install a properly designed septic system that would replace a four-inch pipe draining household wastewater straight into a little creek a few yards behind their home.\n\"I scrounged up enough money to put one in,\" William Thomas says. Spreading his hands about two feet apart, he adds, \"But I didn't get down this far until we hit water.\"\nThe Thomases live on a small hillside lot in a rural area of Madison County, North Carolina. Their situation is similar to that of many rural Appalachian families who for one reason or another-money, the lay of the land, or both-live in older homes with inadequate septic systems. By the end of the year, however, they and many other Madison County residents will have new septic systems in place, thanks to a county program backed by an impressive team of state, federal, and local partners ranging from area conservation groups to the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC).\nThe genesis of the program goes back to 1995, when Governor James B. Hunt created the Year of the Mountains Commission to assess current and future issues affecting North Carolina's western mountain communities. To protect and improve water quality, the commission recommended that, in addition to reducing mine drainage and agricultural runoff, the state Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) be directed to \"aggressively pursue a program to eliminate the practice of 'straight-piping.' \" For years, decades even, it had been politically easier to ignore this issue. The commission pointed out that the 1990 Census of housing showed that nearly 50,000 households in North Carolina did not have connections to either municipal sewage systems or adequate septic systems. This was true not only in mountainous areas, but also in low-income communities across the state. Some of these households were draining \"black water,\" which includes raw sewage, into creeks or streams; others were piping toilet wastes to a septic tank but straight-piping soapy and bacteria-laden \"gray water\" from sinks, baths, and dishwashers. Still other households were relying on septic systems built before the installation of a dishwasher or a second bathroom; these older systems were now prone to backups or leaks.\nAs early as 1958, the state took the first of many steps to regulate or eliminate straight-piping. This and subsequent measures were loosely enforced. In 1996, Governor Hunt established a goal to eliminate straight-piping of untreated wastewater into western North Carolina's rivers and streams by the end of the decade. \"Every child should grow up in a community with clean, safe water,\" Hunt says.\nThat same year, in response to the Year of the Mountains Commission report, the North Carolina General Assembly created the Wastewater Discharge Elimination (WaDE) program, which differed significantly from earlier, essentially punitive measures. The new law provided a temporary \"amnesty\" for households reporting conditions violating state environmental health codes and, more important, provided technical assistance to communities wishing to take advantage of the state's Clean Water Management Trust Fund (a fund established to finance projects that address water pollution problems). Terrell Jones, the WaDE team leader, praises Madison County for being the first county to conduct a wastewater discharge survey under the new law, and he emphasizes that straight-piping, especially of gray water, is a statewide problem.\nDriving around Madison County, you see why wastewater problems are costly to correct. Roads wind up and down past rocky, fast-flowing streams and creeks that drain into the French Broad River, where white-water rafters come for excitement. Houses on back roads are far apart but near streams. If there's enough land suitable for a septic tank and drainage field downhill from one of those houses, a conventional septic system can be installed for about $2,000. But if wastewater has to be pumped uphill, the cost can easily reach $8,000 or more. This explains why punitive measures against straight-piping have been loosely enforced. Local officials know that even $2,000 is beyond the means of many families. Who would tell cash-strapped people-more often than not, elderly-that they had to sell or abandon their home or family farmstead because of a housing code violation?\nA Growing List of Partners\nMadison County officials decided to take the lead on a positive approach. They first turned to the Land-of-Sky Regional Council, an Asheville-based local development district that represents 19 governmental units in four Appalachian counties, including Madison. The Land-of-Sky staff took advantage of an infrastructure demonstration grant from the North Carolina Division of Community Assistance and funds from ARC to begin a wastewater survey and community-planning process. From that point, the list of partners grew rapidly. They included the DENR WaDE program, U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Rural Development, the North Carolina Rural Communities Assistance Project, the state-funded Clean Water Management Trust Fund, the Pigeon River Fund, the Community Foundation of Western North Carolina, the Western North Carolina Housing Partnership, and ARC.\nThe Madison County Health Department and Land-of-Sky took the lead locally, working with a grassroots planning committee representing a broad base of organizations, outdoor sports enthusiasts, environmental groups, and private-property owners (some of them living in homes with straight-piping). Among the decisions: to test every building in Madison County not connected to a municipal system, not just the older units. That way, no one would feel singled out, and all faulty septic systems would be spotted. \"It's made the process go slower,\" says Heather Bullock, the Land-of-Sky regional planner assisting the project, \"but it's made it better.\"\nNot all that much slower, either. By the end of September 1999, health department employees had surveyed 4,594 of an estimated 10,000 houses in Madison County. Where plumbing configurations weren't self-evident, the surveyors dropped dye tablets into sinks and toilets (different colors for each) to see if colored water emerged into a stream or septic tank area. The survey identified 945 noncompliant systems (20 percent of the total). Of these, 258 were straight-piping black water; 535, gray water. Another 116 had failing septic systems, and 36 had only outhouses. The incidence of problems closely tracked household income.\nA welcome surprise, says Kenneth D. Ring, health director of the Madison County Health Department, was how well the inspectors were received. \"The cooperation has been overwhelming,\" he says.\nAlthough most people with poor systems knew they had problems and wanted to correct them, some knew little or nothing about the design of their systems. For example, Ronnie Ledford, the chief building inspector and environmental health supervisor on the health department staff, recalls a visit with a man living in a mobile home. \"He thought he had a septic system,\" Ledford says. \"He had a 55-gallon drum. We found a 'black' pipe draining into a ditch line. He was very shocked. It took him some time to get his money together, but he took care of it himself.\"\nThe problem all along, however, had been that too few people had been able to get the money together to take care of things for themselves. All the agencies involved chipped in to the extent their guidelines permitted. A few septic systems were renovated with Community Development Block Grant funds, but that program's rules require that any unit being renovated in any way be brought up to code in all respects-prohibitively expensive for people in housing with other problems. The USDA provided Section 504 loans and grants for eligible elderly, low-income home owners. The largest pool of money came from the Clean Water Management Trust Fund, which awarded Madison County $750,000 for a revolving loan and grant fund, plus funds for administration.\nEven so, setting up a workable program wasn't easy. Many low-income area residents had poor credit ratings and little collateral with which to guarantee loans. If the program's loan requirements were too tight, applicants wouldn't qualify for loans, and pollutants would continue to drain into streams; too loose, and the loan fund itself would soon drain away.\nHelp with Funding\nThe Madison County Revolving Loan and Grant Program was established with these concerns in mind. The program includes both grants and loans, the ratios based on household income. In determining credit-worthiness, the program coordinator looks at whether difficulties were caused by circumstances beyond the family's control, such as a medical emergency. If a loan still looks too risky, the applicant is referred to an educational program run by the nonprofit Consumer Credit Counseling Service of Western North Carolina, in Asheville.\nWhen it appeared that Madison County might lack the legal flexibility for making the needed loans, the partners turned for help to the Center for Community Self-Help, a statewide nonprofit that offers loans as a community development tool. Self-Help agreed to make the loans from its funds, using the county's fund as its collateral. This somewhat complicated arrangement gives everyone involved some freedom to maneuver. The default rate is likely to be substantially higher than a bank could tolerate, but Self-Help makes sure applicants take the loan seriously.\n\"The goal is to clean up the water,\" explains Tom Barefoot, the USDA Rural Development manager for the area. \"We're trying to build on what it takes to get people in [the program], not on possible failure.\"\n\"This is a multi-year program,\" adds Marc Hunt, a loan officer with Self-Help's western North Carolina regional office. \"We say, ' Work on your credit and get back on the list in a few months.' We don't want to enable consumers to develop bad habits.\"\nContracts were let this fall for installing the first batch of new septic systems (not counting a handful of early projects). By the end of the year 2000, Madison County hopes to have replaced 130 straight-pipes.\nThe benefits will be both tangible and intangible. First of all, the streams of Madison County, some of which flow into a river providing drinking water for towns downstream, will be cleaner. That has important health and economic benefits for an area increasingly attractive to both outdoor recreationalists and people planning to build homes away from cities. Ironically, in some jurisdictions, worries about \"image\" have been a factor in unwillingness to deal more aggressively with straight-piping. \"Madison County recognized an opportunity,\" says Barefoot, \"and they had the courage to act. It's not always a politically safe decision.\" Marc Hunt agrees: \"Many rural counties have similar situations. Any one of them could have done it, but Madison County took the lead.\"\nGovernor Hunt also has praise for the county. \"I am proud of everyone involved in Madison County's work to find and fix straight-piping problems in a cooperative effort. This will only help our economic development, our public health, and our environment. But most of all, we're helping to make sure our children can grow up in a community with clean, safe water.\"\nThe various public and private partners involved hope that Madison County's experience will become a model for other counties. There have been expressions of interest from county officials inside and outside the Appalachian areas of the state.\n\"It's really incredible to me,\" says Jody Lovelace, a community development specialist with USDA Rural Development, \"how we've been able to pull this together. Everyone said, 'Let's not just clean up the water. Let's help these folks develop financial responsibility and financial pride.' \" For the individual households involved, there are direct benefits. Some will have a chance to build or improve a credit history. Most will benefit at least somewhat from improved property values. All, of course, will be glad to be rid of septic systems that back up or of the unpleasant and potentially dangerous discharge of wastewater of any kind near their homes. \"It's a health hazard,\" Elizabeth Thomas says.\nThe Thomases, who were defeated by waterlogged soil when they tried to replace their old system years earlier, this time received help from a neighbor. He agreed to let them install a septic tank on his vacant field, downhill and off to one side of their house.\n\"He's a good neighbor,\" William Thomas says.\nThat pretty much sums up what Madison County, Land-of-Sky, and their various partners have accomplished. The straight-pipe elimination project began with a blue-ribbon commission's straight talk about an old problem. It's grown into a program that gives everyone involved-from agency officials to rural people living in houses built by their grandparents many decades ago-a chance to prove that they can be good neighbors to each other.\nFred D. Baldwin is a freelance writer based in Carlisle, Pennsylvania.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fefff558-6fce-48fd-ba57-d053c7be5dc4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.arc.gov/magazine/articles.asp?ARTICLE_ID=94&F_ISSUE_ID=&F_CATEGORY_ID=16", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9697865843772888, "token_count": 2651, "score": 3.4375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Search for God Is Never a Search in the Dark\nAlthough it is a dangerous business to select a passage from a Shakespeare play and hold it up as a mouthpiece of the poet, there are nevertheless a few key passages that seem to express the bard's own thoughts on the creative process. In Act V, Scene I of A Midsummer Night's Dream, for example, Theseus, King of Athens, offers a mini-dissertation on the surprising similarities between lunatics, lovers, and poets. Of the poet's art in particular, he says: \"Such tricks hath strong imagination, / That, if it would but apprehend some joy, / It comprehends some bringer of that joy.\"\nDictionaries, even the Oxford English Dictionary, offer little help at understanding Shakespeare's distinction between apprehend and comprehend. If we read the lines, however, in the context of Theseus's full speech, the following distinction emerges: To apprehend is to perceive some force or feeling that transcends our ordinary human faculties. To comprehend, by contrast, is to create some rational or artistic framework for making sense of, and thus \"containing,\" the very force or feeling which seems to defy description. Thus, in the poet's case, an apprehended feeling of unbounded, free-floating joy is comprehended, through the device of poem-writing, into a single, concrete bringer of that joy.\nIn The Mystery of God: Theology for Knowing the Unknowable (Baker Academic), Steven Boyer and Christopher Hall seem to translate (unconsciously) Theseus's distinction into the realm of theology. Too often, they argue, theology attempts to put into concrete words and images an experience that is finally too large for us to take in\u2014and not just quantitatively (there is too much of God for us to grasp), but qualitatively as well (as Uncreated Creator, God is wholly other than his creatures and cannot be contained in logical categories). When we try to force the essence of the eternal, omnipresent Creator into our own structures of thought, we often find that we have not so much explained him as explained him away. At this juncture, one might expect Boyer and Hall either to treat theology as a branch of subjective poetry\u2014beautiful, perhaps even awe inspiring, but incapable of expressing universal truth\u2014or to give up on putting into words (comprehending) that glory, majesty, and holiness of God that we can only barely apprehend.\nThankfully, they resist both options, instead offering a different distinction that maintains both the otherness and mystery of God and our capacity, through theological exploration, to reliably know his nature. Too often, modern theologians, especially pluralists, think of God as an \"investigative mystery.\" If we are to understand him, we must amass scattered clues and then figure out how they might fit together. The Bible and traditional Christianity, in contrast, present God as a \"revelational mystery.\" God has revealed himself to us through the Law and Prophets, the Old and New Testament, and Christ himself. We haven't been left to search in the dark. Still, because the God who reveals himself is beyond our comprehension, the mystery remains and cannot be fully contained in doctrinal statements.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8fbe4641-1032-43fa-a4ff-04b3228c4b53>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2013/january-web-only/search-for-god-is-never-search-in-dark.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9599013924598694, "token_count": 669, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Last Updated on Wednesday, 13 June 2012 09:33 Posted by Clash Wednesday, 13 June 2012 08:45\nProfessor Ian Juby explains science/origins better than anyone I have seen. He has produced a 12-hour exhaustive look at the Creation/Evolution debate that can be watched in 30-minute segments on his website, Creation Week.\nThe video series features tons of props, exhibits, photographs, artifacts, and experiments that explain science and origins and the age of the earth in an extremely compelling manner. The segment on dinosaur tracks with human tracks is jaw-dropping!\nHe also has The traveling Creation Museum, Creation Exhibition, where you can see the scientific evidence and judge for yourself whether the evidence supports the Biblical account of Creation, or evolution. Showing scientific evidence from the dinosaurs, biology, geology, and fossils, as well as a model of Noah\u2019s ark and one of the largest collections on display in the world of fossil human and dinosaur footprints found together, and dinosaurs in ancient art. The footprints show that humans lived right alongside (and according to the evolutionary timescale, even before) the dinosaurs.\nYou can watch his videos here: Creation Week", "id": "<urn:uuid:21541c53-da5b-482a-9961-d6362c80de7d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.clashentertainment.com/word/42-the-word/6549-complete-creation", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9539316296577454, "token_count": 241, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Saturday, May 18, 2013\nFun in the Sun: Summer Safety Tips to Avoid Injuries\nSummertime outdoor activities can be fun, but it\u2019s important to follow good summer safety habits to avoid injuries.\nSwimming pools are a perfect way to cool off from the hot sun, but safety comes first when enjoying the water.\nAccording to National SAFE Kids , drowning is:\nKeep the following safety precautions in mind:\nAdult supervision is key. An adult should always be able to see and hear children who are swimming and be close enough to intervene in case of an emergency.\nThe pool environment is important. Separate home pools from the rest of the property to prevent children from walking directly into the pool area. If possible, use a fence or other barrier at least 4 feet high with openings no more than 4 inches apart and extend it completely around the pool.\nTeach children to swim. Parents should enroll children before the age of eight in swimming lessons with a certified instructor.\nOutdoor cooking is popular during the summer months. Unfortunately, grilling can be dangerous.\nAccording to the most recent statistics from the National Fire Protection Association, the improper use of grills causes:\nTo keep families and their homes out of harm\u2019s way, the Home Safety Council recommends the following safe grilling techniques:\nBe cautious of nearby tree branches or other items which could catch on fire.\nKnow how to use a fire extinguisher and keep one handy.\nKeep your grill at least 10 feet from a home or building.\nLeave a grill unattended, especially when small children and pets are present.\nAttempt to restart a charcoal flame by adding additional lighter fluid.\nKeep filled propane tanks in a hot car or truck.\nProlonged unprotected exposure to the sun\u2019s ultraviolet (UV) rays damages skin and eyes.\nAccording to the American Cancer Society:\nA majority of the more than 2 million cases of non-melanoma skin cancer diagnosed annually are sun related.\nAn estimated 68,130 new melanomas are diagnosed each year.\nTo lower the risk of skin cancer practice the following sun safety tips recommended by the American Cancer Society:\nAvoid intense sunlight for long periods of time\nSeek shade between 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. when the sun\u2019s rays are strongest.\nWear a shirt to guard against excessive sun exposure.\nApply sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 30 or higher.\nWear a hat to shade your face, ears and neck.\nWear sunglasses to protect your eyes and surrounding skin from UV ray damage.\nRelaxing in the pool, grilling outdoors and enjoying the sun are all great summer activities, but don\u2019t let summer fun turn dangerous \u2013 Practice good summer safety.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d95c59ae-3f06-4251-8bea-4995535e319e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.countryfinancial.com/nick.roesch/articles/keepingYourFamilySafe/summerSafety", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9042607545852661, "token_count": 577, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A huge study of millions of kids revealed for the first time the true measure of type 2 diabetes in children in the United States. The results appeared in the June 27, 2007 Journal of the American Medical Association. In the recent past, type 2 diabetes was called adult-onset diabetes because this obesity-related condition was a problem of the middle-aged and the elderly. It usually takes years of unhealthy eating to tip someone into this type of diabetes. It was rarely seen before age 30 or even 40. Sadly, today we do see type 2 diabetes in children.\nA family I saw yesterday had a 10-year-old who already had it. Pediatricians across the country are having similar experiences. But until this significant study none of us knew exactly how large the problem had become.\nStunningly, 22 percent of all diabetes diagnosed in US children was type 2. And in kids aged 10-19, type 2 diabetes was more common than the autoimmune type 1 (previously called juvenile diabetes) \u2013 even though type 1 has also been increasing over the last 2 decades around the world.\nThe consequences of overfed, undernourished, inactive lifestyles have reached from middle age into childhood. The message is clear: it\u2019s time to feed our kids healthy amounts of healthy foods and to ensure that they get a liberal dose of active play every day.\nThe Writing Group for the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study Group. \u201cIncidence of Diabetes in Youth in the United States.\u201d JAMA 2007, 297, pp. 2716-2724.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c8960477-a48c-4f93-b3e7-27b68bbb530b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.drgreene.com/adult-diabetes-kids/59/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9688429832458496, "token_count": 322, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "of lakes dot the marshy Arctic tundra regions. Now, in the latest addition to\nthe growing body of evidence that global warming is significantly affecting\nthe Arctic, two recent studies suggest that thawing permafrost is the cause\nof two seemingly contradictory observations both rapidly growing and\nrapidly shrinking lakes.\nThawing permafrost is altering the lakes that dominate Arctic landscapes, such as this one in western Siberia. Courtesy of Laurence C. Smith.\nThe first study is a historical analysis of changes to 10,000 Siberian lakes over the past 30 years, a period of warming air and soil temperatures. Using satellite images, Laurence Smith, a geographer at the University of California, Los Angeles, and colleagues found that, since the early 1970s, 125 Siberian lakes vanished completely, and those that remain averaged a 6 percent loss in surface area, a total of 930 square kilometers.\nThey report in the June 3 Science that the spatial pattern of lake disappearance suggests that the lakes drained away when the permafrost below them thawed, allowing the lake water to seep down into the groundwater. However, the team also found that lakes in northwestern Siberia actually grew by 12 percent, and 50 new lakes formed. Both of the rapid changes are due to warming, they say, and if the warming trend continues, the northern lakes will eventually shrink as well.\nThese two processes are similar, in that were witnessing permafrost degradation in both regions, says co-author Larry Hinzman, a hydrologist at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks, who in previous studies documented shrinking lakes in southern Alaska. In the warmer, southern areas, we get groundwater infiltration, but in the northern areas, where the permafrost is thicker and colder, its going to take much, much longer for that to occur. So instead of seeing lakes shrinking there, were seeing lakes growing.\nThat finding is consistent with the second study, which focused on a set of unusually oriented, rapidly growing lakes in northern Alaska, an area of continuous permafrost. Jon Pelletier, a geomorphologist at the University of Arizona in Tucson, reports in the June 30 Journal of Geophysical Research Earth Surface that the odd alignment of the lakes is caused not by wind direction but by permafrost melting faster at the downhill end of the lake, which has shallower banks.\nSince the 1950s, scientists have attributed the odd alignment of the egg-shaped lakes to winds blowing perpendicularly to the long axes of the lakes, which then set up currents that caused waves to break at the northwest and southeast ends, thus preferentially eroding them. The prevailing wind direction idea has been around so long that we dont even think about it, Smith says, but Jons [Pelletier] work is challenging that. Its a very interesting paper.\nWind-driven erosion occurs in the Great Lakes, but at rates of about a meter a year. The Alaskan oriented thaw lakes grow at rates of 5 meters or more per year. Pelletier says this rate difference suggests a different process is at work.\nAccording to the model, the direction and speed of growth depend on where and how quickly the permafrost thaws, which is determined by two factors: how the water table intersects the slope of the landscape and how fast the summer temperature increases. If the permafrost thaws abruptly, the shorter, downhill bank is more likely to thaw first. The soggy soil slumps into the water, and the perimeter of the lake is enlarged. Its not just the [global] warming trend, but also how quickly the warming takes place in the summertime, Pelletier says.\nHinzman says that the lakes are just one part of the Arctic water cycle, which has seen an increasing number of perturbations in recent years. The whole hydrologic cycle is changing and this is just one component of that.\nUnderstanding how the hydrologic cycle is changing is important, Hinzman says, because the amount of freshwater runoff into the Arctic Ocean impacts global ocean circulation and the amount of sea ice, thus affecting climate worldwide. If global warming continues to the point where permafrost goes away, there will be fewer lakes, Smith says. And a drier, less marshy Arctic could alter weather patterns and ecosystems, researchers say, affecting everything from the subsistence lifestyle of native people to the hazard of fire on the tundra.\nGeotimes contributing writer\nBack to top", "id": "<urn:uuid:5fdf99e1-ac10-4897-aae4-baeb9600a36e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.geotimes.org/sept05/NN_arcticlakes.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9459344744682312, "token_count": 921, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On this day in 1863, Union General Ulysses S. Grant breaks the siege of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in stunning fashion by routing the Confederates under General Braxton Bragg at Missionary Ridge.\nFor two months following the Battle of Chattanooga, the Confederates had kept the Union army bottled up inside a tight semicircle around Chattanooga. When Grant arrived in October, however, he immediately reversed the defensive posture of his army. After opening a supply line by driving the Confederates away from the Tennessee River in late October, Grant prepared for a major offensive in late November. It was launched on November 23 when he sent General George Thomas to probe the center of the Confederate line. This simple plan turned into a complete victory, and the Rebels retreated higher up Missionary Ridge. On November 24, the Yankees captured Lookout Mountain on the extreme right of the Union lines, and this set the stage for the Battle of Missionary Ridge.\nThe attack took place in three parts. On the Union left, General William T. Sherman attacked troops under Patrick Cleburne at Tunnel Hill, an extension of Missionary Ridge. In difficult fighting, Cleburne managed to hold the hill. On the other end of the Union lines, General Joseph Hooker was advancing slowly from Lookout Mountain, and his force had little impact on the battle. It was at the center that the Union achieved its greatest success. The soldiers on both sides received confusing orders. Some Union troops thought they were only supposed to take the rifle pits at the base of the ridge, while others understood that they were to advance to the top. Some of the Confederates heard that they were to hold the pits, while others thought they were to retreat to the top of Missionary Ridge. Furthermore, poor placement of Confederate trenches on the top of the ridge made it difficult to fire at the advancing Union troops without hitting their own men, who were retreating from the rifle pits. The result was that the attack on the Confederate center turned into a major Union victory. After the center collapsed, the Confederate troops retreated on November 26, and Bragg pulled his troops away from Chattanooga. He resigned shortly thereafter, having lost the confidence of his army.\nThe Confederates suffered some 6,600 men killed, wounded, and missing, and the Union lost around 5,800. Grant missed an opportunity to destroy the Confederate army when he chose not to pursue the retreating Rebels, but Chattanooga was secured. Sherman resumed the attack in the spring after Grant was promoted to general in chief of all Federal forces.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7b1a4a78-5b08-48b8-86b9-bcbde260344d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/-battle-of-missionary-ridge?catId=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9757612347602844, "token_count": 513, "score": 4.03125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "An excerpt from www.HouseOfNames.com archives copyright \u00a9 2000 - 2013\nWhere did the Italian Ciccaroni family come from? What is the Italian Ciccaroni family crest and coat of arms? When did the Ciccaroni family first arrive in the United States? Where did the various branches of the family go? What is the Ciccaroni family history?The surname Ciccaroni came from the personal name Cicco, which is found in southern Italy and the Venetian region as a popular and affectionate form of the name Francesco.\nIn comparison with other European surnames, Italian surnames have a surprising number of forms. They reflect the regional variations and the many dialects of the Italian language, each with its own distinctive features. For example, in Northern Italy the typical Italian surname suffix is \"i\", whereas in Southern Italy it is \"o\". Additionally, spelling changes frequently occurred because medieval scribes and church officials often spelled names as they sounded rather than according to any specific spelling rules. The spelling variations in the name Ciccaroni include Cicco, Cicchi, De Cicco, D'Accico, Daccico, Cicchello, Cicchelli, Cicchella, Ciccarello, Ciccarelli, Ciccarella, Ciccariello, Cicchetto, Cicchetti, Cicchitto, Cicchino, Cicchini, Ciccolo, Ciccolino, Ciccolini, Coccolone, Coccoloni, Ciccolella, Ciccotto, Ciccotti, Ciccotta, Cicconi, Ciccone, Ciccaglione, Ciccaglioni, Ciccalotti, Ciccarese, Ciccaresi, Ciccarino, Ciccarini, Ciccarone, Ciccaroni, Cichetti, Cicutto, Cicala, Cicconetti, Cicalotti, Ciceri, Cicero, Cicera, Cicinelli, Cicogna, Ciconi and many more.\nFirst found in Piedmont. Earliest records date back to the year 1112, when Pompeo Cicala was a valiant soldier in the city of Genoa.\nThis web page shows only a small excerpt of our Ciccaroni research. Another 262 words(19 lines of text) covering the years 1493, 1623, 1673, 1686, 1751, 1780, and 1804 are included under the topic Early Ciccaroni History in all our PDF Extended History products.\nAnother 162 words(12 lines of text) are included under the topic Early Ciccaroni Notables in all our PDF Extended History products.\nEarly North American records indicate many people bearing the name Ciccaroni were among those contributors: Liberato Diciocco, age 27, who arrived at New York on Dec. 20, 1882, aboard the \"Italia\"; Bernardo Cichero, who arrived in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1855.\nThe Ciccaroni Family Crest was acquired from the Houseofnames.com archives. The Ciccaroni Family Crest was drawn according to heraldic standards based on published blazons. We generally include the oldest published family crest once associated with each surname.\nThis page was last modified on 14 January 2011 at 09:59.\nhouseofnames.com is an internet property owned by Swyrich Corporation.", "id": "<urn:uuid:96354a77-2136-4431-8cbb-92e896f424aa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.houseofnames.com/ciccaroni-family-crest?a=54323-224", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9027652144432068, "token_count": 691, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "First-Hand:The Foundation of Digital Television: the origins of the 4:2:2 component digital standard\nContributed by Stanley Baron, IEEE Life Fellow \nBy the late 1970's, the application of digital technology in television production was widespread. A number of digital television products had become available for use in professional television production. These included graphics generators, recursive filters (noise reducers), time base correctors and synchronizers, standards converters, amongst others.\nHowever, each manufacturer had adopted a unique digital interface, and this meant that these digital devices when formed into a workable production system had to be interfaced at the analog level, thereby forfeiting many of the advantages of digital processing.\nMost broadcasters in Europe and Asia employed television systems based on 625/50 scanning (625 lines per picture, repeated 50 fields per second), with the PAL color encoding system used in much of Western Europe, Australia, and Asia, while France, the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China used variations of the SECAM color encoding system. There were differences in luminance bandwidth: 5.0 MHz for B/G PAL, 5.5 MHz for PAL in the UK and nominally 6 MHz for SECAM. There were also legacy monochrome systems, such as 405/50 scanning in the UK and the 819/50 system in France. The color television system that was dominate in the Americas, Japan, and South Korea was based on 525/60 scanning, 4.2 MHz luminance bandwidth, and the NTSC color standard.\nNTSC and PAL color coding are both linear processes. Therefore, analog signals in the NSTC format could be mixed and edited during studio processing, provided that color sub carrier phase relationships were maintained. The same was true for production facilities based on the PAL system. In analog NTSC and PAL studios it was normal to code video to composite form as early as possible in the signal chain so that each signal required only one wire for distribution rather than the three needed for RGB or YUV component signals. The poor stability of analog circuitry meant that matching separate channel RGB or YUV component signals was impractical except in very limited areas. SECAM employed frequency modulated coding of the color information, which did not allow any processing of composite signals, so the very robust SECAM composite signal was used only on videotape recorders and point to point links, with decoding to component signals for mixing and editing. Some SECAM broadcasters avoided the problem by operating their studios in PAL and recoding to SECAM for transmission.\nThe international community recognized that the world community would be best served if there could be an agreement on a single production or studio digital interface standard regardless of which color standard (525 line NTSC, 625 line PAL, or 625 line SECAM) was employed for transmission. The cost of implementation of digital technology was seen as directly connected to the production volume; the higher the volume, the lower the cost to the end user, in this case, the broadcasting community.\nWork on determining a suitable standard was organized by the Society of Motion Picture Engineers (SMPTE) on behalf of the 525/60 broadcasting community and the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) on behalf of the 625/50 broadcasting community.\nIn 1982, the international community reached agreement on a common 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard. This standard as documented in SMPTE 125, several EBU Recommendations, and ITU-R Recommendation 601 was the first international standard adopted for interfacing equipment directly in the digital domain avoiding the need to first restore the signal to an analog format.\nThe interface standard was designed so that the basic parameter values provided would work equally well in both 525 line/60 Hz and 625 line/50 Hz television production environments. The standard was developed in a remarkably short time, considering its pioneering scope, as the world wide television community recognized the urgent need for a solid basis for the development of an all digital television production system. A component-based (Y, R-Y, B-Y) system based on a luminance (Y) sampling frequency of 13.5 MHz was first proposed in February 1980; the world television community essentially agreed to proceed on a component based system in September 1980 at the IBC; a group of manufacturers supplied devices incorporating the proposed interface at a SMPTE sponsored test demonstration in San Francisco in February 1981; most parameter values were essentially agreed to by March 1981; and the ITU-R (then CCIR) Plenary Assembly adopted the standard in February 1982.\nWhat follows is an overview of this historic achievement, providing a history of the standard's origins, explaining how the standard came into being, why various parameter values were chosen, the process that led the world community to an agreement, and how the 4:2:2 standard led to today's digital high definition production standards and digital broadcasting standards.\nIt is understood that digital processing of any signal requires that the sample locations be clearly defined in time and space and, for television, processing is simplified if the samples are aligned so that they are line, field, and frame position repetitive yielding an orthogonal (rectangular grid) sampling pattern.\nWhile the NTSC system color sub carrier frequency (fsc) was an integer sub multiple of the horizontal line frequency (fH) [fsc = (m/n) x fH] lending itself to orthogonal sampling, the PAL system color sub carrier employed a field frequency off set and the SECAM color system employed frequency modulation of the color subcarrier, which made sampling the color information, contained within those systems a more difficult challenge. Further, since some European nations had adopted various forms of the PAL 625 line/50Hz composite color television standard as their broadcast standard and other European nations had adopted various forms of the SECAM 625 line/50Hz composite color television standard, the European community's search for a common digital interface standard implied that a system that was independent of the color coding technique used for transmission would be required.\nDevelopments within the European community\nIn September 1972, the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) formed Working Party C, chaired by Peter Rainger to investigate the subject of coding television systems. In 1977, based on the work of Working Party C, the EBU issued a document recommending that the European community consider a component television production standard, since a component signal could be encoded as either a PAL or SECAM composite signal just prior to transmission.\nAt a meeting in Montreux, Switzerland in the spring of 1979, the EBU reached agreement with production equipment manufacturers that the future of digital program production in Europe would be best served by component coding rather than composite coding, and the EBU established a research and development program among its members to determine appropriate parameter values. This launched an extensive program of work within the EBU on digital video coding for program production. The work was conducted within a handful of research laboratories across Europe and within a reorganized EBU committee structure including: Working Party V on New Systems and Services chaired by Peter Rainger; subgroup V1 chaired by Yves Guinet, which assumed the tasks originally assigned to Working Party C; and a specialist supporting committee V1 VID (Vision) chaired by Howard Jones. David Wood, representing the EBU Technical Center, served as the secretariat of all of the EBU committees concerned with digital video coding.\nIn 1979, EBU VI VID proposed a single three channel (Y, R-Y, B-Y) component standard. The system stipulated a 12.0 MHz luminance (Y) channel sampling frequency and provided for each of the color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y) to be sampled at 4.0 MHz. The relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted sometimes as (12:4:4) and sometimes as (3:1:1). The proposal, based on the results of subjective quality evaluations, suggested these values were adequate to transparently deliver 625/50i picture quality.\nThe EBU Technical Committee endorsed this conclusion at a meeting in April 1980, and instructed its technical groups: V, V1, and V1 VID to support this effort.\nSMPTE organized for the task at hand\nThree SMPTE committees were charged with addressing various aspects of world wide digital standards. The first group, organized in late 1974, was the Digital Study Group chaired by Charles Ginsburg. The Study Group was charged with investigating all issues concerning the application of digital technology to television. The second group was a Task Force on Component Digital Coding with Frank Davidoff as chairman. This Task Force, which began work in February 1980, was charged with developing a recommendation for a single worldwide digital interface standard. While membership in SMPTE committees is generally open to any interested and affected party, the membership of the Task Force had been limited to recognized experts in the field. The third group was the Working Group on Digital Video Standards. This Working Group was charged with documenting recommendations developed by the Study Group or the Task Force and generating appropriate standards, recommended practices, and engineering guidelines.\nIn March 1977, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) began development of a digital television interface standard. The work was assigned by SMPTE's Committee on New Technology chaired by Fred Remley to the Working Group on Digital Video Standards chaired by Dr. Robert Hopkins.\nBy 1979, the Working Group on Digital Video Standards was completing development of a digital interface standard for NTSC television production. Given the state of the art at the time and the desire to develop a standard based on the most efficient mechanism, the Working Group created a standard that allowed the NTSC television video signal to be sampled as a single composite color television signal. It was agreed after a long debate on the merits of three times sub carrier (3fsc) versus four times sub carrier (4fsc) sampling that the Composite Digital Television Standard would require the composite television signal with its luminance channel and color sub carrier to be sampled at four times the color sub carrier frequency (4fsc) or 14.31818... MHz.\nDuring the last quarter of 1979, agreement was reached on a set of parameter values, and the drafting of the Composite Digital Television Standard was considered completed. It defined a signal sampled at 4fsc with 8 bit samples. This standard seemed to resolve the problem of providing a direct digital interface for production facilities utilizing the NTSC standard.\nBy 1980, the Committee on New Technology was being chaired by Hopkins and the Working Group on Digital Video Standards was being chaired by Ken Davies.\nResponding to communications with the EBU and so as not to prejudice the efforts being made to reach agreement on a world wide component standard, in January 1980, Hopkins put the finished work on the NTSC Composite Digital Television Standard temporarily aside so that any minor modifications to the document that would serve to meet possible world wide applications could be incorporated before final approval. Since copies of the document were bound in red binders, the standard was referred to as the \"Red Book\".\nSeeking a Common Reference\nThe agenda of the January 1980 meeting of SMPTE's Digital Study Group included a discussion on a world wide digital television interface standard. At that meeting, the Study Group considered the report of the European community, and members of the EBU working parties had been invited to attend. Although I was not a member of the Study Group, I was also invited to attend the meeting.\nIt was recognized that while a three color representation of the television signal using Red, Blue, and Green (R, G, B) was the simplest three component representation, a more efficient component representation, but one that is more complex, is to provide a luminance or gray scale channel (Y) and two color difference signals (R-Y and B-Y). The R-Y and B-Y components take advantage of the characteristics of the human visual system which is less sensitive to high resolution information for color than for luminance. This allows for the use of a lower number of samples to represent the color difference signals without observable losses in the restored images. Color difference components (noted as I, Q or U, V or Dr, Db) were already in use in the NTSC, PAL, and SECAM systems to reduce the bandwidth required to support color information.\nMembers of the NTSC community present at the January 1980 Study Group meeting believed that the EBU V1 VID proposed 12.0 MHz, (3:1:1) set of parameters would not meet the needs for NTSC television post production particularly with respect to chroma keying, then becoming an important tool. In addition, it was argued that: (1) the sampling frequency was too low (too close to the Nyquist point) for use in a production environment where multiple generations of edits were required to accommodate special effects, chroma keying, etc., and (2) a 12.0 MHz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in NTSC (at 12.0 MHz, there would be 762.666... pixels per line).\nThe NTSC community offered for consideration a single three channel component standard based on (Y, R-Y, B-Y). This system stipulated a 4fsc (14.318 MHz) luminance sampling frequency equal to 910 x fH525, where fH525 is the NTSC horizontal line frequency. The proposal further provided for each of the color difference components to be sampled at 2fsc or 7.159 MHz. This relationship between the luminance and color difference signals was noted as (4:2:2). Adopting 4fsc as the luminance sampling frequency would facilitate trans coding of video recorded using the \u201csingle wire\u201d NTSC composite standard with studio mixers and editing equipment based on a component video standard.\nRepresentatives of the European television community present at the January 1980 Study Group meeting pointed to some potential difficulties with this proposal. The objections included: (1) that the sampling frequency was too high for use in practical digital recording at the time, and (2) a 14.318 MHz sampling system would not produce an orthogonal array of samples in a 625 line system (at 14.318 MHz, there would be 916.36... pixels per line).\nDuring the January 1980 Study Group meeting discussion, I asked why the parties involved had not considered a sampling frequency that was a multiple of the 4.5 MHz sound carrier, since the horizontal line frequencies of both the 525 line and 625 line systems had an integer relationship to 4.5 MHz.\nThe original definition of the NTSC color system established a relationship between the sound carrier frequency (fs) and the horizontal line frequency (fH525) as fH525 = fs/286 = 15734.265... Hz, had further defined the vertical field rate fV525 = (fH525 x 2)/525 = 59.94006 Hz, and defined the color sub carrier (fsc) = (fH525 x 455)/2 = 3.579545.... MHz. Therefore, all the frequency components of the NTSC system could be derived as integer sub multiples of the sound carrier. \nThe 625 line system defined the horizontal line frequency (fH625) = 15625 Hz and the vertical field rate fV625 = (fH625 x 2)/625 = 50 Hz. It was noted from the beginning that the relationship between fs and the horizontal line frequency (fH625) could be expressed as fH625 = fs/288. Therefore, any sampling frequency that was an integer multiple of 4.5 MHz (fs) would produce samples in either the 525 line or 625 line systems that were orthogonal.\nI was asked to submit a paper to the Study Group and the Task Force describing the relationship. The assignment was to cover two topics. The first topic was how the 625 line/50Hz community might arrive at a sampling frequency close to 14.318 MHz. The second topic was to explain the relationship between the horizontal frequencies of the 525 line and 625 line systems and 4.5 MHz.\nThis resulted in my authoring a series of papers written between February and April 1980 addressed to the SMPTE Task Force explaining why 13.5 MHz should be considered the choice for a common luminance sampling frequency. The series of papers was intended to serve as a tutorial with each of the papers expanding on the points previously raised. A few weeks after I submitted the first paper, I was invited to be a member of the SMPTE Task Force. During the next few months, I responded to questions about the proposal, and I was asked to draft a standards document.\nCrunching the numbers\nThe first paper I addressed to the Task Force was dated 11 February 1980. This paper pointed to the fact that since the horizontal line frequency of the 525 line system (fH525 had been defined as 4.5 MHz/286 (or 2.25 MHz/143), and the horizontal line frequency of the 625 line system (fH625) was equal to 4.5 MHz/288 (or 2.25 MHz/144), any sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4.5 MHz/2 could be synchronized to both systems.\nSince it would be desirable to sample color difference signals at less than the sampling rate of the luminance signal, then a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 2.25 MHz would be appropriate for use with the color difference components (R-Y, B-Y) while a sampling frequency that was a multiple of 4.5 MHz would be appropriate for use with the luminance component (Y).\nSince the European community had argued that the (Y) sampling frequency must be lower than 14.318 MHz and the NTSC countries had argued that the (Y) sampling frequency must be higher than 12.00 MHz, my paper and cover letter dated 11 February 1980 suggested consideration of 3 x 4.5 MHz or 13.5 MHz as the common luminance (Y) channel sampling frequency (858 times the 525 line horizontal line frequency rate and 864 times the 625 line rate both equal 13.5 MHz).\nMy series of papers suggested adoption of a component color system based on (Y, R-Y, B-Y) and a luminance/color sampling relationship of (4:2:2), with the color signals sampled at 6.75 MHz. In order for the system to facilitate standards conversion and picture manipulation (such as that used in electronic special effects and graphics generators), both the luminance and color difference samples should be orthogonal. The desire to be able to trans code between component and composite digital systems implied a number of samples per active line that was divisible by four.\nThe February 1980 note further suggested that the number of samples per active line period should be greater than 715.5 to accommodate all of the world wide community standards active line periods. While the number of pixels per active line equal to 720 samples per line was not suggested until my next note, (720 is the number found in Rec. 601 and SMPTE 125), 720 is the first value that \u201cworks.\u201d 716 is the first number greater than 715.5 that is divisible by 4 (716 = 4 x 179), but does not lend itself to standards conversion between 525 line component and composite color systems or provide sufficiently small pixel groupings to facilitate special effects or data compression algorithms. </p>\nAdditional arguments in support of 720 were provided in notes I generated prior to IBC'80 in September. Note that 720 equals 6! [6! (6 factorial) = 6x5x4x3x2x1] = 24 x 32 x 5. This allows for many small factors, important for finding an economical solution to conversion between the 525 line component and composite color standards and for image manipulation in special effects and analysis of blocks of pixels for data compression. The composite 525 line digital standard had provided for 768 samples per active line. 768 = 28 x 3. The relationship between 768 and 720 can be described as 768/720 = (28 x 3)/(24 x 32 x 5) = (24)/(3 x 5) = 16/15. A set of 16 samples in the NTSC composite standard could be used to calculate a set of 15 samples in the NTSC component standard.\nProof of Performance\nAt the September 1980 IBC conference, international consensus became focused on the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system. However, both the 12.0 MHz and 14.318 MHz systems retained some support for a variety of practical considerations. Discussions within the Working Group on Digital Video Standards indicated that consensus could not be achieved without the introduction of convincing evidence.\nSMPTE proposed to hold a \u201cComponent Coded Digital Video Demonstration\u201d in San Francisco in February 1981 organized by and under the direction of the Working Group on Digital Video Standards to evaluate component coded systems. A series of practical tests/demonstrations were organized to examine the merits of various proposals with respect to picture quality, production effects, recording capability and practical interfacing, and to establish an informed basis for decision making.\nThe EBU had scheduled a series of demonstrations in January 1981 for the same purpose. SMPTE invited the EBU to hold its February meeting of the Bureau of the EBU Technical Committee in San Francisco to be followed by a joint meeting to discuss the results of the tests. It was agreed that demonstrations would be conducted at three different sampling frequencies (near 12.0 MHz, 13.5 MHz, and 14.318 MHz) and at various levels of performance.\nFrom 2nd through the 6th of February 1981 (approximately, one year from the date of the original 13.5 MHz proposal), SMPTE conducted demonstrations at KPIX Television, Studio N facilities in San Francisco in which a number of companies participated. Each participating sponsor developed equipment with the digital interface built to the specifications provided. The demonstration was intended to provide proof of performance and to allow the international community to come to an agreement.\n'The demonstration organizing committee had to improvise many special interfaces and interconnections, as well as create a range of test objects, test signals, critical observation criteria, and a scoring and analysis system and methodology.\nThe demonstrations were supported with equipment and personnel by many of the companies that were pioneers in the development of digital television and included: ABC Television, Ampex Corporation, Barco, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, CBS Technology Center, Digital Video Systems, Dynair, Inc., KPIX Westinghouse Broadcasting, Leitch Video Ltd., Marconi Electronics, RCA Corporation and RCA Laboratories, Sony Corporation, Tektronix Inc., Thomson CSF, VG Electronics Ltd., and VGR Corporation. I participated in the demonstrations as a member of SMPTE's Working Group on Digital Video Standards, providing a Vidifont electronic graphics generator whose interface conformed to the new standard.\nDeveloping an agreement\nThe San Francisco demonstrations proved the viability of the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) proposal. At a meeting in January 1981, the EBU had considered a set of parameters based on a 13.0 MHz (4:2:2) system. Additional research conducted by EBU members had shown that a (4:2:2) arrangement was needed in order to cope with picture processing requirements, such as chroma key, and the EBU members believed a 13.0 MHz system appeared to be the most economic system that provided adequate picture processing. Members of the EBU and SMPTE committees met at a joint meeting chaired by Peter Rainger in March 1981 and agreed to propose the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) standard as the world wide standard. By autumn 1981, NHK in Japan led by Mr. Tadokoro, had performed its own independent evaluations and concurred that the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) standard offered the optimum solution.\nA number of points were generally agreed upon and formed the basis of a new world wide standard. They included:\n- The existing colorimetry of EBU (for PAL and SECAM) and of NTSC would be retained for 625 line and 525 line signals respectively, as matrixing to a common colorimetry was considered overly burdensome;\n- An 8 bit per sample representation would be defined initially, being within the state of the art, but a 10 bit per sample representation would also be specified since it was required for many production applications;\n- The range of the signal to be included should include head room (above white level) and foot room (below black level) to allow for production overshoots;\n- The line length to be sampled should be somewhat wider than those of the analog systems (NTSC, PAL, and SECAM) under consideration to faithfully preserve picture edges and to avoid picture cropping;\n- A bit parallel, sample multiplexed interface (e.g. transmitting R-Y, Y, B-Y, Y, R-Y, ...) was practical, but in the long term, a fully bit and word serial system would be desirable;\n- The gross data rate should be recordable within the capacity of digital tape recorders then in the development stages by Ampex, Bosch, RCA, and Sony.\nThe standard, as documented, provided for each digital sample to consist of at least 8 bits, with 10 allowed. The values for the black and white levels were defined, as was the range of the color signal. (R-Y) and (B-Y) became CR [=0.713 (R-Y)] and CB [=0.564 (B-Y)]. While the original note dated February 1980 addressed to the Task Force proposed a code of 252(base10) =(1111 1100) for \u2018white\u2019 at 100 IRE and a code of 72 (base10) =(0100 1000) for \u2018black\u2019 at 0 IRE to allow capture of the sync levels, agreement was reached to better utilize the range of codes to capture the grey scale values with more precision and provide more overhead. \u2018White\u2019 was to be represented by an eight bit code of 240(base10) =(1111 0000) and \u2018black\u2019 was to be represented by an eight bit code 16 (base10) =(0001 0000). The original codes for defining the beginning and the end of picture lines and picture area were discussed, modified, and agreed upon, as well as synchronizing coding for line, field, and frame, each coding sequence being unique and not occurring in the video signal.SMPTE and EBU organized an effort over the next few months to familiarize the remainder of the world wide television community with the advantages offered by the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system and the reasoning behind its set of parameters. Members of the SMPTE Task Force traveled to Europe and to the Far East. Members of the EBU committees traveled to the, then, Eastern European block nations and to the members of the OTI, the organization of the South American broadcasters. The objective of these tours was to build a consensus prior to the upcoming discussion at the ITU in the autumn of 1981. The success of this effort could serve as a model to be followed in developing future agreements.\nI was asked to draft a SMPTE standard document that listed the parameter values for a 13.5 MHz system for consideration by the SMPTE Working Group. Since copies of the document were bound in a green binder prior to final acceptance by SMPTE, the standard was referred to as the \u201cGreen Book\u201d.\nIn April 1981, the draft of the standard titled \u201cCoding Parameters for a Digital Video Interface between Studio Equipment for 525 line, 60 field Operation\u201d was distributed to a wider audience for comment. This updated draft reflected the status of the standard after the tests in San Francisco and agreements reached at the joint EBU/SMPTE meeting in March 1981. The EBU community later requested a subtle change to the value of \u2018white\u2019 in the luminance channel, and it assumed the value of 235(base10). This change was approved in August 1981.\nAfter review and some modification as noted above to accommodate European concerns, the \u201cGreen Book\u201d was adopted as SMPTE Standard 125.\nITU/R Recommendation 601\nThe European Broadcasting Union (EBU) generated an EBU Standard containing a companion set of parameter values. The SMPTE 125 and EBU documents were then submitted to the International Telecommunications Union (ITU). The ITU, a treaty organization within the United Nations, is responsible for international agreements on communications. The ITU Radio Communications Bureau (ITU-R/CCIR) is concerned with wireless communications, including allocation and use of the radio frequency spectrum. The ITU also provides technical standards, which are called \u201cRecommendations.\u201d\nWithin the ITU, the development of the Recommendation defining the parameter values of the 13.5 MHz (4:2:2) system fell under the responsibility of ITU-R Study Group 11 on Television. The chair of Study Group 11, Prof. Mark I. Krivocheev, assigned the drafting of the document to a special committee established for that purpose and chaired by David Wood of the EBU. The document describing the digital parameters contained in the 13.5 MHz, (4:2:2) system was approved for adoption as document 11/1027 at ITU-R/CCIR meetings in Geneva in September and October 1981. A revised version, document 11/1027 Rev.1, dated 17 February 1982, and titled \u201cDraft Rec. AA/11 (Mod F): Encoding parameters of digital television for studios\u201d was adopted by the ITU-R/CCIR Plenary Assembly in February 1982. It described the digital interface standard for transfer of video information between equipment designed for use in either 525 line or 625 line conventional color television facilities. Upon approval by the Plenary Assembly, document 11/1027 Rev.1 became CCIR Recommendation 601.\nThe Foundation for HDTV and Digital Television Broadcasting Services\nThe 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard allowed for a scale of economy and reliability that was unprecedented by providing a standard that enabled the design and manufacture of equipment that could operate in both 525 line/60Hz and 625 line/50Hz production environments. The 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard permitted equipment supplied by different manufacturers to exchange video and embedded audio and data streams and/or to record and playback those streams directly in the digital domain without having to be restored to an analog signal. This meant that the number of different processes and/or generations of recordings could be increased without the noticeable degradation of the information experienced with equipment based on analog technology. A few years after the adoption of the 4:2:2 Component Digital Television Standard, all digital production facilities were shown to be practical.\nA few years later when the ITU defined \u201cHDTV,\u201d the Recommendation stipulated: \u201cthe horizontal resolution for HDTV as being twice that of conventional television systems\u201d described in Rec. 601and a picture aspect ratio of 16:9. A 16:9 aspect ratio picture requires one-third more pixels per active line than a 4:3 aspect ratio picture. Rec. 601 provided 720 samples per active line for the luminance channel and 360 samples for each of the color difference signals. Starting with 720, doubling the resolution to 1440, and adjusting the count for a 16:9 aspect ratio leads to the 1920 samples per active line defined as the basis for HDTV. Accommodating the Hollywood and computer communities' request for \u201csquare pixels\u201d meant that the number of lines should be 1920 x (9/16) = 1080.\nProgressive scan systems at 1280 pixels per line and 720 lines per frame are also a member of the \u201c720 pixel\u201d family. 720 pixels x 4/3 (resolution improvement) x 4/3 (16:9 aspect ratio adjustment) = 1280. Accommodating the Hollywood and computer communities' request for square pixels meant that the number of lines should be 1280 x (9/16) = 720.\nThe original 720 pixel per active line structure became the basis of a family of structures (the 720 pixel family) that was adopted for MPEG based systems including both conventional television and HDTV systems. Therefore, most digital television systems, including digital video tape systems and DVD recordings are derived from the format described in the original 4:2:2 standard.\nThe existence of a common digital component standard for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz environments as documented in SMPTE 125 and ITU Recommendation 601 provided a path for television production facilities to migrate to the digital domain. The appearance of high quality, fully digital production facilities providing digital video, audio, and metadata streams and the successful development of digital compression and modulation schemes allowed for the introduction of digital television broadcast services.\nIn its 1982-1983 award cycle, the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences recognized the 4:2:2 Component Digital Standard based on 13.5 MHz (Y) sampling with 720 samples per line with three EMMY awards:\nThe European Broadcasting Union (EBU) was recognized: \u201cFor achieving a European agreement on a component digital video studio specification based on demonstrated quality studies and their willingness to subsequently compromise on a world wide standard.\u201d\nThe International Telecommunications Union (ITU) was recognized: \u201cFor providing the international forum to achieve a compromise of national committee positions on a digital video standard and to achieve agreement within the 1978-1982 period.\u201d\nThe Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers (SMPTE) was recognized: \u201cFor their early recognition of the need for a digital video standard, their acceptance of the EBU proposed component requirement, and for the development of the hierarchy and line lock 13.5 MHz demonstrated specification, which provided the basis for a world standard.\u201d\nThis narrative is intended to acknowledge the early work on digital component coded television carried out over several years by hundreds of individuals, organizations, and administrations throughout the world. It is not possible in a limited space to list all of the individuals or organizations involved, but by casting a spotlight on the results of their work since the 1960's and its significance, the intent is to honor them - all.\nIndividuals interested in the specific details of digital television standards and picture formats (i.e. 1080p, 720p, etc.) should inquire at www.smpte.org. SMPTE is the technical standards development organization (SDO) for motion picture film and television production.\n- \u2191 This article builds on a prior article by Stanley Baron and David Wood; simultaneously published in the SMPTE Motion Imaging Journal, September 2005, pp. 327 334 as \u201cThe Foundations of Digital Television: the origins of the 4:2:2 DTV standard\" and in the EBU Technical Review, October 2005, as \"Rec. 601 the origins of the 4:2:2 DTV standard.\u201d\n- \u2191 Guinet, Yves; \u201cEvolution of the EBU's position in respect of the digital coding of television\u201d, EBU Review Technical, June 1981, pp.111 117.\n- \u2191 Davies, Kenneth; \u201cSMPTE Demonstrations of Component Coded Digital Video, San Francisco, 1981\u201d, SMPTE Journal, October 1981, pp.923 925.\n- \u2191 Fink, Donald; \u201cTelevision Engineering Handbook\u201d, McGraw Hill [New York, 1957], p.7 4.\n- \u2191 Baron, S.; \u201cSampling Frequency Compatibility\u201d, SMPTE Digital Study Group, January 1980, revised and submitted to the SMPTE Task Force on Digital Video Standards, 11 February 1980. Later published in SMPTE Handbook, \u201c4:2:2 Digital Video: Background and Implementation\u201d, SMPTE, 1989, ISBN 0 940690 16, pp.20 23.\n- \u2191 Weiss, Merrill &amp;amp;amp; Marconi, Ron; \u201cPutting Together the SMPTE Demonstrations of Component Coded Digital Video, San Francisco, 1981\u201d, SMPTE Journal, October 1981, pp.926 938.\n- \u2191 Davidoff, Frank; \u201cDigital Television Coding Standards\u201d, IEE Proceedings, 129, Pt.A., No.7, September 1982, pp.403 412.\n- \u2191 Nasse, D., Grimaldi, J.L., and Cayet, A; \u201cAn Experimental All Digital Television Center\u201d, SMPTE Journal, January 1986, pp. 13 19.\n- \u2191 ITU Report 801, \u201cThe Present State of High Definition Television\u201d, Part 3, \u201cGeneral Considerations of HDTV Systems\u201d, Section 4.3, \u201cHorizontal Sampling\u201d.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9a916a8d-2c90-4824-b961-0b5932af2602>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php?title=First-Hand:The_Foundation_of_Digital_Television:_the_origins_of_the_4:2:2_component_digital_standard&redirect=no", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.944654643535614, "token_count": 7615, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "J.S. Bach was born in Eisenach, Germany, in 1685 and died in 1750. He came from a long family history of professional musicians including church organists and composers. Like his father, Johann Ambrosius Bach, J.S. (Johann Sebastian) would learn and surpass him in this art of classical music composing.\nBach's childhood wasn't that great as his father passed away when he was 9 and his mother also died when he was a young boy. Although he spent much time with his musically inclined uncles, he also spent time studying and learning from his older brother, Johann Christoph Bach.\nGrowing up, Bach learned much about organ building. Back in those days, the church organ was a highly complex instrument with many mechanical and moving parts/pedals and pipes. His early experience with repairing and talking with organ builders & performers would prove valuable as he mastered the musical craft.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fb14bcdf-7ddb-4fc4-8f3f-d9cdd0bc6d21>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mdt.co.uk/composers/b/bach-johann-sebastian.html?composer=5316&label=2187", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.995450496673584, "token_count": 191, "score": 3.265625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "I\u2019m struggling a bit to teach my children to pack for themselves. I want them to learn how to be self-reliant, but I also want to make sure they have everything they need for the day. If I don\u2019t triple check every detail, they\u2019re likely to be fully prepared for snack time but missing important papers or sports equipment. What\u2019s the right thing to do?\nYour desire to raise self-reliant children is fantastic. But there\u2019s no doubt that passing the baton can be tough. The first question has to be: how old are your children? A good general rule of thumb is, if they\u2019re old enough to read, they\u2019re old enough to pack their own bags. Assuming your little ones are old enough, the most effective thing to do is give them some time frame to take complete responsibility for getting themselves ready, ask questions to help prompt them if you think they aren\u2019t paying attention to something crucial, and most importantly, when things aren\u2019t crucial (e.g. do they have the right uniform packed), letting them fail. Nothing teaches quite like experience. As you let go of the reigns a bit, here are some more ideas to guide you.\n\u2022 Planning Starts the Night Before. Mornings are not the right time to teach your children how to pack themselves. You\u2019re rushed, and they\u2019re often bleary-eyed and grumpy. The ideal time to sit down with them, explain what you are trying to accomplish, and get them to start preparing for the next day is after homework but before TV time. That way you have time to ask them questions and offer un-stressed help in the initial stages. This is a process that will take time and spending time in the evenings helping them learn how to become responsible for themselves is time well spent.\n\u2022 Explain as You Go. You need to develop a checklist with them and then go through the items. Don\u2019t criticize or watch over the task being done. Accept that the task will not be done exactly the way you would do it but recognize that as long as it is accomplished and done on time, that it is okay. In the beginning, be prepared to patiently ask and answer a lot of questions! Why do emergency numbers need to be in the backpacks? Because you might need to call someone. Why does lunch have to be prepared? So that mom knows they are eating healthy and, besides, too much sugar will make them feel bad, Why do you keep asking about permission slips or projects that need to go with them? Because it\u2019s important they do not miss out on something the rest of the class is doing. This is just a primer but you get the idea.\n\u2022 Provide Feedback. Once the task has been completed, give constructive feedback to the person. As a guideline, tell your son or daughter five great things about the job for every one criticism. If after some time you notice they are consistently sloppy or forgetful, be patient but firm and make sure there are consequences for actions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c2dcc337-4538-4bf9-8838-d2005b03e76d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mommytracked.com/node/4457/print", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9641870856285095, "token_count": 638, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Newegg.com - A great place to buy computers, computer parts, electronics, software, accessories, and DVDs online. With great prices, fast shipping, and top-rated customer service - once you know, you Newegg.\nIf you are reading this message, Please click this link to reload this page.(Do not use your browser's \"Refresh\" button). Please email us if you're running the latest version of your browser and you still see this message.\nTable of contents\nBluetooth is an industrial specification for wireless data transfer. Bluetooth connectivity is often found in high-end keyboards and mice. Bluetooth generally provide an operating range of up to 30 feet and is less prone to interference in comparison to RF technology.\nDPI and FPS\nDPI (dots per inch) and FPS (frames per second) are the number of counts in an inch of movement and the number of times the sensor reads the surface in a second respectively. These figures are measures of the amount of information recorded by the mouse's sensor. The greater the amount of information that is gathered, the more accurately and precisely the surface can be tracked. To detect movement, optical and laser mice use sensors to read beams of light as they are reflected from the tracking surface.\nCurrently 400 and 800 DPI optical mice as well as 800 DPI laser mice are very popular, but some high-end models are capable of 1000, 1600 or even 2000 DPI tracking speeds.\nThe Personal System/2 or PS/2 was the designation for IBM's second generation of personal computers. The PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports were introduced with it. PS/2 ports connect the keyboard and mouse to a computer and are usually color-coded on today's systems - purple for keyboards and green for mice. Most desktop motherboards still provide PS/2 ports, but an increasing number of keyboards and mice are using USB ports.\nRadio Frequency (RF) is a wireless communication technology. Using RF technology allows keyboards and mice to computers without annoying cables.\nThe USB (Universal Serial Bus) port is a popular I/O interface used for connecting computers and peripherals or other devices. It is capable of supporting up to 127 daisy-chained peripheral devices simultaneously. The latest USB 2.0 specification can deliver 480Mbps data transfer bandwidth. In addition, USB provides plug-and-play capabilities to allow device changes while the computer is powered on. Today, many keyboard and mice use the USB interface.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cc2f6ff5-32a8-4803-8794-bd3c0c07dc53>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newegg.com/Product/CategoryIntelligenceArticle.aspx?articleId=94", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9250891208648682, "token_count": 503, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "During the next two weeks, you can help build a map of global light pollution, assisting scientists and astronomers as they monitor the loss of virgin night skies. You just have to look at the stars and write down what you see \u2014 or, more likely, what you don\u2019t see.\nImagine if every time you needed to officially identify yourself you had to be sedated and knocked out cold. This might sound only slightly less stressful than checking through security at the airport, but for animals being tracked by wildlife authorities and researchers it\u2019s a regularity that is not only stressful, but potentially harmful.\nFive amazing, clean technologies that will set us free, in this month's energy-focused issue. Also: how to build a better bomb detector, the robotic toys that are raising your children, a human catapult, the world's smallest arcade, and much more.", "id": "<urn:uuid:500e5554-819d-4c21-8fac-36b69903181e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.popsci.com/category/tags/sea-turtles", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9531861543655396, "token_count": 177, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Henri MatisseFrench (Le Cateau-Cambr\u00e9sis, France, 1869 - 1954, Nice, France)\nAlong with Pablo Picasso, Henri Matisse was one of the pillars of the Parisian avant-garde, whose formal innovations in painting would dominate much of modern art. Matisse initially worked in law, but discovered a passion for art when he began painting as an amateur. He went on to study traditional academic painting. In the early years of the twentieth century, however, he rejected the idea that painting had to imitate the appearance of nature. His characteristic innovations were the use of vibrant, arbitrary colors; bold, autonomous brushstrokes; and a flattening of spatial depth. This anti-naturalistic style inspired the critical name \"fauves,\" or \"wild beasts,\" for the group of painters around Matisse.\nIronically, Matisse often applied his thoroughly modern style to traditional subjects such as still lifes, landscapes, and portraits. Such works express a sense of timeless joy and stillness that runs counter to the frenetic, technologically inspired compositions of many of his contemporaries. Although primarily dedicated to painting, Matisse was also active as a sculptor and printmaker. In the 1940s, in failing health, he embarked on a well-known group of cut-paper collages.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7e985f30-8f6b-4310-945c-71148b9fc48c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sfmoma.org/explore/collection/artists/463?artwork=78", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9722177386283875, "token_count": 271, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "It has been six years since the U.S. has had to worry about mad cow disease. With the recent confirmed case of the disease in a California bovine, the public is worried about food safety. Is there reason for concern?\nIs our food safe?\nSince 2006, the U.S. has had no positive tests for mad cow disease or bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). This new case, found in California\u2019s Central Valley, marks only the fourth occurrence ever in the U.S., out of 40,000 tests each year. The infected cow, however, never entered the human food chain, meaning that there is no risk to beef and/or dairy products, nor is there a risk for other countries who import U.S. beef.\nRead about Oprah\u2019s connection to mad cow disease >>\n\"The beef and dairy in the American food supply is safe...\"\nNo risk to humans\nIn an effort to quell the rising public concern, the USDA has issued a statement regarding the recent case of mad cow disease. In part, Tom Vilsack, U.S. Agriculture Secretary, said, \"The beef and dairy in the American food supply is safe and USDA remains confident in the health of U.S. cattle\u2026 USDA has no reason to believe that any other U.S. animals are currently affected, but we will remain vigilant and committed to the safeguards in place.\"\nRead more about selecting organic foods >>\nTo further ease our minds, John Clifford, the U.S. Department of Agriculture\u2019s chief veterinarian, said that this particular cow died of an atypical form of mad cow disease which was caused by a random mutation and not from contaminated feed, meaning that it was a chance occurrence.\nLearn more about the benefits of grass-fed beef >>\nThere was a time when mad cow disease was rampant, but in recent years, the numbers have dropped drastically. In 2011, only 29 cases were reported worldwide, compared to over 37,000 cases in 1992. Cattle ranchers are actually touting this recent discovery as proof that the system is working as it should.\nStill in the mood for beef? Cook the perfect tenderloin >>\nMore food news", "id": "<urn:uuid:77e0bb58-34c7-4d4e-8c06-17b1eb8cf9a1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sheknows.com/food-and-recipes/articles/958435/mad-cow-disease-confirmed-in-california", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.966171145439148, "token_count": 461, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Alice Walker usually puts herself into characters that she writes about in her stories. However, you don't understand this unless you know about her. Staring with this let us find out about who she is and where she came from. When recounting the life of Alice Walker, you find out that she was born to sharecroppers in Eatonton, Georgia in 1944 and was the baby of eight children. She lost one of her eyes when her brother shot her with a BB gun by accident. She was valedictorian of her class in high school and with that and receiving a scholarship; she went to Spelman, a college for black women, in Atlanta. She then transferred to Sarah Lawrence College in New York and during her time there went Africa as an exchange student. She received her Bachelor of Arts degree from Sarah Lawrence in 1965. She was active in the Civil Rights Movement of the 60's and as of the 90's she is still an involved activist. She started her own publishing company in 1984, Wild Tree Press. She is an acclaimed writer and has even received a Pulitzer Prize for the movie, The Color Purple. What is it about her that makes her works so meaningful and persuasive? What provoked her to write what she has?\nOne of her works, a short story called Everyday Use, is a story that she herself can be pictured in. During the opening of this story you find a woman with her two daughters. She and one of her daughters, Maggie, have just cleaned and beautified the yard of their new house. It is very comforting sitting under the Elm tree that is present and blocks the wind from going through the house. It is a place that you feel enveloped in comfort and love. Maggie and Dee, the other daughter are very different, and it is very apparent that mother, is not your everyday' woman. She, the mother, is \"a larger woman that can kill and clean a hog as mercilessly as a man' (American Lit, p. 2470). She has no problems doing what needs to be done in order to feed and protect her... [continues]\nCite This Essay\n(2005, 05). Instilled Heritage. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 05, 2005, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/Instilled-Heritage-57580.html\n\"Instilled Heritage\" StudyMode.com. 05 2005. 05 2005 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/Instilled-Heritage-57580.html>.\n\"Instilled Heritage.\" StudyMode.com. 05, 2005. Accessed 05, 2005. http://www.studymode.com/essays/Instilled-Heritage-57580.html.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3beea9b8-71d8-4bf0-a666-dce0d6d92656>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.studymode.com/essays/Instilled-Heritage-57580.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9750932455062866, "token_count": 564, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "July 16, 2010\n\"Having HIV appears to be associated with a greater risk of death, even when the immune system is relatively robust and patients have not started treatment,\" according to a study published Friday in the Lancet, MedPage Today reports (Smith, 7/15).\nThough the WHO recommends patients begin receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) when their CD4 levels -- a measure of immune system response -- dip below 350, \"[t]he researchers said their findings point to the need for continuing studies to examine the risks and benefits of starting antiretroviral therapy, or ART, for patients with high CD4 cell counts,\" HealthDay News reports.\n\"For this study, researchers examined data from 40,830 HIV patients, aged 20 to 59, in Europe and North America, who had at least one CD4 count greater than 350 cells per microliter while not taking ART. The patients were divided into four risk groups: men who have sex with men, heterosexuals, injection drug users, and those with other or unknown risk factors,\" the news service writes.\n\"The relatively low rate for men who have sex with men suggests that unmeasured confounders -- such as lifestyle and socioeconomic factors -- might play a role in the high rates for the other groups, the researchers said,\" MedPage Today continues (7/15).\nHowever, when compared to patients with CD4 counts between 350 and 499, the death rate was 23 percent lower in patients with counts of 500-699 and 34 percent lower with patients with counts at or above 700, according to the Lancet study. \"Because ART might reduce the risk of death in such patients, these findings support the need for continuing studies (such as the START trial and further exploration of existing observational databases) of the risks and benefits of starting ART at CD4 counts greater than 350 cells per ?L,\" the authors conclude (Study Group on Death Rates at High CD4 Count in Antiretroviral Naive Patients, 7/16).\nHowever, the study authors \"cautioned that the findings may not apply outside Europe and North America, where all of the patients were under care. ? They also noted that all of the patients were diagnosed early in the course of the disease, and their attitudes to healthcare might differ from those diagnosed later,\" MedPage Today adds (7/15).\nTop Issues at AIDS 2010; Fauci on HIV Vaccine, Prevention; Funding Global HIV/AIDS Programs; HIV in The Middle East, North Africa\nIRIN/PlusNews examines some of the \"issues likely to top the list\" during the International AIDS Conference-AIDS 2010, which kicks off July 18 in Vienna, Austria, including universal access to treatment, recent scientific developments in the area of HIV/AIDS research and the topic of treatment as prevention (7/15).\nThe Kaiser Family Foundation will provide webcasts of select sessions from AIDS 2010 starting with the Opening Session LIVE at 19:30 CEST/17:30 GMT/1:30 p.m. ET on Sunday, July 18.\nAgence France-Presse features a conversation with Anthony Fauci, head of the National Institute for Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), who speaks of recent advances that scientists hope will bring them closer to the development of an HIV vaccine.\nIn the article, Fauci reflects on the results of the Thai HIV vaccine trial, which found an investigational HIV vaccine provided slight protection against HIV, and the recent discovery of three antibodies that protect against HIV in one individual. Fauci noted that while the two studies \"have left scientists feeling 'much more confident that ultimately we will have a vaccine' against HIV/AIDS, although it was still impossible to say exactly when that would be,\" AFP writes.\nFauci also spoke of the importance of a continued emphasis on HIV prevention programs, including such things as male circumcision and syringe exchange programs. \"Ways have to be found, too, to improve access to these preventive measures, especially in developing countries where only 20 percent of \"populations who would benefit\" actually have access to them, he added,\" the news service writes (Santini, 7/15).\nIn other news, Medecins Sans Frontieres (MSF) on Thursday said international donors need to maintain their commitments for global HIV/AIDS programs ahead of AIDS 2010, during which they pointed to their recent report that estimated the potential consequences of \"'delayed, deferred, or denied'\" global HIV/AIDS funding on patient populations worldwide, Reuters reports.\n\"The report suggested that far from cutting back on treatment projects in high-risk developing regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, donors should recognise that investing now in earlier treatment for more patients would pay off later,\" the news service writes (Kelland, 7/15).\n\"MSF's study showed that early and sustained treatment of HIV patients had born fruit in several regions, including Malawi's Thyolo district where the overall death rate dropped by a stunning 37 percent between 2000 and 2007, thanks to universal access to ARVs,\" AFP reports. \"Where patients get treatment, 'there is an overall reduction of mortality in the community, there is also less tuberculosis and we start to see, where there is a high coverage of ARV, also a reduction in the number of new cases (of HIV/AIDS),' said [Mit] Philips,\" who authored the MSF report (7/15).\n\"In light of the financial crisis, donors may be tempted to walk away from their commitments to provide universal access to AIDS treatment,\" the report said, according to Reuters. \"But these policies are short-sighted and fail to take into account long-term payoffs, including savings in economic terms, as well as increased quality of life and quality outcomes,\" Reuters continues.\nThe report also said the U.S. is \"'flatlining' funding for AIDS treatment,'\" the news service adds (Kelland, 7/15).\nIn related HIV/AIDS coverage, the National reports on the U.N. Development Program and UNAIDS' decision to form a commission to examine \"whether legal structures criminalise certain types of high-risk behaviour and drive the disease underground\" and what that might mean for the Middle East.\n\"Last month's U.N. conference in Dubai found many countries in the Middle East and North Africa fall 'well short' of providing universal treatment, with sufferers often subject to ill-treatment, social stigma and discrimination,\" the newspaper writes (Reinl, 7/15).\nMeanwhile, the Economist looks at the travel restrictions people living with HIV/AIDS face throughout the world, including the Middle East. \"In the past year, both China and America have lifted 20-odd-year bans stopping individuals with HIV from entering, but 51 countries still restrict movement in some form (be it entry to the country or a stay therein) based on a person's HIV status,\" the magazine writes. The magazine features a graphic demonstrating the countries that apply \"the severest restrictions to HIV sufferers, including the denial of entry visas and even deportation\" (7/15).\nNo comments have been made.", "id": "<urn:uuid:177916f2-eefc-47b7-997e-df4281bd188c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thebodypro.com/content/art57464.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9591716527938843, "token_count": 1468, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Being referred for radiation treatment is an unfamiliar experience to most cancer patients. On these pages, we will explain radiation oncology to you and answer questions that most often exist for our patients. And we will also explain why you should feel remarkably confident in coming to URMC, the region\u2019s leader in radiation oncology.\nWhat is Radiation Oncology?\nRadiation oncology is one of the three major cancer specialties in oncologic medicine. It uses energy from radiation beams, radio isotopes, or charged particles to target tumors and to eradicate cancer cells.\nRadiation beams are usually generated in treatment machines, such as linear accelerators or high-energy CT scanners. Another type of radiation treatment uses radioisotopes, or radioactive materials. These are utilized in radiation implants and radioisotope-labeled molecules in the treatment of various cancers.\nIn addition to getting rid of cancer, radiation treatment is highly effective in reducing symptoms such as cancer-related pain. Radiation has also been used in the treatment of many benign (non-cancerous) conditions in both adults and children.\nWhat Makes URMC Different?\nAt the James P. Wilmot Cancer Center, the Department of Radiation Oncology is an essential part of multidisciplinary care. In other words, a team of experts from surgery, medical oncology, radiation oncology, and many other disciplines will come together to evaluate and manage your cancer treatment. This is a unique approach to care and is considered the ideal model of cancer care.\nThe Department of Radiation Oncology provides state-of-the-art treatment technology to increase the curability of cancer while reducing side effects. Our comprehensive cancer care team includes physician radiation oncologists, radiation physicists, radiation therapists, dosimetrists, nurses, social workers, and nutritionists.\nWhat Should I Expect as a Patient?\nYour treatment will involve a team of healthcare providers from the Department of Radiation Oncology. Typically, a radiation oncologist will direct the radiation treatment process and plans. Your team will also include a secretary, a nurse, a nurse practitioner, a resident physician in training, radiation therapists who operate the treatment machines, and a radiation dosimetrist or physicist specializing in radiation treatment physical plans.\nThe department also offers assistance from social workers and nutritionists. Support groups for cancer patients are also available. These include disease-specific groups, age-specific groups, and many others.\nA typical radiation treatment process begins with an initial consultation with your radiation oncologist. The treatment recommendation, indication, rationale, benefits, side effects, and potential risks will be explained to you. This is followed by a radiation simulation session, which takes approximately one hour. This simulation process ensures the accuracy of your treatment plan.\nYour actual treatment will begin 7-14 days later. However, patients with cancer-related emergencies can begin their treatments sooner. Daily treatment visits may take 15 -30 minutes and generally last 1 to 8 weeks, depending on the diagnosis and the treatment plan. The stereotactic brain radiosurgery is generally completed in one session. The stereotactic body radiosurgery is generally completed in less than 10 sessions.\nYour radiation oncologist, therapists, and the team nurse will be there for you every step of the way. They will help you assess treatment-related side effects, your progress, and tolerance.\nWhat Technology do you Offer?\nWe offer state-of-the-art equipment for external beam radiation at all four of our treatment sites: Strong Memorial Hospital (SMH), Highland Hospital (HH), Cancer Center at Park Ridge (PR), and Sands Cancer Center.\n- CT simulators (SMH, PR)\n- Megavoltage CT (SMH)\n- Cone-beam CT units (SMH)\n- Linear accelerators with IMRT and IGRT capabilities (SMH, HH, PR, Sands)\n- Novalis Radiosurgery (SMH)\n- TomoTherapy (SMH)\n- Brachytherapy (SMH, HH, PR)\n- Prostate seed implants (SMH, HH, PR)\n- GYN implants for gynecologic cancer (HH)\n- Nucletron High Dose Rate Brachytherapy (HH)\n- Liver radiation using Theraspheres (SMH)\n- I-131 treatment for thyroid cancer (HH, PR)\n- Radioactive mesh tumor bed boost for lung cancer (SMH)\n- Total Body Irradiation (SMH)\n- Accelerated partial breast radiotherapy using MammoSite or external beam (SMH, HH, PR, Sands)\nHow can I Learn More About my Disease or Condition?\nYour cancer treatment team in the Department of Radiation Oncology will be your very best resource for learning more.\nA radiation oncologist will evaluate your treatment process during your treatment course at a one-on-one session with you at least once a week. The nurse, nurse practitioner, physician's assistant, and resident physician on your team will also be valuable resources regarding education about your disease or condition.\nIn addition, the Wilmot Cancer Center has a patient and family resource center for those seeking additional information about specific cancers as well as information concerning radiation therapy. The center is located on the 1st floor of the Cancer Center.\nIf you are a patient and you need to speak to us right away, please call our Clinic Coordinator at (585) 275-4958.\nMake an Appointment\nIf you would like to make an appointment or consult our physicians for a second opinion, please contact us at one of the following locations:\n- Wilmot Cancer Center\n- Highland Hospital\n- Cancer Center at Park Ridge\n- Sands Cancer Center", "id": "<urn:uuid:9ffa6721-0668-47e5-82ac-2b0016662f9d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/radiation-oncology/patient-care/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9204728007316589, "token_count": 1189, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A new study in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute shows death rates from cancer steadily declined from 1994 to 1998. But the rates have since leveled off.\nLung cancer still remains the number one cancer killer in America. The American Cancer Society estimates that eight out of 10 lung cancer deaths are due to smoking.\nData from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention shows Kentucky not only leads the way in percentage of smokers in the population, but also has the highest lung cancer death rates in the country.\nThe state health department says it will spend $4.8 million on tobacco control programs this year--an amount that still falls far short of the $25 million recommended by the CDC for the state. This puts Kentucky in 40th place overall for tobacco control spending.\nHealth officials say they are doing the best they can with the funds available for tobacco control programs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:939ea2bc-7a49-40ca-aa55-45b2b851707c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wbko.com/home/headlines/452382.html?site=full", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9437100291252136, "token_count": 175, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Molymod\u00ae biochemistry set for students can be used to make any number of simple organic molecules but in particular the set is designed to allow the user to make many important biological molecules including amino acids, peptides, polysaccharides, purines, pyrimidines, glycerides, and phospholipids. The set includes some hydrogen atoms with two holes allowing the depiction of hydrogen bonding. Atom parts are made of attractive solid plastic spheres. In this set they are available with from 1 - 4 holes in the usual angular orientations.\nContents of the Molymod\u00ae biochemistry molecular model set (for students)\nThe contents are contained within a sturdy plastic storage box (235 x 170 x 35 mm) and includes a brief instruction leaflet.\nThe Molymod\u00ae system is the original, unique, dual-scale system of high quality low-cost molecular models. These enormously popular sets are ideal for students but are also used by scientists all over the world.\nImportant notice: Molymod\u00ae atomic and molecular model products are scientific educational and visualization aids, and consequently are not suitable for children less than 10 years old.\nDelivery and shipping |\nTerms and conditions |\nAbout us |", "id": "<urn:uuid:11f74b69-9019-48fc-9f07-436354929bfc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.webelements.com/shop/product.php/15/molymod_biochemistry_set_for_students/75d7cc45fcc8ec52dc3275581dbf8614", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696382584/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092622-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.910614013671875, "token_count": 250, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How does the law treat Mountaintop Removal? Laws at the state and federal level regulate mountaintop removal coal mining and its environmental impacts, require varying levels of public participation, and apply varying amounts of scrutiny in the permitting process. This section will explore the governmental institutions that exert influence over mountaintop removal coal mining, the laws that regulate it, and potential changes in the law. There is great dispute as to whether or not regulations and their enforcement sufficiently safe-guard the health, safety, and well-being of communities living near mountaintop removal sites and the surrounding environment, so both law as written and law as applied will be explored in this section.\nNational Environmental Protection Act\nThe National Environmental Protection Act was passed in 1970 in order to monitor the environmental impact of federal agency actions and decisions. The act created a Council on Environmental Policy, required environmental impact statements and a process to solicit public input to include environmental concerns in federal agency decision making.\nIn the case of mountaintop removal and valley fill permitting, coal companies prepare and submit an Environmental Impact Statements\n(EIS) for each permit. In theory, these statements assess the potential impact of mining on the environment. The Army Corps of Engineers is empowered to issue Finding of no Significant Impact (FONSI) documents which supersede any concerns that may be present in the EIS by explaining why the Corps has concluded that there are no significant\nenvironmental impacts resulting from the granting of a permit. In the past, this power has been used to streamline the permitting process, despite the obvious impacts of mountaintop removal mining.\nInstances exist where permits were granted despite inadequate EIS statements, and then challenged in court. For example, as part of a settlement agreement from the Bragg vs Robertson (Civ. No. 2:98-0636 (S.D. W.V.)\nthe EPA, the Corps, the U.S. Interior Department's Fish & Wildlife Service and Office of Surface Mining, and the West Virginia Department of Environmental Protection (DEP), prepared an environmental impact statement (final EIS\n) looking at the impacts of mountaintop mining and valley fills\nMore information is available in the Citizen's Guide to NEPA.\nClean Water Act\nCongress passed the Clean Water Act (CWA) in 1972 with the intention of resolving the crisis of America's polluted waterways and wetlands. The CWA combines regulatory and non-regulatory tools in attempting to rid current water systems of pollutants, while attempting to stem the development of new polluted waterways and wetlands. In order to safeguard against the dumping of waste and pollutants into waterways, the Act forbids all dumping (except for specific agricultural uses) that is not approved by the Army Corps of Engineers.\nSurface mines are required to obtain a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit, which is regulated under the CWA. In West Virginia, the DEP has primacy of enforcement of the NPDES permits with EPA acting as the federal oversight body. These permits cover all pollutants discharged off the site and into the waters of the United States, restricting effluent limits and requiring the site operator to explain in the mining plan how it will meet those limits and treat what's running off the site, among other requirements.\nValley Fill, or 404, Permits\nIf a mining plan calls for valley fills, a 404 permit must be obtained, which is an exemption to Subsection 404 of the CWA which allows the Corps to issue variances to fill in an intermittent or perennial stream. EPA follows the United States Geological Survey's definitions for streams: an intermittent stream holds water during wet portions of the year and a perennial stream holds water throughout the year.\nThe Corps does not have authority over water quality, that's the jurisdiction of the EPA who oversees this permit. However, since anything that interferes with the flow of the water of the United States is regulated by the Corps, the Corps administers valley fills. This is the only part of surface mine permitting where the state does not have primacy of enforcement.\n\"The thing that's ironic here is that the fill rule was originally developed for developers seeking to build, and this was intended for very small projects, primarily for filling in wetlands for building things like subdivisions and shopping malls,\" Sludge Safety Project staffer Mathew Louis-Rosenberg said. \"So, the division that handles these permits is the Division of Wetlands. Within that, the standards that are developed, that are currently used to determine the environmental impact of a fill, were developed for wetland ecosystems.\n\"We can't allow them to continue to keep issuing permits. Look at what they're using to evaluate them. It's an ecosystem that bears no resemblance to what we're evaluating.\" The people who authored the guidelines testified to Joe Lovett, a West Virginia lawyer who's only tried cases aimed at ending mountaintop removal, that the methodology they developed was not appropriate for this ecosystem. \"The people who literally wrote the book they use to decide whether they should issue a permit, said it's inappropriate,\" Louis-Rosenberg said.\nThere's two types of valley fill permits: individual and Nationwide 21. Large sites are supposed to obtain an individual permit, which carries a more stringent set of regulations requiring more data and proof that the project will not have an adverse impact on the environment. However, Nationwide 21 allows the Corps to issue a blanket permit for small things and, unlike the individual permits, does not require a public hearing.\nCoal companies saw the value in nationwide permits, and would often break up large valley fills into smaller pieces in their permit applications in order to avoid the regulatory oversight of an\nListen to Ernie Thompson, resident of Horse Creek and former mine inspector, talk about the changes in law regarding valley fills.\nindividual permit. In this way, many valley fills were created when a nationwide permit was granted and residents did not notice until dumping began. Beginning with a court victory for advocates against mountaintop removal in 2007, Nationwide 21 permits were declared in violation of the Clean Water Act. This ruling remained in effect until the Fourth Circuit Court overturned it in early 2009.\nSurface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA)\nOn February 16th, 1972, a coal slurry impoundment ruptured in Buffalo Creek, W.Va. The rushing tidal wave of sludge killed over 120 people and left many thousands homeless, yet several days before the rupture a federal inspector had found the dam site in \"satisfactory\" safety. The dangers of strip mining had long been of concern to coalfield residents.\nThe increased mechanization of strip mining that left many union mining jobs and the encroaching growth of strip mines combined to spark a powerful grassroots movement to abolish strip mining. The tragedy of the Buffalo Creek Flood stoked these flames and five years later, in response to the growing political pressure from Southern Democrats and coalfield residents, Jimmy Carter signed the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act in 1977.\nIt did not abolish strip mining, instead stating that its primary goal was to \"establish a nationwide program to protect society and the environment from the adverse effects of surface coal mining operations.\" To do so, it created the Office of Surface Mining in the Department of the Interior and the regulations for them to enforce. The surface mines constructed before SMCRA are often referred to as \"pre-law,\" while those after are called \"post-law.\"\nThe SMCRA permit is the whole mining plan, top to bottom, including the blasting plan. The DEP administers SMCRA permits but, unlike the NPDES permits, the Interior Department's Office of Surface Mining and Reclamation maintains oversight. The DEP's Office of Explosives and Blasting also approves the blasting plan within the SMCRA permit. A typical Environmental Impact Statement is also required here, \"but they usually don't get filled out,\" Louis-Rosenberg said.\nSMCRA requires that \"all surface coal mining operations back-fill, compact... and grade in order to restore the approximate original contour of the land with all high-walls, spoil piles and depressions eliminated.\" However, the WVDEP regularly grants exceptions to the Approximate Original Contour (AOC) rule. This despite one of the act's goals: to \"assure that surface mining operations are not conducted where reclamation as required by this Act is not feasible.\"\nSince 1977, the following language was added to SMCRA, weakening this goal:\nIn cases where an industrial, commercial, agricultural, residential or public facility (including recreational facilities) use is proposed or the postmining use of the affected land, the regulatory authority may grant a permit for a surface mining operation of the nature described....after consultation with the appropriate land use planning agencies, if any, the proposed post mining land use is deemed to constitute an equal or better economic use of the affected land as compared to pre mining use.\nThis clause allows coal companies to not restore a site's AOC, as long as it is put to a better economic or social use than it was before. Under this clause, prisons and a golf course have been constructed on mountaintop removal sites. One such prison has earned the name Sink-Sink because it does just that. The mountains, and the ecosystems they support, have an intrinsic cultural value to the residents of the Coal River Valley that cannot be measured in monetary terms, and yet under SMCRA the economic value of the land supersedes all others.\nMining Safety and Health Administration Permit\nThe federal Mining Safety and Health Administration oversees the regulatory structure of the mines. All mines have to pass muster on the safety of operating the mine and this is all detailed in the MSHA plan the coal companies must file. Part of MSHA's responsibility is approval and inspection of coal slurry\ndams. MSHA focuses on the safety aspect of the structures, not their environmental impacts.", "id": "<urn:uuid:af4c7880-f258-4680-af24-2539b741bf42>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://auroralights.org/map_project/theme.php?theme=mtr&article=20", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9527400732040405, "token_count": 2040, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "BIOL Subject Gateway\nAs an integrated part of SciVerse, SciVerse Scopus is the world's largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature and quality web sources with smart tools to track, analyze, and visualize research.\nScienceDirect covers many scientific disciplines including biology, chemistry, and environmental science.\nPubMed includes over 15 million citations for biomedical articles back to the 1950's. These citations are from MEDLINE and additional life science journals. PubMed includes links to many sites providing full text articles, medical and scientific textbooks and other related sources. PubMed also links to other services developed by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI).\nBioMed Central publishes over 200 peer-reviewed open access journals.\nIndexes journals in a variety of subjects, including biology, chemistry, and environmental science. Many full-text articles are available.\nAGRICOLA (AGRICultural OnLine Access) serves as the catalog and index to the collections of the National Agricultural Library. The records describe publications and resources encompassing all aspects of agriculture and allied disciplines, including animal and veterinary sciences, entomology, plant sciences, forestry, aquaculture and fisheries, farming and farming systems, agricultural economics, extension and education, food and human nutrition, and earth and environmental sciences.\nProvides fulltext access to core scholarly journals in the Arts and Sciences\nThis collection of electronic books covers topics related to environmental science, including environmental chemistry, ecology, environmental toxicology, forestry, sustainability, and more.\nGREENR (Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources) is a database that offers content on the development of emerging green technologies and discusses issues on the environment, sustainability and more.\nReference QH540.4 .E515 2008\nThis is a free, fully searchable collection of articles written by scholars, professionals, educators, and other experts. The articles are written in non-technical language and will be useful to students, educators, scholars, professionals, as well as to the general public.\nReference QH360.2.O83 2002\nReference QR9.E53 2000\nReference QL7.G7813 2003\nReference QR358 .E53 1999\nThis two volume encyclopedia describes the most famous scientific concepts, principles, laws, and theories in astronomy, biology, chemistry, geology, mathematics, medicine, meteorology, and physics.\nThis encyclopedia considers both the professional ethics of science and technology, and the social, ethical, and political issues raised by science and technology.\nThis encyclopedia covers a wealth of topics on the ethics of health professions, animal research, population control and the environment.", "id": "<urn:uuid:06b66e52-989e-4a8b-8494-792b3b8069b3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cooklibrary.towson.edu/gateways/page.cfm?dept=BIOL&class=0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8882460594177246, "token_count": 539, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When spraying pesticides, don't let others get your drift.\n\"It is bad enough when your drift damages your crops, your lawn or your garden. But when the damage is to your neighbor's field or flowerbeds, then you've got a real problem,\" says Erdal Ozkan, an Ohio State University Extension agricultural engineer.\nSpray drift is one of the more serious problems pesticide applicators have to deal with. Three-fourths of the agriculture-related complaints investigated by the Ohio Department of Agriculture in 2003 involved drift.\n\"This shows the seriousness of the problem,\" Ozkan says. \"Drift will be even a bigger problem in the future since there is an increase in acreage of genetically modified crops and use of non-selective herbicides for weed control. Even a small amount of these non-selective herbicides can cause serious damage on the crop nearby that is not genetically modified.\"\nDrift is the movement of a pesticide through air, during or after application, to a site other than the intended site of application. It not only wastes expensive pesticides and damages non-target crops nearby, but also poses a serious health risk to people living in areas where drift is occurring.\n\"Eliminating drift completely is impossible,\" Ozkan says. \"However, it can be reduced to a minimum if chemicals are applied with good judgment and proper selection and operation of application equipment.\"\nMajor factors influencing drift include spray characteristics, equipment/application techniques, weather conditions and operator skill and care.\n\"Conscientious sprayer operators rarely get into drift problems. They understand the factors that influence drift and do everything possible to avoid them,\" Ozkan said.\nSpraying under excessive wind conditions is the most common factor affecting drift. \"The best thing to do is not to spray under windy conditions. If you don't already have one, get yourself a reliable wind speed meter as soon as possible. Only then can you find out how high the wind speed is,\" Ozkan says.\nAfter wind speed, spray droplet size is the most important factor affecting drift. Research has shown that there is a rapid decrease in the drift potential of droplets whose diameters are greater than approximately 200 microns \u2013 or about twice the thickness of human hair.\n\"If operators of sprayers pay attention to wind direction and velocity, and have knowledge of droplet sizes produced by different nozzles, drift can be minimized,\" Ozkan says. \"The ideal situation is to spray droplets that are all the same size, and larger than 200 microns. Unfortunately with the nozzles we use today, this is not on option. They produce droplets varying from just a few microns to more than 1,000 microns. The goal is to choose and operate nozzles that produce relatively fewer of the drift-prone droplets.\"\nUsing low-drift nozzles is one of the many options available to growers to reduce drift.\nFollowing are other drift-reduction strategies to keep drift under control:\n- Use nozzles that produce coarser droplets when applying pesticides on targets that do not require small, uniformly distributed droplets, such as systemic products, preplant soil incorporated applications and fertilizer applications.\n- Keep spray volume up and use nozzles with larger orifices.\n- Follow recent changes in equipment and technology, such as shields and air-assisted and electrostatic sprayers that are developed for drift reduction in mind.\n- Keep the boom closer to the spray target. Nozzles with a wider spray angle will allow you to do that.\n- Keep spray pressure down and make sure pressure gauges are accurate.\n- Follow label recommendations to avoid drift with highly volatile pesticides.\n- If you are not using low-drift nozzles, try adding Drift Retardant Adjuvants into your spray mixture.\n- Avoid spraying on extremely hot, dry and windy days, especially if sensitive vegetation is nearby. Try spraying during mornings and late afternoons. Although it may not be practical, from the drift reduction perspective, the best time to spray is at night.\n- Avoid spraying near sensitive crops that are downwind. Leave a buffer strip of 50-100 feet, and spray the strip later when the wind shifts.\n\"Good judgment can mean the difference between an efficient, economical application, or one that results in drift, damaging non-target crops and creating environmental pollution,\" Ozkan says. \"The goal of a conscientious pesticide applicator should be to eliminate off-target movement of pesticides, no matter how small it may be.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:2baa416a-e6aa-4bde-bda2-7e39a26129d2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cornandsoybeandigest.com/pesticide-spray-drift-isnt-good-last-droplet", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9391314387321472, "token_count": 938, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "concept. The basic idea is that the human mind\ncan keep track of about seven\nat once, or can differentiate between seven or so\ndifferent (but similar) things.\nThe phrase comes from the title of a 1956 paper by Harvard professor George\nA. Miller titled, The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our Capacity for Processing Information, which begins:\nMy problem is that I have been persecuted by an integer. For seven years this number has followed me around, has intruded in my most private data, and has assaulted me from the pages of our most public journals. This number assumes a variety of disguises, being sometimes a little larger and sometimes a little smaller than usual, but never changing so much as to be unrecognizable. The persistence with which this number plagues me is far more than a random accident. There is, to quote a famous senator, a design behind it, some pattern governing its appearances. Either there really is something unusual about the number or else I am suffering from delusions of persecution.\nMiller goes on to present data from a number of\nexperiments which support the idea\n(by arriving at the number seven). Topics of the\nexperiments he reviewed included, \"span of immediate\nmemory\", \"capacity for absolute judgements of the position of a dot\non a square\", and (my favorite) \"capacity for absolute judgements of saltiness", "id": "<urn:uuid:5bad0a5b-bfeb-494a-9f8a-d58ba4c75253>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://everything2.com/title/seven%252C+plus+or+minus+two", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.937669575214386, "token_count": 289, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tuesday, December 4, 2012\nToday in History - Tuesday, Dec. 4, 2012\nToday is Tuesday, Dec. 4, the 339th day of 2012. There are 27 days left in the year.\nToday's Highlight in History:\nOn Dec. 4, 1619, a group of settlers from Bristol, England, arrived at Berkeley Hundred in present-day Charles City County, Va., where they held a service thanking God for their safe arrival. (Some suggest this was the true first Thanksgiving in America, ahead of the Pilgrims' arrival in Massachusetts.)\nOn this date:\nIn 1619, settlers from Bristol, England, arrived at Berkeley Hundred in present-day Charles City County, Va.\nIn 1783, Gen. George Washington bade farewell to his Continental Army officers at Fraunces Tavern in New York.\nIn 1816, James Monroe of Virginia was elected the fifth president of the United States.\nIn 1912, Medal of Honor recipient Gregory \"Pappy\" Boyington, the Marine Corps pilot who led the \"Black Sheep Squadron\" during World War II, was born in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho.\nIn 1918, President Woodrow Wilson left Washington on a trip to France to attend the Versailles (vehr-SY') Peace Conference.\nIn 1942, U.S. bombers struck the Italian mainland for the first time in World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the dismantling of the Works Progress Administration, which had been created to provide jobs during the Depression.\nIn 1965, the United States launched Gemini 7 with Air Force Lt. Col. Frank Borman and Navy Cmdr. James A. Lovell aboard.\nIn 1978, San Francisco got its first female mayor as City Supervisor Dianne Feinstein (FYN'-styn) was named to replace the assassinated George Moscone (mahs-KOH'-nee).\nIn 1984, a five-day hijack drama began as four armed men seized a Kuwaiti airliner en route to Pakistan and forced it to land in Tehran, where the hijackers killed American passenger Charles Hegna.\nIn 1991, Associated Press correspondent Terry Anderson, the longest held of the Western hostages in Lebanon, was released after nearly seven years in captivity. Pan American World Airways ceased operations.\nIn 1992, President George H.W. Bush ordered American troops to lead a mercy mission to Somalia, threatening military action against warlords and gangs who were blocking food for starving millions.\nIn 1996, the Mars Pathfinder lifted off from Cape Canaveral and began speeding toward Mars on a 310 million-mile odyssey. (It arrived on Mars in July 1997.)\nTen years ago: United Airlines lost its bid for $1.8 billion in federal loan guarantees, a major setback to the nation's second-largest air carrier in its efforts to avoid bankruptcy. Supreme Court justices heard arguments on whether federal laws intended to combat organized crime and corruption could be used against anti-abortion demonstrators. (The Court later ruled that such laws were improperly used to punish abortion opponents.)\nFive years ago: Defending his credibility, President George W. Bush said Iran was dangerous and needed to be squeezed by international pressure despite a U.S. intelligence finding that Tehran had halted its nuclear weapons program four years earlier. The intelligence report on Iran figured in a Democratic debate on National Public Radio as rivals assailed front-runner Hillary Rodham Clinton for voting in favor of a Senate resolution designating Iran's Revolutionary Guard a terrorist organization. Pimp C (Chad Butler), a rapper with the Texas hip-hop group Underground Kingz, was found dead in a hotel room in Los Angeles; he was 33.\nOne year ago: Prime Minister Vladimir Putin's party hung onto its majority in Russia's parliamentary election, but faced accusations from opponents of rigging the vote. Rafael Nadal recovered from a terrible start and beat Juan Martin del Potro of Argentina 1-6, 6-4, 6-1, 7-6 (0) to give Spain its fifth Davis Cup title. After going more than two years and 26 tournaments without a victory, Tiger Woods won the Chevron World Challenge. Former Hewlett-Packard chairwoman Patricia Dunn, 58, died in Orinda, Calif.\nToday's Birthdays: Actress-singer Deanna Durbin is 91. Game show host Wink Martindale is 79. Pop singer Freddy Cannon is 76. Actor-producer Max Baer Jr. is 75. Actress Gemma Jones is 70. Rock musician Bob Mosley (Moby Grape) is 70. Singer-musician Chris Hillman is 68. Musician Terry Woods (The Pogues) is 65. Rock singer Southside Johnny Lyon is 64. Actor Jeff Bridges is 63. Rock musician Gary Rossington (Lynyrd Skynyrd; the Rossington Collins Band) is 61. Actress Patricia Wettig is 61. Actor Tony Todd is 58. Jazz singer Cassandra Wilson is 57. Country musician Brian Prout (Diamond Rio) is 57. Rock musician Bob Griffin (The BoDeans) is 53. Rock singer Vinnie Dombroski (Sponge) is 50. Actress Marisa Tomei is 48. Actress Chelsea Noble is 48. Actor-comedian Fred Armisen is 46. Rapper Jay-Z is 43. Actor Kevin Sussman is 42. Actress-model Tyra Banks is 39. Country singer Lila McCann is 31. Actress Lindsay Felton is 28. Actor Orlando Brown is 25.\nThought for Today: \"Many are called but few get up.\" \u2014 Oliver Herford, American author (1863-1935).", "id": "<urn:uuid:77e91f28-b327-4347-ae3d-f2934bf24075>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://fosters.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20121204/NEWS17/121129470/-1/CITNEWS0803", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9390736222267151, "token_count": 1152, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Department of Energy\n- Land is essential for all types of economic activity - every business has a footprint.\n- At the height of the 2006 real estate boom, land in the US is estimated to have been worth more than $17 trillion.\n- Research presented by @AEI\u2019s Stephen Oliner suggests that land is indeed a high-risk investment.\nLand is essential for all types of economic activity. Every business \u2014 whether it\u2019s General Motors or the corner grocery store \u2014 has a footprint. The same is true for the homes and apartments in which people live.\nLand also constitutes a major part of wealth. At the height of the real estate boom in 2006, land in the United States (excluding farmland and land held by the government) is estimated to have been worth more than $17 trillion. This figure represents about 40 percent of the value of commercial real estate and housing in the United States.1 Of course, much of that wealth dissolved over the next few years as real estate markets crashed. The new research presented in this Letter documents the huge swing in land value over the recent cycle, showing that land is indeed a high-risk investment.\nRead the full text of the letter here.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5eced0c3-44a6-4e08-a4ef-0b5c98f45549>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://karin.agness@aei.org/article/economics/the-great-land-price-swing/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9552818536758423, "token_count": 247, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "At a Glance\nWhy Get Tested?\nTo determine lithium levels in the blood in order to maintain a therapeutic level or to detect lithium toxicity\nWhen to Get Tested?\nWhen beginning treatment with lithium as the dose is adjusted to achieve therapeutic blood levels; at regular intervals to monitor lithium levels; as needed to detect low or toxic concentrations\nA blood sample drawn from a vein in your arm\nTest Preparation Needed?\nThe Test Sample\nWhat is being tested?\nThis test measures the amount of lithium in the blood. Lithium is one of the most well-established and widely-used drugs prescribed in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder is a mental condition that is characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania. These periods may be as short as a few days or weeks or may be months or years long. During a depressive episode, those affected may feel sad, hopeless, worthless, and lose interest in daily activities. They may be fatigued but have trouble sleeping, experience weight loss or gain, have difficulty concentrating, and have thoughts of suicide. During a manic episode, those affected may be euphoric, irritable, have high energy and grandiose ideas, use poor judgment, and participate in risky behaviors. Sometimes affected people will have mixed episodes with aspects of both mania and depression. Bipolar disorder can affect both adults and children.\nLithium is prescribed to even out the moods of a person with bipolar disorder; it is often called a \"mood stabilizer\" and is sometimes prescribed for people with depression who are not responding well to other medications. It is a relatively slow-acting drug and it may take several weeks to months for lithium to affect a person's mood. Dosages of the drug are adjusted until a steady concentration in the blood that is within therapeutic range is reached. The actual amount of drug that it will take to reach this steady state will vary from person to person and may be affected by a person's age, general state of health, and other medications that they are taking.\nLithium levels are monitored on a regular basis because blood levels must be maintained within a narrow therapeutic range. Too little and the medication will not be effective; too much and symptoms associated with lithium toxicity may develop, such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, confusion, and tremors. Extremely high levels can lead to stupor, seizures, and can be fatal.\nHow is the sample collected for testing?\nA blood sample is obtained by inserting a needle into a vein in the arm.\nNOTE: If undergoing medical tests makes you or someone you care for anxious, embarrassed, or even difficult to manage, you might consider reading one or more of the following articles: Coping with Test Pain, Discomfort, and Anxiety, Tips on Blood Testing, Tips to Help Children through Their Medical Tests, and Tips to Help the Elderly through Their Medical Tests.\nAnother article, Follow That Sample, provides a glimpse at the collection and processing of a blood sample and throat culture.\nIs any test preparation needed to ensure the quality of the sample?\nNo test preparation is needed. However, timing of the sample collection may affect results. Generally, lithium blood levels are performed 12-18 hours after the last dose (also known as a \"trough\" level). Tell the laboratorian who is drawing your blood when you took your last dose so that the results can be interpreted correctly.\nAsk a Laboratory Scientist\nThis form enables you to ask specific questions about your tests. Your questions will be answered by a laboratory scientist as part of a voluntary service provided by one of our partners, American Society for Clinical Laboratory Science. If your questions are not related to your lab tests, please submit them via our Contact Us form. Thank you.\n* indicates a required field\nNOTE: This article is based on research that utilizes the sources cited here as well as the collective experience of the Lab Tests Online Editorial Review Board. This article is periodically reviewed by the Editorial Board and may be updated as a result of the review. Any new sources cited will be added to the list and distinguished from the original sources used.\nSources Used in Current Review\nTietz Textbook of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics. Burtis CA, Ashwood ER and Bruns DE, eds. 4th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier Saunders; 2006, Pp 1271-1272.\nHarrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. 16th ed. Kasper D, Braunwald E, Fauci A, Hauser S, Longo D, Jameson JL, eds. McGraw-Hill, 2005 Pg 2557.\n(Updated March 24, 2009) Lee D, Gupta M. Toxicity, Lithium from Medscape. Available online at http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/815523-overview through http://emedicine.medscape.com. Accessed September 2009.\n(January 15, 2009) MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Bipolar Disorder. Available online at http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000926.htm. Accessed September 2009.\n(January 4, 2009) Mayo Clinic. Bipolar Disorder. Available online at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bipolar-disorder/DS00356 through http://www.mayoclinic.com. Accessed September 2009.\nNational Alliance on Mental Illness. Medications, Lithium. Available online through http://www.nami.org. Accessed September 2009.\n(Jan 14, 2009) Lloyd A. Netdoctor: Lithium. Available online at http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/depression/lithium_000290.htm through http://www.netdoctor.co.uk. Accessed September 2009.\nSources Used in Previous Reviews\nThomas, Clayton L., Editor (1997). Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. F.A. Davis Company, Philadelphia, PA [18th Edition]. Pp 1121.\nSpearing, M. Updated (2006 February 17,Updated). Bipolar Disorder. NIMH [On-line information]. Available online at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/bipolar.cfm#bp6 through http://www.nimh.nih.gov.\nGoldberg, J. and Citrome, L. (2005 February). Latest therapies for bipolar disorder, Looking beyond lithium. Postgraduate Medicine online v 117 (2) [On-line journal]. Available online at http://www.postgradmed.com/issues/2005/02_05/goldberg.htm through http://www.postgradmed.com.\nGeddes, J. et. al. (2004 February). Long-Term Lithium Therapy for Bipolar Disorder: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Am J Psychiatry 161:217-222 [On-line journal]. Available online at http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/161/2/217 through http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org.\nNewport, D. J. et. al. (2005 November). Lithium Placental Passage and Obstetrical Outcome: Implications for Clinical Management During Late Pregnancy. American Journal of Psychiatry 162:2162-2170 [on-line abstract]. Available online at http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/162/11/2162 through http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org.\nSchapiro, N. (2005). Bipolar Disorders in Children and Adolescents. Medscape from J Pediatr Health Care. 2005; 19 (3): 131-141 [On-line information]. Available online at http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/504584_1 through http://www.medscape.com.\nMenon, L. (2005 August, Updated). Lithium. National Alliance for the Mentally Ill [On-line information]. Available online through http://www.nami.org.\nWalling, A. (2005 January 1). Evidence-Based Guidelines for Bipolar Disorder Therapy. American Family Physician [On-line journal]. Available online at http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050101/tips/19.html through http://www.aafp.org.", "id": "<urn:uuid:63074de8-ea20-4fda-befd-69f7c6c9e2e0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://labtestsonline.org/index.php/understanding/analytes/lithium/tab/glance", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8789629340171814, "token_count": 1770, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Since the human body has no mechanism to excrete excess iron, it is probably best to refrain from consuming blood-based (heme) iron and taking iron supplements unless prescribed (for example, for pregnant women who are demonstrably anemic). This is because iron pills have been linked to birth complications such as preterm birth and maternal hypertension. Presumably because of iron\u2019s pro-oxidant qualities, it can be a double-edged sword; lowering the iron level of cancer patients has been associated with dropping death rates. The absorption of plant-based (non-heme) iron can be regulated by the body, though, making dark green leafy veggies and legumes such as lentils preferable sources, especially since food is a package deal.\nTopic summary contributed by a volunteer\nTo help out on the site, email email@example.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:985da1cd-658f-4e95-822e-6106d3a26187>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nutritionfacts.org/topics/iron/page/2/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9446436762809753, "token_count": 175, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is OPEC?\nOPEC is an acronym for Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. OPEC was formed in 1960 in Baghdad, Iraq with five founding member countries. Currently OPEC is a cartel composed of 11\noil producing countries. Current member countries include: Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. OPEC's stated purpose is said to serve three main functions:\n- Help stabilize world oil prices\n- Ensure oil producers achieve a reasonable rate of return on production\n- Ensure a stable supply of crude oil for consumer use. OPEC has a current goal of $27 US per barrel of oil.\nHow much crude oil do the OPEC countries produce?\nCollectively these countries hold approximately 77% of known world crude oil reserves.\nIn terms of daily crude oil production OPEC countries currently produce about 41% (24.2 million barrels per day) of the world's crude oil. The oil exported by the OPEC countries accounts for 55% of all oil traded internationally. OPEC countries also represent about 15% of\ntotal world natural gas production.\nHow does OPEC set oil prices?\nOPEC does not \"set\" oil prices. OPEC manipulates the free market price of crude oil by setting caps on the oil production of its member countries. Twice each year, ministers from each OPEC country meet\nin Vienna, Austria to review the status of the international oil market and to forecast the future oil demands in order to agree upon an appropriate crude oil production level.", "id": "<urn:uuid:59656bb5-8c00-49fc-a789-775c1d020d7c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://oklahomagasprices.com/OPEC_Info.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9525928497314453, "token_count": 311, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Emergency & Security\nMedications, Attention Deficit Disorder, and Hepatitis\nMedication in School\nSchool personnel may assist a student to manage prescription and non-prescription medication only under the directions of a physician. Prescription medication will be accepted only in the container properly labeled by the pharmacist. This label will serve as the physician\u2019s written instructions. The parent must fill out medication consent forms, available in the front office. Students may carry a 1-day supply of non-prescription medication with them, as long as they also carry a note from the parent specifying the name of the medication and dose to be taken. All medication requested to be administered by school personnel must be checked in with school personnel and kept in a locked cupboard. The student may carry emergency medication/inhalers with parent and physician written instruction. School personnel will accept changes in medication dosages only with the new properly labeled pharmacy container reflecting the dosage and/or time changes. Parents are responsible for transportation of medication to and from school. Parents are responsible for refilling the school\u2019s supply of medication and keeping track of that supply. Parents are responsible for the preparation of all tablets (e.g., halving tablets). Parents are responsible for picking up all unused medication at the end of the school year.\nADHD / ADD and Medications\nAn increasing number of students are being diagnosed as having an attention deficit disorder and are being placed on medication by their physicians. There is still much to learn about attention disorders, and controversy about the appropriateness of prescribing medication. Our role as educators is to provide instruction, make reasonable accommodations, observe behavior and provide feedback to parents and physicians when asked. We have the responsibility of cooperating with a physician and parent when a child is placed on medication following the procedures outline in School Board Policy 5665, Administering Medication in School (see Appendix A). We do not have the training or authority to prescribe medication. Consult with district nurses, psychologists, or social workers if you have questions about ADHD / ADD.\nDue to the continuing high local incidence rate of Hepatitis B, we will again follow the recommendations of the Lane County Health Department in restricting the use of home prepared foods for use at school sponsored events. Food prepared by the cafeteria staff, pre-packaged or \u201cstore bought\u201d items, and food cleaned and cooked at school under staff supervision are acceptable to share at school. This restriction applies specifically to all school functions that include students, parents, or other members of the community. While the restrictions do not apply to events that are organized by the staff for each other, it is advisable to consider applying the same rules. Please continue to insist that students wash their hands before eating or handling food, especially after using the restroom.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5b2892de-7757-4250-9f7d-974a2eb403c6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://schools.4j.lane.edu/kelly/pages-new/resources/handbookpages/meds-hep-add.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9487318992614746, "token_count": 565, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Better pollution control technology needed to cut VOC emissions\nBy Summit Voice\nFRISCO \u2014 Ongoing studies of winter ozone formation in the Uinta Basin shows the need for better pollution control technology on oil and gas drilling rigs and other equipment used for fossil fuel development.\nAn emissions inventory developed for the study found that oil and gas operations are responsible for 98-99 percent of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and for 57-61 percent of the nitrogen oxide emissions. VOCs and nitrogen compounds are the key ingredients for ozone-laced smog, which has been clearly identified as a human health threat.\nThe collaborative study led by University of Utah scientists was aimed at better understanding winter ozone formation and the scientists found that snow-covered ground, along with specific atmospheric conditions, are the key factors for ozone formation. C\nurtailing industrial operations during certain weather patterns could be one way to reduce the formation of ozone, but that might prove costly for companies working with leased drilling gear, officials said during a press conference this week.\nBefore developing a comprehensive mitigation strategy, researchers want to develop more accurate weather and photochemical models to accurately simulate winter ozone formation. Only then will they know which mitigation strategies are most effective.\nBut in general, the study team said VOC controls hold the most promise for effectively reducing ozone production and would have other health benefits, considering that cancer-causing substances like benzene and tuolene are health threats in their own right.\nThe study was partly supported by the Western Energy Alliance with funding from several fossil fuel development companies adding up to $2.125 million.\n\u201cIronically, after gathering a very impressive research team and deploying them into the basin with a vast array of scientific instruments, there were no high ozone occurrences in 2012,\u201d said Kathleen Sgamma, Vice President of Government & Public Affairs. \u201cThe weather conditions necessary for ozone formation did not exist last winter, but as a result, the scientists were able to gather extensive baseline data,\u201d she said.\n\u201cIndustry remains committed to protecting air quality while continuing to develop domestic energy in the West, and proud to be a part of this scientific endeavor,\u201d Sgamma said.\nThe final 2011-2012 Study report and the 2012/2013 plan are online at http://www.deq.utah.gov/locations/uintahbasin/index.htm.", "id": "<urn:uuid:38f15415-aaee-4594-a4bd-f8dc08776193>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://summitcountyvoice.com/2013/02/20/fossil-fuel-drilling-fingered-in-uinta-basin-ozone-formation/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9506770968437195, "token_count": 494, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "exactly located (exactlyLocated)\nThe actual, minimal location of an\nObject. This is a subrelation of the more general Predicate\nSUMO / BASE-ONTOLOGY\nRelated WordNet synsets\n- the precise location of something; a spatially limited location; \"she walked to a point where she could survey the whole street\"\nAgar obj is partly located in region, to yah kuch subobj nahin, ki subobj is a part of obj aur subobj is exactly located in region.\n(partlyLocated ?OBJ ?REGION)\n(part ?SUBOBJ ?OBJ)\n(exactlyLocated ?SUBOBJ ?REGION))))\nAgar obj is exactly located in region, to yah kuch otherobj nahin, ki otherobj is exactly located in region aur otherobj is not equal to obj.\n(exactlyLocated ?OBJ ?REGION)\n(exactlyLocated ?OTHEROBJ ?REGION)\n(equal ?OTHEROBJ ?OBJ))))))\n\"thing ki jagah time tha\" is equal to region agar hai thing is exactly located in region during time.\n(WhereFn ?THING ?TIME)\n(exactlyLocated ?THING ?REGION)))", "id": "<urn:uuid:c9bd6a3e-3426-45f4-8eec-ef2af2ae747f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://virtual.cvut.cz/kifb/hindi/concepts/exactly_located.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8955175876617432, "token_count": 279, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Reishiki - the external expression of respect\nIn Iaido dojo you will practice with a wooden sword (Bokken), or a training sword (Iaito), or even a real Japanese sword with a cutting blade (Katana). There will be numerous people practicing, all in one room. Following the rules of etiquette ensures that no one gets injured. Also, following the rules of etiquette enhances practice in other ways. The teacher can more quickly determine skill levels when students line up in the order of rank. The ceremonial bowing serves as a concentration and focusing point; when bowing, practitioners shows respect for others. Maintaining observant silence allows students to focus their attention and practice reading body language. Cleaning the dojo after practice leaves it ready for the next group.\nAlways remember, reishiki comes from the heart and without sincere respect it will be only an empty gestures.\n- Be on time.\n- Do not make class wait.\n- Finger and toe nails must be cut short and all jewelry removed.\n- Remove shoes before entering.\n- A sword should be untied and held in the right hand.\n- Step directly in to the dojo.\n- Do not block doorway.\n- Stop and bow to Shinzen.\n- Avoid drawing or pointing a sword toward Shinzen.\n- Before practice, be sure your sword is in proper shape.\n- Check the Mekugi.\n- Place it at Shimoza (opposite side of room from shinzen) with the Ha to the wall.\n- Never touch a sword without the owner's permission.\n- Do not knock or step over any sword.\n- The floor must be cleared and swept.\n- Leave the Dojo ready for those who practice after you.\n- Eating, drinking, and smoking are not allowed on the Dojo floor.\n- When on the practice floor do not have private conversations other than iaido related subjects.\n- Tell the teacher of any injuries or problems, or of having to leave early.\n- Do not leave without permission.\n- Do not speak when teacher is speaking.\n- Thank the teacher.\n- Show respect to other iaidoka (students)\n- Do not draw directly towards others.\n- Do not do anything that may distract or injure a fellow practitioner or spectator.", "id": "<urn:uuid:566c0f69-f932-4d46-abcd-00f058076cf6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.artofiaido.com/etiquette", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8530466556549072, "token_count": 483, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A number of federal laws and ordinances protect U.S. employees from discrimination in the workplace. These laws are enforced by the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). The EEOC is the main entity responsible for upholding and designating all employment laws in the United States, including federal job discrimination.\nHere's a look at federal job discrimination laws.\nCivil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VII). This act protects employees from job discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. All aspects of employment are covered, including hiring, firing, promotion, wages, recruitment, training, and any other terms of employment.\nEqual Pay Act of 1963. This act ensures that employees receive the same pay, benefits, and opportunities as those employees of the opposite sex who perform the same work in the same establishment.\nAge Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967. This act protects workers who are 40 years of age or older from job discrimination that favors younger workers.\nTitle I and Title V of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.\nThis act protects qualified workers with disabilities from job discrimination in the private and state and municipal sectors.\nSections 501 and 505 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. This act protects qualified workers with disabilities who work for the federal government from job discrimination.\nCivil Rights Act of 1991. This act clarifies some of the ambiguous sections of Title VII, and provides monetary compensation for victims of federal job discrimination.\nIf you think you are a victim of job discrimination\nIf you think you are a victim of job discrimination under one of these federal laws, you can file a discrimination charge with the EEOC. In addition, a charge may be filed on your behalf by another person to protect your identity. You can file a charge by mail or in person at the nearest EEOC office. Importantly, you must file a claim with the EEOC within 90 days of the alleged discrimination before a private lawsuit can be filed. You must provide the following information in order to file a charge with the EEOC:\n- The complaining party's name, address, and telephone number\n- The name, address, and telephone number of the claim's respondent\n- The date and a short description of the alleged discrimination\nThe EEOC will then investigate the claim. It will either dismiss the case, attempt to settle the case, bring the case to federal court, or issue the charging party a \"right to sue,\" which allows the party to seek private counsel and bring suit upon the employer directly.\nOther job discrimination laws and agencies\nIn addition to federal laws, many states and municipalities have their own laws that protect employees against discrimination. Workers and applicants who feel they are being discriminated against in regard to sexual orientation, parental status , marital status, political affiliation, and any other personal choice that does not affect their ability to do their job can research local and state ordinances to see whether they have legislative protection.", "id": "<urn:uuid:225174b7-88cb-4385-8008-4f65996fc0a6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.avvo.com/legal-guides/federal-job-discrimination-laws?pretty_print=false", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9447426199913025, "token_count": 600, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On March 12, 2002 the first results from the 2001 Census - population and dwelling counts - were released by Statistics Canada. Information on other characteristics of the B.C. population such as age, ethnicity, education, income, etc. will be released over the next two years.\nBritish Columbia was the third fastest growing province in Canada, increasing 4.9% between 1996 and 2001. On May 15, 2001, the population of B.C. was counted as 3,907,738, compared with 3,724,500 in May 1996. B.C.'s population growth was slightly stronger than the national rate of 4.0%. In the previous five year period, B.C.'s population had increased 13.5%, more than double the 5.7% increase in the Canadian population. Between 1996 and 2001, Alberta (10.3%) and Ontario (6.1%) had the strongest population growth among the provinces. Nunavut's population grew by 8.1%.\nFewer than half (12 out of 28) of the regional districts in the province experienced population growth between 1996 and 2001. The regions that grew were concentrated in the southwest mainland, eastern Vancouver Island and Okanagan areas. Squamish-Lillooet (12.3%), Greater Vancouver (8.5%), Central Okanagan (8.2%) and Fraser Valley (6.8%) regional districts registered the strongest growth. On Vancouver Island, most of the growth occurred in the Nanaimo (4.3%) and Capital (2.4%) regional districts. The northern and Kootenay regions registered population declines over the 5-year period, with the largest decreases in Skeena-Queen Charlotte (-12.5%) and Mount Waddington (-10.2%).\nAmong large municipalities (those with populations of more than 100,000), the strongest growth in the 1996-2001 period was posted in Surrey (14%), followed by Coquitlam (11%) and Richmond (10%). Among smaller municipalities (those with populations of more than 5,000), Whistler had the strongest growth (24%), although the small neighbouring community of Pemberton had even stronger growth (91%).\nTop Municipalities (> 5,000 people) in terms of growth from 1996 to 2000\n|Municipality ||2001 Population || % Change |\n|Whistler ||8,896 ||24.0% |\n|Surrey ||347,825 ||14.2% |\n|Port Moody ||23,816 ||14.2% |\n|View Royal ||7,271 ||12.9% |\n|Maple Ridge ||63,169 ||12.5% |\n|Coquitlam ||112,890 ||10.9% |\n|New Westminster ||54,656 ||10.8% |\n|Richmond ||164,345 ||10.4% |\n|Port Coquitlam ||51,257 ||9.8% |\n|Abbotsford ||115,463 ||9.6% |\nUrban and Rural Population\nBetween 1996 and 2001, the population has become more urbanised with 85% of the provincial population now living in urban areas, up from 82% in 1996 and 80% in 1991.\nCharacteristics of Population Growth\nAlthough information on the characteristics of the population growth between 1996 and 2001 is not yet available from the 2001 Census, current population estimates provide insight into some aspects of the growth. About two thirds of the population growth between 1996 and 2001 was due to migration with natural increase (births minus deaths) accounting for the rest. The growth due to migration was entirely from international sources, as a large number of people left B.C. for Alberta and only small numbers arrived from other parts of Canada. Between 1991 and 1996, a similar number of people had arrived from international sources but there had also been almost as large a net inflow from other parts of the country. More than three quarters (77%) of the immigrants to B.C. over the 1996-2001 period were from Asian countries, followed by European sources (12%) and North and Central America (4%).", "id": "<urn:uuid:2c387e3b-0186-4c0f-94d1-fd0fbf5014cc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bcstats.gov.bc.ca/StatisticsBySubject/Census/2001Census/PopulationHousing/Highlights.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511956572532654, "token_count": 851, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Walking Liberty half dollar has won many praises and criticisms in its time. Adolph Weinman\u2019s Walking Liberty design was more than an attempt to beautify the half dollar. It represented a concerted effort to revitalize the denomination and to get half dollars back into circulation in again. The Mint was able to churn out plenty of Walking Liberty half dollars in the design\u2019s first year. Of the first years mintage couldn\u2019t compare to the numbers that were minted in the 1940s.\nAdolph Weinman was better known as a sculptor and medal designer. As such he won the competition to design the new half dollar. The Mint began producing the new Walking Liberty design in November, 1916. However it was January 2, 1917 before any of these dated half dollars entered into circulation.\nThe new half dollars debut soon brought many praises and some criticisms. The Jan 23, 1917, issue of the Elyra, Ohio Evening Telegram is quoted as stating the Walking Liberty half dollar was more \u201celaborate\u201d than the old Barber half dollar. And that both half dollars shared one thing in common\u2014they both seemed to have been inspired by some French coin designs.\nFor what ever reason, Weinman managed to work the American flag into the Walking Liberty half dollar design, which does seem to set it apart and gave it a more national character than other coin designs. Weinman had his own comments on the symbolism in his design:\n\u201cThe design of the Half dollar bears a full-length figure of Liberty, the folds of the Stars and Stripes flying to the breeze as a background. Progressing in full stride toward the dawn of a new day, carrying branches of laurel and oak, symbolic of civil and military glory. The hand of the figure is outstretched in bestowal of the spirit of liberty.\u201d\n\u201cThe reverse of the half dollar shows an eagle perched high upon a mountain craig, his wings unfolded, fearless in spirit, and conscious of his power. Springing from a rift in the rock is a sapling of Mountain Pine, symbolic of America.\u201d\nMany bird experts were amused at the design of the eagle displayed on the half dollar. It was quite unlike any other eagle pictured on other U.S. coins. One leading ornithologist remarked the eagle looked like a \u201cturkey.\u201d\nVery little was said about the branch of Mountain Pine. It did add a very dramatic touch to the design and is probably the coin\u2019s most distinctive feature. The Walking Liberty is definitely the most distinctive half dollar created. In time the Walking Liberty half dollar gave way to the Franklin half dollar in 1948.", "id": "<urn:uuid:317df08c-8a0f-44fa-958d-481d95ef3107>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bellaonline.com/ArticlesP/art171311.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9717517495155334, "token_count": 549, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- For other places called Lodi, see Lodi.\nLodi is a town in Lombardy, Italy, on the right shore of the river Adda. It is the capital of the province of Lodi.\nThe commune has an area of 41,42 sq. km; population (2001) 40,805. Its name is pronounced by Italians as LAW-dee.\nIt was a Celtic village that in Roman times was called in Latin Laus Pompeia (probably in honor of the consul Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo) and was known also because its position allowed many Gauls of Gallia Cisalpina to obtain Roman citizenship. It was in an important position at the crossing of vital Roman roads.\nIn became a Catholic diocese and its first bishop, Saint Bassiano , (319-409), is the patron saint of the town (celebrated on January 19).\nA free Comune (municipality) around 1000, it fiercely resisted the Milanese, who destroyed it in April 24 1158. Frederick Barbarossa re-built it on its current location.\nStarting from 1220, the Lodigiani (inhabitants of Lodi) spent some decades in realizing an important work of hydraulic engineering: a system of miles and miles of artificial rivers and channels (called Consorzio di Muzza) was created in order to give water to the countryside, turning some arid areas into one of the (still now) most important agricultural areas of the region.\nLodi was ruled by the Visconti family, who built a castle.\nIn 1423, the antipope Antipope John XXIII, from Lodi's Duomo, launched his bolla by which he convened the Council of Constance (end of the Great Schism).\nIn 1454 representatives from all the regional states of Italy met in Lodi to sign the treaty known as the peace of Lodi, by which they intended to work in the direction of Italian unification, but this peace lasted only 40 years.\nThe town was then ruled by the Sforza family, France, Spain, Austria. In 1786 it became the eponymous capital of a province that included Crema.\nOn May 10, 1796: Battle of Lodi: the young Corsican general Napoleon Bonaparte won on the river Adda his first important battle, defeating the Austrians and later entering Milan. This is why in many towns there are streets dedicated to the famous bridge (for instance in Paris 6th arrondissement, Rue du Pont de Lodi).\nIn 1945, the Italian petrol company Agip, directed by Enrico Mattei, started extracting methane from its fields, and Lodi was the first Italian town with a regular domestic gas service.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c3de8023-c4eb-43a2-b824-c31a8b54402c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.biologydaily.com/biology/Lodi%2C_Italy", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9747388958930969, "token_count": 576, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "stressArticle Free Pass\nstress, in physical sciences and engineering, force per unit area within materials that arises from externally applied forces, uneven heating, or permanent deformation and that permits an accurate description and prediction of elastic, plastic, and fluid behaviour. A stress is expressed as a quotient of a force divided by an area.\nThere are many kinds of stress. Normal stress arises from forces that are perpendicular to a cross-sectional area of the material, whereas shear stress arises from forces that are parallel to, and lie in, the plane of the cross-sectional area. If a bar having a cross-sectional area of 4 square inches (26 square cm) is pulled lengthwise by a force of 40,000 pounds (180,000 newtons) at each end, the normal stress within the bar is equal to 40,000 pounds divided by 4 square inches, or 10,000 pounds per square inch (psi; 7,000 newtons per square cm). This specific normal stress that results from tension is called tensile stress. If the two forces are reversed, so as to compress the bar along its length, the normal stress is called compressive stress. If the forces are everywhere perpendicular to all surfaces of a material, as in the case of an object immersed in a fluid that may be compressed itself, the normal stress is called hydrostatic pressure, or simply pressure. The stress beneath the Earth\u2019s surface that compresses rock bodies to great densities is called lithostatic pressure.\nShear stress in solids results from actions such as twisting a metal bar about a longitudinal axis as in tightening a screw. Shear stress in fluids results from actions such as the flow of liquids and gases through pipes, the sliding of a metal surface over a liquid lubricant, and the passage of an airplane through air. Shear stresses, however small, applied to true fluids produce continuous deformation or flow as layers of the fluid move over each other at different velocities like individual cards in a deck of cards that is spread. For shear stress, see also shear modulus.\nReaction to stresses within elastic solids causes them to return to their original shape when the applied forces are removed. Yield stress, marking the transition from elastic to plastic behaviour, is the minimum stress at which a solid will undergo permanent deformation or plastic flow without a significant increase in the load or external force. The Earth shows an elastic response to the stresses caused by earthquakes in the way it propagates seismic waves, whereas it undergoes plastic deformation beneath the surface under great lithostatic pressure.\nWhat made you want to look up \"stress\"? Please share what surprised you most...", "id": "<urn:uuid:79e0dfc6-44f0-433d-bdf7-1f27c991027e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/568893/stress", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9281665682792664, "token_count": 547, "score": 4.21875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This multimedia lesson for Grades 7-10 explores the physical forces that act in concert to create snowflakes. Students build an apparatus that creates conditions similar to a winter cloud and produce their own snow crystals indoors. By watching the snow crystals grow, they learn about how snowflake size and shape is determined by the forces that act on water molecules at the atomic and molecular levels. Digital models and snowflake photo galleries bring together a cohesive package to help kids visualize what's happening at the molecular scale.\nEditor's Note: This lab activity calls for dry ice. See Related Materials for a link to the NOAA's \"Dry Ice Safety\" Guidelines, and for a link to snow crystal images produced by an electron microscope.\nLewis structures, VSEPR, condensation, covalent bond, crystals, electron sharing, ice, physics of snowflakes, snow formation, valence electrons, valence shell\nMetadata instance created\nJanuary 2, 2013\nby Caroline Hall\nJanuary 2, 2013\nby Caroline Hall\nAAAS Benchmark Alignments (2008 Version)\n4. The Physical Setting\n4B. The Earth\n6-8: 4B/M15. The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace amounts of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases.\n4D. The Structure of Matter\n6-8: 4D/M1a. All matter is made up of atoms, which are far too small to see directly through a microscope.\n6-8: 4D/M1cd. Atoms may link together in well-defined molecules, or may be packed together in crystal patterns. Different arrangements of atoms into groups compose all substances and determine the characteristic properties of substances.\n6-8: 4D/M3cd. In solids, the atoms or molecules are closely locked in position and can only vibrate. In liquids, they have higher energy, are more loosely connected, and can slide past one another; some molecules may get enough energy to escape into a gas. In gases, the atoms or molecules have still more energy and are free of one another except during occasional collisions.\n9-12: 4D/H2. The number of protons in the nucleus determines what an atom's electron configuration can be and so defines the element. An atom's electron configuration, particularly the outermost electrons, determines how the atom can interact with other atoms. Atoms form bonds to other atoms by transferring or sharing electrons.\n9-12: 4D/H7a. Atoms often join with one another in various combinations in distinct molecules or in repeating three-dimensional crystal patterns.\n12. Habits of Mind\n12C. Manipulation and Observation\n6-8: 12C/M3. Make accurate measurements of length, volume, weight, elapsed time, rates, and temperature by using appropriate devices.\n<a href=\"http://www.compadre.org/precollege/items/detail.cfm?ID=12568\">WGBH Educational Foundation. Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 2010.</a>\nTeachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes? (WGBH Educational Foundation, Boston, 2010), WWW Document, (http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/).\nTeachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. (2010). Retrieved May 21, 2013, from WGBH Educational Foundation: http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/\nWGBH Educational Foundation. Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 2010. http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/ (accessed 21 May 2013).\nTeachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes?. Boston: WGBH Educational Foundation, 2010. 21 May 2013 <http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/>.\n%T Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes? %D 2010 %I WGBH Educational Foundation %C Boston %U http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/ %O application/pdf\n%0 Electronic Source %D 2010 %T Teachers' Domain: Why Do Snowflakes Come in So Many Shapes and Sizes? %I WGBH Educational Foundation %V 2013 %N 21 May 2013 %9 application/pdf %U http://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/lsps07.sci.phys.matter.lpsnowflakes/\nDisclaimer: ComPADRE offers citation styles as a guide only. We cannot offer interpretations about citations as this is an automated procedure. Please refer to the style manuals in the Citation Source Information area for clarifications.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dbafed73-0f12-4aa3-a008-e9f488788ed7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.compadre.org/precollege/items/detail.cfm?ID=12568", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8175840377807617, "token_count": 1122, "score": 4.0, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Enter a word for the dictionary definition.\nFrom The Collaborative International Dictionary of English v.0.48:\nNectarine \\Nec`tar*ine\"\\ (n[e^]k`t[~e]r*[=e]n\"), n. [Cf. F. nectarine. See Nectar.] (Bot.) A smooth-skinned variety of peach. [1913 Webster] Spanish nectarine, the plumlike fruit of the West Indian tree Chrysobalanus Icaco; -- also called cocoa plum. It is made into a sweet conserve which is largely exported from Cuba. [1913 Webster]", "id": "<urn:uuid:8026eb8e-2045-4425-bfb5-1eb355f7472a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.crosswordpuzzlehelp.net/old/dictionary.php?q=Spanish%20nectarine", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7825707197189331, "token_count": 137, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(BPT) - The start of the school year is a time of great anticipation for parents and kids alike. New teachers. New classes. New and old friends. It's a time for fun and learning.\nParents expect schools to be safe havens, but the reality is that children face a host of dangers all day long. Bullying, taunting and teasing are only some of the hazards that kids must deal with it every day at even the best schools in America.\nAbout 30 percent of middle and high school students say they've been bullied. Among high school students, one out of nine teens reported they had been pushed, shoved, tripped or spit upon during the last school year, according to a National Institute of Child Health and Human Development research study.\nFindLaw.com, the nation's leading website for free legal information, offers the following tips on how to keep your children safe at school:\n* Talk to your kids about school safety. Talk about bullying and make sure your child understands what is and is not acceptable behavior. Also discuss when and how to report bullying.\n* Go to the bus stop. If your schedule allows, go to the bus stop with your child and get to know the other kids and parents, along with the bus driver.\n* Get to know your kids' teachers. Send your child's teacher an email to introduce yourself and regularly check in on your child's academic and social progress. Learn how his or her teacher approaches bullying and other issues that may distract from the school's learning environment, such as the use of cell phones and iPods.\n* Read the school's policy on bullying. Become familiar with school policies about bullying - particularly the protocols for identifying and reporting bullying behavior. Pay careful attention to policies regarding cyberbullying, which can take place outside of school.\n* Watch and listen for the cues. Many kids don't want to reveal to their parents that they're being bullied, taunted or teased by other kids. If your child is withdrawn, not doing homework, sick more often than normal or demonstrating other out-of-the-ordinary behavior, talk about what seems to be bothering him or her.\n* Know where your kids are at. Sometimes bullying and other unsafe situations take place outside of school grounds, such as at other students' houses. Telling your kids that you want to know where they are and that they need permission to visit a friend's house shows them you care. It also reassures them that they can contact you if they need help.\n* Monitor Internet use and texting. Put the home computer in a public place and don't allow your kids to use a computer in their bedroom by themselves.\n* Talk to other parents. You may learn that their children also have been bullied or have been involved in activities on and off school grounds that you should be concerned about. You stand a much better chance of obtaining changes and creating a safer environment for your student by acting together rather than alone.\n* Put it in writing. If you suspect your child is being bullied or sexually harassed by another student (or a teacher or staff member), ask for a face-to-face meeting with the school's principal. If the principal does not act, hire an attorney and escalate your complaint to the superintendent and school board. Putting your complaint in writing about the specific types of negative behavior affecting your child is necessary if you need to litigate the complaint in court.\n* Take appropriate action when bullying becomes assault. If your child is physically assaulted on the bus, in school or on school grounds, contact the local police department, particularly if there is a school liaison officer assigned to the school, about whether a police report or assault charges should be filed. Do not wait to let the school handle the situation.\nFor more information about how to keep your kids safe at school, visit FindLaw.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:be252f6c-849c-43a6-a09e-a67e38971d3f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cw15.com/ara/education/story/Keeping-your-kids-safe-at-school/9Mj26bIJeEm07R11wJrHbQ.cspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9689367413520813, "token_count": 786, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|The Salmon-Challis National Forest covers over 4.3 million acres in east-central Idaho. Included within the boundaries of the Forest is 1.3 million acres of the Frank Church-- River of No Return Wilderness Area, the largest wilderness area in the Continental United States. Rugged and remote, this country offers adventure, solitude and breathtaking scenery. Panoramic vistas highlight travel atop the Continental Divide; northwest-southeast trending mountain ranges culminate in the jagged heights of Mount Borah, Idaho's tallest peak. The sagebrush slopes of the forest are covered with a colorful display of wildflowers in the spring.For over 8,000 years, ancestors of the Shoshone-Bannock people have lived in this region. White settlement began shortly after the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled through the territory in 1805. Initially, fur trappers then miners worked this area. The development of Salmon, Challis, and their surrounding communities followed and by the 1880's were flourishing. Traces of the past can be found throughout the Salmon-Challis National Forest.Most roads within the Salmon-Challis National Forest branch off main highways and turn to gravel or dirt surfaces, with many being suitable for sedans, while others require 4-wheel drive vehicles. Recommended travel precautions are to have a full tank of gas and a good spare tire.Three popular road tours: the Custer Motorway Loop, the Lewis and Clark Backcountry Byway, and the Salmon River Road, take visitors through the Salmon River Mountains, to the crest of the Continental Divide, and along the scenic Salmon River. Visitors will discover historic mining towns and share their history of mining life. Steps can be traced back to the 1805 expedition that changed the West.There is abundant wildlife in The Salmon-Challis National Forest. Species include Rocky Mountain sheep, mountain goat, bald eagles, and river otter, among other wildlife who call the forest home.Known as the \"white water capital of the world,\" the Salmon and Middle Fork Rivers offer adventures to provide a lifetime of memories. Permit applications for the wild section of the Main Salmon River and for the Middle Fork River are available at the North Fork and Middle Fork Range Districts.Nearly 3,292 miles of trails transverse the Salmon-Challis National Forest, almost half of which are located in the Wilderness. Hiking season is generally between April and October, with elevations above 7,500 feet usually clear of snow by July 4. Trails range from moderate to difficult. Many non-wilderness trails are designated for motorized use.Hunting opportunities for deer, elk, bighorn sheep, moose, mountain goat, black bear, and mountain lion exist on much of the Salmon-Challis National Forest. Opportunities for hunting chukar, grouse, and goose are also available.Most streams and lakes on the Salmon-Challis National Forest are home to trout. Steelhead average 4-6 pounds, with and occasional one weighing in at 15-20 pounds. Mackay Reservoir, situated on neighboring Bureau of Land Management land, offers good angling for kokanee salmon. Winter anglers may try their skills at Jimmy Smith and Williams Lake, a 30-minute drive from Salmon.There are a wide variety of opportunities for beginners to advanced downhill skiers and snow boarders within the Salmon-Challis National Forest. Williams Creek Summit offers 22 miles of moderate to difficult cross-country ski trails. Copper Mountain allows visitors to practice their backcountry ski skills. Gentler, groomed trails at Chief Joseph Pass on the Idaho-Montana border provide fun for the whole family. Local snowmobile clubs maintain a number of groomed routes on the Ridge Road to the Stanley-Landmark Snowmobile Trail system.There are over 40 campgrounds within the Salmon-Challis National Forest, ranging from primitive to developed. Most campgrounds have at least one wheelchair accessible campsite.|\n|Facilities: Salmon-Challis National Forest provides over 40 campgrounds. Most of the campgrounds have restrooms.|\nBest Time To Visit: Salmon-Challis National Forest is open year round for a variety of recreational opportunities. Hiking season is generally between April and October, with elevations above 7,500 feet usually clear of snow by July 4. Cross-country skiing and snowmobiling is available during the winter months.\nFees: Parking, camping, and/or entrance fees may be charged at some of the recreation sites within Salmon-Challis National Forest.\nAccessibility: Most campgrounds have at least one wheelchair accessible campsite. Williams Lake provides wheelchair accessible spots for both fishing and picnicking.\nRules: Recommended travel precautions are to have a full tank of gas and a good spare tire. Check the local fishing, hunting, and fire regulations. Do not leave campfires unattended. Fireworks and explosives are prohibited in the forests. Pets must always be restrained or on a leash while in developed recreation sites. Obey all traffic signs. State traffic laws apply to the Salmon-Challis National Forest unless otherwise specified.\nDirections: Salmon-Challis National Forest covers over 4.3 million acres in east-central Idaho. It can be accessed from Arco, Hailey, Challis, and Salmon.\nMap: Click here for a map to Salmon-Challis National Forest\nReservations: Reservations are not needed or accepted to visit Salmon-Challis National Forest. Reservations may be accepted or required for campgrounds and other recreation sites within the forest.\n|Salmon-Challis National Forest Supervisor's Office|\n|50 Hwy 93 South|\n|Salmon, Idaho 83467|\n|General: (208) 756-5100|", "id": "<urn:uuid:ac728d17-b08b-402e-88b1-f731efe85416>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eatstayplay.com/html/id/a4335p476c2145.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.918213963508606, "token_count": 1176, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By Terry Kovel\nFresh vegetables were part of the diet of the Victorian household during the warm, growing months. But stored root vegetables and home canned food were used on snowy days.\nAdvertisers knew that imaginary vegetables acting like humans were as popular a fantasy as fairies, elves, brownies, pixies and gnomes. Few color pictures were available. Magazines and newspapers were printed in black and white. But in the 1880s, retail stores advertised with colored trade cards, about 6-inch-by-2-1/2-inch, that were saved and often put in scrapbooks.\nThere were many different anthropomorphic fruit and vegetable cards. Humanized veggies were pictured not only in the U.S. but also in England, Germany, France and Italy. The comic figures with human bodies often had names, Mr. Prune, The Baldwin Twins (apple heads) or Mr. Pumpkin. And there often was a funny caption, like two strawberry heads asking \"What are you doing in my bed?\"\nThe trade cards are not the only place for veggie people. Vegetable people postcards came next, about 1900. Figural salt and pepper shakers, children's books, decorated plates and even small figurines were popular in the early 1900s.\nNow that eating fresh food is a national goal, veggie people are being noticed by collectors. And maybe they will encourage the family to eat their fruit and vegetables. Trade cards can be $10 to $25 each, postcards a little less. Many saltshaker sets sell for less than $40.\nQ: About 25 years ago, I bought a kitchen table with one leaf and four chairs at a used-furniture store in Connecticut. On one end of the table, there's a label that says \"Dinah Cook Furniture\" around the image of a black woman wearing a kerchief on her head. Can you tell me when the set was made and who made it?\nA: \"Dinah Cook Furniture\" was a trademark used by the Western Chair Co. of Chicago. The trademark may have been used to appeal to black customers during the great migration of black Americans from the South to Northern cities. If so, the set probably dates from the 1920s or '30s.\nQ: I have a 1937 Philadelphia Athletics scorecard that's in mint condition. It's really more like a program, because it's a six-page booklet that's 10 3/4 inches high by 6 5/8 inches wide. The inside of the booklet includes a team photo and roster, a schedule of home games, a list of the pitchers and catchers for all the teams in the American and National leagues, a photo of Chubby Dean with his facsimile autograph, the prices of refreshments and a lot of interesting ads. What is it worth?\nA: Reproductions of your scorecard have been made, so the first thing to do is to make sure it's an original. If it's an original, you can try selling it online or to a dealer who sells sports memorabilia. Expect to get about $35-$45 for it. The Philadelphia Athletics, an American League team founded in 1901, became the Kansas City Athletics in 1955, then moved to California in 1968 and became the Oakland Athletics.\nQ: I have two small rubber toy motorcycles that belonged to a cousin, born about 1930. One is red with green wheels; the other is green with red wheels. Both have Auburn printed on the rear wheel and a rider who appears to be a policeman. What can you tell me about them?\nA: The Auburn Rubber Co. was founded in Auburn, Ind., in 1913. It started out as the Double Fabric Tire Corp., a manufacturer of tires. In the 1920s the company was reorganized and the name changed to the Auburn Rubber Co. Auburn began making rubber toy soldiers in 1935 and eventually became a major producer of rubber toys. Toy soldiers, cars, trucks, airplanes, boats, tractors, building blocks and many other rubber toys were made. The faces and details on the toys were hand painted. The toys were inexpensive and sold in dime stores. Sears, Roebuck catalogs sold a line of Auburn rubber toys under the brand name Happy Time. Toy rubber motorcycles were made in several colors in the 1940s and '50s. Auburn began making vinyl toys in 1954. The company was sold in 1960 and went bankrupt in 1969. Rubber toys can warp or become dry and brittle if they are not stored properly. They should be kept where it is cool. Value of your toy motorcycle, about $25 to $35.\nQ: What is the difference between an \"antique\" and a \"collectible\"? And what does the word \"vintage\" mean? I figure you're the expert and can help me understand.\nA: Different people, even different experts, define these words differently. Most collectors accept the U.S. Customs Service's 1930 definition of an \"antique\" as something of value that's 100 or more years old. In 1993 the U.S. Customs Modernization Act added that if the \"essential character\" of a piece has been changed or more than half of it has been repaired or restored, it's no longer considered an antique. A \"collectible\" is therefore something of value (to someone) that's less than 100 years old. The term \"vintage\" is wishy-washy. It's often used to describe clothing your grandmother \u2014 or even your mother \u2014 wore or furniture in your childhood bedroom. We usually use the word \"vintage\" to describe something of value that's more than 50 years old and \"collectible\" to refer to anything under 50. But there are no hard and fast rules.\nQ: My two 12-inch ceramic Jim Beam decanters are 1968 election bottles. One is an elephant and the other a donkey. They're both dressed in polka-dot clown costumes. With presidential elections coming up this year, I was wondering if they have any value.\nA: The Jim Beam brand of whiskey dates back to the late 1700s. The company started selling special decanters filled with Kentucky Straight Bourbon in 1953. Political bottles, one for each party, were made for the presidential-election years from 1956 to 1988. The bottles were made by Regal China Co. of Chicago. Your 1968 bottles sell today for $10-$25 each. The decanters are not as popular with collectors as they were 30 years ago. The most valuable Beam political decanter is a 1970 elephant bottle made for a Spiro Agnew vice-presidential fundraiser. At one time it was selling for more than $1,000.\nTip: A mirror made from an antique picture frame is worth about half as much as a period mirror in a period frame.\nTake advantage of a free listing for your group to announce events or to find antique shows and other events. Go to Kovels.com/calendar to find and plan your antiquing trips.\nTerry Kovel answers as many questions as possible through the column. By sending a letter with a question, you give full permission for use in the column or any other Kovel forum. Names, addresses or email addresses will not be published. We cannot guarantee the return of any photograph, but if a stamped envelope is included, we will try. The volume of mail makes personal answers or appraisals impossible. Write to Kovels, (Name of this newspaper), King Features Syndicate, 300 W. 57th St., New York, NY 10019.\nCurrent prices are recorded from antiques shows, flea markets, sales and auctions throughout the United States. Prices vary in different locations because of local economic conditions.\nSuper Suds detergent box, \"Super Suds, Floods o' Suds for Dishes and Duds,\" blue box and letters on white, Colgate-Palmolive-Peet Co., 1930s, 1 lb. 7 oz., $20.\nCarnival glass toothpick holder, Octagon pattern, marigold, curved-in lip, Imperial Glass Co., 2 1/2 inches, $35.\nLicense plate, Illinois, 1947, fiberboard (to save metal for war effort), black, white numbers 1144-114, $50.\nModel kit, U.S. Army Patton Tank, Monogram Co., red box, unopened, 1959 $80.\nMortimer Snerd ventriloquist dummy, painted face, crooked mouth and buck teeth, cloth body, vinyl head and hands, pull string moves mouth, Jurn Novelty Co., 1950s, 29 inches, $85.\nMcCoy jardiniere, Springwood pattern, mint green, white flowers, 6 3/4 x 8 1/2 inches, $125.\nGentleman's smoking jacket, cotton and polyester, red-and-black print, black grosgrain sash belt, collar and cuffs, State O' Maine Co. label, large size, $145.\nSewing bird, brass, cast flowers, leaves and rope edges, c. 1856, 3 1/2 x 2 inches, $155.\nEricsson Bakelite telephone, black, curved mouthpiece, chrome dial, 1950s, 6 x 8 inches, $185.\nThonet bentwood dining chairs, upholstered seats and backs, 1950s, 32 1/2 inches, set of four, $695.\nAvailable now. The best book to own if you want to buy or sell or collect \u2014 and if you order now, you'll receive a copy with the author's autograph. The new \"Kovels' Antiques & Collectibles Price Guide, 2012,\" 44th edition, is your most accurate source for current prices. This large-size paperback has more than 2,500 color photographs and 40,000 up-to-date prices for over 775 categories of antiques and collectibles. You'll also find hundreds of factory histories and marks, a report on the record prices of the year, plus helpful sidebars and tips about buying, selling, collecting and preserving your treasures. Available online at Kovelsonlinestore.com; by phone at 800-303-1996; at your bookstore or send $27.95 plus $4.95 postage to Price Book, Box 22900, Beachwood, OH 44122.", "id": "<urn:uuid:62dfd259-865a-4262-80fc-edb65154be6a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fosters.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20120823/GJENTERTAINMENT_01/708239995/0/rss11&CSProduct=fosters", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9650814533233643, "token_count": 2150, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Throughout life there are many times when outside influences change or influence decision-making. The young child has inner motivation to learn and explore, but as he matures, finds outside sources to be a motivating force for development, as well. Along with being a beneficial influence, there are moments when peer pressure can overwhelm a child and lead him down a challenging path. And, peer pressure is a real thing \u2013 it is not only observable, but changes the way the brain behaves.\nAs a young adult, observational learning plays a part in development through observing and then doing. A child sees another child playing a game in a certain way and having success, so the observing child tries the same behavior. Albert Bandura was a leading researcher in this area. His famous bobo doll studies found that the young child is greatly influenced by observing other\u2019s actions. When a child sees something that catches his attention, he retains the information, attempts to reproduce it, and then feels motivated to continue the behavior if it is met with success.\nObservational learning and peer pressure are two different things \u2013 one being the observing of behaviors and then the child attempting to reproduce them based on a child\u2019s own free will. Peer pressure is the act of one child coercing another to follow suit. Often the behavior being pressured is questionable or taboo, such as smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol.\nPeer Pressure and the Brain\nRecent studies find that peer pressure influences the way our brains behave, which leads to better understanding about the impact of peer pressure and the developing child. According to studies from Temple University, peer pressure has an effect on brain signals involved in risk and reward department, especially when the teen\u2019s friends are around. Compared to adults in the study, teenagers were much more likely to take risks they would not normally take on their own when with friends. Brain signals were more activated in the reward center of the brain, firing greatest during at risk behaviors.\nPeer pressure can be difficult for young adults to deal with, and learning ways to say \u201cno\u201d or avoid pressure-filled situations can become overwhelming. Resisting peer pressure is not just about saying \u201cno,\u201d but how the brain functions. Children that have stronger connections among regions in their frontal lobes, along with other areas of the brain, are better equipped to resist peer pressure. During adolescence, the frontal lobes of the brain develop rapidly, causing axioms in the region to have a coating of fatty myelin, which insulates them and causes the frontal lobes to more effectively communicate with other brain regions. This helps the young adult to develop judgment and self-control needed to resist peer pressure.\nAlong with the frontal lobes contributing to the brain and peer pressure, other studies find that the prefrontal cortex plays a role in how teens respond to peer pressure. Just as with the previous study, children that were not exposed to peer pressure had greater connectivity within the brain as well as abilities to resist peer pressure.\nWorking through Peer Pressure\nThe teenage years are exciting years. The young adult is often going through physical changes due to puberty, adjusting to new friends and educational environments, and learning how to make decisions for themselves. Adults can offer a helping and supportive hand to young adults when dealing with peer pressure by considering the following:\nSeparation: Understanding that this is a time for the child to separate and learn how to be his own individual is important. It is hard to let go and allow the child to make mistakes for himself, especially when you want to offer input or change plans and actions, but allowing the child to go down his own path is important. As an adult, offering a helping hand if things go awry and being there to offer support is beneficial.\nTalk it Out: As an adult, take a firm stand on rules and regulations with your child. Although you cannot control whom your child selects as friends, you can take a stand on your control of your child. Setting specific goals, rules, and limits encourages respect and trust, which must be earned in response. Do not be afraid to start talking with your child early about ways to resist peer pressure. Focus on how it will build your child\u2019s confidence when he learns to say \u201cno\u201d at the right time and reassure him that it can be accomplished without feeling guilty or losing self-confidence.\nStay Involved: Keep family dinner as a priority, make time each week for a family meeting or game time, and plan family outings and vacations regularly. Spending quality time with kids models positive behavior and offers lots of opportunities for discussions about what is happening at school and with friends.\nIf at any time there are concerns a child is becoming involved in questionable behavior due to peer pressure, ask for help. Understand that involving others in helping a child cope with peer pressure, such as a family doctor, youth advisor, or other trusted friend, does not mean that the adult is not equipped to properly help the child, but that including others in assisting a child, that may be on the brink of heading down the wrong path, is beneficial.\nBy Sarah Lipoff. Sarah is an art educator and parent. Visit Sarah\u2019s website here.\nRead More \u2192", "id": "<urn:uuid:4fafe4c1-2dd0-49fd-8b1b-41d1829f7cdf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.funderstanding.com/category/child-development/brain-child-development/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9633054733276367, "token_count": 1062, "score": 3.8125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Central Arizona Highlands|\nThe Central Arizona Highlands push themselves up in between the dramatic desert landscape of the Sonoran Desert to the south, and the vast Colorado Plateau to the north. This transition zone of ancient, eroded mountains lies like a sash across Arizona, from Kingman in the northwest all the way down to Safford and the Sitgreaves Apache National Forest in the southeast and beyond.\nExploring our trails you will discover a microcosm of the greater Central Arizona Highlands region \u2013 ponderosa pine forest, juniper-piyon woodland, chaparral-covered hillsides, a precious shaded creek system, and ancient geologic formations.\nThis diversity of plant life results in a wonderful richness of wildlife species, offering us all a wealth of opportunities for exploration, discovery, and learning. For more information about all the geologic zones of Arizona, CLICK HERE", "id": "<urn:uuid:794f90f0-c33a-40ea-8e57-5fa1e030cfb5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.highlandscenter.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4&Itemid=21", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8478423953056335, "token_count": 180, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "< Browse to Previous Essay | Browse to Next Essay >\nEverett -- Thumbnail History\nHistoryLink.org Essay 7397\n: Printer-Friendly Format\nOnce called the \u201cCity of Smokestacks,\u201d Everett has a long association with industry and labor. Its first beginnings were two Native American settlements at opposite sides of the heavily wooded region, one on the Snohomish River and the other on Port Gardner Bay. Platted in the 1890s and named after the son of an early investor, it soon attracted the attention of East Coast money. Over the next 100 years, Everett would be a formidable logging mill and industrial center. In 2005, Everett numbered 96,000 citizens.\nThe Port Gardner Peninsula is a point of land bound by the Snohomish River on its east flank and northern tip and by Port Gardner Bay on the west. People have inhabited the Everett Peninsula for more than 10,000 years. In recent centuries, Hibulb (or Hebolb), the principal village of the Snohomish tribe stood at the northwest point of the peninsula. Its location near the mouth of the Snohomish River and next to Port Gardner Bay provided both abundant food and transportation. Other villages were located across the waterways. The Snohomish fortified Hibulb with a stockade made of Western red cedar posts to guard against their local enemies, the Makah, Cowichan, Muckleshoot, and the occasional northern raider.\nOn June 4, 1792, George Vancouver landed on the beach south of the village and claimed the entire area for the King of England. He named the bay Port Gardner for a member of his party. He apparently did not explore the river. After this first contact with the Snohomish, the next 50 years were quiet until traders with the Hudson\u2019s Bay Company on the Columbia River ventured through in 1824. Hudson's Bay Company records show that they explored the Snohomish River. They named it \u201cSinnahamis.\u201d Its present name \u201cSnohomish\u201d dates from the U.S. Coastal Survey of 1854 when it was charted.\nIn 1853, Washington Territory was formed. That same year the first white settlers in what would become Snohomish County established a water-powered sawmill on Tulalip Bay across the water from Hibulb. When the Treaty of 1855 created a reservation there for the Snohomish and other regional Indians, the settlers abandoned the operation and turned it over to the tribes. Gradually groups of white men from Port Gamble, Port Ludlow, Utsaladdy, and other Puget Sound points began to show up on the heavily forested peninsula to cut its giant timbers. They set up small logging camps in places reserved for homesteads.\nDuring the Indian wars that erupted in King and Pierce counties after the treaty signings, the Snohomish area remained peaceful. Enterprising men making plans for a military road between Fort Bellingham and Fort Steilacoom in 1859 stimulated the exploration of the Snohomish River and its valleys. A ferry was planned at the spot where the road would cross the river. When Congress stopped funding the project, some of the young men working on the military road stayed there anyway. E. C. Ferguson claimed his own place and named it Snohomish City (1859). He was first to describe the area near present day Everett as full of trees:\n\u201cwith their long strings of moss hanging from branches, which nearly shut out the sunlight ... At the time the opening at the head of Steamboat Slough was not more than fifty feet wide\" (Dilgard and Riddle).\nFirst Settlers on the Peninsula\nDennis Brigham was the first permanent settler in the area that would become Everett. A carpenter from Worcester, Massachusetts, he came in 1861 the same year Snohomish County was organized. He built a cabin on 160 acres along Port Gardner Bay and lived alone. Cut off from his nearest neighbors by the deep forests, he still had enough contact to gain the name of \u201cDirty Plate Face.\u201d\nIn 1863, the area saw increased settlement. Erskine D. Kromer, telegraph operator and lineman for the World Telegraph, took a claim just south of Brigham. When the venture ended he settled down with a Coast Salish wife and raised a family. Leander Bagley and H. A. Taylor opened the first store in the area on the point next to Helbo. Indians pushed out by homesteaders and loggers came by to trade. The store would change ownership several times.\nAlso in 1863, on the snag-filled Snohomish River, E. D. Smith set up a logging camp at an angled bend in the river. Here the water was deep and an undercutting current kept his log booms against the bank. At the time there were no mills in Snohomish County. Logs were rafted down river and sent to mills around the sound. Everett\u2019s future was foreshadowed when, during that same year, Jacob and David Livingston set up the first steam sawmill in the county near present day Harbor View Park on the bayside. It was a short-lived venture.\nSettlement continued, although one early passerby in 1865 wrote that he saw nothing but woods. The settlers were there. Ezra Hatch claimed land in what would become downtown Everett and George Sines claimed land on the riverside. Together with Kromer, they would hold the most valuable holdings in the future city. There were others: Benjamin Young, George and Perrin Preston, J. L. Clark, and William Shears. They lived in simple log cabins scattered around in the woods, but when Bagley sold his share of the store to J. D. Tullis with the right to lease a portion back for a home and shipyard, Everett industry arrived. In 1886 he built the small sloop Rebecca which he sailed throughout the area. Eventually, the Prestons bought out all the shares to the store. George and Perrin Preston with his Snohomish wife Sye-Dah-bo-Deitz or Peggy would give the name Preston Point to the ancient Snohomish center.\nBetween the 1870 and 1880 census the white population in Snohomish County increased from 400 to 1,387, of which a minimal amount was found on the peninsula. Neil Spithill and his Snohomish wife Anastasia, the daughter of Chief Bonaparte, settled on the river where the peninsula jutted into it like a left-hand thumb. In 1872, Jacob Livingston filed the first townsite (\u201cWestern New York\u201d) on Port Gardner Bay not far from his failed sawmill. John Davis settled at Preston Point where 50 acres were diked, and between the Snohomish River and the sloughs crops of oats, hay, hops, wheat, barley potatoes, and fruit began to appear. E. D. Smith continued to expand his logging businesses, employing 150 men. The area\u2019s first postmaster, Smith platted the town of Lowell in 1872. In 1883, the U.S. government began snag-removal and cleared other impediments on the river. With the coming of mechanized lumber and cedar shingle production, several mills located in the area. Smith began construction on his own mill in 1889 the same year Washington became a state.\nBooms and Busts\nStatehood brought celebration and speculation. Connection to the area via the Seattle and Montana Railway was close at hand, but when James J. Hill announced that his Great Northern Railway would come over the Cascades to Puget Sound, many people thought that meant the railroad would come to the peninsula. There was money to be made.\nFirst came the Rucker Brothers, Wyatt and Bethel and their mother. They bought the old Dennis Brigham homestead property on the bayside in 1890. They built a house and planned to start the townsite of \u201cPort Gardner.\u201d Joining them was William Swalwell and his brother Wellington. The Swalwells picked up a large section of the Spitlhill\u2019s claim on the river covered with a growth of \u201ctimber so dense that trees on all sides touched the little cabin\u201d (Roth). Frank Friday, who bought the old Kramer homestead from Kramer's widow added to the real estate mix. This juxtaposition of bayside to riverside settlements set the layout of the future city streets, though the Swalwell\u2019s Landing, as it became known, was separated from the bay by \u201ca mile of second-growth timber, impassable underbrush and a marshy area near the center of the peninsula\u201d (Dilgard and Riddle). Things began to heat up when Tacoma lumberman and land speculator Henry Hewitt Jr. (1840-1918) arrived in the spring of 1890 with $400,000 of his own money, dreaming of a great industrial city.\nAfter learning that one of John D. Rockefeller\u2019s associates, Charles L. Colby (1839-1896), was looking for a site for the American Steel Barge Company of which he was president, Hewitt met with him. He convinced him that the peninsula with its river and bay access offered the perfect location for that and other industrial concerns. Impressed, Colby talked it up with friends and relatives. Once they were on board, Hewitt immediately approached the Ruckers, Friday, and Salwell and enticed them to join him. They transferred half of their holdings, nearly 800 acres, to the syndicate backed with the East Coast money of Rockefeller, Colby, and Colgate Hoyt, a director of the Great Northern Railroad. Hewitt also bargained with E. D. Smith for a paper mill.\nIn November 1890, the group incorporated the Everett Land Company. They made Hewitt president. For a time they met in offices at E. D. Smith\u2019s boarding house in Lowell. By spring of 1891, the peninsula began to hum as land was cleared for a nail factory, the barge works, a paper mill, and smelter. Five hundred men graded, surveyed, and platted the townsite. Hewitt Avenue, one and half mile long and 100 feet wide, was cut from bay side to riverside. The townsite of stumps became Everett, after the son of Charles Colby.\nOver the months, the city of Everett saw astonishing growth. Before the Everett Land Company lots went on sale, Swalwell jumped the gun and began selling his own lots on banks of the Snohomish River in September 1891. He built a large dock for the sternwheel steamer traffic. Dubbed the \u201ccradle of Everett,\u201d Swalwell\u2019s Landing boomed at the riverside foot of Hewitt, at intersection of Chestnut and Pacific. The Pacific/Chestnut community was a wild west town with gambling and prostitution along with the offices of Brown Engineering Company in charge of platting the townsite, \"Workingman\u2019s Grocery,\u201d a small shoe store, another grocery store, a tent hotel, meat market, and barber shop. The streets were muck choked, its sidewalks made of thrown down planks. Farther south at Lowell, Smith built a dock for his new paper mill already in production.\nOn the bayside, the Everett Land Company built a long wharf at 14th Street on which a sawmill was built at the end. They also built an immense warehouse of some 400 feet and a fancy brick hotel, the Monte Cristo, three stories high. By the time the company started selling their residential and commercial property in late 1891, the building frenzy had attracted the nation. \u201cAn Army of Men at Work On a Mammoth Establishment,\u201d the headline in the newly established Port Gardner News boasted in September 1891.\nBy the spring of 1892, Everett resembled a city albeit with stumps. There were frame homes, schools, churches (land provided by the Everett Land Company), and theaters as well as 5,600 citizens, a third of them foreign born (mostly English and Scandinavian) enjoying streetcar service, electricity, streetlights, and telephones. The Everett Land Company won a suit to own the waterfront. The promise of riches in the mines in the Cascades spurred the building of the Everett-Monte Cristo railroad from there to a smelter on the peninsula.\nIn April 1893, Everett incorporated by election. Then came trouble. In May, the Silver Panic caused a national depression that slammed into Everett. Factories closed down. Banks failed. Wages dropped 60 percent. The railroads either failed or faltered. People left in droves. By 1895, Rockefeller started to withdraw his investments. Hewitt was dismissed from the Everett Land Company. Colby took over. The lack of return on fees nearly bankrupted the city government. The streetlights were turned off. Against this background the town of Snohomish fought the struggling city of Everett over which would be the county seat. Everett finally took the claim away in 1897.\nA Second Wind\nEverett began to recover in 1899 after Rockefeller's Everett Land Company transferred its holdings to James J. Hill's Everett Improvement Company. The railroad magnate saw benefits for his Great Northern Railroad. He sent 42-year-old John McChesney as his representative. Industrial growth improved. Work continued on dredging the river and the bay. Frederick Weyerhaeuser, neighbor of Hill in St. Paul, Minnesota, came to Everett and founded the Weyerhaeuser Timber Company. He built the world\u2019s largest lumber mill which produced 70 million feet by 1912. David A. Clough and Harry Ramwell formed the American Tugboat Company.\nBy 1903, the Polk Everett City Directory boasted of 10 sawmills, 12 shingle mils, a paper mill, flouring mill, foundries and machine shops, planing mills, a smelter, an arsenic plant, a refinery, \u201ccreosoting\u201d works, a brewer, a sash and door plant, an ice and cold storage plant, and a creamery. Industry employed more than 2,835 men. Telephone subscriptions went from 493 in 1901 to 980 with 23 women employees and eight linemen.\nSecret societies as wide ranging as the Elks and the Ancient Order of United Workmen and the Catholic Order of Foresters and the Improved Order of Red Men \u201cmeeting at next great camp in the Hunting Grounds of Aberdeen\u201d (Polk) flourished. Times were good.\nIn 1907, Everett passed the First Class City Charter and boomed after the San Francisco earthquake and fire brought huge orders for Northwest lumber. The city\u2019s own big fire in 1909 destroyed parts of the city, but did not deter future growth. Three years later its population reached three times its size in 1900 -- 25,000. Ninety-five manufacturing plants, \u201cincluding 11 lumber mills, 16 shingle mills and 17 mills producing both\u201d (Shoreline Historical Survey,) dominated the area.\nUnions also dominated the city, making it one of the most unionized in the country. There were 25 unions in all. Of these, the International Shingle Weavers Union of the American Federation of Labor was the strongest. The work they did at shingle mills was dangerous. The bolter used a circular saw with a blade that stood 50 inches in diameter and had three-inch teeth. A man pushed the log toward it at waist height with his knee and hands. Men fell or were pulled into it. Of the 224 people who died in Everett in 1909, 35 were killed in the mills -- almost one a week. Labor unrest grew and strikes threatened.\nIn 1916, the shingle weaver\u2019s strike culminated in a bloody confrontation at the city dock when two boatloads of Industrial Workers of the World members sailed up from Seattle to demonstrate support of striking shingle mill workers and free speech. Five workers on the steamer Verona and two deputies on the dock were killed. Some 30 others were wounded. The strike ended not long after. This became known as the Everett Massacre.\nDuring World War I, Everett benefited from the demand for lumber, but for the rest of the twentieth century the city saw many down times as it went through a national depression in 1920, the Great Depression, and problems with continual silting in the river channels.\nAlways a lumber and industrial town, it began to diversify. A Works Progress Administration project in 1936 created Paine Field on 640 acres of land owned by Merrill Ring Logging and the Pope and Talbot Company eight miles southwest of the city. The airfield established aviation and eventually a military presence in the area. The county matched federal dollars.\nDuring World War II the field became a military base. Its name was changed to Paine Field in honor of Lt. Topliff Olin Paine, pioneer aviator from Everett killed in a 1922 Air Mail Service crash. An Army Air Corps unit moved in and stayed for five years. Runways were improved and fueling capabilities added for certain aircraft types. Alaska Airlines started a presence. The military returned during the Korean War (1950-1953) taking over the control tower, but withdrew in 1968. This opened the way for Boeing Corporation. Already owners of acreage north of the airfield, Boeing built the world\u2019s largest building by volume (472 million cubic feet) for their radically new 747 jetliner.\nConstruction on Naval Station Everett began in November 1987. In January 1994, Navy personnel moved into the completed Fleet Support and Administration buildings and officially began operations. Currently, Everett is home to three frigates, one nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, one destroyer, and a Coast Guard buoy tender. It is the United States Navy\u2019s most modern base.\nIn 2005, the city of Everett enjoyed growth and revitalization. During the past 20 years, the downtown area has been upgraded and some of the historic structures have been restored. Restaurants, shops, and parks line the bayside of the city. Industrial parks are planned for riverside. A community college and homes stand around Preston Point. Dennis Brigham and E. D. Smith would both be amazed. Henry Hewitt would say that his dream has gone on.\nDon Benry, The Lowell Story, (Everett: Lowell Civil Association, 1985), 18-37; David Dilgard, Margaret Riddle and Kristin Ravetz, A Survey of Everett\u2019s Historical Properties (Everett: Everett Public Library and Department of Planning and Community Development, 1996); David Dilgard and Margaret Riddle, Shoreline Historical Survey Report (Everett: Shoreline Master Plan Committee for City of Everett, 1973), 2-28 and 66-73; David Dilgard, Mill Town Footlights (Everett: Everett Public Library, 2001); Lawrence E. O\u2019Donnell, Everett Past and Present (Everett: K & H Printers, 1993), 2-15; Everett City Directory (Seattle: R. L. Polk, 1893), 47-66; Everett City Directory (Seattle: R. L Polk, 1903), 64; Norman H. Clark, Mill Town (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1970); History of Snohomish County, Washington Vols. I and 2 ed. by William Whitfield (Chicago: Pioneer Historical Publishing Company, 1926); The History of Skagit and Snohomish Counties, Washington (Interstate Publishing Company, 1906), 253-258 and 314-331; Elof Norman, The Coffee Chased Us Up Monte Cristo Memories (Seattle: Mountaineers, 1977); \"Early History of Snohomish River and Vicinity,\" Everett Herald, January 14, 1936; Snohomish Eye, September 1893-1894; Advertisements, Everett Herald, December 17, 1891; Snohomish Sun, 1891; Everett Herald December 10, 1891 through 1892; \"Puget Sound Paper Mill,\" Port Gardner News, September 11, 1893; \"Local News,\" The Eye, August 22, 1893; Everett Herald, December 10, 1891; The Snohomish Story: From Ox team to Jet Stream (Snohomish: Snohomish Centennial Association, 1959).\n< Browse to Previous Essay\nBrowse to Next Essay >\nCities & Towns |\nLicensing: This essay is licensed under a Creative Commons license that\nencourages reproduction with attribution. Credit should be given to both\nHistoryLink.org and to the author, and sources must be included with any\nreproduction. Click the icon for more info. Please note that this\nCreative Commons license applies to text only, and not to images. For\nmore information regarding individual photos or images, please contact\nthe source noted in the image credit.\nMajor Support for HistoryLink.org Provided\nBy: The State of Washington | Patsy Bullitt Collins\n| Paul G. Allen Family Foundation | Museum Of History & Industry\n| 4Culture (King County Lodging Tax Revenue) | City of Seattle\n| City of Bellevue | City of Tacoma | King County | The Peach\nFoundation | Microsoft Corporation, Other Public and Private\nSponsors and Visitors Like You\nThis essay made possible by:\nThe State of Washington\nWashington State Department of Archeology and Historic Preservation\nHewitt Avenue looking east, Everett\nPostcard Courtesy Everett Public Library\nSwalwell's Landing, site of newly platted Everett, 1891\nPhoto by Frank La Roche, Courtesy Everett Public Library (Image No. 1056)\nBirdseye view of the Everett Peninsula, ca. 1893\nCourtesy City of Smokestacks\nWilliam Weahlub of the Tulalip Reservation smoking salmon and roe on the beach, 1906\nPhoto by Norman Edson, Courtesy UW Special Collections\nGreat Northern Railway Depot, Everett, 1920s\nClark-Nickerson Lumber Mill, Everett, 1900s\nNight, downtown Everett, 1920s\nHewitt Avenue and Commerce Block, Everett, 1914\nHewitt Avenue looking east, Everett, 1920s\nLooking west along Hewitt Avenue across Wetmore, Everett, 1920s\nPhoto by J. A. Juleen, Courtesy Everett Public Library (Neg. Juleen842)\nAerial view of Everett, 1950s\nNaval Station Everett, 2004\nCourtesy U.S. Navy\nEverett, September 28, 2005\nHistoryLink.org Photo by Priscilla Long\nEverett, September 28, 2005\nHistoryLink.org Photo by Priscilla Long", "id": "<urn:uuid:55beaadf-2d1a-4ffc-a1ae-baf3ab3594d7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.historylink.org/This_week/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=7397", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9563388228416443, "token_count": 4728, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Dream Factory\n|\u2022 Introduction||\u2022 Hollywood Magic and Movie Premieres|\n|\u2022 Los Angeles: Making and Protecting the Image||\u2022 Celebrities in the Pulpit|\n|\u2022 Glamour Personified: Gloria Swanson|\nLos Angeles: Making and Protecting the Image\nBoosters energetically promoted the city of Los Angeles in the first decades of the twentieth century in attempts to lure tourists, new residents, and investment dollars. Real estate agents focused on the nearly constant warmth of the Southern California climate, and they portrayed attractive city streets, beautiful spacious homes, well-kept gardens, and bountiful citrus farms as the norm in the city and its surrounding areas. The Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce used the phrase \"Los Angeles\u2014Nature's Workshop\" to promote the city as a place filled with natural beauty that fostered good health.\nUltimately, postcards and booster publications coming out of Los Angeles relied on mass-produced and widely distributed images of a relatively small set of actual neighborhoods, homes, gardens, and orange groves that were deemed \"typical\" as part of promotional efforts. Events like relatively small outbreaks of smallpox and pneumonic plague in 1924 threatened the image of Los Angeles that had been disseminated throughout the rest of the nation. Boosters had to redouble their efforts to promote the city in their wake.\nClick Image to Get a Closer Look", "id": "<urn:uuid:a311cbdd-e954-4c21-8a2f-74569846f35d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/educator/modules/teachingthetwenties/theme_viewer.php?theme=small&section=dream&subsect=2&sov=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9321929812431335, "token_count": 283, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ptosis Correction Surgery:\nPtosis Correction Surgery India offers information on Ptosis Correction Surgery in India, Ptosis Correction Surgery cost India, Ptosis Correction Surgery hospital in India, Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, Hyderabad & Bangalore, Ptosis Correction Surgeon in India.\nPtosis is the medical term for drooping of the upper eyelid, a condition that may affect one or botheyes.\nThe ptosis may be mild - in which the lid partially covers the pupil; or severe - in which the lid completely covers the pupil.\nWhen does Ptosis occur?\nPtosis can occur at any age. When present since birth it is called congenital ptosis. When present in the elderly it is called acquired ptosis.\nWhat causes Ptosis?\nWhile the cause of congenital ptosis is often unclear, the most common reason is improper development of the levator muscle. The levator muscle is the major muscle responsible for elevating the upper eyelid. In adults ptosis is generally due to weakening / dehiscence of the levator muscle. It may also occur following injury to the muscle as after lid injuries and eye surgeries. Rarely it may be due to myasthenia gravis ( a condition where there is progressive weakness of muscles).\nWhy should Ptosis be treated?\nChildren with significant ptosis may need to tilt their head back into a chin-up position, lift their eyelid with a finger, or raise their eyebrows in an effort to see from under their drooping eyelid. Children with congenital ptosis may also have amblyopia (\"lazy eye\"), strabismus or squint (eyes that are not properly aligned or straight), refractive errors, astigmatism, or blurred vision. In addition, drooping of the eyelid may result in an undesired facial appearance and difficult social life. In moderate ptosis there is a loss of the upper field of vision by the drooping upper lid.\nHow is Ptosis treated?\nThe eye condition Ptosis is trated by a specified sugery called ptosis surgery.\nPtosis is treated surgically, with the specific operation based on the severity of the ptosis and the strength of the levator muscle. If the ptosis is not severe, surgery is generally performed when the child is between 3 and 5 years of age (the \"pre-school\" years). However, when the ptosis interferes with the child's vision, surgery is performed at an earlier age to allow proper visual development. Ptosis repair is usually completed under general anesthesia in infants and young children and under local anesthesia in adults.\nWhat to expect after surgery ?\nMost patients will tolerate the procedure very well and have a rapid recovery. Cold packs may need to be applied to the operated eyelid for the first 48 hours following surgery. Antibiotic ointments applied to the incision are sometimes recommended. The elevation of the eyelid will often be immediately noticeable, though in some cases bruising and swelling will obscure this finding. Most patients will have sutures that need removing about a week following surgery. In children, absorbable sutures are often used.\nThe bruising and swelling associated with the surgery will usually resolve in two to three weeks. Some patients may need adjustment of the sutures to better align the lid height. This may or may not require additional anaesthesia or a trip to the operating room.\nIndia Surgery Ptosis,Ptosis Correction, India Cost Price Ptosis, Ptosis Correction Surgery, Ptosis Correction, India Ptosis Correction Surgery, India Cost Ptosis Correction Surgery, Low Cost Mechanical Ptosis Correction Mumbai,, India Low Cost Ptosis Correction Surgery Hospital, Affordable Ptosis Correction Hospital Mumbai, Health Care, Ptosis Corrective Surgery, Eyelid Surgery, Drooping, Treatment On Ptosis Correction Surgery, India Ptosis Correction Surgery Surgeons, Ptosis Correction Surgery Doctors\nCall: + 91 9029304141 (10 am. To 8 pm. IST)\nEmail : email@example.com (Preferred)\n(Only for international patients seeking treatment in India)", "id": "<urn:uuid:5bf543a8-f7b4-40fe-ba47-2b49b4e5396f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.indiasurgerytour.com/india-eye-surgery/india-surgery-ptosis-correction.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9267445802688599, "token_count": 852, "score": 3.25, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hacking Quantum Cryptography Just Got Harder\nWith quantum encryption, in which a message gets encoded in bits represented by particles in different states, a secret message can remain secure even if the system is compromised by a malicious hacker.\nCREDIT: margita | Shutterstock\nVANCOUVER, British Columbia \u2014 No matter how complex they are, most secret codes turn out to be breakable. Producing the ultimate secure code may require encoding a secret message inside the quantum relationship between atoms, scientists say.\nArtur Ekert, director of the Center for Quantum Technologies at the National University of Singapore, presented the new findings here at the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.\nEkert, speaking Saturday (Feb. 18), described how decoders can adjust for a compromised encryption device, as long as they know the degree of compromise.\nThe subject of subatomic particles is a large step away from the use of papyrus, the ancient writing material employed in the first known cryptographic device. That device, called a scytale, was used in 400 B.C. by Spartan military commanders to send coded messages to one another. The commanders would wrap strips of papyrus around a wooden baton and write the message across the strips so that it could be read only when the strips were wrapped around a baton of matching size. [The Coolest Quantum Particles Explained]\nLater, the technique of substitution was developed, in which the entire alphabet would be shifted, say, three characters to the right, so than an \"a\" would be replaced by \"d,\" and \"b\" replaced by \"e,\" and so on. Only someone who knew the substitution rule could read the message. Julius Caesar employed such a cipher scheme in the first century B.C.\nOver time, ciphers became more and more complicated, so that they were harder and harder to crack. Harder, but not impossible.\n\"When you look at the history of cryptography, you come up with a system, and sooner or later someone else comes up with a way of breaking the system,\" Ekert said. \"You may ask yourself: Is it going to be like this forever? Is there such a thing as the perfect cipher?\"\nThe perfect cipher\nThe closest thing to a perfect cipher involves what's called a one-time pad.\n\"You just write your message as a sequence of bits and you then add those bits to a key and obtain a cryptogram,\" Ekert said.\"If you take the cryptogram and add it to the key, you get plain text. In fact, one can prove that if the keys are random and as long as the messages, then the system offers perfect security.\"\nIn theory, it's a great solution, but in practice, it has been hard to achieve. [10 Best Encryption Software Products]\n\"If the keys are as long as the message, then you need a secure way to distribute the key,\" Ekert said.\nThe nature of physics known as quantum mechanics seems to offer the best hope of knowing whether a key is secure.\nQuantum mechanics says that certain properties of subatomic particles can't be measured without disturbing the particles and changing the outcome. In essence, a particle exists in a state of indecision until a measurement is made, forcing it to choose one state or another. Thus, if someone made a measurement of the particle, it would irrevocably change the particle.\nIf an encryption key were encoded in bits represented by particles in different states, it would be immediately obvious when a key was not secure because the measurement made to hack the key would have changed the key.\nThis, of course, still depends on the ability of the two parties sending and receiving the message to be able to independently choose what to measure, using a truly random number generator \u2014 in other words, exercising free will \u2014 and using devices they trust.\nBut what if a hacker were controlling one of the parties, or tampering with the encryption device?\nEkert and his colleagues showed that even in this case, if the messaging parties still have some free will, their code could remain secure as long as they know to what degree they are compromised.\nIn other words, a random number generator that is not truly random can still be used to send an undecipherable secret message, as long as the sender knows how random it is and adjusts for that fact.\n\"Even if they are manipulated, as long as they are not stupid and have a little bit of free will, they can still do it,\" Ekert said.\nMORE FROM LiveScience.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:d0f6c11e-5d9a-4eac-8057-aad25b3d2613>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.livescience.com/18587-hacking-quantum-cryptography-unbreakable-code.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9593231081962585, "token_count": 946, "score": 3.390625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Republican Sen. Rob Portman's flip-flop approval for same-sex marriage, is just the latest change of heart on the issue by conservatives.\nEven Democrats like President Obama -- have turned around after opposing it. This change in attitude is just one of many milestones for the movement.\nHere are five of the most important turning points in the same-sex marriage debate:\n1993: In a landmark case, Hawaii's Supreme Court ruled that the state can't deny same-sex couples the right to marry unless it finds \"a compelling reason\" to do so. It orders the issue back to the state legislature, which then voted to ban gay marriage. This was one of earliest debates on the issue at the state level, and was a precursor to the legal battles nationwide. Today, domestic partnerships and civil unions for same-sex couples are legal in Hawaii.\n1996: President Bill Clinton signed the Defense of Marriage Act, or DOMA, -- which defines marriage as a legal union between a man and a woman. The law denies federal benefits to same-sex couples in the nine states where gay marriage is legal. Clinton said he signed it because it would have tamped down calls for a constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage. Only 81 out of 535 members of Congress opposed DOMA. Fast-forward seventeen years to March 2013, when Clinton urged the Supreme Court to overturn DOMA. He explained: \"As the president who signed the act into law, I have come to believe that DOMA is contrary to those principles and, in fact, incompatible with our Constitution.\"\n2004: President Bush championed a constitutional amendment that would outlaw gay marriage. It was needed, he said, to stop \"activist judges\" from redefining marriage. The idea found support among Senate conservatives, but its supporters couldn't gather enough votes. By the way, all this unfolded during a contentious presidential campaign. Democratic White House hopefuls Sens. John Kerry and John Edwards opposed the amendment, but they also were against creating a specific law making same-sex marriage legal.\n2012: For the first time, voters approved same-sex marriage statewide at the ballot box. Similar measures had been rejected for years. Same-sex couples became free to marry in Maryland, Maine and Washington. Gay rights supporters also scored a smaller victory in Minnesota, where voters rejected a constitutional amendment to ban gay marriage. Interestingly, support for same-sex marriage came from a mixed coalition of voters. Before 2012, six states had already legalized gay marriage -- but via courts and legislatures -- not voters.\n2013: For the first time, the Obama administration joined the legal battle against California's 2008 same-sex marriage ban. The Justice Department made it official in February when it filed a brief to the Supreme Court. The Obama administration urged the high court to invalidate the ban. Obama said that if he sat on the Supreme Court, he would vote to strike down Proposition 8. The court document expressed the president's evolution on the issue. In a short time he evolved from a backer of civil unions to a supporter of equality in marriage. Dozens of high-profile Republicans also argued in favor of same-sex marriage, in a court brief.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0b166cce-1528-4329-9b87-c0895d7f690d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.localnews8.com/news/politics/5-turning-points-in-gay-marriage-debate/-/308336/19333102/-/15gewle/-/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9651045203208923, "token_count": 646, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Definition of Single-blind\nSingle-blind: Term used to described a study in which either the investigator or the participant, but not both of them, is unaware of the nature of the treatment the participant is receiving. Also called single-masked.\nLast Editorial Review: 6/14/2012\nBack to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List\nNeed help identifying pills and medications?\nGet the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!", "id": "<urn:uuid:b3dbf6db-abad-4163-90dd-365d7e741ff6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=38695", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8859546184539795, "token_count": 97, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "NPP launched Oct. 28, 2011. It is a first step in building the next satellite system to collect data on climate change and weather conditions.\nTeachers to put science to the test in a microgravity environment aboard the agency\u2019s reduced gravity aircraft.\n01.25.12 - NASA Explorer Schools held a live video chat on Jan. 25, 2012 with Josh Willis who answered questions about sea level rise and global climate change.\n01.12.12 - NES held a video webchat Jan 12, 2012 with Dr. Bill Cooke and Rhiannon Blaauw. They answered questions about meteors, meteorites and comets and their potential danger to spacecraft.\n12.13.11 - Danielle Margiotta joined NES on Dec. 13, 2011 and answered student questions about how NASA engineers prepare satellites to endure the harsh environment of space.\n11.23.11 - NASA Explorer Schools held a video chat on Nov. 23, 2011 with Zareh Gorjian for a look at NASA's computer graphics area.\n11.03.11 - On Nov. 3, 2011, NASA's Deputy Director of Planetary Science, Jim Adams answered student questions about NASA's recent planetary mission discoveries and upcoming launches. Adams discussed his career path and some of the most rewarding moments in his 22-year career with NASA.\n10.13.11 - In celebration of Hispanic Heritage Month, Dr. F\u00e9lix Soto Toro joined NES on Oct. 13, 2011, for our first live bilingual video chat. Students asked questions of this astronaut applicant and electrical engineer and found out what it was like for Soto to grow up in Barrio Amelia Guaynabo, Puerto Rico, with few advantages. They also learned what inspired him to pursue a career with NASA. A video or transcript of this chat will be posted at a later time.\n02.17.11 - Being a scientist doesn't always mean spending your days in a lab. For NASA microbial ecologists, going to work might mean climbing aboard a research vessel, or collecting marine and soil samples in the Andes, Mexico, or even in Europe and Africa! Students were able to find out what it's like to hunt microbes around the globe with Angela Detweiler and Dr. Lee Bebout. Chat transcripts are now available.\n03.29.11 - The NES project invited all K-12 students to participate in a one-hour-long NASA career panel video webchat on March 29, 2011. This year's panelists were three outstanding women who have chosen to pursue careers in science and engineering. A transcript and/or video will be posted at a later time.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dd7f67ea-0969-440f-8e56-c9e1e3d6d1aa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nasa.gov/offices/education/programs/national/nes2/home/new-promo-coll_archive_5.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9391012787818909, "token_count": 543, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The shape-memory alloy actuators might power minimally invasive surgical devices or tiny laptop cameras\nShape-memory alloys that change shape when heated could become tiny mechanical muscles for electronic devices. New mechanical devices based on the alloys produce three to six times more torque than electric motors, and weigh just one-20th as much.\nSuch devices, known as actuators, can be cut from a flat sheet of metal just a fraction of a millimeter thick. They emerged from a roject that aims to build printable robots, where the robots would consist of both the metal actuators and plastic components that could be built layer-by-layer through a process similar to inkjet printing.", "id": "<urn:uuid:445f2943-2c46-4a0d-a7fc-003ee5c0c754>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.popsci.com/category/tags/mechanical-devices", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.95082026720047, "token_count": 140, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The story explains how Huey, Dewey and Louie originally joined the Junior Woodchucks. Years ago, when the boys were still very small, they were up to so much mischief that Donald finally got fed up with it and decided that something must be done. By chance, he ran across a scout group of the Junior Woodchucks, and this inspired him to send his nephews to join the organisation.\nAt the annual grand jamboree of the Junior Woodchucks, the boys discovered that their own grandmother is the daughter of the organisation's founder. Thus interested, the boys wanted to join the Junior Woodchucks immediately. The chiefs originally didn't want to accept them, but when they learned they were the great-great-grandchildren of their original founder, they accepted them immediately. They never had descendants of their founder before, even though Huey, Dewey and Louie weren't the first ones to try; Donald had also tried to join them, but was rejected because of his bad temper.\nAs novices in the Junior Woodchucks, the boys' first task was to find the remains of the Fort Duck, which was demolished to make room for Scrooge McDuck's Money Bin. The trail led the boys, accompanied by Major Snozzie, to a wood pulp factory owned by Scrooge, where the logs from the fortress were about to be made into pulp. But when the worker responsible for the pulp making learned of the logs' origin, as a former Junior Woodchuck himself, he immediately stopped the machines, to avoid destroying the historical remains.\nThe story ends with the boys being promoted to full members of the Junior Woodchucks and Donald being awarded an honorary medal.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0ef8cc2b-82a9-4641-8adc-836daa4d3db5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.reference.com/browse/j.g.r.+de+francia", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9902912974357605, "token_count": 351, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "June 14, 2007 At one time Cyclone Gonu was a powerful Category 5 storm packing sustained winds of 160 mph (139 knots), according to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center, making it the most powerful cyclone ever to threaten the Arabian Peninsula since record keeping began back in 1945. Fortunately the storm weakened significantly by the time it brushed the far eastern tip of Oman, but it still threatened petroleum shipping lanes in the northern part of the Arabian Sea that are unprepared for such an intense cyclone.\nWhile tropical cyclones occasionally form in the Arabian Sea, they rarely exceed tropical storm intensity. In 2006, Tropical Storm Mukda was the only tropical system to form in the region and it remained well out to sea before dissipating.\nGonu became a tropical storm on the morning (local time) of Sat., Jun. 2, in the east-central Arabian Sea. After some initial fluctuations in direction, it settled on a northwesterly track and began to intensify. Gonu strengthened from tropical storm intensity on the morning of June 3 to Category 2 that night. By daybreak on June 4, Gonu had intensified to Category 4 with winds estimated at 132 mph (115 knots).\nNASA's Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) satellite captured an image of Gonu as it was moving northwest through the central Arabian Sea. Taken on Mon., Jun. 4 at 0323 UTC (11:23 p.m. EDT on Sun., Jun. 3), it shows the horizontal distribution of rain intensity looking down on the storm. TRMM reveals the tell-tale signs of a potent storm. Not only does Gonu have a complete, well-formed symmetrical eye surrounded by an intense eyewall (innermost red ring), this inner eyewall is surrounded by a concentric outer eyewall (outermost red and green ring). This double eyewall structure only occurs in very intense storms. Eventually the outer eyewall will contract and replace the inner eyewall.\nAnother image provides a unique 3-D perspective of Gonu using data collected from the TRMM Precipitation Radar from the same overpass as the previous image. Higher radar echo tops are indicated in red. The areas of intense rain in the previous image are associated with deep convective towers both in the innermost eyewall and in parts of outer eyewall. The inner ring has the higher tops at this time. Deep convective towers near the storm's center can be a precursor to future strengthening as they indicate that large amounts of heat are being released into the storm's core. At the time of these images, Gonu was a Category 4 cyclone. Several hours later, Gonu reached Category 5 intensity.\nThe system finally began to weaken during the night of June 4 and was downgraded to a Category 3 storm at 1200 UTC (8:00 a.m. EDT) on June 5.\nNASA's Quikscat spacecraft also observed Gonu. Its SeaWinds scatterometer, a specialized microwave radar, measured near-surface wind speed and direction within the storm.\nGonu continued to weaken as it neared the coast of Oman. The center remained just offshore Oman's northeast coast as a Category 1 storm before turning northward towards Iran, where it is expected to make landfall as a tropical storm.\nTRMM is a joint mission between NASA and the Japanese space agency JAXA. QuikScat is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Images produced by Hal Pierce (SSAI / NASA GSFC). Caption by Steve Lang (SSAI / NASA GSFC), Mike Bettwy (RSIS / NASA GSFC), and NASA/JPL/QuikScat Science Team.\nOther social bookmarking and sharing tools:\nNote: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above.\nNote: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "id": "<urn:uuid:304f6c93-31f0-49d8-9017-4c0c2dd36ed6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/06/070613070547.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9367884397506714, "token_count": 806, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The antimatter costs 62.5 trillion per gram. In the future it is theoretically possible to use antimatter as fuel for spaceships to other planets. The problem is that its production requires extremely expensive technology, and to create just 1 gram, the world would have to work a whole year (global GDP is 65 trillion dollars). In physics the ' anti-matter is a conglomeration of antiparticles corresponding to the particles that constitute the ordinary matter...\nCalifornium costs $ 27 million per gram. Why is it needed? An element of californium is so expensive to produce, the isotopes of californium do not have any practical application. In the West it was created only once since its opening in 1950. The californium is a ' chemical element with the symbol Cf and the atomic number 98. It is a transuranic element, synthetic , radioactive : californium has very few practical uses and was discovered by bombarding c...\nThe price of diamonds is of 55 000 dollars per gram. The colorless stone can cost more than 11 thousand dollars per carat, but colored diamonds are worth more. Why do we need diamonds? The natural diamonds are most often used in the jewelry industry. Also, the extreme hardness of diamonds finds its application in ind...\nmaterials substances the most expensive substances in the world gold which are the most expensive substances in the world saffron platinum rhodium methamphetamine rhino horn heroin cocaine lsd plutonium taffeit precious metals the most expensive metals gems stone gems precious stones diamonds taaffeite jewels jewelry", "id": "<urn:uuid:0a679192-d177-40fd-b385-ff7fe6dea143>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.therealbest.com/bests?tag=+precious+metals", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8959225416183472, "token_count": 320, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "These are two of my favorite pictures from my research on children\u2019s books about Einstein and Curie. (You can click on them to see the bigger images). They are I think, the most visual example of my thesis\u2019s argument and I think they are also illustrative of exactly what we need to pay attention to in Children\u2019s biography.\nStories about famous figures\u2019 biographies are the most directly applicable aspect of children\u2019s literature. This is the part of the story that with which children can most readily identify. Tragically, this part of the story of these lives is generally the thinest part of the historical record. Because children\u2019s literature is so rarely reviewed by historians, this is not an issue for many children\u2019s authors. They can simply invent the figures childhood.\nThe first picture is a picture of the young Albert Einstein terrorizing his baby sitter. Albert is described as cruel, and angry, he throws tantrums the text tells young readers that \u201cHis temper so terrifies a tutor hired to help young Albert prepare for school that she runs away, never to be seen again.\u201d In the picture Albert and his anger are foregrounded as the tutor runs away in terror, apparently never to be seen again. You will be hard pressed to find historical precedent for this story: By all accounts Albert was a much more timid boy, but it is easy to see here how masculinity and power are imbued on this child.\nThe second picture is of Curie crying in the arms of her teacher. Before I get into the details, consider the differences between these two images. Notice the relative size of Curie and her teacher. Einstein is bigger than his tutor, while the small (and surprisingly Aryan) Curie is presented as significantly smaller. In the second picture, the teacher does not come down to her level and instead maintains her size and visual power. This story appears in almost every single children\u2019s book about Curie. The young Manya Sk\u0142odowska was the youngest and smartest student in her class. Her school, which was run by Polish teachers, was under constant threat from the Russians who occupied Poland. The school was barred from teaching children in Polish and teaching Polish history. Instead, schools were required to have children memorize Russian history and learn Russian language. The school that Manya attended disobeyed these rules. When Russian school inspectors came to check on the school a look-out in the hallway would warn the class and the class would hide their Polish books. Once the inspector came in, the teacher would call on Manya to answer his questions. In the story, Manya succeeds by answering all of the Russian inspector\u2019s questions in Russian to his liking. After he leaves she cries.\nIn this story it becomes apparent that while Manya is very smart and strong she still has a kind of frailty. Readers are told that Manya\u2019s knowledge gives her a kind of importance. She is called on in class and because of her impressive memory; she saves the class from the inspector. While the stories of Einstein were exaggerate stories that stress his clashes with authority the story of the Russian inspector is usually treated in a way that is much more consistent with the authoritative texts. However, Eva Curie tells several other stories about Manya that only make it into one of the children\u2019s books, and thus the picture of the young Manya is shaped more by exclusion than by exaggeration.\nThe following anecdotes come from Eleanor Doorly\u2019s 1939 book, The Radium Women: Madame Curie. Doorly\u2019s book went through many printings and was highly acclaimed, being recommended in three consecutive editions of the Children\u2019s Catalogue. Doorly states quite clearly in the opening of her book that it is a children\u2019s adaptation of Eva Curie\u2019s biography of her mother. This book stays very close to Eva\u2019s biography and offers insight into a different trajectory that could have been developed in accounts of Curie. These selections come from the second chapter of her book, appropriately entitled \u201cRebels.\u201d\nIn the Russian-run high school Manya and her friend Kazia \u201ctook delight in inventing witticisms against their Russian professors, their German master, and especially against Miss Mayer who detested Manya only a little less than Manya detested her.\u201d Their teacher Miss Mayer stated, \u201cIt\u2019s no more use speaking to that Sklodovska girl,\u201d she said, \u201cthan throwing green peas at a wall!\u201d On one occasion Eva tells us of a time in which Manya was openly disrespectful, and witty. \u201cI won\u2019t have you look at me like that!\u2019 Miss Mayer would shout. \u2018You have no right to look down on me!\u2019\u201d Manya responded \u201c\u2018I can\u2019t help it,\u2019 said Manya truthfully, for she was a head taller that Miss Mayer. No doubt she was glad that words sometimes have two meanings.\u201d\nIn the second series of stories, the young Manya is openly disrespectful of her teachers. While the story of her crying in front of the Russian inspector is interesting it should be seen as just one of several stories about Manya\u2019s school experience. Importantly, it is the only story that puts her in a position of weakness against the authority of both the teacher and the inspector. Other stories show the potential of portraying a Manya who is similar to the exaggerated Einstein, openly disrespectful of a rather hostile teacher.\nBrown, Don. Odd Boy Out: Young Albert Einstein . Houghton Mifflin, 2004.\nDoorly, Eleanor. The Radium Woman, a Life of Marie Curie; and Woodcuts. New York: Roy Publishers, 1939.", "id": "<urn:uuid:70673dd1-ffc1-485d-b016-87cf7655a1ed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.trevorowens.org/2007/09/curie-and-einstein-go-to-school/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9763954877853394, "token_count": 1214, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\u201cIf God is all-powerful and all-good, it would have created a universe in the same way it created heaven: with free will for all, no suffering and no evil. But evil and suffering exist. Therefore God does not exist, is not all-powerful or is not benevolent (good). A theodicy is an attempt to explain why a good god would have created evil and suffering. The most popular defence is that it is so Humans could have free will. However the entire universe and the natural world is filled with suffering, violence and destruction so any Humanity-centric explanation does not seem to work.\u201d\nThe most common theodicy is the free will theodicy1. This is that God created evil so that we could then choose between good and evil, and make moral choices. If all choices result in good, there would be no moral choices. If love is acceptable, it must be chosen over hate and therefore evil and suffering result when we make morally poor choices. However this classical theodicy does not hold up, for many reasons. Although many believers adhere to the free will theodicy, it is not preached in the holy books of the main monotheistic religions. See: Monotheism and Free Will: The Christian Bible and the Quran both teach strict determinism - that God decides all of our fates, and our own choices and decisions cannot change God's plan for everyone. Prominent historical Christian theologians who have rejected the free will theodicy include St Augustine, Martin Luther and John Calvin2. The arguments on this page are thousands of years old, but, many continue to believe in the simplicity of the free will theodicy, so, it does no harm to state the arguments against it again.\nThe fact that there is both free will and no evil in heaven tells us that evil and suffering are not a requirement of free will. If there is no reason for suffering in heaven, then, God should instantly put everyone in heaven, where we would all continue to have free will, but also not suffer.\n\u201cEarthquakes, volcanoes, floods and disease affect human beings indiscriminately and result from geological factors not from free will. Unborn babies lay amongst the victims. Animals and humans alike suffer as a result of natural evil. These disasters have been prevalent for all of Earth's history so have nothing to do with human agency. Not only that, but the entire universe is steeped in large-scale destruction and violence as part of the very design of the physical world. None of this indicates that there is a 'good' design behind it all, and it especially indicates that there is no good god.\u201d\nGod not only created the possibility of suffering, pain and sin, but it appears that it made us with a strong inclination towards it. Life being \"unfair\" is a symptom of pain or suffering, of inadequacy or feelings or even sinful emotions such as greed. God created these emotions, we do not choose to accept them, they are inherent in our nature. God could have created us so that we do not feel these emotions, that they simply don't exist. It would eliminate a lot of evil, and would not take away our free will - we'd just have a different range of emotions that we didn't choose to have. The fact that God has created our nature and instincts to be geared towards sin and imperfection means that it wants us to choose evil over good. It has created evil, and created us so that we will mostly \"choose\" it.\nGod sometimes creates people with (for example) genetic diseases that predispose them to paranoid schizophrenia, violent crime, sexual abuse and amorality and other inherited personality defects. Other people are born with a predisposition to calmness, subordination and pacifism. Both types of person have free will. God could easily create the majority of humanity so that our personality is much better and kinder in general and not just in outstanding individuals. It seems that the actual quantity and evil and suffering could be much less, and free will would still exist.\nSuffering is not required for free will. When someone commits a crime or otherwise causes suffering, why does the victim suffer? The victim has not chosen evil, they are merely the unfortunate victims of someone else's choice. If justice or morality exist, and come from God, then only those acts that are evil should be punished. When someone is a victim, God itself should put the crime right, and avoid the innocent suffering. The person responsible for the evil may still suffer punishment or retribution, but why does the victim need to suffer? If suffering and evil are the result of free will, then, why is it that much suffering is caused by outside agencies?\nThis transmission of the effects of one person's bad choices to another's experience is unnecessary for free will. In a society where there are no victims, punishment would be unnecessary. If our nature was geared towards good, there would be no need for punishment to be used as a terror tactic to reduce crime. That punishment is necessary means that God cannot be all-powerful. It is not an effect of free will that we should suffer the consequences of each other's bad choices, it is an effect of a universe operating under a different, amoral sense of justice, and not under the care of an all-powerful, just God.\nFree will is the ability to make choices. This means, we must have options. What these options are is irrelevant. A saint, Jesus, Muhammad, etc, had free will. These people also did not (perhaps) ever commit a sin. Nevertheless it is ludicrous to say that because a person does not choose evil that they have no free will. In other words, it is possible for a person never to accept evil, and still have free will. This means that we could have a nature that never wills transgression, and we could still have free will. There are many millions of choices and paths you can take in life, there is no requirement for \"cause evil\" to be an effect of them. Free will still exists without it.\nIf God was good, we would all exist (as those in heaven do) in a situation where we all continually have the free will to choose between different good courses of action. Evil simply isn't required for free will.\nWhen a person chooses evil, God could rectify the real life effect of it, and simply let the perpetrator feel its effect. There is no need for evil to manifest outside of a person's own choices. Evil, in short, could be chosen, but not realized. There is no reason for evil to cause suffering. If we had a choice between doing something good or bad, if we chose bad, why does it cause suffering? Why must it? It seems we could chose bad, and for it to have no effect other than to prevent us feeling that we did good. That is enough for free will. A forgiving God would note that someone just chose badly, and rectify their mistake and forgive them. No suffering would result. If it means that those who choose badly fail to get to heaven then so be it, but, there is no need for actual suffering to occur. \"Evil begets evil\" is not the fruit of a good god; bad choices by us needn't result in the punishment of pain or suffering for anyone. The lack of separation of evil from its effects shows that God is not interested in preventing evil.\nSome monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Islam preach that Adam and Eve were the beginning of mankind rather than our evolutionary predecessors (which was a whole species rather than two individuals). In these religions, Adam and Eve are said to have been created in paradise, but banished for committing the original sin.\nThe Original Sin is the reason Christians say that Human Beings experience suffering - as a result of Adam and Eve's actions. Humankind was created in, and was supposed to exist in, a state of immortal paradise. But as a result of Adam and Eve's original sin, we have all been punished with our earthly existence, completely with suffering, pain and death (Romans 5:12, 1 Corinthians 15:21). Genesis 3:14-19 describes some of the punishments in more detail. The reason there is any death at all is because Adam and Eve disobeyed God.\nThe story in the Qur'an, Sura 7:24-27, tells of when Adam and Eve are punished and banished from paradise, and must thereafter live on the Earth complete with its suffering, pain and death. This however, makes all their children and descendents suffer from the same punishment. This is despite the Qur'anic statement that \"none shall bear the burden of another's sin\" (35:18 and 53:38).\nBefore Augustine coined the phrase original sin it was known simply as ancestral sin. It is a feature of Christianity that been much criticized. Famed antagonist Richard Dawkins asks \"What kind of ethical philosophy is it that condemns every child, even before it is born, to inherit the sin of a remote ancestor?\"4.\nIs it is really moral to punish someone for someone else's actions? All good parents teach their children that that is not fair and unjust. Hence, the story of Adam and Eve teaches us that God is unjust or at least, not always just, and therefore is not perfectly benevolent.\nThe story teaches us that it is divine will that sometimes the relatives of sinners can be punished for the guilty.\nThe story teaches us that free will is not the cause of the suffering of mankind. We are all born in a world of pain and death because someone-else committed a crime, which was nothing to do with our own free will to choose wrongly.\nThe free will justification for evil does not work. Free will does not require the existence of evil or suffering - Heaven is a place where there is free will, and no suffering. There is a lot of suffering and evil that is not the result of free will such as from natural disasters, so free will could not actually account for all suffering, only some of it. The question of why God creates additional suffering would still exist. Also, the free will of one person can cause suffering for another innocent person, God should not allow the moral choices of one being affect other beings as this goes against accountability, which is the whole point of free will. In short, it seems that the existence of pain and suffering contradicts the existence of a good god.\n\u201cTo the present day, all theodicies have failed to explain why a good god would create evil, meaning that the existence of evil is simply incompatible with the existence of a good god. After thousands of years of life-consuming passion, weary theologians have not formulated a new answer to the problem of evil for a long time. The violence of the natural world, disease, the major catastrophes and chaotic destruction seen across the universe and the unsuitability of the vastness of reality for life all indicate that god is not concerned with life, and might actually even be evil. Failure to answer the problem of evil sheds continual doubt on the very foundations of theistic religions.\u201d\nThe Koran. Translation by N. J. Dawood. Penguin Classics edition published by Penguin Group Ltd, London, UK. First published 1956, quotes taken from 1999 edition.\nThe Bible (NIV). The NIV is the best translation for accuracy whilst maintaining readability. Multiple authors, a compendium of multiple previously published books. I prefer to take quotes from the NIV but where I quote the Bible en masse I must quote from the KJV because it is not copyrighted, whilst the NIV is. [Book Review]\nThe Encyclopedia of Religion (1987, Ed.). 16 volumes. Eliade is editor-in-chief. Published by Macmillan Publishing Company, New York, USA.\nThe Devil in Early Modern England (2000). Sutton Publishing Limited, England.", "id": "<urn:uuid:79dfa149-f3b7-4316-b5e3-5f20a27df503>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.vexen.co.uk/religion/theodicy_freewill.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9594594240188599, "token_count": 2448, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(1881 - 1973)\nRegarding the canon of art history, no other artist has exerted such influence as Pablo Picasso.\nFrequently dubbed the \"dean of modernism,\" the Spanish artist was revolutionary in the way he challenged the conventions of painting. His stylistic pluralism, legendary reconfiguration of pictorial space and inexhaustible creative force have made Picasso one of the most revered artists of the 20th century.\nInfluenced by symbolism and Toulouse-Lautrec, Picasso developed his own independent style in Paris during his renowned Blue Period (1900-1904): motifs from everyday life...", "id": "<urn:uuid:e347ca03-870c-40d2-9d5d-c97024672562>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.williambennettgallery.com/artists/picasso/pieces/PICA1191.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.954427182674408, "token_count": 130, "score": 3.4375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A new world record wind gust: 253 mph in Australia's Tropical Cyclone Olivia\nThe 6,288-foot peak of New Hampshire's Mount Washington is a forbidding landscape of wind-swept barren rock, home to some of planet Earth's fiercest winds. As a 5-year old boy, I remember being blown over by a terrific gust of wind on the summit, and rolling out of control towards a dangerous drop-off before a fortuitously-placed rock saved me. Perusing the Guinness Book of World Records as a kid, three iconic world weather records always held a particular mystique and fascination for me: the incredible 136\u00b0F (57.8\u00b0C) at El Azizia, Libya in 1922, the -128.5\u00b0F (-89.2\u00b0C) at the \"Pole of Cold\" in Vostok, Antarctica in 1983, and the amazing 231 mph wind gust (103.3 m/s) recorded in 1934 on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire. Well, the legendary winds of Mount Washington have to take second place now, next to the tropical waters of northwest Australia. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) has announced that the new world wind speed record at the surface is a 253 mph (113.2 m/s) wind gust measured on Barrow Island, Australia. The gust occurred on April 10, 1996, during passage of the eyewall of Category 4 Tropical Cyclone Olivia.\nFigure 1. Instruments coated with rime ice on the summit of Mt. Washington, New Hampshire. Image credit: Mike Theiss.\nTropical Cyclone Olivia\nTropical Cyclone Olivia was a Category 4 storm on the U.S. Saffir-Simpson scale, and generated sustained winds of 145 mph (1-minute average) as it crossed over Barrow Island off the northwest coast of Australia on April 10, 1996. Olivia had a central pressure of 927 mb and an eye 45 miles in diameter at the time, and generated waves 21 meters (69 feet) high offshore. According to Black et al. (1999), the eyewall likely had a tornado-scale mesovortex embedded in it that caused the extreme wind gust of 253 mph. The gust was measured at the standard measuring height of 10 meters above ground, on ground at an elevation of 64 meters (210 feet). A similar mesovortex was encountered by a Hurricane Hunter aircraft in Hurricane Hugo of 1989, and a mesovortex was also believed to be responsible for the 239 mph wind gust measured at 1400 meters by a dropsonde in Hurricane Isabel in 2003. For reference, 200 mph is the threshold for the strongest category of tornado, the EF-5, and any gusts of this strength are capable of causing catastrophic damage.\nFigure 2. Visible satellite image of Tropical Cyclone Olivia a few hours before it crossed Barrow Island, Australia, setting a new world-record wind gust of 253 mph. Image credit: Japan Meteorological Agency.\nFigure 3. Wind trace taken at Barrow Island, Australia during Tropical Cyclone Olivia. Image credit: Buchan, S.J., P.G. Black, and R.L. Cohen, 1999, \"The Impact of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on Australia's Northwest Shelf\", paper presented at the 1999 Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, Texas, 3-6 May, 1999.\nWhy did it take so long for the new record to be announced?\nThe instrument used to take the world record wind gust was funded by a private company, Chevron, and Chevron's data was not made available to forecasters at Australia's Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) during the storm. After the storm, the tropical cyclone experts at BOM were made aware of the data, but it was viewed as suspect, since the gusts were so extreme and the data was taken with equipment of unknown accuracy. Hence, the observations were not included in the post-storm report. Steve Buchan from RPS MetOcean believed in the accuracy of the observations, and coauthored a paper on the record gust, presented at the 1999 Offshore Technology Conference in Houston (Buchan et al., 1999). The data lay dormant until 2009, when Joe Courtney of the Australian Bureau of Meteorology was made aware of it. Courtney wrote up a report, coauthored with Steve Buchan, and presented this to the WMO extremes committee for ratification. The report has not been made public yet, and is awaiting approval by Chevron. The verified data will be released next month at a World Meteorological Organization meeting in Turkey, when the new world wind record will become official.\nNew Hampshire residents are not happy\nResidents of New Hampshire are understandably not too happy about losing their cherished claim to fame. The current home page of the Mount Washington Observatory reads, \"For once, the big news on Mount Washington isn't our extreme weather. Sadly, it's about how our extreme weather--our world record wind speed, to be exact--was outdone by that of a warm, tropical island\".\nComparison with other wind records\nTop wind in an Atlantic hurricane: 239 mph (107 m/s) at an altitude of 1400 meters, measured by dropsonde in Hurricane Isabel (2003).\nTop surface wind in an Atlantic hurricane: 211 mph (94.4 m/s), Hurricane Gustav, Paso Real de San Diego meteorological station in the western Cuban province of Pinar del Rio, Cuba, on the afternoon of August 30, 2008.\nTop wind in a tornado: 302 mph (135 m/s), measured via Doppler radar at an altitude of 100 meters (330 feet), in the Bridge Creek, Oklahoma tornado of May 3, 1999.\nTop surface wind not associated with a tropical cyclone or tornado: 231 mph (103.3 m/s), April 12, 1934 on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire.\nTop wind in a typhoon: 191 mph (85.4 m/s) on Taiwanese Island of Lanya, Super Typhoon Ryan, Sep 22, 1995; also on island of Miyakojima, Super Typhoon Cora, Sep 5, 1966.\nTop surface wind not measured on a mountain or in a tropical cyclone: 207 mph (92.5 m/s) measured in Greenland at Thule Air Force Base on March 6, 1972.\nTop wind measured in a U.S. hurricane: 186 mph (83.1 m/s) measured at Blue Hill Observatory, Massachusetts, during the 1938 New England Hurricane.\nBuchan, S.J., P.G. Black, and R.L. Cohen, 1999, \"The Impact of Tropical Cyclone Olivia on Australia's Northwest Shelf\", paper presented at the 1999 Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, Texas, 3-6 May, 1999.\nBlack, P.G., Buchan, S.J., and R.L. Cohen, 1999, \"The Tropical Cyclone Eyewall Mesovortex: A Physical Mechanism Explaining Extreme Peak Gust Occurrence in TC Olivia, 4 April 1996 on Barrow Island, Australia\", paper presented at the 1999 Offshore Technology Conference in Houston, Texas, 3-6 May, 1999.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3cf8391c-7628-4b73-b23d-af8d16292401>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wunderground.com/blog/JeffMasters/comment.html?entrynum=1420&page=7", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700264179/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516103104-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9244875311851501, "token_count": 1482, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "July 18, 2012\nSince the Industrial Revolution, ocean acidity has risen by 30 percent as a direct result of fossil-fuel burning and deforestation. And within the last 50 years, human industry has caused the world\u2019s oceans to experience a sharp increase in acidity that rivals levels seen when ancient carbon cycles triggered mass extinctions, which took out more than 90 percent of the oceans\u2019 species and more than 75 percent of terrestrial species.\nRising ocean acidity is now considered to be just as much of a formidable threat to the health of Earth\u2019s environment as the atmospheric climate changes brought on by pumping out greenhouse gases. Scientists are now trying to understand what that means for the future survival of marine and terrestrial organisms.\nIn June, ScienceNOW reported that out of the 35 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide released annually through fossil fuel use, one-third of those emissions diffuse into the surface layer of the ocean. The effects those emissions will have on the biosphere is sobering, as rising ocean acidity will completely upset the balance of marine life in the world\u2019s oceans and will subsequently affect humans and animals who benefit from the oceans\u2019 food resources.\nThe damage to marine life is due in large part to the fact that higher acidity dissolves naturally-occurring calcium carbonate that many marine species\u2013including plankton, sea urchins, shellfish and coral\u2013use to construct their shells and external skeletons. Studies conducted off Arctic regions have shown that the combination of melting sea ice, atmospheric carbon dioxide and subsequently hotter, CO2-saturated surface waters has led to the undersaturation of calcium carbonate in ocean waters. The reduction in the amount of calcium carbonate in the ocean spells out disaster for the organisms that rely on those nutrients to build their protective shells and body structures.\nThe link between ocean acidity and calcium carbonate is a directly inverse relationship, which allows scientists to use the oceans\u2019 calcium carbonate saturation levels to measure just how acidic the waters are. In a study by the University of Hawaii at Manoa published earlier this year, researchers calculated that the level of calcium carbonate saturation in the world\u2019s oceans has fallen faster in the last 200 years than has been seen in the last 21,000 years\u2013signaling an extraordinary rise in ocean acidity to levels higher than would ever occur naturally.\nThe authors of the study continued on to say that currently only 50 percent of the world\u2019s ocean waters are saturated with enough calcium carbonate to support coral reef growth and maintenance, but by 2100, that proportion is expected to drop to a mere five percent, putting most of the world\u2019s beautiful and diverse coral reef habitats in danger.\nIn the face of so much mounting and discouraging evidence that the oceans are on a trajectory toward irreparable marine life damage, a new study offers hope that certain species may be able to adapt quick enough to keep pace with the changing make-up of Earth\u2019s waters.\nIn a study published last week in the journal Nature Climate Change, researchers from the ARC Center of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies found that baby clownfish (Amphiprion melanopus) are able to cope with increased acidity if their parents also lived in higher acidic water, a remarkable finding after a study conducted last year on another clownfish species (Amphiprion percula) suggested acidic waters reduced the fish\u2019s sense of smell, making it likely for the fish to mistakenly swim toward predators.\nBut the new study will require further research to determine whether or not the adaptive abilities of the clownfish are also present in more environmentally-sensitive marine species.\nWhile the news that at least some baby fish may be able to adapt to changes provides optimism, there is still much to learn about the process. It is unclear through what mechanism clownfish are able to pass along this trait to their offspring so quickly, evolutionarily speaking. Organisms capable of generation-to-generation adaptations could have an advantage in the coming decades, as anthropogenic emissions push Earth to non-natural extremes and place new stresses on the biosphere.\nSign up for our free email newsletter and receive the best stories from Smithsonian.com each week.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d5fc8f97-1ffe-4404-b9ee-d359c5162435>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/science/2012/07/ocean-acidity-rivals-climate-change-as-environmental-threat/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9385409355163574, "token_count": 860, "score": 3.796875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Proceedings of the 2005 Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference\nKPLU (NPR): Marine Conference\nSEATTLE, WA (2005-03-30) The Puget Sound is in trouble and hundreds of scientists are gathering this week in Seattle to discuss why and what can be done to fix the problem. KPLU environment reporter Steve Krueger has this preview of what lies ahead.\nAlso posted on:\nBy Peggy Andersen\nSEATTLE - During the great annual gray whale migrations between feeding grounds in the north Pacific and breeding spots off Mexico, about 200 individuals apparently take up \"seasonal residence\" in the Pacific Northwest, scientists say.\nSix gray whales, for example, have been spotted around Whidbey Island nearly every spring since 1991, says biologist John Calambokidis of Olympia-based Cascadia Research. Other small groups of gray whales return annually to preferred spots along the coasts of Oregon and British Columbia.\n\"In recent years, we've done a much better job identifying these seasonal resident animals,\" Calambokidis said. In some cases, \"we have evidence they don't go to Alaska. They migrate south to the breeding grounds but seem to make this their primary feeding area.\"\nAlso, he said, unusually high numbers of beached grays reported in the spring of 1999 and 2000 apparently did not mark the start of a population decline for gray whales.\n\"The mortality since then has been very low,\" he said.\nCalambokidis presented recent research about grays as the Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference got under way Tuesday at the downtown Washington State Convention Center. The three-day session, featuring scores of scientists on a range of topics, is sponsored by the state's Puget Sound Action Team and Environment Canada.\nIn a brief luncheon address, Gov. Christine Gregoire said she's making \"real science\" a priority in making decisions about the environment. There need not be a conflict between business and the environment, she said - businesses are drawn to the region for its quality of life.\nHistorically, Calambokidis said, gray whales that ventured inland were likely more vulnerable to shore-based hunters than those that swam farther offshore, churning all the way north to the Bering and Beaufort seas of Alaska and the Chukchi Sea off Siberia.\nA gray whale calf emerges to be touched by tourists in Ojo de Liebre lagoon in Baja California Sur, Mexico, in March 1999 during the great annual gray whale migration between feeding grounds in the North Pacific and breeding spots off Mexico.\n(Associated Press file photo)\nThe ones that stop in the Northwest tend to not have as many young as the larger population, he said. Determining the gender of the seasonal residents is a work in progress, but females with calves tend to start the migration late and inland stops \"may not be advantageous\" for them, Calambokidis said.\nSome of the returnees move on in early summer and may in fact head north, he said. Some only drop in once or twice. Grays seen farther inland, in central and south Puget Sound, tend to be stragglers foraging for food - sometimes desperately - that rejoin the migration if they can.\nThere was a surge in reports of dead, beached gray whales five years ago, when population estimates peaked at about 27,000 and the Makah Indian Tribe moved to reaffirm its whaling rights under an 1855 treaty.\nWhile most whale deaths occur in the ocean, the 50 carcasses found on Washington state shores alone in 1999-2000 may have marked a converging of two extremes, Calambokidis said: The whale population reaching its maximum carrying capacity and a natural downturn in the cyclical availability of food and prey.\nMany researchers believe both the high population number and the big die-off were \"blips,\" Calambokidis said.\n\"That's why there was a dramatic event, instead of a gradual tapering off.\" Records from around the Northwest indicate that the \"major mortality event\" was a very isolated incident, he said.\nOn average, Washington state has four gray whale beachings a year, based on reports from the regional stranding network that has been in place since the 1970s, Calambokidis said.\n\"We haven't really changed our response to strandings,\" he said. A beached whale carcass as long as 40 feet is hard to miss in a populated area, while dead whales on remote stretches of beach may go unnoticed.\nGray whales, the first creature listed for protection under the Endangered Species Act, were decimated by commercial whaling that peaked in the late 19th century.\nRecent gray whale counts conducted along the migration route suggest the population may have settled at about 17,000 animals - roughly the pre-whaling total, Calambokidis said.\nThe grays' removal from the Endangered Species List in 1994 prompted the Makah to reclaim whaling rights after 70 years. The issue has been bogged down in federal court appeals since the tribe killed a single whale in May 1999.\nAntiwhaling activists characterized \"resident\" gray whales as a separate population that warranted special protection. Some definitions of Makah whaling grounds limited the tribe to offshore whales, while others allowed whaling some distance into the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the waterway that divides the United States and Canada before making a sharp right into Puget Sound.\n\"Now that we have accurate evidence of their abundance ... it would allow someone to make estimates of what level of kills could come from that group,\" Calambokidis said. \"We have a much more solid basis of information for either side in that debate.\"\nOn the Net:\nBy SUSAN GORDON\nGov. Christine Gregoire promised Monday to take action to protect and restore Puget Sound.\nShe told a gathering of 600 environmental scientists and others at a U.S.-Canadian research conference that the Sound's health is both central to Washington's future prosperity and a legacy important to future generations.\n\"Only if we redouble our efforts will we succeed,\" she said.\nGregoire wants to boost spending on what she described as scientifically based solutions to problems such as pollution and environmental degradation.\nShe proposes to spend $31.5 million over the next two years to clean up mercury contamination, control the spread of toxic flame retardants, restore polluted shellfish beds and remove spartina, an invasive beach grass, among other things.\nHer proposal includes $7.5 million for continuing scientific monitoring.\n\"We are going to invest and we are going to deliver,\" she said.\nGregoire has already proposed spending $5 million on the Hood Canal, where pollution has been blamed for an oxygen imbalance that has killed fish.\nGregoire's pledge to save the Sound came during luncheon speech at the Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference, a three-day event at the Washington State Trade & Convention Center in Seattle.\nThe annual conference brings together U.S. and Canadian scientists who present new scientific findings on some of the most pressing environmental problems facing the region.\nKathy Fletcher, executive director of the environmental group People for Puget Sound, was in the audience.\n\"It's music to my ears,\" she said of Gregoire's promise of action. \"She's been around this issue long enough to know we need to do a lot more than studies and research.\"\nThe governor described the state's continuing population boom as a threat.\n\"We have met the enemy and the enemy is us,\" Gregoire said. \"Our robust population leads directly to the health problems of the Sound,\"\nOver the past decade, Washington's population has grown by about 1 million, a 20 percent increase that means more sewage, more road runoff and more pressure on sensitive resources, she said.\nPerhaps anticipating objections from the business community, Gregoire underscored the value of Washington's quality of life as a lure to enterprise.\nShe praised the work of scientists who have focused on both problems and solutions.\n\"Real science has got to be the key to our decisions with respect to the environment,\" she said. \"Every time we make decisions based on science, the environment is always the winner.\"\nAlso Monday, she announced the reappointment of Brad Ack as director of the Puget Sound Action Team, which sets the state's environmental protection priorities for Puget Sound.\nDuring her speech, she endorsed the team's seven-point plan for 2005-2007, which was released last December.\nGregoire told the Seattle audience her first brush with international environmental controversy came in 1988 when she was in charge of the state Department of Ecology. The barge \"Nestucca\" spilled 230,000 gallons of fuel oil that contaminated beaches from Grays Harbor County to Vancouver Island.\nThe oil spill roused the state's attention to the damage associated with the risks of oil transport. It also affected Gregoire's family, she said.\nThe governor recalled bringing her daughter Michelle, now 20, along when she visited a bird rescue operation.\nIt was \"heart-wrenching,\" Gregoire said.\nBut the grim scene also influenced Michelle, who is now a college student majoring in environmental science.\nWhat the plan would do\nTo view the strategy endorsed by Gov. Christine Gregoire to restore and conserve Puget Sound, go to www.psat.wa.gov/Publications/priorities_05/ Priorities_05_review.htm.\nGregoire made a commitment Monday to fund a two-year, seven-point action plan developed last year by the Puget Sound Action Team.\nThe team was created in 1996 to set priorities for Puget Sound environmental protection.\nSusan Gordon: 253-597-8756\nBy Christopher Dunagan, Sun Staff\nSEATTLE-- With science as a guiding light, political leaders must \"redouble\" their efforts to reverse a dangerous decline in the Puget Sound ecosystem, Gov. Christine Gregoire said Tuesday.\nGregoire expressed concerns about the deadly low-oxygen conditions that plague Hood Canal, and she said similar \"dead zones\" could develop in southern Puget Sound if people don't take appropriate action.\"\n\"We can do better,\" the governor said, addressing the Puget Sound and Georgia Strait Research Conference. \"My friends, we have no choice. We have to do a lot better. It is not too late - but only if we redouble our efforts.\"\nMore than 700 scientists, policy makers and concerned individuals attended the first day of a three-day conference addressing scientific issues in Puget Sound and Canada's Georgia Strait. Close to 200 separate research topics are on tap for discussion at the event, which takes place every two years.\nGov. Christine Gregoire says pollution will create more 'dead zones' in Puget Sound unless action is taken now.\n(AP Photo/John Froschauer)\nGregoire, former director of the Washington Department of Ecology, said Washington state residents are engaged in a fight against pollution, habitat destruction and declining fish and wildlife populations. But it simply isn't enough. Over the past 20 years, the state's own studies show that for every environmental success, there are new or growing problems for Puget Sound.\n\"We have a million more people putting demands on that fragile ecosystem,\" she said, \"... and we will add a million more people.\"\nBusiness owners want to come to Washington because they love the quality of life here, she said. But the challenge is for everyone to work together to improve the environment and leave things better for the next generation.\nGregoire told the scientists that research is essential. Because of dedicated scientific work, \"we have a grasp today of the problems and some of the solutions.\"\nShe has called on the Legislature to create a new Washington Academy of Sciences to bring together the best minds in the state to provide answers to vexing questions.\n\"There were bright people who preceded me,\" she said, \"and they couldn't solve the problem. We need new thinking ... When we make our decisions based on science, the environment is always the winner.\"\nBut Gregoire does not want to wait for the scientists to answer all the questions - which is why she demanded that the \"action plan\" for Hood Canal include projects for reducing nitrogen, believed to be at the heart of the problem.\nThe research conference, held at the Washington State Convention and Trade Center, has been one of the few venues to bring together a cross-section of the scientific community studying Puget Sound. Issues range from killer whale behavior to the chemistry of sewage.\nOne group of researchers at Tuesday's session described an intensive effort to characterize the existing ecosystem in the Elwha River on the Olympic Peninsula. It will be important, they said, to study the changes after two dams on the river are removed in 2007.\nOne thing the research has revealed, said Jonathan Warrick of the U.S. Geological Survey, is that the river above the dams is starved for nutrients, essential to the entire food chain. In rivers without blockages, adult salmon carry nutrients in their bodies from the ocean to the upper watershed.\nWhen salmon die, they feed organisms from the bottom of the food chain, as well as eagles and bears that then distribute the nutrients over a broader area.\nOther sessions on Tuesday included a discussion of how climate change could alter salmon populations, a talk about gray whales and humpback whales visiting Puget Sound in recent years, and a presentation about an advanced computer model used to describe the movement of pollutants in Bremerton's Sinclair Inlet.\nReach Christopher Dunagan at (360) 792-9207 or e-mail email@example.com.\nCopyright 2005, kitsapsun.com. All Rights Reserved.\nBy Larry Pynn\nThe shared waters of the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound are home to 63 marine species at risk, with over-harvesting, habitat loss, and pollution rated as the biggest threats, according to a research study being released at an international conference starting today.\nThe study by Joseph Gaydos and Nicholas Brown also finds that the four jurisdictions responsible for protecting marine species -- B.C., Washington state, and the Canadian and U.S. governments -- cannot reach consensus on the level of threat facing all of those 63 species.\nOf the 63 species, Washington officially considered 73 per cent of them at risk, B.C. 50 per cent, the Canadian government 36 per cent, and the U.S. government 31 per cent.\nAs an example, B.C. lists 12 seabirds that neighbouring Washington state does not list, even though it is common for various species to fly back and forth across the international boundary.\nThe high number of species at risk in the region's marine waters are evidence of \"ecosystem decay,\" the report's authors conclude, and reflect the need for the various levels of governments to work harder on conservation and to adopt an international ecosystem approach.\nGaydos and Brown are with the SeaDoc Society, a marine ecosystem health program administered through the University of California, Davis, Wildlife Health Centre, and based in Washington's San Juan Islands.\nAs of September 2004, the 63 species at risk consisted of 27 fish, 23 birds, nine mammals (including the grey whale, harbour porpoise, humpback whale, and killer whale), three invertebrates, and one reptile.\nWithin the Puget Sound-Georgia Basin marine ecosystem, the number of invertebrate species is much greater than vertebrate species, yet only three invertebrates are listed at risk -- Newcomb's littorine snail, Olympic oyster, and northern abalone -- suggesting the category is not receiving as much attention as it should.\nThe results of the study are being presented at the Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference running today through Thursday in Seattle and co-sponsored by Environment Canada.\nCommenting on the study, Tony Pitcher, a professor at the University of B.C. Fisheries Centre, said in Vancouver that governments have been slow to adopt an ecosystem approach to marine management.\nAnd while states and provinces can have different mandates, he agreed that the international border poses a political obstacle to good management of marine species, not just between B.C. and Washington, but between B.C. and Alaska on our north coast.\nPitcher also agreed that more research is needed on invertebrate species such as crabs, squid and octopus, and the roles they play in the greater ecosystem.\nHe added that despite the need for more work by Canadian and American authorities to reverse a decline in the health of our marine ecosystem, local waters are still in relatively good shape compared with other coastal areas in the Pacific Rim, including China, Vietnam, and Indonesia.\nRISK TO SPECIES BY JURISDICTION:\nThe shared waters of Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia are home to 63 marine species that are at risk, with overharvesting, habitat loss and pollution rated as the biggest threats, according to a study being released at an international conference today.\nThe results show \"ecosystem decay\" and reflect the need for B.C., Washington state, Canada and the U.S. to work together to adopt an international, cooperative ecosystem approach. The statistics below show the differing levels of risk to some species, assigned by just two of those jurisdictions.\nSource: The SeaDoc Society, The Vancouver Sun FISH, REPTILES, BIRDS AND MAMMALS ON THE AT-RISK LIST:\nAlso posted on:\nMarch 24, 2005\nTacoma, WA, Mar. 24 (UPI) -- Concentrations of the banned chemical PCB are at least three times higher in Puget Sound chinook salmon than in that from other areas, a report says.\nThat finding, from Sandie O'Neill, a scientist with the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife, measured chinook salmon from Alaska, British Columbia, Oregon, coastal Washington and the Columbia River.\nHer report prompted the state to begin its own research. Officials say there is no immediate cause for alarm, the Tacoma News-Tribune said Thursday.\nO'Neill presented preliminary data to the state Fish & Wildlife Commission last October and plans to unveil more comprehensive research at the 2005 Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference next week in Seattle.\n\"The food chain in Puget Sound is significantly contaminated with PCBs and flame retardants,\" said Jim West, another state scientist.\nPCBs, or polychlorinated biphenyls, are banned industrial compounds that build up in the food chain and can cause developmental and behavioral problems in children.\nSUSAN GORDON; The News Tribune\nConcentrations of banned chemicals that are particularly threatening to children are at least three times higher in Puget Sound chinook salmon than in chinook from other areas.\nIn light of that finding by a state Department of Fish and Wildlife scientist, state Health Department officials are conducting their own research. While they say there is no cause for alarm, health officials acknowledge they might revise fish consumption warnings in a few months.\n\"I don't think the data is clear enough yet,\" said Rob Duff, the Health Department's environmental health director.\nSandie O'Neill, a state Department of Fish and Wildlife scientist, has found PCB concentrations in Puget Sound chinook are three times higher than what others have measured in chinook salmon from Alaska, British Columbia, Oregon, coastal Washington and the Columbia River.\nO'Neill has studied PCBs in salmon since 1992. But comparable data from other researchers weren't available until recently, she said.\nShe first presented preliminary data to the state Fish & Wildlife Commission last October and plans to unveil more comprehensive research at the 2005 Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference next week in Seattle.\nO'Neill's results underscore the persistence of dangerous contaminants in Puget Sound.\n\"The food chain in Puget Sound is significantly contaminated with PCBs and flame retardants,\" said Jim West, another state Fish and Wildlife Department scientist.\nHe recently discovered both pollutants in herring, a key component of the salmon diet.\nPCBs, or polychlorinated biphenyls, are banned industrial compounds found worldwide that build up in the food chain and can cause developmental and behavioral problems in children.\nTesting store-bought fish\nAlthough PCBs are found in meat and dairy products, some health experts believe humans are most at risk from eating contaminated fish.\nHowever, because fish are nutritious and contain fatty acids that lower cholesterol, many experts are reluctant to suggest consumption limits based on PCBs.\n\"These contaminants are in every fish and every person on the planet,\" Duff said.\nCurrent state Health Department advisories warn about contaminated fish or shellfish in eight tainted locations around Puget Sound, including Tacoma's Commencement Bay.\nBut that advice, which doesn't mention salmon, is complicated and might not be sufficient, Duff said.\nSo Health Department researchers are testing store-bought fish for PCBs, mercury and flame retardants. The sampling list includes chinook salmon, catfish, pollack, red snapper, halibut, cod and flounder, Duff said.\nAfter that analysis, due in about three months, state health officials could revise statewide fish consumption recommendations, Duff said.\nPCBs, which cause cancer, are highly toxic compounds that can be transferred from mothers to children through breast milk. Once used to cool and insulate transformers and other electrical equipment, PCBs have been banned in the United States since 1977.\nBecause PCBs don't break down over time, they persist in air, water and soil. The PCBs also build up in the food chain, so top predators harbor high concentrations. Because of PCBs, orca whales are some of the world's most contaminated marine mammals.\nIn Puget Sound chinook, O'Neill measured average PCB concentrations of 53 parts per billion. That's like a spoonful of poison in a railroad tanker car full of water, but scientists believe the toxicity of the compound makes it notable.\nIn Puget Sound coho, O'Neill measured average PCB concentrations of 31 parts per billion.\n\"These are not screamingly high levels,\" Duff said.\nConcentrations found in Great Lakes salmon have been many times higher.\nBut Puget Sound chinook, also known as king salmon, are far more contaminated than other types of salmon, such as pinks, sockeye and chum, O'Neill said. That might be because young chinook spend more time in the estuaries than other young salmon, which also feed lower on the food web.\nAlso, O'Neill said concentrations of PCBs in Puget Sound chinook are comparable to what others have measured in farmed Atlantic salmon from Norway and Scotland.\nFor years, scientists have known about excessive concentrations of PCBs in bottom-dwelling Puget Sound fish, particularly those inhabiting polluted industrial areas such as Commencement Bay in Tacoma and the Seattle waterfront.\nFor example, state researchers have found PCBs in concentrations of 121 parts per billion in rockfish and 62 parts per billion in English sole. Both were caught in Seattle.\nHarbor seals also are contaminated.\nThe new research suggests that efforts to confine contaminated sediments in polluted areas such as Commencement Bay might not prevent PCBs from recycling through plankton and fish, said West, O'Neill's colleague at the Fish and Wildlife Department.\n\"We need to better understand the dynamic between contaminants trapped in sediments and those entrained in the (salmon) food web,\" O'Neill said.\nBill Sullivan, environmental director for the Puyallup Tribe of Indians, said he wouldn't be surprised if contaminants leak out of disposal sites.\n\"Obviously, we have something very wrong in the interior Puget Sound,\" he said.\nIf state officials revamp fish consumption recommendations, Duff said special outreach efforts will be made to tribes and immigrant groups of Asians and Pacific Islanders. They often eat lots of fish and might be more vulnerable to injury than the mainstream population, he said.\nMost Washington residents eat no more than two fish meals a week, and that's probably not enough to cause harm, he said.\nOn the net:\nFor state Health Department fish consumption recommendations, visit www.doh.wa.gov/ehp/oehas/EHA_fish_adv.htm.\nSusan Gordon: 253-597-8756\nMarch. 23-29, 2005\nPuget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference: Literally hundreds of scientists and scholars converge on the Washington Convention and Trade Center for this environmental confab. The Wednesday evening forum, led by a panel of researchers and policymakers, is open to the public. 800 Convention Pl., 206-694-5000. Free. 7-9 p.m. Wed., March 30.\nBy Warren Cornwall\nA prolific and potentially toxic fire retardant is showing up in Puget Sound marine life ranging from tiny herring to massive killer whales, raising alarms among scientists who warn it could become the next big toxic threat to underwater animals.\n\"We've got fireproof killer whales,\" said Peter Ross, a research scientist with the Institute of Ocean Sciences in Canada and an expert in toxic chemicals in marine animals. \"We're concerned about this.\"\nThe problem appears greatest in south and central Puget Sound - where fish, seals and whales had higher levels of chemicals called polybrominated diphenyl ethers, or PBDEs.\nSince the early 1980s, levels of those chemicals in southern Puget Sound harbor seals have soared, a sign of an emerging threat to local killer whales that also feed on fish, Ross said. The whales are on the verge of being listed as a threatened species under the federal Endangered Species Act.\n\"I'm surprised at the rate of increase [of contamination],\" said Sandie O'Neill, a research scientist with the state Department of Fish and Wildlife. \"This is definitely an increasing concern, and that's what's getting everybody's attention.\"\nScientists are unsure how the chemicals are affecting marine life, or what threat is posed to people who eat contaminated fish. The state Department of Health hasn't established safety thresholds for food containing PBDEs.\nA bromine-industry spokesman questioned whether the presence of PBDEs was cause for concern.\nProduction of some versions of the chemicals ended in 2004 because of health concerns. The most widespread version now is considered far less toxic, or not toxic at all, said John Kyte, executive director of the industry-backed Bromine Science and Environmental Forum.\n\"To simply say, 'We've found PBDEs' ... it's hard to make any meaningful judgment about whether this means anything.\"\nBut marine biologists worry the chemicals, used to fireproof everything from computers to mattresses, could interfere with neurological development or throw off an animal's hormones or immune system. PBDEs can linger in the environment for years, increasing the risk they will travel up the food chain as one animal eats another.\nToxic chemicals are considered one of the chief threats to the southern orcas. Their numbers have fallen from 99 in 1999 to 85 in 2004.\nNew research suggests those orcas may absorb much of the chemicals through the chinook salmon they eat. Puget Sound chinook had between three and five times higher levels of PBDEs and PCBs, a longstanding contaminant, compared with chinook from elsewhere, O'Neill said. This Puget Sound hot spot affects a number of marine creatures, according to studies by state, federal and Canadian agencies discussed yesterday at the Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference, a Seattle meeting of scientists studying the waters shared by Washington and British Columbia.\nThe fire retardant may wind up in Puget Sound through storm-water runoff; or after floating into the air and then falling into the water, where they can be absorbed by animals scouring the sediment for food; or by plankton, O'Neill said. PBDEs also have been found in house dust and in women's breast milk.\nThe state Department of Ecology last year called for a ban on PBDEs, except in cases where no replacement flame retardant is available. But the ban proposal has stalled in the state Legislature this year.\nWarren Cornwall: 206-464-2311 or firstname.lastname@example.org\nScientists find high concentrations of harmful flame retardants in Puget Sound fish and marine mammals. They say action is needed now.\nSUSAN GORDON; The News Tribune\nU.S. and Canadian scientists have found abnormal levels of harmful flame retardants in Puget Sound fish and marine mammals, including orca whales.\nScientists who presented their findings at the Puget Sound Georgia Basin Research Conference in Seattle on Wednesday said the results confirm the region's vulnerability to contamination from the unstable but increasingly common chemical compounds.\nThe findings also underscore the need for a safe substitute for the flame retardants frequently used in consumer electronics, upholstery and carpeting, they said.\nThe problem is polybrominated diphenyl ethers, also known as PBDEs. The chemicals cause learning and behavioral problems in laboratory rats and mice and might have a similar effect on people, health officials say.\nPeter Ross, a Canadian marine mammal toxicologist, and Sandie O'Neill, a Washington fish biologist, said new research highlights the need for government action. O'Neill and Ross compared flame retardants to polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs, a banned industrial compound that poses similar health threats.\nSimilar research, first reported last week by The News Tribune, will be presented today at the conference that shows unusually high concentrations of PCBs in Puget Sound chinook salmon.\n\"It's a no-brainer. We banned PCBs and it's time to do something about PBDEs. If we wait to see health effects on fish, whales or people, it'll be too late,\" O'Neill said after her presentation. \"We've got to turn off the tap now.\"\nPBDEs break down over time, don't stick to the products in which they are used, attach to dust particles and wind up in foods such as fish and meat.\nRoss, for his part, commended Washington state's effort to reduce the risks, saying action is necessary to protect the health of the region's dwindling population of orca whales, already heavily contaminated by PCBs.\nLast year, then-Gov. Gary Locke ordered the state Department of Ecology to work with health experts to reduce the threat of harm from flame retardants.\nRecently, state lawmakers introduced bills to ban PBDEs, but the measures have failed to move beyond legislative committees.\nEarl Tower, a lobbyist for a coalition of chemical manufactures, said the two most controversial forms of the chemical - Penta and Octa - are no longer manufactured. The third, Deca-BDE, is used in the casings for computers, TVs and wiring. It is required by federal law to be used in airplanes and automobiles.\n\"Deca is not toxic. It's not bioaccumulative. There are no cases noted of any ill effects related to Deca,\" said Tower, who represents the industry-funded Bromine Science and Environmental Forum.\nThe proposal to ban Deca is \"based on the precautionary principle that we don't know if it's a problem but it might be,\" Tower said, adding, \"It's the most understood and most tested flame retardant.\"\nO'Neill and Ross on Wednesday shared new evidence of abnormal levels of PBDEs in Puget Sound harbor seals, English sole, rockfish, herring, coho and chinook salmon.\nO'Neill said she didn't find excessive amounts of the chemical in chum or pink salmon, which spend more time in the open ocean than in the Sound.\nRoss presented results of research on harbor seals done in conjunction with Steven Jeffries, a state Fish and Wildlife Department marine mammal expert. Harbor seal pups captured on Gertrude Island, near Tacoma, also show higher levels of PBDE contamination than samples collected from other groups of seals in the north Puget Sound and British Columbia, Ross said.\nRoss and O'Neill said their PBDE findings are consistent with a pattern of bioaccumulation high in the food chain previously seen in research on PCBs.\nThe United States banned PCBs almost 30 years ago because of the health risks.\nFlame retardants are troublesome in part because they are unstable, said Denise Laflamme, a state Department of Health toxicologist who also spoke at the conference.\nFlame retardants accumulate in fat, have been found in human breast milk and can be passed from mothers to their babies.\nSince Locke's call for action in January 2004, Ecology Department officials have proposed a PBDE ban, but have not put it into place.\nOne lingering question is what would substitute for PBDEs now on the market, said Cheri Peele, an Ecology Department official working on the problem.\nFlame retardant-to-human path unclear\nHuman health experts believe people are not exposed to the same high levels of flame retardants as have been proved to harm laboratory mice and rats, said Denise Laflamme, a state Department of Health toxicologist. But toxicologists also haven't figured out how the chemicals get into people, she said.\nPolybrominated diphenyl ethers, known as PBDEs, are present in many consumer products. Because flame retardants easily bind to dust, good housekeeping can reduce exposure, Laflamme said.\nWhile fish is the most likely dietary source of flame retardants, they also have been found in meat and dairy products, she said. And despite the presence of flame retardants in breast milk, health officials still recommend breast feeding.\nHealth officials are studying the presence of flame retardants and other chemicals in fish and say they might change their advisories about fish consumption in the next few months.\nOn the Net\nSusan Gordon: 253-597-8756", "id": "<urn:uuid:9a896490-858a-446e-9719-2c811279a311>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://depts.washington.edu/uwconf/2005psgb/2005proceedings/press.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9502527713775635, "token_count": 7061, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The cerebrum, the largest part of the brain, is separated into the right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere is in charge of the functions on the left-side of the body, as well as many cognitive functions.\nA right-side stroke happens when the brain\u2019s blood supply is interrupted in this area. Without oxygen and nutrients from blood, the brain tissue quickly dies. A stroke is a serious condition. It requires emergency care.\nThere are two main types of stroke:\nAn ischemic stroke (the more common form) is caused by a sudden decrease in blood flow to a region of the brain, which may be due to:\n- A clot that forms in another part of the body (eg, heart or neck) breaking off and blocking the flow in a blood vessel supplying the brain (embolus)\n- A clot that forms in an artery that supplies blood to the brain (thrombus)\n- A tear in an artery supplying blood to the brain (arterial dissection)\nA hemorrhagic stroke is caused by a burst blood vessel that results in bleeding in the brain.\nExamples of risk factors that you can control or treat include:\nCertain conditions, such as:\n- High blood pressure\n- High cholesterol\n- High levels of the amino acid homocysteine (may result in the formation of blood clots)\n- Atherosclerosis (narrowing of the arteries due to build-up of plaque)\n- Atrial fibrillation (abnormal heart rhythm)\n- Metabolic syndrome\n- Type 2 diabetes\n- Alcohol or drug abuse\n- Medicines (eg, long-term use of birth control pills )\n- Lifestyle factors (eg, smoking , physical inactivity, diet)\nRisk factors that you cannot control include:\n- History of having a stroke, heart attack , or other type of cardiovascular disease\n- History of having a transient ischemic attack (TIA)\u2014With a TIA, stroke-like symptoms often resolve within minutes (always in 24 hours). They may signal a very high risk of having a stroke in the future.\n- Age: 60 or older\n- Family members who have had a stroke\n- Gender: males\n- Race: Black, Asian, Hispanic\n- Blood disorder that increases clotting\n- Heart valve disease (eg, mitral stenosis )\nThe immediate symptoms of a right-side stroke come on suddenly and may include:\n- Weakness or numbness of face, arm, or leg, especially on the left side of the body\n- Loss of balance, coordination problems\n- Vision problems, especially on the left-side of vision in both eyes\n- Difficulty swallowing\nIf you or someone you know has any of these symptoms, call 911 right away. A stroke needs to be treated as soon as possible.\nLonger-lasting effects of the stroke may include problems with:\n- Left-sided weakness and/or sensory problems\n- Speaking and swallowing\n- Vision (eg, inability for the brain to take in information from the left visual field)\n- Perception and spatial relations\n- Attention span, comprehension, problem solving, judgment\n- Interactions with other people\n- Activities of daily living (eg, going to the bathroom)\n- Mental health (eg, depression , frustration, impulsivity)\nThe doctor will make a diagnosis as quickly as possible. Tests may include:\n- Exam of nervous system\n- Computed tomography (CT) scan \u2014a type of x-ray that uses a computer to make pictures of the brain\n- CT angiogram\u2014a type of CT scan which evaluates the blood vessels in the brain and/or neck\n- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan \u2014a test that uses magnetic waves to make pictures of the brain\n- Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) scan \u2014a type of MRI scan which evaluates the blood vessels in the brain and/or neck\n- Angiogram \u2014a test that uses a catheter (tube) and x-ray machine to assess the heart and its blood supply\n- Heart function tests (eg, electrocardiogram , echocardiogram )\n- Doppler ultrasound \u2014a test that uses sound waves to examine the blood vessels\n- Blood tests\n- Tests to check the level of oxygen in the blood\n- Kidney function tests\n- Tests to evaluate the ability to swallow\nImmediate treatment is needed to potentially:\n- Dissolve a clot causing an ischemic stroke\n- Stop the bleeding during a hemorrhagic stroke\nIn some cases, oxygen therapy is needed.\nMedicines may be given right away for an ischemic stroke to:\n- Dissolve clots and prevent new ones from forming\n- Thin blood\n- Control blood pressure\n- Reduce brain swelling\n- Treat an irregular heart rate\nCholesterol medicines called statins may also be given.\nFor a hemorrhagic stroke, the doctor may give medicines to:\n- Work against any blood-thinning drugs that you may regularly take\n- Reduce how your brain reacts to bleeding\n- Control blood pressure\n- Prevent seizures\nFor an ischemic stroke, procedures may be done to:\n- Reroute blood supply around a blocked artery\n- Remove the clot or deliver clot-dissolving medicine (embolectomy)\n- Remove fatty deposits from a carotid artery (major arteries in the neck that lead to the brain) ( carotid artery endarterectomy )\n- Widen carotid artery and add a mesh tube to keep it open ( angioplasty and stenting )\nFor a hemorrhagic stroke, the doctor may:\n- Remove a piece of the skull ( craniotomy ) to relieve pressure on the brain and remove blood clot\n- Place a clip on or a tiny coil in the aneurysm to stop it from bleeding\nA rehabilitation program focuses on:\n- Physical therapy\u2014to regain as much movement as possible\n- Occupational therapy\u2014to assist in everyday tasks and self-care\n- Speech therapy\u2014to improve swallowing and speech challenges\n- Psychological therapy\u2014to help adjust to life after the stroke\nTo help reduce your chance of having a stroke, take the following steps:\n- Exercise regularly .\n- Eat a healthy diet that includes fruit, vegetables, whole grains, and fish.\n- Maintain a healthy weight.\n- If you drink alcohol , drink only in moderation (1-2 drinks per day).\n- If you smoke, quit .\n- If you have a chronic condition, like high blood pressure or diabetes, get proper treatment.\n- If recommended by your doctor, take a low-dose aspirin every day.\n- If you are at risk for having a stroke, talk to your doctor about taking statin medicines .\n- Reviewer: Rimas Lukas, MD\n- Review Date: 06/2012 -\n- Update Date: 00/61/2012 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:6f093826-dc99-4b9c-9f16-033ec6f1ac6f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://doctors-hospital.net/your-health/?/645168/Right-hemisphere-stroke", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8851884603500366, "token_count": 1443, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "||This article needs additional citations for verification. (March 2011)|\nNuclear meltdown is an informal term for a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating. The term is not officially defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency or by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. However, it has been defined to mean the accidental melting of the core of a nuclear reactor, and is in common usage a reference to the core's either complete or partial collapse. \"Core melt accident\" and \"partial core melt\" are the analogous technical terms for a meltdown.\nA core melt accident occurs when the heat generated by a nuclear reactor exceeds the heat removed by the cooling systems to the point where at least one nuclear fuel element exceeds its melting point. This differs from a fuel element failure, which is not caused by high temperatures. A meltdown may be caused by a loss of coolant, loss of coolant pressure, or low coolant flow rate or be the result of a criticality excursion in which the reactor is operated at a power level that exceeds its design limits. Alternately, in a reactor plant such as the RBMK-1000, an external fire may endanger the core, leading to a meltdown.\nOnce the fuel elements of a reactor begin to melt, the fuel cladding has been breached, and the nuclear fuel (such as uranium, plutonium, or thorium) and fission products (such as cesium-137, krypton-88, or iodine-131) within the fuel elements can leach out into the coolant. Subsequent failures can permit these radioisotopes to breach further layers of containment. Superheated steam and hot metal inside the core can lead to fuel-coolant interactions, hydrogen explosions, or water hammer, any of which could destroy parts of the containment. A meltdown is considered very serious because of the potential, however remote, that radioactive materials could breach all containment and escape (or be released) into the environment, resulting in radioactive contamination and fallout, and potentially leading to radiation poisoning of people and animals nearby.\nNuclear power plants generate electricity by heating fluid via a nuclear reaction to run a generator. If the heat from that reaction is not removed adequately, the fuel assemblies in a reactor core can melt. A core damage incident can occur even after a reactor is shut down because the fuel continues to produce decay heat.\nA core damage accident is caused by the loss of sufficient cooling for the nuclear fuel within the reactor core. The reason may be one of several factors, including a loss-of-pressure-control accident, a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA), an uncontrolled power excursion or, in reactors without a pressure vessel, a fire within the reactor core. Failures in control systems may cause a series of events resulting in loss of cooling. Contemporary safety principles of defense in depth ensure that multiple layers of safety systems are always present to make such accidents unlikely.\nThe containment building is the last of several safeguards that prevent the release of radioactivity to the environment. Many commercial reactors are contained within a 1.2-to-2.4-metre (3.9 to 7.9 ft) thick pre-stressed, steel-reinforced, air-tight concrete structure that can withstand hurricane-force winds and severe earthquakes.\n- In a loss-of-coolant accident, either the physical loss of coolant (which is typically deionized water, an inert gas, NaK, or liquid sodium) or the loss of a method to ensure a sufficient flow rate of the coolant occurs. A loss-of-coolant accident and a loss-of-pressure-control accident are closely related in some reactors. In a pressurized water reactor, a LOCA can also cause a \"steam bubble\" to form in the core due to excessive heating of stalled coolant or by the subsequent loss-of-pressure-control accident caused by a rapid loss of coolant. In a loss-of-forced-circulation accident, a gas cooled reactor's circulators (generally motor or steam driven turbines) fail to circulate the gas coolant within the core, and heat transfer is impeded by this loss of forced circulation, though natural circulation through convection will keep the fuel cool as long as the reactor is not depressurized.\n- In a loss-of-pressure-control accident, the pressure of the confined coolant falls below specification without the means to restore it. In some cases this may reduce the heat transfer efficiency (when using an inert gas as a coolant) and in others may form an insulating \"bubble\" of steam surrounding the fuel assemblies (for pressurized water reactors). In the latter case, due to localized heating of the \"steam bubble\" due to decay heat, the pressure required to collapse the \"steam bubble\" may exceed reactor design specifications until the reactor has had time to cool down. (This event is less likely to occur in boiling water reactors, where the core may be deliberately depressurized so that the Emergency Core Cooling System may be turned on). In a depressurization fault, a gas-cooled reactor loses gas pressure within the core, reducing heat transfer efficiency and posing a challenge to the cooling of fuel; however, as long as at least one gas circulator is available, the fuel will be kept cool.\n- In an uncontrolled power excursion accident, a sudden power spike in the reactor exceeds reactor design specifications due to a sudden increase in reactor reactivity. An uncontrolled power excursion occurs due to significantly altering a parameter that affects the neutron multiplication rate of a chain reaction (examples include ejecting a control rod or significantly altering the nuclear characteristics of the moderator, such as by rapid cooling). In extreme cases the reactor may proceed to a condition known as prompt critical. This is especially a problem in reactors that have a positive void coefficient of reactivity, a positive temperature coefficient, are overmoderated, or can trap excess quantities of deleterious fission products within their fuel or moderators. Many of these characteristics are present in the RBMK design, and the Chernobyl disaster was caused by such deficiencies as well as by severe operator negligence. Western light water reactors are not subject to very large uncontrolled power excursions because loss of coolant decreases, rather than increases, core reactivity (a negative void coefficient of reactivity); \"transients,\" as the minor power fluctuations within Western light water reactors are called, are limited to momentary increases in reactivity that will rapidly decrease with time (approximately 200% - 250% of maximum neutronic power for a few seconds in the event of a complete rapid shutdown failure combined with a transient).\n- Core-based fires endanger the core and can cause the fuel assemblies to melt. A fire may be caused by air entering a graphite moderated reactor, or a liquid-sodium cooled reactor. Graphite is also subject to accumulation of Wigner energy, which can overheat the graphite (as happened at the Windscale fire). Light water reactors do not have flammable cores or moderators and are not subject to core fires. Gas-cooled civilian reactors, such as the Magnox, UNGG, and AGCR type reactors, keep their cores blanketed with non reactive carbon dioxide gas, which cannot support a fire. Modern gas-cooled civilian reactors use helium, which cannot burn, and have fuel that can withstand high temperatures without melting (such as the High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor and the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor).\n- Byzantine faults and cascading failures within instrumentation and control systems may cause severe problems in reactor operation, potentially leading to core damage if not mitigated. For example, the Browns Ferry fire damaged control cables and required the plant operators to manually activate cooling systems. The Three Mile Island accident was caused by a stuck-open pilot-operated pressure relief valve combined with a deceptive water level gauge that misled reactor operators, which resulted in core damage.\nLight water reactors (LWRs) \nBefore the core of a light water nuclear reactor can be damaged, two precursor events must have already occurred:\n- A limiting fault (or a set of compounded emergency conditions) that leads to the failure of heat removal within the core (the loss of cooling). Low water level uncovers the core, allowing it to heat up.\n- Failure of the Emergency Core Cooling System (ECCS). The ECCS is designed to rapidly cool the core and make it safe in the event of the maximum fault (the design basis accident) that nuclear regulators and plant engineers could imagine. There are at least two copies of the ECCS built for every reactor. Each division (copy) of the ECCS is capable, by itself, of responding to the design basis accident. The latest reactors have as many as four divisions of the ECCS. This is the principle of redundancy, or duplication. As long as at least one ECCS division functions, no core damage can occur. Each of the several divisions of the ECCS has several internal \"trains\" of components. Thus the ECCS divisions themselves have internal redundancy \u2013 and can withstand failures of components within them.\nThe Three Mile Island accident was a compounded group of emergencies that led to core damage. What led to this was an erroneous decision by operators to shut down the ECCS during an emergency condition due to gauge readings that were either incorrect or misinterpreted; this caused another emergency condition that, several hours after the fact, led to core exposure and a core damage incident. If the ECCS had been allowed to function, it would have prevented both exposure and core damage. During the Fukushima incident the emergency cooling system had also been manually shut down several minutes after it started.\nIf such a limiting fault were to occur, and a complete failure of all ECCS divisions were to occur, both Kuan, et al and Haskin, et al describe six stages between the start of the limiting fault (the loss of cooling) and the potential escape of molten corium into the containment (a so-called \"full meltdown\"):\n- Uncovering of the Core \u2013 In the event of a transient, upset, emergency, or limiting fault, LWRs are designed to automatically SCRAM (a SCRAM being the immediate and full insertion of all control rods) and spin up the ECCS. This greatly reduces reactor thermal power (but does not remove it completely); this delays core becoming uncovered, which is defined as the point when the fuel rods are no longer covered by coolant and can begin to heat up. As Kuan states: \"In a small-break LOCA with no emergency core coolant injection, core uncovery [sic] generally begins approximately an hour after the initiation of the break. If the reactor coolant pumps are not running, the upper part of the core will be exposed to a steam environment and heatup of the core will begin. However, if the coolant pumps are running, the core will be cooled by a two-phase mixture of steam and water, and heatup of the fuel rods will be delayed until almost all of the water in the two-phase mixture is vaporized. The TMI-2 accident showed that operation of reactor coolant pumps may be sustained for up to approximately two hours to deliver a two phase mixture that can prevent core heatup.\"\n- Pre-damage heat up \u2013 \"In the absence of a two-phase mixture going through the core or of water addition to the core to compensate water boiloff, the fuel rods in a steam environment will heat up at a rate between 0.3 \u00b0C/s (0.5 \u00b0F/s) and 1 \u00b0C/s (1.8 \u00b0F/s) (3).\"\n- Fuel ballooning and bursting \u2013 \"In less than half an hour, the peak core temperature would reach 1,100 K (1,520 \u00b0F). At this temperature the zircaloy cladding of the fuel rods may balloon and burst. This is the first stage of core damage. Cladding ballooning may block a substantial portion of the flow area of the core and restrict the flow of coolant. However complete blockage of the core is unlikely because not all fuel rods balloon at the same axial location. In this case, sufficient water addition can cool the core and stop core damage progression.\"\n- Rapid oxidation \u2013 \"The next stage of core damage, beginning at approximately 1,500 K (2,240 \u00b0F), is the rapid oxidation of the Zircaloy by steam. In the oxidation process, hydrogen is produced and a large amount of heat is released. Above 1,500 K (2,240 \u00b0F), the power from oxidation exceeds that from decay heat (4,5) unless the oxidation rate is limited by the supply of either zircaloy or steam.\"\n- Debris bed formation \u2013 \"When the temperature in the core reaches about 1,700 K (2,600 \u00b0F), molten control materials [1,6] will flow to and solidify in the space between the lower parts of the fuel rods where the temperature is comparatively low. Above 1,700 K (2,600 \u00b0F), the core temperature may escalate in a few minutes to the melting point of zircaloy [2,150 K (3,410 \u00b0F)] due to increased oxidation rate. When the oxidized cladding breaks, the molten zircaloy, along with dissolved UO2 [1,7] would flow downward and freeze in the cooler, lower region of the core. Together with solidified control materials from earlier down-flows, the relocated zircaloy and UO2 would form the lower crust of a developing cohesive debris bed.\"\n- (Corium) Relocation to the lower plenum \u2013 \"In scenarios of small-break LOCAs, there is generally a pool of water in the lower plenum of the vessel at the time of core relocation. Release of molten core materials into water always generates large amounts of steam. If the molten stream of core materials breaks up rapidly in water, there is also a possibility of a steam explosion. During relocation, any unoxidized zirconium in the molten material may also be oxidized by steam, and in the process hydrogen is produced. Recriticality also may be a concern if the control materials are left behind in the core and the relocated material breaks up in unborated water in the lower plenum.\"\nAt the point at which the corium relocates to the lower plenum, Haskin, et al relate that the possibility exists for an incident called a fuel-coolant interaction (FCI) to substantially stress or breach the primary pressure boundary when the corium relocates to the lower plenum of the reactor pressure vessel (\"RPV\"). This is because the lower plenum of the RPV may have a substantial quantity of water - the reactor coolant - in it, and, assuming the primary system has not been depressurized, the water will likely be in the liquid phase, and consequently dense, and at a vastly lower temperature than the corium. Since corium is a liquid metal-ceramic eutectic at temperatures of 2,200 to 3,200 K (3,500 to 5,300 \u00b0F), its fall into liquid water at 550 to 600 K (530 to 620 \u00b0F) may cause an extremely rapid evolution of steam that could cause a sudden extreme overpressure and consequent gross structural failure of the primary system or RPV. Though most modern studies hold that it is physically infeasible, or at least extraordinarily unlikely, Haskin, et al state that that there exists a remote possibility of an extremely violent FCI leading to something referred to as an alpha-mode failure, or the gross failure of the RPV itself, and subsequent ejection of the upper plenum of the RPV as a missile against the inside of the containment, which would likely lead to the failure of the containment and release of the fission products of the core to the outside environment without any substantial decay having taken place.\nBreach of the Primary Pressure Boundary \nThere are several possibilities as to how the primary pressure boundary could be breached by corium.\n- Steam Explosion\nAs previously described, FCI could lead to an overpressure event leading to RPV fail, and thus, primary pressure boundary fail. Haskin, et al. report that in the event of a steam explosion, failure of the lower plenum is far more likely than ejection of the upper plenum in the alpha-mode. In the even of lower plenum failure, debris at varied temperatures can be expected to be projected into the cavity below the core. The containment may be subject to overpressure, though this is not likely to fail the containment. The alpha-mode failure will lead to the consequences previously discussed.\n- Pressurized Melt Ejection (PME)\nIt is quite possible, especially in pressurized water reactors, that the primary loop will remain pressurized following corium relocation to the lower plenum. As such, pressure stresses on the RPV will be present in addition to the weight stress that the molten corium places on the lower plenum of the RPV; when the metal of the RPV weakens sufficiently due to the heat of the molten corium, it is likely that the liquid corium will be discharged under pressure out of the bottom of the RPV in a pressurized stream, together with entrained gases. This mode of corium ejection may lead to direct containment heating (DCH).\nSevere Accident Ex-Vessel Interactions and Challenges to Containment \nHaskin, et al identify six modes by which the containment could be credibly challenged; some of these modes are not applicable to core melt accidents.\n- Dynamic pressure (shockwaves)\n- Internal missiles\n- External missiles (not applicable to core melt accidents)\nStandard failure modes \nIf the melted core penetrates the pressure vessel, there are theories and speculations as to what may then occur.\nIn modern Russian plants, there is a \"core catching device\" in the bottom of the containment building, the melted core is supposed to hit a thick layer of a \"sacrificial metal\" which would melt, dilute the core and increase the heat conductivity, and finally the diluted core can be cooled down by water circulating in the floor. However there has never been any full-scale testing of this device.\nIn Western plants there is an airtight containment building. Though radiation would be at a high level within the containment, doses outside of it would be lower. Containment buildings are designed for the orderly release of pressure without releasing radionuclides, through a pressure release valve and filters. Hydrogen/oxygen recombiners also are installed within the containment to prevent gas explosions.\nIn a melting event, one spot or area on the RPV will become hotter than other areas, and will eventually melt. When it melts, corium will pour into the cavity under the reactor. Though the cavity is designed to remain dry, several NUREG-class documents advise operators to flood the cavity in the event of a fuel melt incident. This water will become steam and pressurize the containment. Automatic water sprays will pump large quantities of water into the steamy environment to keep the pressure down. Catalytic recombiners will rapidly convert the hydrogen and oxygen back into water. One positive effect of the corium falling into water is that it is cooled and returns to a solid state.\nExtensive water spray systems within the containment along with the ECCS, when it is reactivated, will allow operators to spray water within the containment to cool the core on the floor and reduce it to a low temperature.\nThese procedures are intended to prevent release of radiation. In the Three Mile Island event in 1979, a theoretical person standing at the plant property line during the entire event would have received a dose of approximately 2 millisieverts (200 millirem), between a chest X-ray's and a CT scan's worth of radiation. This was due to outgassing by an uncontrolled system that, today, would have been backfitted with activated carbon and HEPA filters to prevent radionuclide release.\nHowever in case of Fukushima incident this design also at least partially failed: large amounts of highly radioactive water were produced and nuclear fuel has possibly melted through the base of the pressure vessels.\nCooling will take quite a while, until the natural decay heat of the corium reduces to the point where natural convection and conduction of heat to the containment walls and re-radiation of heat from the containment allows for water spray systems to be shut down and the reactor put into safe storage. The containment can be sealed with release of extremely limited offsite radioactivity and release of pressure within the containment. After a number of years for fission products to decay - probably around a decade - the containment can be reopened for decontamination and demolition.\nUnexpected failure modes \nAnother scenario sees a buildup of hydrogen, which may lead to a detonation event, as happened for three reactors during Fukushima incident. Catalytic hydrogen recombiners located within containment are designed to prevent this from occurring; however, prior to the installation of these recombiners in the 1980s, the Three Mile Island containment (in 1979) suffered a massive hydrogen explosion event in the accident there. The containment withstood the pressure and no radioactivity was released. However, in Fukushima recombiners did not work due the absence of power and hydrogen detonation breached the containment.\nSpeculative failure modes \nOne scenario consists of the reactor pressure vessel failing all at once, with the entire mass of corium dropping into a pool of water (for example, coolant or moderator) and causing extremely rapid generation of steam. The pressure rise within the containment could threaten integrity if rupture disks could not relieve the stress. Exposed flammable substances could burn, but there are few, if any, flammable substances within the containment.\nAnother theory called an 'alpha mode' failure by the 1975 Rasmussen (WASH-1400) study asserted steam could produce enough pressure to blow the head off the reactor pressure vessel (RPV). The containment could be threatened if the RPV head collided with it. (The WASH-1400 report was replaced by better-based[original research?] newer studies, and now the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has disavowed them all and is preparing the overarching State-of-the-Art Reactor Consequence Analyses [SOARCA] study - see the Disclaimer in NUREG-1150.)\nIt has not been determined to what extent a molten mass can melt through a structure (although that was tested in the Loss-of-Fluid-Test Reactor described in Test Area North's fact sheet). The Three Mile Island accident provided some real-life experience, with an actual molten core within an actual structure; the molten corium failed to melt through the Reactor Pressure Vessel after over six hours of exposure, due to dilution of the melt by the control rods and other reactor internals, validating the emphasis on defense in depth against core damage incidents. Some believe a molten reactor core could actually penetrate the reactor pressure vessel and containment structure and burn downwards into the earth beneath, to the level of the groundwater.\nBy 1970, there were doubts about the ability of the emergency cooling systems of a nuclear reactor to prevent a loss of coolant accident and the consequent meltdown of the fuel core; the subject proved popular in the technical and the popular presses. In 1971, in the article Thoughts on Nuclear Plumbing, former Manhattan Project (1942\u20131946) nuclear physicist Ralph Lapp used the term \"China syndrome\" to describe a possible burn-through, after a loss of coolant accident, of the nuclear fuel rods and core components melting the containment structures, and the subsequent escape of radioactive material(s) into the atmosphere and environment; the hypothesis derived from a 1967 report by a group of nuclear physicists, headed by W. K. Ergen.\nThe geographic, planet-piercing concept of the China syndrome derives from the misperception that China is the antipode of the United States; to many Americans, it is the \u201cthe other side of the world\u201d. Moreover, the hypothetical transit of a meltdown product to the other side of the Earth (i.e. China) ignores the fact that the Earth's gravity tends to pull all masses towards its center. Assuming a meltdown product could persist in a mobile molten form for long enough to reach the center of the Earth; gravity would prevent it continuing to the other side.\nOther reactor types \nOther types of reactors have different capabilities and safety profiles than the LWR does. Advanced varieties of several of these reactors have the potential to be inherently safe.\nCANDU reactors \nCANDU reactors, Canadian-invented deuterium-uranium design, are designed with at least one, and generally two, large low-temperature and low-pressure water reservoirs around their fuel/coolant channels. The first is the bulk heavy-water moderator (a separate system from the coolant), and the second is the light-water-filled shield tank. These backup heat sinks are sufficient to prevent either the fuel meltdown in the first place (using the moderator heat sink), or the breaching of the core vessel should the moderator eventually boil off (using the shield tank heat sink). Other failure modes aside from fuel melt will probably occur in a CANDU rather than a meltdown, such as deformation of the calandria into a non-critical configuration. All CANDU reactors are located within standard Western containments as well.\nGas-cooled reactors \nOne type of Western reactor, known as the advanced gas-cooled reactor (or AGCR), built by the United Kingdom, is not very vulnerable to loss-of-cooling accidents or to core damage except in the most extreme of circumstances. By virtue of the relatively inert coolant (carbon dioxide), the large volume and high pressure of the coolant, and the relatively high heat transfer efficiency of the reactor, the time frame for core damage in the event of a limiting fault is measured in days. Restoration of some means of coolant flow will prevent core damage from occurring.\nOther types of highly advanced gas cooled reactors, generally known as high-temperature gas-cooled reactors (HTGRs) such as the Japanese High Temperature Test Reactor and the United States' Very High Temperature Reactor, are inherently safe, meaning that meltdown or other forms of core damage are physically impossible, due to the structure of the core, which consists of hexagonal prismatic blocks of silicon carbide reinforced graphite infused with TRISO or QUADRISO pellets of uranium, thorium, or mixed oxide buried underground in a helium-filled steel pressure vessel within a concrete containment. Though this type of reactor is not susceptible to meltdown, additional capabilities of heat removal are provided by using regular atmospheric airflow as a means of backup heat removal, by having it pass through a heat exchanger and rising into the atmosphere due to convection, achieving full residual heat removal. The VHTR is scheduled to be prototyped and tested at Idaho National Laboratory within the next decade (as of 2009) as the design selected for the Next Generation Nuclear Plant by the US Department of Energy. This reactor will use a gas as a coolant, which can then be used for process heat (such as in hydrogen production) or for the driving of gas turbines and the generation of electricity.\nA similar highly advanced gas cooled reactor originally designed by West Germany (the AVR reactor) and now developed by South Africa is known as the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor. It is an inherently safe design, meaning that core damage is physically impossible, due to the design of the fuel (spherical graphite \"pebbles\" arranged in a bed within a metal RPV and filled with TRISO (or QUADRISO) pellets of uranium, thorium, or mixed oxide within). A prototype of a very similar type of reactor has been built by the Chinese, HTR-10, and has worked beyond researchers' expectations, leading the Chinese to announce plans to build a pair of follow-on, full-scale 250 MWe, inherently safe, power production reactors based on the same concept. (See Nuclear power in the People's Republic of China for more information.)\nExperimental or conceptual designs \nSome design concepts for nuclear reactors emphasize resistance to meltdown and operating safety.\nThe PIUS (process inherent ultimate safety) designs, originally engineered by the Swedes in the late 1970s and early 1980s, are LWRs that by virtue of their design are resistant to core damage. No units have ever been built.\nPower reactors, including the Deployable Electrical Energy Reactor, a larger-scale mobile version of the TRIGA for power generation in disaster areas and on military missions, and the TRIGA Power System, a small power plant and heat source for small and remote community use, have been put forward by interested engineers, and share the safety characteristics of the TRIGA due to the uranium zirconium hydride fuel used.\nThe Hydrogen Moderated Self-regulating Nuclear Power Module, a reactor that uses uranium hydride as a moderator and fuel, similar in chemistry and safety to the TRIGA, also possesses these extreme safety and stability characteristics, and has attracted a good deal of interest in recent times.\nThe liquid fluoride thermal reactor is designed to naturally have its core in a molten state, as a eutectic mix of thorium and fluorine salts. As such, a molten core is reflective of the normal and safe state of operation of this reactor type. In the event the core overheats, a metal plug will melt, and the molten salt core will drain into tanks where it will cool in a non-critical configuration. Since the core is liquid, and already melted, it cannot be damaged.\nAdvanced liquid metal reactors, such as the U.S. Integral Fast Reactor and the Russian BN-350, BN-600, and BN-800, all have a coolant with very high heat capacity, sodium metal. As such, they can withstand a loss of cooling without SCRAM and a loss of heat sink without SCRAM, qualifying them as inherently safe.\nSoviet Union-designed reactors \nSoviet designed RBMKs, found only in Russia and the CIS and now shut down everywhere except Russia, do not have containment buildings, are naturally unstable (tending to dangerous power fluctuations), and also have ECCS systems that are considered grossly inadequate by Western safety standards. The reactor from the Chernobyl Disaster was a RBMK reactor.\nRBMK ECCS systems only have one division and have less than sufficient redundancy within that division. Though the large core size of the RBMK makes it less energy-dense than the Western LWR core, it makes it harder to cool. The RBMK is moderated by graphite. In the presence of both steam and oxygen, at high temperatures, graphite forms synthesis gas and with the water gas shift reaction the resultant hydrogen burns explosively. If oxygen contacts hot graphite, it will burn. The RBMK tends towards dangerous power fluctuations. Control rods used to be tipped with graphite, a material that slows neutrons and thus speeds up the chain reaction. Water is used as a coolant, but not a moderator. If the water boils away, cooling is lost, but moderation continues. This is termed a positive void coefficient of reactivity.\nControl rods can become stuck if the reactor suddenly heats up and they are moving. Xenon-135, a neutron absorbent fission product, has a tendency to build up in the core and burn off unpredictably in the event of low power operation. This can lead to inaccurate neutronic and thermal power ratings.\nThe RBMK does not have any containment above the core. The only substantial solid barrier above the fuel is the upper part of the core, called the upper biological shield, which is a piece of concrete interpenetrated with control rods and with access holes for refueling while online. Other parts of the RBMK were shielded better than the core itself. Rapid shutdown (SCRAM) takes 10 to 15 seconds. Western reactors take 1 - 2.5 seconds.\nWestern aid has been given to provide certain real-time safety monitoring capacities to the human staff. Whether this extends to automatic initiation of emergency cooling is not known. Training has been provided in safety assessment from Western sources, and Russian reactors have evolved in result to the weaknesses that were in the RBMK. However, numerous RBMKs still operate.\nIt is safe to say that it might be possible to stop a loss-of-coolant event prior to core damage occurring, but that any core damage incidents will probably assure massive release of radioactive materials. Further, dangerous power fluctuations are natural to the design.\nLithuania joined the EU recently, and upon acceding, it has been required to shut the two RBMKs that it has at Ignalina NPP, as such reactors are totally incompatible with the nuclear safety standards of Europe. It will be replacing them with some safer form of reactor.\nThe MKER is a modern Russian-engineered channel type reactor that is a distant descendant of the RBMK. It approaches the concept from a different and superior direction, optimizing the benefits, and fixing the flaws of the original RBMK design.\nThere are several unique features of the MKER's design that make it a credible and interesting option: One unique benefit of the MKER's design is that in the event of a challenge to cooling within the core - a pipe break of a channel, the channel can be isolated from the plenums supplying water, decreasing the potential for common-mode failures.\nThe lower power density of the core greatly enhances thermal regulation. Graphite moderation enhances neutronic characteristics beyond light water ranges. The passive emergency cooling system provides a high level of protection by using natural phenomena to cool the core rather than depending on motor-driven pumps. The containment structure is modern and designed to withstand a very high level of punishment.\nRefueling is accomplished while online, ensuring that outages are for maintenance only and are very few and far between. 97-99% uptime is a definite possibility. Lower enrichment fuels can be used, and high burnup can be achieved due to the moderator design. Neutronics characteristics have been revamped to optimize for purely civilian fuel fertilization and recycling.\nDue to the enhanced quality control of parts, advanced computer controls, comprehensive passive emergency core cooling system, and very strong containment structure, along with a negative void coefficient and a fast acting rapid shutdown system, the MKER's safety can generally be regarded as being in the range of the Western Generation III reactors, and the unique benefits of the design may enhance its competitiveness in countries considering full fuel-cycle options for nuclear development.\nThe VVER is a pressurized light water reactor that is far more stable and safe than the RBMK. This is because it uses light water as a moderator (rather than graphite), has well understood operating characteristics, and has a negative void coefficient of reactivity. In addition, some have been built with more than marginal containments, some have quality ECCS systems, and some have been upgraded to international standards of control and instrumentation. Present generations of VVERs (the VVER-1000) are built to Western-equivalent levels of instrumentation, control, and containment systems.\nHowever, even with these positive developments, certain older VVER models raise a high level of concern, especially the VVER-440 V230.\nThe VVER-440 V230 has no containment building, but only has a structure capable of confining steam surrounding the RPV. This is a volume of thin steel, perhaps an inch or two in thickness, grossly insufficient by Western standards.\n- Has no ECCS. Can survive at most one 4 inch pipe break (there are many pipes greater than 4 inches within the design).\n- Has six steam generator loops, adding unnecessary complexity.\n- However, apparently steam generator loops can be isolated, in the event that a break occurs in one of these loops. The plant can remain operating with one isolated loop - a feature found in few Western reactors.\nThe interior of the pressure vessel is plain alloy steel, exposed to water. This can lead to rust, if the reactor is exposed to water. One point of distinction in which the VVER surpasses the West is the reactor water cleanup facility - built, no doubt, to deal with the enormous volume of rust within the primary coolant loop - the product of the slow corrosion of the RPV. This model is viewed as having inadequate process control systems.\nBulgaria had a number of VVER-440 V230 models, but they opted to shut them down upon joining the EU rather than backfit them, and are instead building new VVER-1000 models. Many non-EU states maintain V230 models, including Russia and the CIS. Many of these states - rather than abandoning the reactors entirely - have opted to install an ECCS, develop standard procedures, and install proper instrumentation and control systems. Though confinements cannot be transformed into containments, the risk of a limiting fault resulting in core damage can be greatly reduced.\nThe VVER-440 V213 model was built to the first set of Soviet nuclear safety standards. It possesses a modest containment building, and the ECCS systems, though not completely to Western standards, are reasonably comprehensive. Many VVER-440 V213 models possessed by former Soviet bloc countries have been upgraded to fully automated Western-style instrumentation and control systems, improving safety to Western levels for accident prevention - but not for accident containment, which is of a modest level compared to Western plants. These reactors are regarded as \"safe enough\" by Western standards to continue operation without major modifications, though most owners have performed major modifications to bring them up to generally equivalent levels of nuclear safety.\nDuring the 1970s, Finland built two VVER-440 V213 models to Western standards with a large-volume full containment and world-class instrumentation, control standards and an ECCS with multiply redundant and diversified components. In addition, passive safety features such as 900-tonne ice condensers have been installed, making these two units safety-wise the most advanced VVER-440's in the world.\nThe VVER-1000 type has a definitely adequate Western-style containment, the ECCS is sufficient by Western standards, and instrumentation and control has been markedly improved to Western 1970s-era levels.\nChernobyl disaster \nIn the Chernobyl disaster the fuel became non-critical when it melted and flowed away from the graphite moderator - however, it took considerable time to cool. The molten core of Chernobyl (that part that did not vaporize in the fire) flowed in a channel created by the structure of its reactor building and froze in place before a core-concrete interaction could happen. In the basement of the reactor at Chernobyl, a large \"elephant's foot\" of congealed core material was found. Time delay, and prevention of direct emission to the atmosphere, would have reduced the radiological release. If the basement of the reactor building had been penetrated, the groundwater would be severely contaminated, and its flow could carry the contamination far afield.\nThe Chernobyl reactor was an RBMK type. The disaster was caused by a power excursion that led to a meltdown and extensive offsite consequences. Operator error and a faulty shutdown system led to a sudden, massive spike in the neutron multiplication rate, a sudden decrease in the neutron period, and a consequent increase in neutron population; thus, core heat flux very rapidly increased to unsafe levels. This caused the water coolant to flash to steam, causing a sudden overpressure within the reactor pressure vessel (RPV), leading to granulation of the upper portion of the core and the ejection of the upper plenum of said pressure vessel along with core debris from the reactor building in a widely dispersed pattern. The lower portion of the reactor remained somewhat intact; the graphite neutron moderator was exposed to oxygen containing air; heat from the power excursion in addition to residual heat flux from the remaining fuel rods left without coolant induced oxidation in the moderator; this in turn evolved more heat and contributed to the melting of the fuel rods and the outgassing of the fission products contained therein. The liquefied remains of the fuel rods flowed through a drainage pipe into the basement of the reactor building and solidified in a mass later dubbed corium, though the primary threat to the public safety was the dispersed core ejecta and the gasses evolved from the oxidation of the moderator.\nAlthough the Chernobyl accident had dire off-site effects, much of the radioactivity remained within the building. If the building were to fail and dust was to be released into the environment then the release of a given mass of fission products which have aged for twenty years would have a smaller effect than the release of the same mass of fission products (in the same chemical and physical form) which had only undergone a short cooling time (such as one hour) after the nuclear reaction has been terminated. However, if a nuclear reaction was to occur again within the Chernobyl plant (for instance if rainwater was to collect and act as a moderator) then the new fission products would have a higher specific activity and thus pose a greater threat if they were released. To prevent a post-accident nuclear reaction, steps have been taken, such as adding neutron poisons to key parts of the basement.\nThe effects of a nuclear meltdown depend on the safety features designed into a reactor. A modern reactor is designed both to make a meltdown unlikely, and to contain one should it occur.\nIn a modern reactor, a nuclear meltdown, whether partial or total, should be contained inside the reactor's containment structure. Thus (assuming that no other major disasters occur) while the meltdown will severely damage the reactor itself, possibly contaminating the whole structure with highly radioactive material, a meltdown alone should not lead to significant radiation release or danger to the public.\nIn practice, however, a nuclear meltdown is often part of a larger chain of disasters (although there have been so few meltdowns in the history of nuclear power that there is not a large pool of statistical information from which to draw a credible conclusion as to what \"often\" happens in such circumstances). For example, in the Chernobyl accident, by the time the core melted, there had already been a large steam explosion and graphite fire and major release of radioactive contamination (as with almost all Soviet reactors, there was no containment structure at Chernobyl). Also, before a possible meltdown occurs, pressure can already be rising in the reactor, and to prevent a meltdown by restoring the cooling of the core, operators are allowed to reduce the pressure in the reactor by releasing (radioactive) steam into the environment. This enables them to inject additional cooling water into the reactor again.\nReactor design \nAlthough pressurized water reactors are more susceptible to nuclear meltdown in the absence of active safety measures, this is not a universal feature of civilian nuclear reactors. Much of the research in civilian nuclear reactors is for designs with passive nuclear safety features that may be less susceptible to meltdown, even if all emergency systems failed. For example, pebble bed reactors are designed so that complete loss of coolant for an indefinite period does not result in the reactor overheating. The General Electric ESBWR and Westinghouse AP1000 have passively activated safety systems. The CANDU reactor has two low-temperature and low-pressure water systems surrounding the fuel (i.e. moderator and shield tank) that act as back-up heat sinks and preclude meltdowns and core-breaching scenarios.\nFast breeder reactors are more susceptible to meltdown than other reactor types, due to the larger quantity of fissile material and the higher neutron flux inside the reactor core, which makes it more difficult to control the reaction.\nAccidental fires are widely acknowledged to be risk factors that can contribute to a nuclear meltdown.\nUnited States \nThere have been at least eight meltdowns in the history of the United States. All are widely called \"partial meltdowns.\"\n- BORAX-I was a test reactor designed to explore criticality excursions and observe if a reactor would self limit. In the final test, it was deliberately destroyed and revealed that the reactor reached much higher temperatures than were predicted at the time.\n- The reactor at EBR-I suffered a partial meltdown during a coolant flow test on November 29, 1955.\n- The Sodium Reactor Experiment in Santa Susana Field Laboratory was an experimental nuclear reactor which operated from 1957 to 1964 and was the first commercial power plant in the world to experience a core meltdown in July 1959.\n- Stationary Low-Power Reactor Number One (SL-1) was a United States Army experimental nuclear power reactor which underwent a criticality excursion, a steam explosion, and a meltdown on January 3, 1961, killing three operators.\n- The SNAP8ER reactor at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory experienced damage to 80% of its fuel in an accident in 1964.\n- The partial meltdown at the Fermi 1 experimental fast breeder reactor, in 1966, required the reactor to be repaired, though it never achieved full operation afterward.\n- The SNAP8DR reactor at the Santa Susana Field Laboratory experienced damage to approximately a third of its fuel in an accident in 1969.\n- The Three Mile Island accident, in 1979, referred to in the press as a \"partial core melt,\" led to the permanent shutdown of that reactor.\nSoviet Union \nIn the most serious example, the Chernobyl disaster, design flaws and operator negligence led to a power excursion that subsequently caused a meltdown. According to a report released by the Chernobyl Forum (consisting of numerous United Nations agencies, including the International Atomic Energy Agency and the World Health Organization; the World Bank; and the Governments of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia) the disaster killed twenty-eight people due to acute radiation syndrome, could possibly result in up to four thousand fatal cancers at an unknown time in the future and required the permanent evacuation of an exclusion zone around the reactor.\nDuring the Fukushima I nuclear accidents, three of the power plant's six reactors reportedly suffered meltdowns. Most of the fuel in the reactor No. 1 Nuclear Power Plant melted. TEPCO believes No.2 and No.3 reactors were similarly affected. On May 24, 2011, TEPCO reported that all three reactors melted down.\nMeltdown incidents \n- There was also a fatal core meltdown at SL-1, an experimental U.S. military reactor in Idaho.\nLarge-scale nuclear meltdowns at civilian nuclear power plants include:\n- the Lucens reactor, Switzerland, in 1969.\n- the Three Mile Island accident in Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in 1979.\n- the Chernobyl disaster at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, Ukraine, USSR, in 1986.\n- the Fukushima I nuclear accidents following the earthquake and tsunami in Japan, March 2011.\nOther core meltdowns have occurred at:\n- NRX (military), Ontario, Canada, in 1952\n- BORAX-I (experimental), Idaho, U.S.A., in 1954\n- EBR-I (military), Idaho, U.S.A., in 1955\n- Windscale (military), Sellafield, England, in 1957 (see Windscale fire)\n- Sodium Reactor Experiment, (civilian), California, U.S.A., in 1959\n- Fermi 1 (civilian), Michigan, U.S.A., in 1966\n- Chapelcross nuclear power station (civilian), Scotland, in 1967\n- Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant (civilian), France, in 1969\n- A1 plant, (civilian) at Jaslovsk\u00e9 Bohunice, Czechoslovakia, in 1977\n- Saint-Laurent Nuclear Power Plant (civilian), France, in 1980\nChina Syndrome \nThe China syndrome (loss-of-coolant accident) is a fictional nuclear reactor operations accident characterized by the severe meltdown of the core components of the reactor, which then burn through the containment vessel and the housing building, then notionally through the crust and body of the Earth until reaching the other side, which in the United States is jokingly referred to as being China.\nThe system design of the nuclear power plants built in the late 1960s raised questions of operational safety, and raised the concern that a severe reactor accident could release large quantities of radioactive materials into the atmosphere and environment. By 1970, there were doubts about the ability of the emergency cooling systems of a nuclear reactor to prevent a loss of coolant accident and the consequent meltdown of the fuel core; the subject proved popular in the technical and the popular presses. In 1971, in the article Thoughts on Nuclear Plumbing, former Manhattan Project (1942\u20131946) nuclear physicist Ralph Lapp used the term \"China syndrome\" to describe a possible burn-through, after a loss of coolant accident, of the nuclear fuel rods and core components melting the containment structures, and the subsequent escape of radioactive material(s) into the atmosphere and environment; the hypothesis derived from a 1967 report by a group of nuclear physicists, headed by W. K. Ergen. In the event, Lapp\u2019s hypothetical nuclear accident was cinematically adapted as The China Syndrome (1979).\nThe geographic, planet-piercing concept of the China syndrome derives from the misperception that China is the antipode of the United States; to many Americans, it is the \u201cthe other side of the world\u201d. Moreover, the hypothetical transit of a meltdown product to the other side of the Earth (i.e. China) ignores the fact that the Earth's gravity tends to pull all masses towards its center. Assuming a meltdown product could persist in a mobile molten form for long enough to reach the center of the Earth; momentum loss due to friction (fluid viscosity) would prevent it continuing to the other side.\nSee also \n- Behavior of nuclear fuel during a reactor accident\n- Chernobyl compared to other radioactivity releases\n- Chernobyl disaster effects\n- High-level radioactive waste management\n- International Nuclear Event Scale\n- List of civilian nuclear accidents\n- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents\n- Nuclear fuel response to reactor accidents\n- Nuclear safety\n- Nuclear power\n- Nuclear power debate\n- Martin Fackler (June 1, 2011). \"Report Finds Japan Underestimated Tsunami Danger\". New York Times.\n- International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (2007). IAEA Safety Glossary: Terminology Used in Nuclear Safety and Radiation Protection (2007edition ed.). Vienna, Austria: International Atomic Energy Agency. ISBN 92-0-100707-8. Retrieved 2009-08-17.\n- United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) (2009-09-14). \"Glossary\". Website. Rockville, Maryland, USA: Federal Government of the United States. pp. See Entries for Letter M and Entries for Letter N. Retrieved 2009-10-03.\n- Reactor safety study: an assessment of accident risks in U.S. commercial nuclear power plants, Volume 1\n- Hewitt, Geoffrey Frederick; Collier, John Gordon (2000). \"4.6.1 Design Basis Accident for the AGR: Depressurization Fault\". Introduction to nuclear power (in Technical English). London, UK: Taylor & Francis. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-56032-454-6. Retrieved 2010-06-05.\n- \"Earthquake Report No. 91\". JAIF. May 25, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2011.\n- Kuan, P.; Hanson, D. J., Odar, F. (1991). Managing water addition to a degraded core. Retrieved 2010-11-22.\n- Haskin, F.E.; Camp, A.L. (1994). Perspectives on Reactor Safety (NUREG/CR-6042) (Reactor Safety Course R-800), 1st Edition. Beltsville, MD: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. p. 3.1\u20135. Retrieved 2010-11-23.\n- Haskin, F.E.; Camp, A.L. (1994). Perspectives on Reactor Safety (NUREG/CR-6042) (Reactor Safety Course R-800), 1st Edition. Beltsville, MD: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. pp. 3.5\u20131 to 3.5\u20134. Retrieved 2010-12-24.\n- Haskin, F.E.; Camp, A.L. (1994). Perspectives on Reactor Safety (NUREG/CR-6042) (Reactor Safety Course R-800), 1st Edition. Beltsville, MD: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. pp. 3.5\u20134 to 3.5\u20135. Retrieved 2010-12-24.\n- ANS : Public Information : Resources : Special Topics : History at Three Mile Island : What Happened and What Didn't in the TMI-2 Accident\n- Nuclear Industry in Russia Sells Safety, Taught by Chernobyl\n- 'Melt-through' at Fukushima? / Govt. suggests situation worse than meltdown http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/dy/national/T110607005367.htm\n- Test Area North\n- Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press), p. 11.\n- Lapp, Ralph E. \"Thoughts on nuclear plumbing.\" The New York Times, 12 December 1971, pg. E11.\n- \"China Syndrome\". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved December 11, 2012.\n- Presenter: Martha Raddatz (15 March 2011). \"ABC World News\". ABC.\n- Allen, P.J.; J.Q. Howieson, H.S. Shapiro, J.T. Rogers, P. Mostert and R.W. van Otterloo (April\u2013June 1990). \"Summary of CANDU 6 Probabilistic Safety Assessment Study Results\". Nuclear Safety 31 (2): 202\u2013214.\n- http://www.insc.anl.gov/neisb/neisb4/NEISB_1.1.html INL VVER Sourcebook\n- Partial Fuel Meltdown Events\n- ANL-W Reactor History: BORAX I\n- Wald, Matthew L. (2011-03-11). \"Japan Expands Evacuation Around Nuclear Plant\". The New York Times.\n- The Chernobyl Forum: 2003-2005 (2006-04). \"Chernobyl\u2019s Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-economic Impacts\". International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 14. Retrieved 2011-01-26.\n- The Chernobyl Forum: 2003-2005 (2006-04). \"Chernobyl\u2019s Legacy: Health, Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts\". International Atomic Energy Agency. p. 16. Retrieved 2011-01-26.\n- Hiroko Tabuchi (May 24, 2011). \"Company Believes 3 Reactors Melted Down in Japan\". The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-05-25.", "id": "<urn:uuid:593ff668-f2a3-43a3-a234-69537b1789d6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_meltdown", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9348092675209045, "token_count": 11510, "score": 4.1875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By Serena Gordon\nMONDAY, Nov. 16 (HealthDay News) -- Pediatric food allergies, which can sometimes be life-threatening, are increasing at a dramatic rate in the United States, new research shows.\nBut the study authors aren't sure if the rise in reports of food allergies reflects an increase in actual prevalence or if better awareness has led more people to seek treatment for their symptoms.\nWhatever the cause, it's clear that the number of children with food allergies has gone up 18 percent and the number seeking treatment for food allergy at emergency departments or hospitals has tripled since 1993.\n\"People are more aware of food allergies today, and that could have something to do with it,\" said study author, Amy Branum, a health statistician for the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. \"But, when we looked at health-care surveys filled out by parents and those from the health-care sector, we saw the increase across the surveys so this may be more than just increased awareness.\"\nResults of the study were published online Nov. 16 and will appear in the December print issue of Pediatrics.\nAlthough many people think of allergies as more of a nuisance than a serious health issue, food allergy in particular can be very serious, even life-threatening. The most common foods that people are allergic to include peanuts, tree nuts, milk, eggs, soy, shellfish, fish and wheat, according to the Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network.\nSymptoms often appear minutes after people eat a food that they're allergic to, but it can sometimes take several hours before a reaction begins, according to the network. Typical symptoms of a food allergy include a tingling sensation in the mouth, swelling of the tongue or throat, trouble breathing, hives, stomach cramping, vomiting or diarrhea.\nIn the current study, the researchers used information from four different national data sources to assess the current rate of food allergies in the United States. The surveys included information from parents and from health-care providers, according to Branum.\nThe researchers found that between 1997 and 2007, the incidence of food allergy went up by 18 percent. Parents of almost 4 percent of U.S. children reported a food or digestive allergy in their child, the study authors noted.\nThere was also an increase in the rates of parent-reported skin allergy (eczema) during the same time period. Approximately 8.9 percent of U.S. children had experienced skin allergy in 2007, compared with 7.9 percent in 1997.\nHealth-care providers, on the other hand, reported that the number of children being treated for food allergies had tripled, the study found. Data from health-care providers was from 1993 to 2006.\nData included testing for immunoglobulin E, or IgE, antibodies in the blood for various foodstuffs, which can indicate an allergy. The percentage of children who tested positive for IgE antibodies for peanut allergy was 9 percent; for egg allergy, 7 percent; milk, 12 percent; and shrimp, 5 percent, the study found.\nThough IgE antibodies can indicate a potential food allergy, the test is often better at ruling out who does not have an allergy, Branum said. A positive test doesn't mean that someone definitely has a food allergy, but suggests that the potential is there.\nThe researchers also noted that Hispanic children had the lowest overall prevalence of food allergy but the greatest increases over time of parent-reported incidences of food allergy.\n\"People should be aware that food allergy may really be increasing,\" Branum said. \"If small children have symptoms when they eat a particular food, have that child checked out, particularly if they have co-occurring conditions like asthma and eczema.\"\n\"Food allergies are real,\" said Dr. Jennifer Appleyard, chief of allergy and immunology at St. John Hospital and Medical Center in Detroit. \"And it appears that the prevalence is rising.\"\nThis will present various challenges, she noted. One is that there's already a shortage of allergy specialists in many areas, Appleyard said. Another is that schools will have to gear up to take care of additional children with food allergy to ensure their safety during the school day and on field trips, she said.\nParents who suspect their child has a food allergy should first talk with the child's primary care physician about symptoms. The problem could be a food intolerance rather than an allergy, she said, but the child might need to be tested by an allergy specialist to get a definitive diagnosis.\nThe Food Allergy & Anaphylaxis Network has more on food allergies.\nCopyright \u00a9 2011 HealthDay. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4d96b209-69f3-4f25-ae7c-19c6c36e05c2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://health.usnews.com/health-news/family-health/allergy-and-asthma/articles/2009/11/16/child-food-allergies-on-the-rise-in-us_print.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9699831008911133, "token_count": 962, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Classification of Burns\nWhat are the classifications of burns?\nBurns are classified as first-, second-, or third-degree, depending on how deep and severe they penetrate the skin's surface.\nFirst-degree (superficial) burns\nFirst-degree burns affect only the epidermis, or outer layer of skin. The burn site is red, painful, dry, and with no blisters. Mild sunburn is an example. Long-term tissue damage is rare and usually consists of an increase or decrease in the skin color.\nSecond-degree (partial thickness) burns\nSecond-degree burns involve the epidermis and part of the dermis layer of skin. The burn site appears red, blistered, and may be swollen and painful.\nThird-degree (full thickness) burns\nThird-degree burns destroy the epidermis and dermis. Third-degree burns may also damage the underlying bones, muscles, and tendons. The burn site appears white or charred. There is no sensation in the area since the nerve endings are destroyed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d3e51a07-18ee-4328-b77c-1bb70f80bd53>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://healthcare.utah.edu/healthlibrary/library/diseases/pediatric/doc.php?type=90&id=P09575", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.899865984916687, "token_count": 219, "score": 3.90625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "These energy saving tips will show you how to reduce your impact on both the environment and your energy bills.\n1. Turn out the lights when you leave a room. This is probably the easiest thing you can do to save energy \u2013 just flip the switch on your way out.\n2. Turn off electronic devices when you are not using them. This includes TVs, computers, DVD players, stereos, and any other electronic devices. If you\u2019re not using it, why leave it on? To take this one step further, you can also unplug devices like cell phone chargers when they are not in use. They still use a small amount unless they are completely unplugged, even if they do not appear to be in use.\n3. Invest in energy-efficient light bulbs, such as compact fluorescent bulbs. These are slowly replacing regular incandescent bulbs, and they use significantly less energy.\n4. In the winter, wear extra layers around the house. Simply turning up the thermostat seems so easy, but putting on a sweater uses a lot less energy. Try to have an extra-comfy sweater or sweatshirt handy that you can throw on over anything when you get cold. Wearing long underwear, tights or leggings under your pants can also be helpful if it is particularly chilly.\n5. During the winter, open shades during the day; during the summer, close them. Sunlight can have a powerful effect on the temperature of a room, especially if that room faces south and receives more sun. Use this to your advantage by keeping your living space warmer in the winter and cooler in the summer.\n6. Block the bottoms of doors in winter to prevent heat from escaping. You can buy a door draft snake or make one yourself.\n7. Hang clothes to dry rather than use a dryer. This is very easy to do and will even make your clothes last longer; using a dryer causes clothes to shrink and lose their shape. You can buy a rack to hang them on at places like Bed Bath and Beyond. Be careful about using hangers to dry clothes, as they may stretch some fabrics.\nHope these tips help you to save energy!", "id": "<urn:uuid:69590e66-f62a-4b25-a7d4-838b351c0879>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://insidemix.com/energy-saving-tips/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443930983543396, "token_count": 451, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hot Weather Gets Scientists' Attention\nOriginally published on Wed July 11, 2012 5:30 am\nRENEE MONTAGNE, HOST:\nAcross America people are sweltering through extreme heat this year, continuing a long-term trend of rising temperatures. Inevitably, many are wondering if the scorching heat is due to global warming. Scientists are expected to dig into the data and grapple with that in the months to come. They've already taken a stab at a possible connection with last year's extreme weather events, like the blistering drought in Texas. NPR's Richard Harris reports.\nRICHARD HARRIS, BYLINE: Weather researchers from around the world are now taking stock of what happened in 2011. It was not the hottest year on record, but it was still in the top 15. Jessica Blunden from the National Climatic Data Center says 2011 had its own memorable characteristics.\nJESSICA BLUNDEN: People may very well remember this year as a year of extreme weather and climate.\nHARRIS: There were devastating droughts in Africa, Mexico, and Texas. In Thailand, massive flooding kept people's houses underwater for two months.\nBLUNDEN: Here in the United States, we had one of our busiest and most destructive seasons on record in 2011. There were seven different tornado and severe weather outbreaks that each caused more than a billion dollars in damages.\nHARRIS: So what's going on here? Federal climate scientist, Tom Karl, said one major feature of the global weather last year was a La Nina event. That's a period of cooler Pacific Ocean temperatures and it has effects around the globe, primarily in producing floods in some parts of the world and droughts in others.\nTOM KARL: By no means did it explain all of the activity in 2011, but it certainly influenced a considerable part of the climate and weather.\nHARRIS: Karl and Blunden are part of a huge multinational effort to sum up last year's weather and say what it all means. They provided an update by conference call. Clearly, long-term temperature trends are climbing as you'd expect as a result of global warming. Tom Peterson from the Federal Climate Data Center says the effort now is to look more closely at individual events.\nTOM PETERSON: You've probably all heard the term you can't attribute any single event to global warming, and while that's true, the focus of the science now is evolving and moving onto how is the probability of event change.\nHARRIS: And there researchers report some progress. For example, last year's record-breaking drought in Texas wasn't simply the result of La Nina. Peter Stott from the British Meteorology Office says today's much warmer planet played a huge role as well, according to the study the group released on Tuesday.\nPETER STOTT: The result that they find is really quite striking, in that they find that such a heat wave is now about 20 times more likely during a La Nina year than it was during the 1960s.\nHARRIS: A second study found that an extraordinary warm spell in London last November was 60 times more likely to occur on our warming planet than it would have been over the last 350 years. But that's not to say everything is related to climate change. There's no clear link between the spate of tornadoes and global warming, and devastating floods in Thailand last year, turn out to be the result of poor land use practices.\nEven so, Kate Willett of the British Weather Service says there is a global trend consistent with what scientists expect climate change to bring.\nKATE WILLETT: So, in simple terms, we can say that the dry regions are getting drier and the wet regions are getting wetter.\nHARRIS: This year's extreme events are different from last year's, but they all fit into a coherent picture of global change. Richard Harris, NPR News. Transcript provided by NPR, Copyright NPR.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e8e46237-1e26-4326-b62c-a25477bd0d59>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kacu.org/post/hot-weather-gets-scientists-attention", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9564203023910522, "token_count": 822, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "From airport food that is roughly 100 percent sodium to the roof of the plane potentially coming off to a sleeping air traffic controller guiding a plane, you\u2019d think air travel is getting dangerous.\nA new study says it may be. Although not in the convertible-plane or narcoleptic-controller sort of way.\nThe study, released Monday in the Journal of Occupational Health and Environmental Medicine, says that frequent business travelers were more likely to describe their health as \u201cfair\u201d or \u201cpoor.\u201d\nMore than 13,000 subjects were studied from data supplied by a corporate wellness program. It looked at three groups: Non-travelers, occasional travelers (80 percent of those surveyed) and \u201cextensive travelers\u201d who run at the George Clooney in \u201cUp in the Air\u201d pace of 20 or more nights a month on the road.\nThose Clooney-esque road warriors are not a healthy bunch. And they certainly don\u2019t look like him. They are 92 percent more likely to be obese, with high blood pressure and unfavorable cholesterol levels.\nSeveral factors could contribute to this, the researchers said, including poor sleep, fattening foods and long periods of inactivity.\nWe\u2019re no scientists, but we\u2019d guess that doubles-for-$1-extra, migraine-inducing flight delays and blood-pressure-raising bag fees also have something to do with it.\nHow do you try to stay healthy on the road?", "id": "<urn:uuid:7cb7de38-7613-4348-a286-c2638952862e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://lifeinc.today.com/_news/2011/04/26/6525547-an-airport-is-no-substitute-for-the-gym", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9555197358131409, "token_count": 309, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Like other pulmonate land snails, most slugs have two pairs of 'feelers' or tentacles on their head. The upper pair is light sensing, while the lower pair provides the sense of smell. Both pairs are retractable, and can be regrown if lost.\nOn top of the slug, behind the head, is the saddle-shaped mantle, and under this are the genital opening and anus. On one side (almost always the right hand side) of the mantle is a respiratory opening, which is easy to see when open, but difficult to see when closed. This opening is known as the pneumostome. Within the mantle in some species is a very small, rather flat shell.\nLike other snails, a slug moves by rhythmic waves of muscular contraction on the underside of its foot. It simultaneously secretes a layer of mucus on which it travels, which helps prevent damage to the foot tissues. Some slug species hibernate underground during the winter in temperate climates, but in other species, the adults die in the autumn.\nIn rural southern Italy, the garden slug Arion hortensis was used to treat gastritis, stomach ulcers or peptic ulcers by swallowing it whole and alive. Given that it is now known that most peptic ulcers are caused by Helicobacter pylori, the merit of swallowing a live slug is questionable. A clear mucus produced by the slug is also used to treat various skin conditions including dermatitis, warts, inflammations, calluses, acne and wounds.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4f92c42b-35b4-439c-8f11-a29c761e704a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://melvynyeo.deviantart.com/art/Slug-258511210", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9502175450325012, "token_count": 318, "score": 3.4375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Our main goal here is to give a quick visual summary that is at once convincing and data rich. These employ some of the most basic tools of visual data analysis and should probably become form part of the basic vocabulary of an experimental mathematician. Note that traditionally one would run a test such as the Anderson-Darling test (which we have done) for the continuous uniform distribution and associate a particular probability with each of our sets of probability, but unless the probability values are extremely high or low it is difficult to interpret these statistics.\nExperimentally, we want to test graphically the hypothesis of normality and randomness (or non-periodicity) for our numbers. Because the statistics themselves do not fall into the nicest of distributions, we have chosen to plot only the associated probabilities. We include two different types of graphs here. A quantile-quantile plot is used to examine the distribution of our data and scatter plots are used to check for correlations between statistics.\nThe first is a quantile-quantile plot of the chi square base 10 probability values versus a a discrete uniform distribution. For this graph we have placed the probabilities obtained from our square roots and plotted them against a perfectly uniform distribution. Finding nothing here is equivalent to seeing that the graph is a straight line with slope 1. This is a crude but effective way of seeing the data. The disadvantage is that the data are really plotted along a one dimensional curve and as such it may be impossible to see more subtle patterns.\nThe other graphs are examples of scatter plots. The first scatter plot shows that nothing interesting is occurring. We are again looking at probability values this time derived from the discrete Cramer-von Mises (CVM) test base 10,000. For each cube root we have plotted the point , where is the CVM base 10,000 probability associated with the first 2500 digits of the cube root of i and is the probability associated with the next 2500 digits. A look at the graph reveals that we have now plotted our data on a two dimensional surface and there is a lot more `structure' to be seen. Still, it is not hard to convince oneself that there is little or no relationship between the probabilities of the first 2500 digits and the second 2500 digits.\nThe last graph is similar to the second. Here we have plotted the probabilities associated with the Anderson-Stephens statistic of the first 10,000 digits versus the first 20,000 digits. We expect to find a correlation between these tests since there is a 10,000 digit overlap. In fact, although the effect is slight, one can definitely see the thinning out of points from the upper left hand corner and lower right hand corner.\nFigure 1: Graphs 1-3", "id": "<urn:uuid:6697aede-f5b6-4d7b-b653-9cc6d6586fb4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://oldweb.cecm.sfu.ca/organics/vault/expmath/expmath/html/node15.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9398625493049622, "token_count": 554, "score": 3.5625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Vol. 17 Issue 6\nOne-Legged (Single Limb) Stance Test\nThe One-Legged Stance Test (OLST)1,2 is a simple, easy and effective method to screen for balance impairments in the older adult population.\nYou may be asking yourself, \"how can standing on one leg provide you with any information about balance, after all, we do not go around for extended periods of time standing on one leg?\"\nTrue, as a rule we are a dynamic people, always moving, our world always in motion, but there are instances were we do need to maintain single limb support. The most obvious times are when we are performing our everyday functional activities.\nStepping into a bath tub or up onto a curb would be difficult, if not impossible to do without the ability to maintain single limb support for a given amount of time. The ability to switch from two- to one-leg standing is required to perform turns, climb stairs and dress.\nAs we know, the gait cycle requires a certain amount of single limb support in order to be able to progress ourselves along in a normal pattern. When the dynamics of the cycle are disrupted, loss of balance leading to falls may occur.\nThis is especially true in older individuals whose gait cycle is altered due to normal and potentially abnormal changes that occur as a result of aging.\nThe One-Legged Stance Test measures postural stability (i.e., balance) and is more difficult to perform due to the narrow base of support required to do the test. Along with five other tests of balance and mobility, reliability of the One-Legged Stance Test was examined for 45 healthy females 55 to 71 years old and found to have \"good\" intraclass correlations coefficients (ICC range = .95 to .099). Within raters ICC ranged from 0.73 to 0.93.3\nTo perform the test, the patient is instructed to stand on one leg without support of the upper extremities or bracing of the unweighted leg against the stance leg. The patient begins the test with the eyes open, practicing once or twice on each side with his gaze fixed straight ahead.\nThe patient is then instructed to close his eyes and maintain balance for up to 30 seconds.1\nThe number of seconds that the patient/client is able to maintain this position is recorded. Termination or a fail test is recorded if 1) the foot touches the support leg; 2) hopping occurs; 3) the foot touches the floor, or 4) the arms touch something for support.\nNormal ranges with eyes open are: 60-69 yrs/22.5 \u00b1 8.6s, 70-79 yrs/14.2 \u00b1 9.3s. Normal ranges for eyes closed are: 60-69 yrs/10.2 \u00b1 8.6s, 70-79 yrs/4.3 \u00b1 3.0s.4 Briggs and colleagues reported balance times on the One-Legged Stance Test in females age 60 to 86 years for dominant and nondominant legs.\nGiven the results of this data, there appears to be some difference in whether individuals use their dominant versus their nondominant leg in the youngest and oldest age groups.\nWhen using this test, having patients choose what leg they would like to stand on would be appropriate as you want to record their \"best\" performance.\nIt has been reported in the literature that individuals increase their chances of sustaining an injury due to a fall by two times if they are unable to perform a One-Legged Stance Test for five seconds.5 Other studies utilizing the One-Legged Stance Test have been conducted in older adults to assess static balance after strength training,6 performance of activities of daily living and platform sway tests.7\nInterestingly, subscales of other balance measures such as the Tinetti Performance Oriented Mobility Assessment8 and Berg Balance Scale9 utilize unsupported single limb stance times of 10 seconds and 5 seconds respectively, for older individuals to be considered to have \"normal\" balance.\nThirty percent to 60 percent of community-dwelling elderly individuals fall each year, with many experiencing multiple falls.10 Because falls are the leading cause of injury-related deaths in older adults and a significant cause of disability in this population, prevention of falls and subsequent injuries is a worthwhile endeavor.11\nThe One-Legged Stance Test can be used as a quick, reliable and easy way for clinicians to screen their patients/clients for fall risks and is easily incorporated into a comprehensive functional evaluation for older adults.\n1. Briggs, R., Gossman, M., Birch, R., Drews, J., & Shaddeau, S. (1989). Balance performance among noninstitutionalized elderly women. Physical Therapy, 69(9), 748-756.\n2. Anemaet, W., & Moffa-Trotter, M. (1999). Functional tools for assessing balance and gait impairments. Topics in Geriatric Rehab, 15(1), 66-83.\n3. Franchignoni, F., Tesio, L., Martino, M., & Ricupero, C. (1998). Reliability of four simple, quantitative tests of balance and mobility in healthy elderly females. Aging (Milan), 10(1), 26-31.\n4. Bohannon, R., Larkin, P., Cook, A., & Singer, J. (1984). Decrease in timed balance test scores with aging. Physical Therapy, 64, 1067-1070.\n5. Vellas, B., Wayne, S., Romero, L., Baumgartner, R., et al. (1997). One-leg balance is an important predictor of injurious falls in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatric Society, 45, 735-738.\n6. Schlicht, J., Camaione, D., & Owen, S. (2001). Effect of intense strength training on standing balance, walking speed, and sit-to-stand performance in older adults. Journal of Gerontological Medicine and Science, 56A(5), M281-M286.\n7. Frandin, K., Sonn, U., Svantesson, U., & Grimby, G. (1996). Functional balance tests in 76-year-olds in relation to performance, activities of daily living and platform tests. Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitative Medicine, 27(4), 231-241.\n8. Tinetti, M., Williams, T., & Mayewski, R. (1986). Fall risk index for elderly patients based on number of chronic disabilities. American Journal of Medicine, 80, 429-434.\n9. Berg, K., et al. (1989). Measuring balance in the elderly: Preliminary development of an instrument. Physio Therapy Canada, 41(6), 304-311.\n10. Rubenstein, L., & Josephson, K. (2002). The epidemiology of falls and syncope. Clinical Geriatric Medicine, 18, 141-158.\n11. National Safety Council. (2004). Injury Facts. Itasca, IL: Author.\nDr. Lewis is a physical therapist in private practice and president of Premier Physical Therapy of Washington, DC. She lectures exclusively for GREAT Seminars and Books, Inc. Dr. Lewis is also the author of numerous textbooks. Her Website address is www.greatseminarsandbooks.com. Dr. Shaw is an assistant professor in the physical therapy program at the University of South Florida dedicated to the area of geriatric rehabilitation. She lectures exclusively for GREAT Seminars and Books in the area of geriatric function.\nAPTA Encouraged by Cap Exceptions\nNew process grants automatic exceptions to beneficiaries needing care the most\nCalling it \"a good first step toward ensuring that Medicare beneficiaries continue to have coverage for the physical therapy they need,\" Ben F Massey, Jr, PT, MA, president of the American Physical Therapy Association (APTA), expressed optimism that the new exceptions process will allow a significant number of Medicare patients to receive services exceeding the $1,740 annual financial cap on Medicare therapy coverage. The new procedure, authorized by Congress in the recently enacted Deficit Reduction Act (PL 109-171), will be available to Medicare beneficiaries on March 13 under rules released this week by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS).\n\"APTA is encouraged by the new therapy cap exceptions process,\" Massey said. \"CMS has made a good effort to ensure that Medicare beneficiaries who need the most care are not harmed by an arbitrary cap.\"\nAs APTA recommended, the process includes automatic exceptions and also grants exceptions to beneficiaries who are receiving both physical therapy and speech language pathology (the services are currently combined under one $1,740 cap).\n\"We have yet to see how well Medicare contractors will be able to implement and apply this process. Even if it works well, Congress only authorized this new process through 2006. Congress must address this issue again this year, and we are confident that this experience will demonstrate to legislators that they must completely repeal the caps and provide a more permanent solution for Medicare beneficiaries needing physical therapy,\" Massey continued.\nThe therapy caps went into effect on Jan. 1, 2006, limiting Medicare coverage on outpatient rehabilitation services to $1,740 for physical therapy and speech therapy combined and $1,740 for occupational therapy.\nThe American Physical Therapy Association is a national professional organization representing more than 65,000 members. Its goal is to foster advancements in physical therapy practice, research and education.\nNew Mouthwash Helps With Pain\nDoctors in Italy are studying whether a new type of mouthwash will help alleviate pain for patients suffering from head and neck cancer who were treated with radiation therapy, according to a new study (International Journal of Radiation Oncology*Biology*Physics, Feb. 1, 2006).\nFifty patients, suffering from various forms of head and neck cancer and who received radiation therapy, were observed during the course of their radiation treatment. Mucositis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane in the mouth, is the most common side effect yet no additional therapy has been identified that successfully reduces the pain.\nThis study sought to discover if a mouthwash made from the local anesthetic tetracaine was able to alleviate the discomfort associated with head and neck cancer and if there would be any negative side effects of the mouthwash. The doctors chose to concoct a tetracaine-based mouthwash instead of a lidocaine-based version because it was found to be four times more effective, worked faster and produced a prolonged relief.\nThe tetracaine was administered by a mouthwash approximately 30 minutes before and after meals, or roughly six times a day. Relief of oral pain was reported in 48 of the 50 patients. Sixteen patients reported that the mouthwash had an unpleasant taste or altered the taste of their food.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f8131c7f-1b2a-41bd-9eaa-951dad06e313>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://physical-therapy.advanceweb.com/Article/One-Legged-Single-Limb-Stance-Test.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9198976755142212, "token_count": 2250, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hypertension is often diagnosed during a visit to your doctor. Blood pressure is measured using a cuff around your arm and a device called a sphygmomanometer. Your doctor may ask you to sit quietly for five minutes before checking your blood pressure.\nIf your blood pressure reading is high, you will probably be asked to come back for repeat blood pressure checks. If you have three visits with readings over 140/90 mmHG, you will be diagnosed with high blood pressure.\nSome people\u2019s blood pressure goes up when they are at the doctor\u2019s office. If your doctor suspects that may be occurring, he or she may ask you to get some blood pressure readings at home. In some cases, he or she may recommend that you wear an ambulatory blood pressure monitor. This device measures your blood pressure regularly throughout the day as you go about your activities. It is usually worn for 24 hours, even while sleeping.\n- Reviewer: Michael J. Fucci, DO\n- Review Date: 09/2012 -\n- Update Date: 00/91/2012 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:9dafa879-7f20-47af-9000-4507980185f0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://portsmouthhospital.com/your-health/?/19601/Next", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9455161690711975, "token_count": 223, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When faced with the possibility of cooperating for mutual gain, states that feel insecure must ask how the gain will be divided..\nA state worries about a division of possible gains that may favor others more than itself. That is the first way in which the structure of international politics limits the cooperation of states. A state also worries lest it become dependent on others through cooperative endeavors and exchanges of goods and services... The world's well-being would be increased if an ever more elaborate divisions of labor were developed, but states would thereby place themselves in situations of ever closer interdependence...\nIn an unorganized realm each unit's incentive is to put itself in a position to be able to take care of itself since no one can be counted on to do so. The international imperative is \"take care of yourself\"! Some leaders of nations may understand that the well-being of all of them would increase in their participation in a fuller division of labor. But to act on the idea would be to act on a domestic imperative, an imperative that does not run internationally...Waltz's argument may not apply perfectly to the EU, since he claims that the fundamental impediment to cooperation is the threat of conflict. The era of European wars is long over, but there may nonetheless be something to Waltz's argument. In the midst of economic crisis, tensions between European countries have hardened, and the crisis has caused bickering among EU member nations.\nOn another note, a recent FT/Harris poll of the British public found that only one in three Brits wants to remain in the EU.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2e536669-015e-4499-9d77-47d6823c94e1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://realdealecon.blogspot.com/2013/02/ken-waltz-realism-and-european-union.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9626626372337341, "token_count": 318, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Analog Input Channels\nTemperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter expressed in units of degrees on a standard scale. You can measure temperature in many different ways that vary in equipment cost and accuracy. The most common types of sensors are thermocouples, RTDs, and thermistors.\nFigure 1. Thermocouples are inexpensive and can operate over a wide range of temperatures.\nThermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensors because they are relatively inexpensive yet accurate sensors that can operate over a wide range of temperatures. A thermocouple is created when two dissimilar metals touch and the contact point produces a small open-circuit voltage as a function of temperature. You can use this thermoelectric voltage, known as Seebeck voltage, to calculate temperature. For small changes in temperature, the voltage is approximately linear.\nYou can choose from different types of thermocouples designated by capital letters that indicate their compositions according to American National Standards Institute (ANSI) conventions. The most common types of thermocouples include B, E, K, N, R, S, and T.\nFor more information on thermocouples, read The Engineer's Toolbox for Thermocouples.\nFigure 2. RTDs are made of metal coils and can measure temperatures up to 850 \u00b0C.\nA platinum RTD is a device made of coils or films of metal (usually platinum). When heated, the resistance of the metal increases; when cooled, the resistance decreases. Passing current through an RTD generates a voltage across the RTD. By measuring this voltage, you can determine its resistance and, thus, its temperature. The relationship between resistance and temperature is relatively linear. Typically, RTDs have a resistance of 100 \u03a9 at 0 \u00b0C and can measure temperatures up to 850 \u00b0C.\nFor more information on RTDs, read The Engineer's Toolbox for RTDs.\nFigure 3. Passing current through a thermistor generates a voltage proportional to temperature.\nA thermistor is a piece of semiconductor made from metal oxides that are pressed into a small bead, disk, wafer, or other shape and sintered at high temperatures. Lastly, they are coated with epoxy or glass. As with RTDs, you can pass a current through a thermistor to read the voltage across the thermistor and determine its temperature. However, unlike RTDs, thermistors have a higher resistance (2,000 to 10,000 \u03a9) and a much higher sensitivity (~200 \u03a9/\u00b0C), allowing them to achieve higher sensitivity within a limited temperature range (up to 300 \u00b0C).\nFor information on thermistors, read The Engineer's Toolbox for Thermistors.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e3d9f26b-9215-49bf-a296-3724a4a14b64>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sine.ni.com/np/app/main/p/ap/daq/lang/en/pg/1/sn/n17:daq,n21:11/fmid/2999/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9178193807601929, "token_count": 569, "score": 4.21875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "there is a book called \"the Statistics Problem Solver\" for $4 (used) on amazon. Buy it! These problem-solver books are great for math & science classes. With thousands of solved problems and the steps for solving them shown, its like having a grad student tutor at your elbow.\nYou have to use the book correctly, though. The wrong way is to look at your homework problem, thumb thru the book until you see a similar one, then apply it blindly to your HW. A 5th grader could do that. Instead, use the book as a way to get practice until you understand the concepts. Go to the chapter matching your current classwork, cover up the answers and start working problems. If you get it wrong, read the correct steps, cover them up, do it again. Keep working problems until you get it. When you get midterms in class you'll almost be laughing because you know you can do them all.\nKeep in mind that a standard expectation for a college class is 2-3 hours outside of the class for every hour in it. Your class will meet 3x a week for an hour, which means you ought to be putting in 6-9 hours outside of class for it. Do this, and use your time effectively, you'll do well in the class.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6fc6debc-d762-461b-9c78-5e136a88fa64>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://talk.collegeconfidential.com/college-life/384114-how-hard-college-statistics.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9659761786460876, "token_count": 271, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The countries of northern Europe have agreed to build a huge network of renewables that will connect offshore wind farms in northern Scotland to solar panels in Germany to wave power and hydroelectricity in Scandinavia.\nOffshore wind projects in Europe are expected to generate more than 100 gigawatts of energy, about ten percent of the continent\u2019s demands, in coming years, roughly equivalent to a hundred large coal plants. But unpredictable weather patterns can hamper their ability to deliver reliable energy, and national power grids are too weak to overcome fluctuations in production and demand.\nNine nations, including France, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and the UK, have joined forces to lay undersea cables beneath the North Sea in the coming decade. The grid will act as a gigantic battery, storing electricity when demand is reduced.\nThe North Sea grid could connect to a much larger renewable plan that was launched in Germany last year. The Desertec Industrial Initiative is a $400 billion scheme that aims to deliver 15 percent of Europe\u2019s electricity by 2050 from southern Europe and North Africa. Concentrated solar power will be delivered by power lines that stretch across the Sahara and the Mediterranean. Scientists in the European Commission estimate that just 0.3 percent of the light falling on the deserts of the Sahara and Middle East would be enough to meet all of Europe\u2019s energy needs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d3f07194-57c6-4358-add0-81883f535dc1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://thesolutionsjournal.org/node/595?page=0%2C0%2C0%2C0%2C0%2C1&quicktabs_1=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9426706433296204, "token_count": 276, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes\nEnology - n. :a science that deals with wine and wine making\nThe V&E Department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. For over one hundred years the University of California has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. The continuing excellence of the Department has enabled California growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the Golden State to achieve its potential and become a premier wine-producing region.\nThe Rhone Rangers Scholarship\nThe Rhone Rangers is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to the advancing the knowledge and understanding of traditional Rhone grape varieties and the wines produced from those grapes. The Rhone Rangers has adopted the French government's list of approved varieties allowed in the Cote du Rhone as the criteria for winery membership. Today, membership consists of over 125 wineries from California, Washington, and Virginia.\nThis scholarship is given with a preference to students interested in research involving Rhone grape varieties or Rhone wines produced in the USA. The Rhone Rangers desire to see a deserving student be supported during their studies at UCD.", "id": "<urn:uuid:99585d2e-0431-4c7d-afb8-ace8167e9265>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wineserver.ucdavis.edu/index.php?date=1361526920", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9357408285140991, "token_count": 263, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "December 3, 2012 | Politics and Leadership\nThe Dilma Effect: How Brazil\u2019s Groundbreaking President is Inspiring Other Women to Run\nBy Maya Popa\n\u201cIn Portuguese, the term presidente applies to both men and women, and presidenta to women only. When Dilma was elected, people asked her which term she preferred to use and she said presidenta, with the feminine ending.\u201d\n\u201cDilma,\u201d it almost goes without saying, is Dilma Rousseff, voted into office in 2010 as the first woman to lead powerhouse Brazil, the world\u2019s sixth largest economy. For the woman telling that anecdote, thirtysomething Veronica Marques of Rio, it illustrates one of Rousseff\u2019s greatest accomplishments in office: Her ability to motivate other women to succeed, especially in public life. \u201cFor me, this simple gesture shows how having a woman as a presidenta can inspire other women not only to seek more space in the political arena, but also through their daily lives,\u201d says Marques, an executive at ELAS, the Women's Social Investment Fund, a nonprofit that invests in women\u2019s empowerment and education.\nThe Dilma Effect starts at the top: After promising in her inaugural speech \u201cto open doors, so that in the future many other women can also be president,\u201d Rousseff put together a cabinet with three times as many women as the previous administration, giving women nine of the 24 minister-level positions--including such key jobs as ministers of planning, social development and the environment.\nAnd in this macho, macho country, thanks to Rousseff, more women are getting into politics than ever before. \"Dilma took several high-profile media opportunities to encourage women to run in the last elections,\u201d says Heather Arnet, CEO of the Women and Girls Foundation of Pennsylvania, which is partnering with ELAS to study the effect of governmental policies on the lives of Brazilian women. The result: A record 48 women sought the chance to head Brazil\u2019s 26 states, a 60 percent increase over the previous contest.\nBut the fight for gender equality is hardly won. Although Brazil has a 30 percent rule\u2014requiring that 30 percent of candidates for elective office be women\u2014females hold only nine percent of positions in the lower house of parliament and only 36 percent of lawmaker, senior official and managerial jobs, according to a 2011 report by the World Economic Forum. \u201cThere is a long way to go to have more women in politics, but we are building step by step,\u201d says Marques. \u201cMaybe, in some years we will have at least 50 percent of women in political positions in Brazil.\u201d\nPolitics, though, isn\u2019t the only area where Brazilian women are breaking glass ceilings. Earlier this year Maria das Gra\u00e7as Silva Foster was named CEO of Petrobras-Petr\u00f3leo Brasil--the first woman in the world to head a major oil-and-gas company. According to a recent survey, 80 percent of Brazilian women now aspire to top jobs (compared to 52 percent in the U.S), while 59 percent consider themselves \u201cvery ambitious\u201d (compared to 36 percent in the U.S.) Arnet praises government-funded social programs for providing the right conditions for women to succeed: inexpensive, over-the-counter birth control, six months paid maternity leave, efforts to connect rural women to education and healthcare, and the bolsa familia program, compensation for poor women to keeping their children in school. \"All of these policies and cultural practices together are creating an environment where women can be more economically sufficient and can take on increasing corporate and political leadership,\" says Arnet.\nMarques, though, has the most personal take on her country\u2019s leader: \u201cWhen I see myself represented by a woman as presidenta, I see that things are changing. I see that our generation of women and the next generation of women will have more space in the political arena because of her. Achieving in the political arena is not simple. Brazil has to give us\u2014the new generation of women\u2014the space and the opportunity for it. We want to do it, we can do it, we will do it.\u201d\nSOLUTIONS FOR BRAZIL: Let\u2019s Go Girls!\nThe Women and Girls Foundation of Pennsylvania, led by Heather Arnet, is partnering with Veronica Marques at ELAS, on a project called Vamos Meninas! (Let's Go Girls!) to \"explore the role that Brazilian voting practices, economic policies, and policies regarding family planning and child care have in fostering a culture for female advancement.\"\nIn January 2013, Arnet and ELAS will visit Rio, Sao Paulo, Brasilia and other cities, to better understand the changes occurring in Brazil and their impact on women\u2019s leadership. As Arnet explains: \"Together we hope to capture stories of transformation that provide Americans insight into this emerging world economic leader, and inspiration to continue our own pursuit towards gender equity.\"\nExplaining what seems an unlikely pairing, Arnet says that \u201cBrazil and Pennsylvania, historically, have a surprising amount in common. We are both economies which used to rely mainly on coal mining. We are traditionally macho cultures where women stayed home, and had children, and men went to work in the factories. We have had significant racial and class segregation and gender segregation in the workplace. And yet look at Brazil now. From an economic revitalization perspective and gender leadership perspective things are changing in Brazil dynamically.\u201d\nA documentary about Vamos Meninas! will premiere on PBS station WQED/Pittsburgh later in 2013. Says Arnet, \"We have a lot to learn from Brazil, its people and its leaders, regarding how to transform our culture and our economies for a new century.\"\nMaya Catherine Popa is a writer for the Women in the World Foundation. She is currently completing a Master's in Creative Writing at Oxford University under a Clarendon Scholarship, as well as an MFA in Poetry from NYU. She co-leads a weekly writing workshop for veterans of Iraq & Afghanistan. Her writing appears in The Huffington Post, Locustpoint, and elsewhere.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2b443e8b-040a-46cb-ae95-c1d35cdbec4a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://womenintheworld.org/stories/entry/the-dilma-effect-how-brazils-groundbreaking-president-is-inspiring-other-wo", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9590342044830322, "token_count": 1300, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Not only does it have over 800 illustrations and photographs but it's jam packed, full of\ninformation for your homeschool or any supplement to your children's learning. In my opinion it\nwould make a great \"Summer project\" book to keep the kiddos on their toes and help them learn\nwhile having fun!\nThe World Of Science is broken down into 7 different sections covering topics entitled: Matter and Chemicals - Energy, Motion and Machines - Electricity and Magnetism - Light and Sound - Earth\nand Life - Space and Time - and includes over 60 Science experiments.\nThe photographs and diagrams are just right to help you teach your budding scientists. My 3\nscientists range in age from 6 years old to 10 years and the information is shared in such a way\nthat from my Kindergartner to my 5th grader, they were able to learn, understand, and enjoy\nwhat we've done so far.\nWe've been studying the atmosphere, covered in the Earth and Life section. One of the things we learned about is the Greenhouse effect. The boys are looking forward to doing more and I have a feeling we'll have conquered all the experiments by the end of the summer. They love this type of learning and it sticks with them so much better than plain questions and answers!\nThe World Of Science is a wonderful addition to our homeschool curriculum. I highly recommend it. We are using it as a supplement to our main course and it covers enough topics that it would make a nice addition to any curriculum. It reads much like an encyclopedia, thorough yet made for children to easily understand.\nThe introduction begins with, \"In the beginning God Created the Heavens and the Earth.\" It goes on to explain about the Scientific method, talks about Real science, various fields of science, and even an explanation as to why we should do science. I think every home could benefit by having such a well rounded resource.\nWe used a tin tray I had on hand with a plastic lid that attaches\nrecycled toilet paper/ or paper towel rolls for the seed cups\nsand and soil from outside & seeds from the dollar store\n(you could also use grass with roots or flowers from outside)\n1. Place about 1 inch of sand in the bottom of container tray\n2. Cut paper rolls down to 2 inches - 2 1/2 inches\n3. Places cups in tray and push them down into the sand\n4. Fill individual cups with soil\n5. Use a finger to make a little hole to drop seeds into\n6. Cover back up with the soil - Water them in well\n7. Cover with plastic lid and set tray in indirect sunlight\n(you don't want to fry your little plants but they do need light - a windowsill is a good spot)\nWithin just a few minutes the boys noticed that our little\ngreenhouse was beginning to fog up and collect condensation\non the plastic lid - before we've even sprouted our\nlittle carrots - they're understanding the \"greenhouse effect\"\nFrom other cool sites:\nCheck out a couple of really fun ways to make your own\ngreenhouses - grow some plants - and learn about the\nWhat kind of Science are you doing in your homeschool? Do you have any fun ideas to share?", "id": "<urn:uuid:4c45010f-7418-4504-883f-40b5f792ea4a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.adventurezinchildrearing.com/2012/03/world-of-science-free-science-project.html?showComment=1330646792268", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9518823623657227, "token_count": 673, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Partita No. 1 : Work information\n- Work name\n- Partita No. 1\n- Work number\n- BWV 1002\n- B minor\n- 1720-01-01 02:00:00\n- Adam Abeshouse\n- Adam Abeshouse\n- Recording date\n- 1994-09-29 00:00:00\nJohann Sebastian Bach\nOne of the greatest composers in history, Johann Sebastian Bach (father of C.P.E, J. C. and W. F. Bach) was by far the most significant member of the Bach dynasty of musicians.\nHe outshone his forebears and contemporaries, but did not always receive the respect he deserved in his own lifetime. After a brief engagement as a violinist in the court of Weimar, Bach became organist at the Neukirche in Arnstadt. In June 1707 he moved to St. Blasius, M\u00fchlhausen, and married his cousin Maria Barbara Bach. In 1708 he was appointed court organist in Weimar where he composed most of his works for organ. In 1717, he was appointed Court Kapellmeister to the young Prince Leopold at C\u00f6then, but was refused permission to leave Weimar. The Duke only allowed Bach to go after holding him prisoner for nearly a month.\nWhile at Weimar, Bach wrote his violin concertos and the six Brandenburg Concertos, as well as several suites, sonatas and keyboard works, including several, such as the Inventions and Book I of the 48 Preludes and Fugues (The Well-tempered Clavier). In 1720 Maria Barbara died, and the next year Bach married Anna Magdalena Wilcke. Bach resigned the post in Weimar in 1723 to become cantor at St. Thomas\u2019 School in Leipzig where he was responsible for music in the four main churches of the city. Here he wrote the Magnificat and the St. John and St. Matthew Passions, as well as a large quantity of other church music. In Leipzig he eventually took charge of the University \u201cCollegium Musicum\u201d and occupied himself with the collection and publication of many of his earlier compositions.\nOver the years that followed, Bach\u2019s interest in composing church music declined somewhat, and he took to writing more keyboard music and cantatas. As his eyesight began to fail, he underwent operations to try and correct the problem, and these may have weakened him in his old age. He died at age 65, having fathered a total of 20 children with his two wives. Despite widespread neglect for almost a century after his death, Bach is now regarded as one of the greatest of all composers and is still an inexhaustible source of inspiration for musicians. Bach\u2019s compositions are catalogued by means of the prefix BWV (Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis) and a numbering system which is generally accepted for convenience of reference.\nThe crowning achievement of J S Bach's instrumental writing, the set of solo Sonatas and Partitas are the ultimate test of musicianship and technique for the violinist. Composed in 1720 at Cothen, the set alternates Italian sonatas and French suites or partitas.\nBach's complete knowledge and mastery of the instrument allowed him to make full use of the violin's expressive range. For example, by asking the violinist to play on multiple strings at once, or play arpeggiated chords rapidly, Bach creates such complex harmonies that it's sometimes difficult to believe only one instrument is playing!\nAlthough the sonatas follow the same formal pattern, all three partitas are constructed differently, though all are suites of dance movements. Partita No. 1 consists of four pairs of movements, the second of each pair varying the first. Displaying some virtuosic passagework, especially in the Doubles, the movements retain their dance characteristics and exhibit a bewitching formal beauty.", "id": "<urn:uuid:843c9cf6-11a8-45f3-9e5c-2ead998dc9f6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.classical.com/work/2147486119", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9671761989593506, "token_count": 835, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The 16th annual Great Backyard Bird Count takes place the weekend of Friday, Feb. 15, through Monday, Feb. 18.\nThis activity engages citizen scientist volunteers to count birds in specific locations all across the United States and Canada on the third weekend of February each year. In 2012, this effort recorded 104,151 separate checklists, including 2,046 from Tennessee. Shelby County contributed more than 10 percent of the total, 256. And Memphis recorded 93 species, tops in the state.\nThe 2013 Great Backyard Bird Count, a joint project of the Cornell University Laboratory of Ornithology and the National Audubon Society, will incorporate two major changes. First, it will go global. Checklists can be submitted from anywhere in the world. Second, Great Backyard Bird Count data will be merged with eBird, the National Audubon Society and Cornell University's worldwide database of bird sightings. This will require participants to create an eBird account. To do so, go to BirdCount.org.\nThe bird count is fun and free. Just count all of the birds that you see and hear in one place (your yard, a park, schoolyard, your office) for at least 15 minutes any or every day Feb. 15-18. The information that you and thousands of others provide will help scientists to learn more about what is happening in our environment. To protect, we first must know.\nThe entire month of February is Backyard Bird Month at the Memphis Botanic Garden. The garden is sponsoring a contest of bird photographs taken in its Nature Garden during the month. On Feb. 16, Dick Preston and other members of the Memphis\nChapter of the Tennessee Ornithology Society will host a bird identification workshop at the Botanic Garden as part of the Great Backyard Bird Count weekend.\nThere will be a free \"Lunch and Learn\" brown bag lunch followed by a guided bird walk in the nature garden. Afterward, data collected during the bird walk will be entered into the bird count database.\nThe Botanic Garden will host \"Celebrate Urban Birds Day\" from 2 to 4 p.m. Feb. 23. There will be crafts and games, and members of the local Ornithology Society will lead a bird walk. For more information, contact Charity Novick at 901-636-4119, or go to memphisbotanicgarden.com.\nThe 113th annual Christmas Bird Count was held at selected locations all around the globe between Dec. 15, 2012, and Jan. 5, 2013. The Memphis count on Dec. 17 had 34 observers who located 92 species. The Wapanocca (Ark.)/Shelby Forest (Tenn.) count on Dec. 29 had 24 observers locating 91 species, and the count at Arkabutla Lake on Jan. 5 enlisted 20 observers who found 110 species, a record for that count.\nThe greatest surprise of any local Christmas Bird Count came on the Wapanocca/Shelby Forest count when an ash-throated flycatcher was discovered in Shelby Forest State Park. Ash-throated flycatcher is a Western species rarely seen east of the Great Plains and an apparent first record for Shelby County.\nVan Harris is a former president of the Memphis Chapter of the Tennessee Ornithology Society, a member of the Mississippi Ornithology Society and the Mississippi chapter of the National Audubon Society. Address questions to email@example.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:20259ddc-9650-4ffc-8fb3-7d97d27475cb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.commercialappeal.com/news/2013/feb/01/great-backyard-bird-count-weekend-is-near/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9087530374526978, "token_count": 715, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Nazis secretly developed plot to drop radioactive bomb on New York from supersonic space rocket\n- Hermann Goering was tasked with overcoming long-range bombing problem\n- Much of the research would later pave the way for modern space travel\nNazi chief Hermann Goering plotted to attack New York in a bizarre plot involving a manned space rocket dropping a dirty bomb over the Manhattan skyline.\nVying for Hitler's attention, the head of the German air-force, Hermann Goering, set up a lab and a team of leading scientists to explore the possibility of the radioactive attack on American soil.\nGoering read the work of maverick Austrian engineer, Eugen Saenger and particularly his belief that a space plane could be built.\nNew York: The Nazis wanted to attack the U.S. but they lacked long-range bombers capable of covering the distance. They explored a rocked-propelled spacecraft as a way to reach and bomb New York (pictured)\nThe head of the Luftwaffe commissioned him and other leading physicists to explore the plane, which he then wanted to arm with a radioactive bomb capable of doing untold damage to America's most populous city.\nLeading historians told the Daily Express that Goering may have been gullible for believing the far-fetched plan would work, but much of the research which went into the project paved the way for modern space travel research and the space shuttle program.\n'Saenger would greatly influence post-war thinking about space travel in the United States,' Dr David Baker, a space historian, told the British newspaper.\n'A whole series of highly classified space-plane concepts were developed based on his theories.'\nSilverbird: Eugen Saenger (left) devised plans for the aircraft known as the Silverbird (right) that could reach America via space. Goering wanted the craft to be capable of dropping a 'dirty bomb' on New York\n'His work certainly had an influence on aspects of the Space Shuttle programme.'\nGoering believed the rocket plan would enable the Third Reich to overcome the issue of flying across the Atlantic and ultimately avenge America's entry into the war.\nSaenger completed a 900-page plan and called the craft the Silverbird.\nHe believed it would be able to clear the lower reaches of space after being fired with rocket engines.\nAnti-American: The Nazis sought a way to punish the U.S. for entering World War Two. One of the schemes they looked at was a plane which would reach America via space in order to bomb New York\nIt was expected to reach 13,000 miles per hour, would have a 100-tonne thrust motor and would reach more than 80 miles above earth.\n'The plan was to wrap the bomb with radioactive sand and have it explode\nhigh above New York casting a radioactive cloud over the city,\u201d aviation historian David Myhra\n'It was a kind of prototype dirty bomb.'\nLosing control: Goering was particularly keen to promote his airforce and saw the plot to bomb New York as an ideal way to win Hitler's favor\n'The standard aircraft of the day could not fly from Europe to the US\nbecause they could not carry enough fuel.'\n'But by reaching sub-orbital altitude the Silverbird\u2019s fuel life would be extended allowing it to bomb anywhere in the world.'\n'It was wild science fiction'\n'But Saenger had worked out all the mathematics. He was certain it would work.'\n'Post-war analysis indicated that the space-plane would have burnt up during re-entry but this could have been overcome with thermal shielding.\n'The underlying concept was sound but it was many years ahead of its time.'\nGoering finally dismissed the plan and the Nazis looked at other ways to bomb the U.S. but never succeeded.\nSaenger fled to France and was later sent for by Josef Stalin who was also interested in the Silverbird concept.\nHe was never found by the Soviet Union and died in 1964.\nDr Asif Siddiqi, an\nassistant professor in space history at Fordham University said: 'Saenger was the first to look into the technicalities of building a\nwinged, reusable sub-orbital vehicle.'\n'His work was extremely far-sighted.'\nFailure to launch: The Silverbird, pictured, was devised by Austrian engineer Eugen Saenger so the Nazis could bomb New York. The ambitious space rocket design wasn't developed beyond planning stage", "id": "<urn:uuid:d00c6282-0fab-4b43-a914-7bff4c83f688>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2256953/Nazis-secretly-developed-plot-drop-radioactive-bomb-New-York-supersonic-space-rocket.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9671610593795776, "token_count": 921, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "More in Outdoors\nArguably the biggest mistake you can make is with \"topping\" your tree. It's considered something of a dirty word in horticulture circles. Topping means cutting a tree back so severely that only the stumps of large branches are left. It's done in an attempt to control the size of the tree. This stresses the tree because it takes away the leaves, its food sources. The tree will send out many smaller branches in an effort to produce more leaves quickly but they are not as strong as the previous branches and can break off easily in the wind. Tree topping also results in a pretty unattractive tree.\nThe way to properly bring a tree down in height is to make your cuts at a joint. A joint is the place where either a leaf or a branch grows out from the stem. Cut down the tallest branches at a joint, which will reduce the height significantly, instead of leaving a bunch of stubs. This way, the tree will be able to heal itself, growing a new branch in that spot.\nIf you have a dense tree that's completely blocking a view, you may want to thin it out. This involves removing entire branches that are too overgrown by making the proper cuts at a joint. This will allow you to see through the tree by taking some of the heaviness out of the canopy.\nIt's always a good idea to have a pruning partner whenever you prune, but this especially helps when thinning.\nBefore you cut, have someone stand back and look at the tree to make sure you're not chopping off an important part of the tree or taking so much as to ruin the shape.\nYou don't want to turn your pruning tools into weapons, so you better know how to use them. Pruners and pruning saws should always be sharp and disinfected when you use them. This will help you to make a smooth, clean cut and the tree will be able to recover faster from it.\nFor branches larger than 1-1/2\" in diameter, you'll want to use a special technique called the \"1,2,3 Method.\" This will protect the bark on your tree by preventing the branch from splitting. If you just started cutting downward on a larger branch, the weight of that branch would bring it down faster than you can cut. This would cause the branch to split and the bark would tear, making it harder for the tree to recover and more susceptible to pests or disease. Here is how this method is done:\nCut #1: Make an undercut about 1' from the trunk, which means cutting on the underside of the branch. Stop cutting when you've gone one third of the way through the branch.\nCut #2: Move about 3\" past the undercut, toward the end of the branch, and start cutting. The weight of the branch will still take it down and the trunk may split but it won't split past your undercut.\nCut #3: Finish it off by cutting off the stub at the joint.\nAll fields are required.\nRemember me on this computer\nPlease enter your email address and we will send your password\nYour password has been sent and should arrive in your mailbox very soon.\nSign up with DIY Network to share tips with other do-it-yourselfers and comment and ask questions on projects.\nIt's free and easy.", "id": "<urn:uuid:602285ba-7614-43dd-ad69-f41fbd7d956b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.diynetwork.com/how-to/how-to-prune-trees-and-shrubs/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.962945818901062, "token_count": 694, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Engineer your first step to a four-year degree at Edmonds Community College\nEngineers Make a Difference\nEngineering is the art of applying scientific and mathematical principles, experience, judgment, and common sense to make things that benefit people. Engineers solve problems. They improve and develop products to meet consumer and societal needs. They find ways for existing products to work better, last longer, operate more safely and cost less.\nThey also look for innovative solutions to global problems. Engineers design bridges and important medical equipment as well as processes for cleaning up toxic spills and systems for mass transit.\nIt's a Fact\nEngineering professions requiring a four-year degree are among the highest paying jobs in Washington State according to the office of Labor Market and Economic Analysis. Source: www.workforceexplorer.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:c9d71a03-1a5c-4380-b591-b22abec06ba2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.edcc.edu/engr/default.php?showflash=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9398959279060364, "token_count": 162, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Information for Students\nWelcome to the Flint Regional Science Fair! We look forward to seeing you at the Fair in March.\nTaking part in a science fair is fun, educational, and rewarding. This part of our web site provides information and links that can help you get started, conduct your research and enter the Flint Regional Science Fair.\nThe FASF is held every Spring. This means you should begin planning in the Fall and Winter prior to the Fair to ensure you pick a good research topic, and have plenty of time to do a good job and present a quality project.\nParents, teachers, and mentors are important helpers to identify projects, collect the resources required for your project, and track your progress. Ask your parents and your teachers for assistance. They are your best bet for one-on-one direction and support in your Science Fair experience.\nElementary Division and Junior Division projects follow simpler rules than Senior Division projects.\nMore Web Student Science Resources\nQuestions? Email firstname.lastname@example.org.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6cd796d0-6c60-4c49-88fe-b887ea27aa1d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.flintsciencefair.org/students.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9260132908821106, "token_count": 208, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Book Authors: Warren G. Bennis, Robert J. Thomas\nBook Review by : Anil Kumar Kartham\nFaculty Associate, ICMR (IBS Center for Management Research)\nDLeadership, cross-generational leadership, wisdom, skill, Era, Changing the world, organization, how people become leaders, Crucible, Individual factors, IQ, self-grooming, Adaptive capacity, leadership competencies\nThe theory of leadership attempts to describe the process of leadership making. Era is an important aspect of their theory of leadership. Thus, it is relevant to ask how is \"Era\" different in case of geeks and geezers? At the age of 25-30,\ngeeks are more ambitious and have larger goals compared to geezers at the same age. They dream of \"Changing the world\" and \"making history.\" The Geezers on the other hand, were concerned more about making a living. The Geeks seek to balance their lives by giving enough importance to both work and family. The Geezers hardly bothered about balance at this age. The Geezers worshiped heros. They chiseled their image of successful leader based on these heroes. The Geeks had none of that sort. Their parents or teachers or even their friends were their heroes. The authors point to \"Era\" as the creator of these differences.\nThis doesn't mean they had no commitment to their jobs. They were dedicated as long as they were with the company. And they were ready to leave whenever they found greener pastures. The loyalty described by Whyte in Organization Man lost favor in 1980s. The geeks valued \"Balanced life\" more than the geezers did. They were persistent in maintaining the balance. The following quote of a geek makes it clear: If I can't do it with balance, then I don't want to do it. Or I'm not buying into your model of success. They were not shy in acquiring wealth, unlike the geezers. They did not see money as evil. Rather the love of it as evil.\nThe geeks and the geezers are not as dissimilar as they appear on the surface. They are made of the same stuff and in the same process. They are similar in their learning. Both groups of leaders are highly enthusiastic about learning. And they yearn and struggle to go beyond limits: individual limits such as strength or learning ability or institutional limits such as racial and/or sexual discrimination. More important similarity, the authors say they uncovered, is a sort of common experience that transformed both groups of leaders. This common experience is the basis on which the authors have built their story on \"how people become leaders.\"\nMore ICMR India Case Studies\n|Business Environment||Business Ethics||Business Reports||Business Strategy|\n|Corporate Governance||Economics||Enterprise Risk Management||Finance|\n|HRM||Innovation||Insurance||IT and Systems|\n|Leadership and Entrepreneurship||Marketing||Miscellaneous||Operations|\n|Project Management||Short Case Studies||Cases in other Languages||Free Case Studies|", "id": "<urn:uuid:b0a2d3a3-5aa8-45d6-89e4-472694df4c4b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.icmrindia.org/free%20resources/Bookreviews/Geeks%20and%20%20Geezers2.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9733030796051025, "token_count": 649, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A spice commonly used in Indian foods could also double as a powerful weapon to fight against cancer, diabetes, and inflammation. If recent studies on the spice\u2019s effect to continue producing promising results are any indication, Dr. Saraswati Sukumar of Johns Hopkins University hopes curcumin, which gives turmeric its yellow color, will help people fight off or prevent diseases such as diabetes and cancer.\nIn an interview with India-West, Sukumar explained how she and a colleague, Dr. Anirban Maitra, are paying close attention to promising clinical trials of curcumin.\nCurcumin is the extract of turmeric and may soon be used in pill form. The spice is commonly integrated into many Indian dishes. Sukumar will be giving a presentation Jan. 24 in West Palm Beach, Florida, about the positive health benefits of curcumin. While more clinical trials are still needed to further understand how the common spice is beneficial to the human body, Sukumar believes a curcumin pill currently in experimental format could have a dramatic impact in fighting certain diet-induced diseases that are becoming more commonplace.\n\u201cThe talk I am going to be giving in Palm Beach, Florida, really covers the field to let people know what\u2019s involved with this, what does curcumin do, what are the positive effects, so on and so forth,\u201d Sukumar told India-West in a telephone interview earlier this week.\nIn addition to being a strong weapon against diabetes and inflammation, steady consumption of curcumin can also counteract skin damage that result from cancer-based radiation treatment.\n\u201cIt has very strong anti-inflammatory activity,\u201d Sukumar told India-West of curcumin\u2019s health benefits. \u201cIs that the only activity that\u2019s really causing it to be this effective? We don\u2019t think so. We think it has effects on multiple other pathways that are just beginning to be understood.\u201d\nWith an estimated 26 million people diagnosed with diabetes, Sukumar said curcumin can also be a great benefit in fighting the metabolic disease.\nSukumar explained how an experiment where mice with obesity-induced diabetes were given doses of curcumin and experienced glucose levels returning to near normal levels within 20 days, thanks to an increased production of \u201cgood fat\u201d hormones.\nWhen a follow-up clinical trial was performed in a double-blind study with pre-diabetic patients, Sukumar cited that none of the 119 subjects who were given curcumin developed the disease. However, 19 out 116 pre-diabetic patients in that same trial who were given a placebo did develop the disease.\n\u201cIt has an effect, indirectly, on the fat content as well as \u2026 diabetes,\u201d the Indian American researcher told India-West, adding that the clinical trial tested patients over a nine-month period, and another follow-up study with more time passed would be needed to further validate the promising results.\nBoth Sukumar and Maitra hope to eventually have a water-soluble curcumin pill available on the market sometime soon. However, early clinical trials of the experimental pill have not yet yielded the desired results. In current trials, Sukumar pointed out several grams of curcumin need to be consumed in order to be effective. Whether small doses of the spices can be consumed in pill format in order to have the desired effect on the body remains to be seen.\nNevertheless, Sukumar expressed her excitement about further discovering the health benefits of turmeric and curcumin.\n\u201cI really feel extremely positive about setting out, spending energy, and telling the world about what curcumin can do. And it\u2019s just a spice off your rack,\u201d Sukumar said.\nShe added that the spice can still be used in its natural state, similar to how it is mixed into many Indian food dishes.\nTo incorporate curcumin into one\u2019s lifestyle, Sukumar simply suggests obtaining large portions of turmeric.\n\u201cGet a bag of turmeric and use it lavishly in your food,\u201d Sukumar told India-West. \u201cIt adds some flavor but it\u2019s not going to hurt you.\u201d\nShe also suggested adding turmeric to the grilling of foods such as garlic, mushrooms, and onions. It is also best combined with warm oil.\nSukumar will be speaking at an annual women\u2019s health symposium, \u201cA Woman\u2019s Journey,\u201d next week at the Palm Beach County Convention Center.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6a23e84d-751c-4ce4-8098-911ecef4c580>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.indiawest.com/news/8672-johns-hopkins-doc-pursues-health-benefits-of-curcumin.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9530854821205139, "token_count": 944, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Linn, Amy. Illuminating News: What You Don't Know About Lightning Might\nCome As Shock. Providence Sunday Journal. August 21, 1988.\nAbstract: This article explains some common misconceptions about\nlightning. For example, one misconception is that lightning never strikes\nthe same place twice. This is untrue. Once lightning discovers an easy target\nit will likely strike again. The article also provides important safety\nprecautions. The safest place during a thunderstorm is inside a house away\nfrom windows or inside a closed car.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2069c051-8762-4c3d-a0d3-651a55fe3924>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.interfire.org/res_file/fseab_in.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8544362783432007, "token_count": 110, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "An animal detection system with the warning lights activated resulted in 1.52 mi/h lower vehicle speeds (compared to warning lights off) for passenger cars and pick-ups.\nAlerting drivers to the presence of large animals in the road at Yellowstone National Park.\nThe study area was on US Highway 191 inside of the Yellowstone National Park, with a posted speed limit of 55 mi/hour. The data collection period occurred over two weeks in which there was mostly no precipitation. Researchers installed three traffic counters and road tubes outside and inside of the detection area. The counters recorded the date, time, vehicle type, vehicle speed and gap (in seconds) between vehicles. When vehicles moved in platoons, only the speed of the first vehicle in a platoon was used as a data point when the signs were activated (since the following vehicles may be influenced by the speed of the first one). A sample size of 2,428 vehicles per 24 hour period was used.\nThe deployment of an animal detection system at Yellowstone National Park found that passenger cars, pick-ups, vans, and trucks with two units or more had lower vehicle speeds by 1.52 mi/hour with warning signs activated compared to warning signs off. Although the difference is small, it is important to note that small reductions when vehicles are traveling at high speeds have a disproportionate decrease in the probability of severe accidents.\nThe data also showed that the number of collisions with large animals was 58 to 67 percent lower than was expected (but could not be tested for significance due to the variability in the number of collisions and just one year of post installation collision data). Driver opinion of the system documented in interviews revealed that a majority (59 percent) would have liked to see the system stay in place. The system was removed in the fall of 2008 due to high maintenance and a lack of spare parts.\nAuthor: M.P. Huijser, T.D. Holland, A.V. Kociolek, A.M. Barkdoll and J.D. Schwalm\nPublished By: Oregon Department of Transportation Research Unit and the Federal Highway Administration\nSource Date: March 2009URL: http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/31000/31600/31698/Animal-Vehicle_Crash_Mitigation_Phase_2.pdf\nAverage User Rating\nTypical Deployment Locations", "id": "<urn:uuid:f73d6227-3e2d-4a3b-8d0f-42a5817bc616>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.itscosts.its.dot.gov/ITS/benecost.nsf/ID/638245D397B3EB34852578F1006855C5?OpenDocument&Query=BApp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9523575305938721, "token_count": 485, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Meet the Other Navy Seals (and Dolphins)Cute\u2014and creepy\u2014photos of the US Navy program that trains marine mammals as minesweepers and underwater sentries.\nYou've likely heard of the Navy SEAL dog that took part in the raid that killed Osama Bin Laden. Now meet the other Navy seals. Actually, they're sea lions. And dolphins.\nFor more than five decades, the Navy has enlisted sea lions, dolphins, and other marine mammals as an elite corps of underwater sentries, searchers, and mine-sweepers. Its Marine Mammal Program started in 1960 when weapons researchers studied a Pacific white-sided dolphin named Notty to see if she might teach them something about designing speedier torpedoes. She didn't, but the service has remained intriguiged by sea mammals' speed, stealth, sonar, and smarts. During the Vietnam War, specially trained dolphins were deployed to protect ships in Cam Ranh Bay. The Navy denies that they were dispatched to kill enemy divers as part of a \"swimmer nullification program\", though more recently sea lions have been trained to \"attach restraint devices to swimmers.\" (The notion of dolphins as trained killers inspired The Day of the Dolphin, a 1973 movie starring George C. Scott.) Since the mid-1970s, the program has expanded to include beluga whales, seals, and and killer whales, though bottlenose dolphins and Californa sea lions have become its two mainstays due to their \"their trainability, adaptability, and heartiness in the marine environment.\"\nThe Navy says its 100 or so marine mammals' primary missions are mine-hunting and \"swimmer defense.\" Dolphins were first sent to the Persian Gulf in the late 1980s. In 1996, Navy dolphins assisted the Secret Service (PDF) during the Republican National Convention in their home port of San Diego, and NASA reportedly expressed interest in using sea lions to protect Space Shuttle launches (PDF). More recently, both dolphins and sea lions have been sent to the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea to help clear mines and guard ships. The Navy has hailed \"swimmer defense dolphins\" as \"a strong deterrent against terrorist attacks\" like the one on the USS Cole in 2000.\nAnimal-rights activists have long objected to the Navy's marine-mammal program, criticizing the use of benign sea creatures in military operations and the cramped conditions in which they are housed and transported. \"Using animals for military defense is unnecessary and cruel and could very well cost lives\u2014not save them,\" PETA wrote in response to a plan to use dolphins and sea lions to guard a naval base in Washington. The Navy claims that it treats its flippered conscripts humanely, noting that they are fed \"higher-than-restaurant-quality fish\" and travel in pools designed \"to keep the animals in an environment as much like San Diego as possible.\" It also argues that its work has added to the scientific knowlege of these animals: \"The more we know about marine mammals, the better we can protect them.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:11997bd1-f2fe-47da-89b0-763102886b9b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.motherjones.com/slideshows/2011/06/navy-dolphins-seals-marine-mammals/navy-dolphin-airplane", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.970031201839447, "token_count": 626, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What You Should Know About Using HBO In Diabetic Wounds\n- Volume 16 - Issue 5 - May 2003\n- 8371 reads\n- 0 comments\nHow HBO Can Facilitate Wound Healing\nHBO consists of a patient breathing 100 percent oxygen while his or her entire body is enclosed in a pressure chamber. The topical application of oxygen is not recognized by the FDA as hyperbaric therapy and is not reimbursed by Medicare.\nOxygen is transported two ways in that it is chemically bound to the hemoglobin and physically dissolved in the plasma. When the patient breathes air at sea level, the hemoglobin is already fully saturated so increasing the amount of respired oxygen can affect only the plasma-dissolved oxygen. Breathing oxygen at an elevated atmospheric pressure produces an increase in the plasma-dissolved oxygen fraction, which is proportional to the atmospheric pressure of the respired gas.\nMonoplace hyperbaric chambers are usually compressed with oxygen whereas multiplace chambers are compressed with air while the patient breathes 100 percent oxygen using a hood or aviator\u2019s face mask. Typical treatments involve 90 minutes of oxygen breathing at 2.0 to 2.5 atmospheres absolute (ATA) with air breaks administered at 20- to 30-minute intervals in order to reduce the risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity.\n(While HBO treatment is remarkably safe, be aware that otologic and pulmonary barotrauma and central nervous system, pulmonary and ocular oxygen toxicity can occur. Central nervous system oxygen toxicity is rare, but it can manifest as seizures. Seizures are less likely to occur if there are brief periods of air breathing.)\nArterial PO2 elevations of 1500 mmHg or greater are achieved when the body is exposed to pressures of 2 to 2.5 ATA. Soft tissue and muscle PO2 levels can be elevated to about 300 mmHg. Oxygen diffusion varies in a direct linear relationship to the increased partial pressure of oxygen present in the circulating plasma caused by HBO. At pressures of 3 ATA, the diffusion radius of oxygen into the extravascular compartment is estimated to increase from 64 micons to about 247 micons at the pre-capillary arteriole.\nThis significant level of hyperoxygenation allows for the reversal of localized tissue hypoxia, which may be secondary to ischemia or to other local factors within the compromised tissue. Hypoxia is a biochemical barrier to normal wound healing.\nIn the hypoxic wound, HBO treatment allows an acute correction of the pathophysiology related to oxygen deficiency and impaired wound healing. Using HBO increases oxygen levels within the marginally vascularized periwound compartment, enhancing leukocyte bacteriocidal function. It may also potentiate some antibiotic effects. There are direct toxic effects on anaerobic bacteria and suppression of exotoxin production. It also enhances collagen synthesis and cross-linking, and other matrix deposition.\nWhat The Clinical Evidence Reveals\nAdditionally, recent evidence suggests that HBO may induce specific growth factor receptors (PDGF) and stimulate growth factor (VEGF) release. There is also evidence that employing HBO may ameliorate or prevent leukocyte-mediated ischemia reperfusion injury.10-13\nThere have been 13 published peer-reviewed studies (including seven randomized, controlled trials) of HBO in diabetic foot wounds. A total of 606 diabetic patients received HBO with a 71 percent bipedal limb salvage rate, compared to 463 control patients who had a 53 percent bipedal limb salvage rate. All diabetic wounds were Wagner III-IV. It is interesting to compare this to the becaplermin clinical trials that involved Wager II ulcers. Control patients had healing rates of 25 percent while those receiving becaplermin had healing rates of 43 percent.\nA large retrospective series of 1,144 diabetic foot ulcer patients demonstrated the effectiveness of using adjunctive HBO in modified Wagner III, IV and V (equivalent to Wagner grade II, III and V) ulcers, based on ulcer/wound improvement, healing and salvage of bipedal ambulation (see \u201cThe Impact Of HBO: What One Study Shows\u201d above).14 Currently, CMS policy reimburses only for treatment of Wagner III and greater ulcers.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ae2c73f3-799a-453a-b633-b15ff2e2fe0a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.podiatrytoday.com/article/1551?page=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9103288650512695, "token_count": 879, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Final 7 Years\nDaniel 9 states that 70 weeks are determined for Israel. 70 weeks is 490 days, 1 year 4 months 5 days. This scripture describes the destruction of Jerusalem, as well as other things. As of Daniels time, Jerusalem was not destroyed in 490 days, so 70 weeks is not really 70 weeks. The Bible states that by two or three witnesses God's Word shall be established. So with that, on the 70th week, the he whos people previously destroyed Jerusalem will confirm the covenant for \"1 week\" then in the midst of the week stop it. This is called the abomination of desolation. The we travel to the next witness which is Jesus in Matthew 24. He had just finished up telling his disciples that the temple will be destroyed, but then he says when you see the abomination desolation, SPOKEN OF BY DANIEL, STAND UP IN THE HOLY PLACE, then all in Judea(which is modern day West Bank) must flee, because then shall be great tribulation. Now if the temple is destroyed how can the AoD stand up in the Holy Place? that will we get to later.\nNow that we know that the second half of the week there shall be great tribulation as has never been before, we can look at the scriptures describing the great tribulation to figure out whether is 3.5 days, or more. Reading Matthew 24 we find out that the great trib is the persecution of the saints. We can travel back to Daniel 7 now. verse 25 says that great words will be spoken against the most high, and the saints will be worn out for TIME, TIMES, DIVIDING OF TIME. we don't know how long that is, but there is always more than one witness. Revelation chapter 12 describes a great red dragon, whom they call the devil and satan trying to destroy a woman with a crown of 12 stars, or in other words Jerusalem, it says she flees into the wilderness for 1260 days, Matthew 24 said when ye see the abomination of desolation flee, so this matches. Revelation 13:5-6 describes this beast of the dragon previously mentioned blaspheming against God and warring with the saints for 42 months.\nWe got 3 scriptures that have the same description of the tribulation, so concluding that time, times, dividing of time is as well 3.5 years, we can conclude that daniels 70th week is 7 years.\nWhy did i say all this? well for one, some christians could be reading this. Im saying this because a major misinterpretation is that there is a 7 years tribulation, which is not true, its 3.5 years. Another reason is now im going to show a few things\n-As far as Judea fleeing, Ehud Olmert, the acting prime minister of Jerusalem is standing ready to withdraw from the West Bank\n-The anti-christ standing in the temple? where is the temple? In 2006 the temple society in Jerusalem finished building all the temple furniture and have started training rabbis for the sacrifices of old. They finally have a red heiffer ready for the first sacrifice whenever it happens. In late 2005 for the first time since the 5th century the San Hedrin re-emerged (the elite group of Jewish elders who put Christ to death, also of whom Paul was a part of) and had a meeting. They discussed the building of the temple. They decided, since they cannot build on the mount, then they will build it the same way Solomon built the first temple. OFFSITE. They blueprinted the temple, and it will soon be ready to move.\nOH! in Revelation 11, John is asked to measure the Jerusalem, but then it says the court without the temple leave out for it is given to the gentiles for they will tread the holy city for 42 months. If there was a Jewish temple standing in Jerusalem, and the gentiles had the outter courts this would indicate a time of peace, a time when Jew and Gentile share the city on a hill. In 2000 Bill Clinton states that the sharing of the temple mount was the only way for peace in Jerusalem. Ariel Sharon created a new party called the Kadina party in which his goal was to establish the final borders of Israel, or in other words, let the palestinians have part of the Holy Land as long as we can build our temple, yada yada yada. Sharon Signed it, Abbas signed it, Bush oversaw and signed it as well, the plan called THE ROADMAP FOR PEACE.\nThen Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d85d82f2-9a18-482c-864b-2b7930a160f3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rationalresponders.com/forum/sapient/atheist_vs_theist/3804", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9638788104057312, "token_count": 982, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Issue Number: 93\n\u2018Enlightenment,\u2019 wrote Immanuel Kant in his 1784 essay What is Enlightenment? \u2018is man\u2019s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one\u2019s understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere aude! [Dare to know!] Have the courage to use your own understanding! That is the motto of enlightenment.\u2019\nAge Of Reason An Encyclopdedia of the Age of Enlightenment by Adam Dant. An Encyclopdedia of the Age of Enlightenment by Adam Dant.\nNeither Kant nor his eighteenth-century contemporaries believed that they lived in an enlightened age. By \u2018enlightenment\u2019, they meant a process: the lessening of darkness, the dawning of light. The human mind was liberating itself from traditional authority over thought and belief. \u2018Nothing is required for enlightenment except freedom,\u2019 wrote Kant, \u2018and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters.\u2019\nKant and his fellow leaders of the Enlightenment were opposed to hegemonies, whether intellectual or political. \u2018On all sides I hear: do not argue!\u2019 Kant continues. \u2018The officer says, \u201cDo not argue, drill!\u201d The taxman says, \u201cDo not argue, pay!\u201d The pastor says, \u201cDo not argue, believe!\u201d\u2019 But, whereas the officer and the taxman serve authorities who dislike anyone questioning the political and social status quo, the pastor is a different matter: he represents the authority that dislikes any kind of questioning, and certainly not the kind that is sceptical about received wisdom.\nThe project that served as a flagship for enlightenment in the eighteenth century was the Encyclop\u00e9die, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d\u2019Alembert. A compendium of knowledge, its emphatic and rationalist war on the authority of past pieties was premised on the recognition of how obstinately they stood in the way of intellectual and social progress. In taking this stance, the Encyclop\u00e9dists were following the lead of Voltaire who, with his battle-cry of Ecrasez l\u2019inf\u00e2me! (\u2018Wipe out the infamy\u2019, by which he meant superstition), challenged tradition with weapons of logic and satire.\n\u2018Have courage to free yourselves,\u2019 Diderot exhorted his fellow men in words echoed by Kant, \u2018Examine the history of all peoples in all times and you will see that we humans have always been subject to one of three codes: that of nature, that of society, and that of religion, and that we have been obliged to transgress all three in succession, because they could never be in harmony.\u2019\nIn essence, the Enlightenment was a call to individuals to stand up for themselves in the light of reason. That meant understanding the world through philosophy and science, especially by applying the latter beyond physics and chemistry to the social world of politics, education and morality.\nThe Enlightenment had its negative aspects and consequences, no doubt, but it was motivated by a real desire for the improvement of humankind\u2019s lot and, accordingly, represents a key moment in the progress of civilisation. One of the many results of its new ambition was a shift in portraiture: in Enlightenment painting and sculpture, individuals \u2013 be they citizens, members of families or clubs \u2013 share a place once exclusively occupied by saints and princes.\nIn its way, this represents the first dawning of the modern democratic spirit, and it would not have been possible without the Enlightenment\u2019s belief in the universality of the human good and the \u2018Rights of Man\u2019.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3ca9dcde-8fe5-49eb-8360-e0fb377b42a9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.royalacademy.org.uk/ra-magazine/winter2006/features/the-age-of-reason,45,RAMA.html?action=com.othermedia.webkit.site.UserPreferenceAction&actionToken=av_p5wKf3_Tg1&preference=user-size-small", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.954775869846344, "token_count": 827, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "versi\u00f3n impresa ISSN 0259-9422\nHerv. teol. stud. v.67 n.1 Pretoria 2011\nFaculty of Theology, University of Pretoria, South Africa\nOne of the presumptions of this article is that most of the people in the nascent 'Christian' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. Another presumption is that the history of these ordinary people from antiquity needs to be heard. The article aimed, with the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, to create a social context of Jesus and his disciples. The article approached the Gospels in the New Testament from the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century Roman Empire. It gives a brief analysis of one of the poverty texts, namely Matthew 6:2534. By means of interviews, stories of villagers in Tanzania, as well as their interpretations of the Gospel texts, have been documented. The people of Kinywang'anga serve as a test case for reading the 'do not worry' exhortation in the Matthean passage.\nReading the text with the poor\n'Almost half the world over three billion people live on less than $2.50 a day' (Poverty facts and stats; Shah 2009).\n'Do not worry about your life, what you will eat or what you will drink, or about your body, what you will wear' (Mt 6:25).\nThe New Testament was written during a time when poverty was a reality for almost everyone. Even now, after 2000 years, poverty is still present as one of the world's biggest problems. However, biblical scholarship today is done, more often than not, by those privileged with varying degrees of wealth, who do not themselves belong to any of the poorest classes of people. This fact leads to the questions: Do we understand the life of the poor enough to comprehend, for example, how they would hear the words of Jesus when he asked them not to worry about tomorrow? How did the audience, who heard this proclamation, whether in Galilee or later, elsewhere in Roman Empire, react to these words? How does a village community consisting of poor people react to these words?\nTraditionally, biblical studies have concentrated on the texts. These texts were written by the literate elite and represent the view of the privileged few. Most certainly the authors of the Gospels had some education and held positions of some status in their communities, which gave them the time and the skills to be able to write these texts. The history of the early Jesus movement, that later developed into the religion called Christianity, is usually written based on these texts composed by the elite.\nAs a biblical scholar I, too, was taught to always keep the textual evidence at the forefront. 'Exegetes work with texts', it was said. Theories were not considered as important as the texts were. Within scholarly circles it became almost standard to analyse the texts in short pericopes, 'single units' as the smallest ones were called. This kind of working model was especially favoured in historical Jesus studies, where scholars tried to draw a believable and understandable figure of Jesus of Nazareth by ascribing these single units to Jesus or by simply leaving them out if they seemed too problematic or were clearly later than Jesus.\nHowever, I quickly learned three important things. Firstly, there is no text without context. The single units have never been 'single units' except for the scholars working with these texts. They were not delivered as short sayings and anecdotes by anyone or to anyone. Therefore it is not possible to understand any of these sayings, anecdotes, or short stories except by reading them within their original context. Linguistic analysis of single words and their etymologies are of no value if you do not know the context. The text always belongs to a context. Besides, the results of such investigation are not very trustworthy even if one could, with convincing argumentation, present a collection of authentic words of Jesus (which is not the case).1 Nobody's message, programme or thinking can be persuasively represented just by collecting various words and anecdotes and then using them to sum up the whole:\nNo matter what criteria for testing the sayings are used, scholars still need to move beyond the sayings themselves to a broader context than a summary of their contents if they are to address historical questions about Jesus.\nHarsh criticism of the way many Jesus scholars investigate the single sayings of Jesus is given by Richard Horsley (2008:131145), who bases his critique on the examination of the memory and the gospels as 'social memory' rather than 'containers of data'. Every text and every moment of oral proclamation and performance makes best sense within its context. Overman (1996) writes:\nThe whole story of Matthew is a crucial context and, in fact, an absolute necessity for understanding smaller parts or units of the Gospel. The story itself, written by the author as best we can reconstruct it, is the first place a sensible reader will look for clues and for a context that will help supply meaning to words, instruction, and stories in the Gospel. And there is little doubt that cross-cultural analogies, and stories and events from our own time, can indeed help to shed more light on the Gospel texts, their meanings, and their application.\nSecondly, I learned that it is much easier to know the context of Jesus than Jesus himself. We know a great deal about the Roman Empire in 1st century Palestine. We have trustworthy information about the cultural context that Jesus and his disciples lived in. With the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, we can create the social context of Jesus and his disciples. It is much more difficult to place the figure of Jesus into that context.\nThirdly, the Gospels, as we have them today, are not in their original form. Originally, they were distributed in both oral and written forms, with several different forms of each, depending on the context. The Gospels also differ from other contemporary literature because of the fact that, although authored by the elite, they do contain some traditions that have been produced by ordinary people, even poor people. This seems to me to be especially true in the Sayings Gospel Q and the Gospel of Mark and on some occasions the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Thomas. Even the theologically constructed Gospel of John contains some traditions that might have been born in rural peasant circles and the Gospel of Luke based his admittedly elite Gospel on earlier traditions found in Q and Mark. Thus, as Horsley (2008:31) writes, the Gospels 'are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below'.\nMost of the people in the nascent 'Christian' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. Their history needs to be written. Horsley (2008:2124) makes an interesting distinction between 'standard history' and 'people's history' and applies this distinction to New Testament studies. To use his terms, my study would be a 'people's history'.\nIn this article the focus is not on theological concepts or the rise of Christian beliefs. The focus is rather on the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century Roman Empire. In choosing this focus I have approached the gospels from the viewpoint of the poor.\nWhat follows is a necessarily brief analysis of one of the poverty texts that I chose for the interviews amongst people living in poverty today. A more detailed study will be forthcoming in my book on the same subject. In these interviews, I listened to the stories of the villagers as well as their interpretations of the Gospel texts and documented them on a voice recorder. Findings from this field research amongst the poor living in villages in Tanzania in the spring of 2010 will be studied further and then compared to current biblical scholarly investigations concerning the poverty texts. One example text, Matthew 6:2534, will be presented here from a contextual standpoint, that is, from the perspective of the materially poor.\nThe field research in Tanzanian villages\nOne contemporary setting to read the poverty texts within the context of poverty is Tanzania. In many places in Africa, especially in rural areas, people still live in a pre-industrial, agrarian society. In many villages, there is no electricity and virtually no motor vehicles or telephones. Some tribes still live in a gatherer society whilst some tribes are nomadic. But most of the rural people are peasants who make their living from agriculture. They have tiny fields and a small number of cattle that affords them, in normal times, a modest living for themselves and their families. Most people do not produce anything for sale and almost nobody gets a salary. Also, in recent times HIV and AIDS has struck the African continent, especially sub-Saharan Africa, more heavily than any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults HIV-positive (UNAIDS 2008).2\nI chose to focus on the villages in the Iringa district in the middle of Tanzania because of my earlier contacts in the area and the support of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission Society as well as Tumaini University. Their familiarity with village life in the district was very useful when arranging visits to local villages where people speak mainly Swahili and their own tribal languages, like Hehe, Bena or Kinga.3\nThe focus during the visits to the villages was twofold. Firstly, I wanted to become familiar with the social structure of the village. I asked the village chief or executive secretary the following kinds of questions:\nHow many people live in the village?\nDo all villagers belong to the same tribe or kin?\nWhat do villagers do for a living? What professions or occupations do they have?\nHow many villagers work outside of the village?\nHow and why, do villagers keep contact with neighbouring villages and towns?\nWhat are the major problems in the village?4\nIn light of the issues regarding land ownership in the gospels it was especially interesting to learn that in Tanzania, the land was appropriated by the state in the 1960s. The older generation still remembers the time when the land was either owned by a tribe or by kin, or was free to anyone. Nowadays people pay rent for the land they want to cultivate. This data works not only as a necessary context for reading the poverty texts with the villagers, but offers a comparison to the hypothesis regarding the origins of Q, namely that it was supposed to have originated in the Galilean villages where loss of land was prevalent.\nSecondly and most importantly, I discussed the poverty texts with the villagers. I call this discussion a 'reading' but the texts were not read from a book with leather covers, but rather performed in narrative style. In Tanzania the oral culture and narrative tradition is still alive and well. By telling the stories from memory I tended to get their first reactions, which may have been different had I simply read to them from the Bible. Some of the villagers were non-Christians, so they were not too closely acquainted with the stories beforehand. Even the Christians heard the stories differently compared to the way they heard them from pastors and evangelists or even in liturgical sermons. I had hoped to have a lively discussion of the poverty stories in the Gospels and that I most certainly did. Often the religious authorities (a pastor, an evangelist or some other religious leader) were present, but I politely asked them not to take part in the discussions, given that they are professionals and I wanted to hear the voices of ordinary people. They agreed to my request and were politely quiet, but I usually had to visit their home afterwards so that they did not feel left out. I also asked the people gathered at the meeting place to set aside their understanding of the story if they had already heard it and to listen as if they were hearing it for the first time in their lives. At each meeting, there were 2050 people present from both genders and all ages and approximately 1015 of them took part in any given discussion.\nAt this point, there are some things that I ask the reader to keep in mind before reading the following field report section. As a foreigner in mid-Tanzania, with a different way of life, I come from a completely different world than the one they inhabit. Some of them had never seen a White person before. I did not speak their language and had to rely on a translator, who belonged to one of their own tribes. As an outsider I was treated politely and perhaps regarded with some authority given that, in every situation, I was given the seat of honour directly beside the village chief or some other authorities. There is a big difference when an outsider arrives in a village and leads a discussion compared to someone that they know doing the same thing. I had to ask many questions in order to gain an understanding of village life; an understanding that I am sure was quite different from their own lived reality. An outsider usually sees things more from an overall viewpoint than insiders do.\nVillage life in Kinywang'anga\nThe village of Kinywang'anga was one of my first sites. I had initially chosen to perform the story of The Rich Man and Lazarus, Luke 16:1931, but after discussing with the village 'executive secretary',5 the text seemed inappropriate to village life. Even in terms of the Bible the story is located in a more urban setting. In Kinywang'anga, nobody had luxurious clothes and it would have been hard for them to imagine that there were any such people who could have eaten so well as the rich man in the story. The village was one of the poorest in the area. It consisted of approximately 1000 inhabitants who all made a living from their own little farms of generally 0.54 hectares. Almost all of them would be considered peasant farmers, which is how they saw themselves as well. There is one primary school with five teachers. Although the teachers received government pay, each also had a small farm with some cattle. In addition to the teachers there were two religious leaders in the village, one a Lutheran evangelist and the other an Anglican priest; each of them also had farms. There were no other professions amongst the inhabitants of the village and no one goes to work outside of the village.\nPeople from three different tribes, the Hehe, Bena and Kinga, live in Kinywang'anga. These tribal names are also the names of the languages spoken in the village. There are no cars in the village. There is only one tractor and a few bicycles. Despite the lack of transportation, people make weekly visits to neighbouring villages to meet with relatives and friends and sometimes to try and find medical treatment. Health care poses serious problems as there is no transportation and the distance to the nearest health centre or hospital is extensive.\nPeople in Kinywang'anga are totally dependent on the products of the earth. If there is no rain, there is no crop and they are in danger of starvation; the last time this happened was in 2000. Other catastrophes might destroy the crop as well. There were no barns or other store houses in the village which may have enabled them to keep surpluses to use during hard times or to sell as a way of providing additional income. However, the village grows sunflowers, which are pressed for their oil and sometimes sold to people travelling the main road that goes 3 kilometres out from the village. Two years ago a water pipe system was built for them, so now they have a place from which to fetch water. There is no electricity in the village.\nThe villagers live in traditional African clay houses with grass roofs and they are very poorly dressed. Many people had no shoes. However, the women were dressed in colourful textiles for the meeting with me, carrying babies tied on their backs. Approximately 50% of the population comprises children.6 According to the standards of the World Bank, the people in Kinywang'anga live in absolute poverty, that is, under $1.25 a day (The World Bank Group 2010).\nDo not worry in Kinywang'anga (Mt 6:2534)\nAfter learning all of this background information, I decided to change the Gospel passage to be performed to Matthew 6:2534, the Do Not Worry passage.7 I thought it was a very challenging story in the context of life in Kinywang'anga, where people sometimes have no food at all, clothing is meager and they have enjoyed the 'pure'8 water from the pipes for only a couple of years now. Most years they have enough food, but it is quite simple and not very nutritious. Most probably the situation in 1st century Galilee (or in any rural environment in the Roman Empire) would not have been any better, but it certainly could not have been much worse. In Kinywang'anga the context for this gospel passage is totally different compared to my own country of Finland as well as most Western countries and perhaps closer to the conditions experienced by those living in 1st century Galilean villages.\nThe meeting took place in an outside area in the shade. During the time of year that we met, the 'flowers of the field' were very beautiful and everything was green; the 'birds of the air' flew over us and sang (Mt 6:26, 28).\nA lively discussion followed the performance of the text. The discussion was opened by an elderly man who said that, 'Maybe Jesus spoke these words, because he found that the people had very little faith. He wanted to teach them about faith'. I suppose that what the man meant by 'faith', was, trust in God's care, but I am not sure. Another man said, 'Jesus found people so keen on material things, that they forgot the spiritual things and God. They were concerned about food, clothes and other things, but not God'. A woman said that if someone came to say such words to her, she would think that this person has something dishonest in mind.\n'It would be better if somebody would tell me a better way how I could manage my life in order to get things and not to say \"Do not worry\"'.\nAnother continued and said that such a person would be considered 'mentally disabled' by the villagers. The Lutheran evangelist interjected, saying that:\n'Some worry is understandable, because we need many things, but one should not worry about things that are beyond one's ability to influence or control, for example weather. It is, however, good to plan your future'.\nWhen I asked if they knew anyone who did not worry about tomorrow, they strongly denied knowing such a person. The same elderly man who started the discussion, said: 'Jesus knew the people and their problems and needs, so he wanted to give them a change, a new perspective, a new way of thinking'. I asked, what would happen, if they stopped worrying about daily food and drink and clothing and just trusted in God? Someone said that then life would be very bad. Another said that it is a matter of faith. If the people believed what Jesus said and stopped working they would have thought everything comes automatically, without human involvement, if they just believed. A young woman with a baby said:\n'The speech of Jesus must have divided the people in two groups: others had faith and thought that \"this is true, why worry\", whilst the others thought \"this is not possible\". Faith is the main topic of Jesus' speech'.\nOne man said that if you trust God, you will have everything you need.\nIn further discussion over sodas, we found a solution together for this problematic text. If a person is worried, they soon become depressed and are not a joy to their friends and relatives. It is therefore better not to worry too much about worldly things that you cannot do anything about, but instead to rejoice with family and friends for all the good we have.\nMost of the scholarly commentators of the Do Not Worry text do not discuss it in the context of the poor, although some features in the saying refer to this issue.9 For example, Jesus speaks of the grass of the field that is thrown into an oven. The poor often used grass as a fuel in the oven to cook bread, because wood was so scarce (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2003:51). Also, the figure of Gentiles as 'striving for all these things' is understandable in a context where Gentiles usually represent the rich who have better and easier lifestyles than local villagers.10\nIt is important to note that the religious and cultural memory of the people in Kinywang'anga is not identical with the social memory of the 1st century Galilean villagers. Key terms in the passage such as 'heavenly Father', 'Solomon in all his splendor', 'Gentiles', 'strive first for his kingdom and his righteousness', would have resonated with 1st century Jewish listeners differently from the Tanzanian poor, who would be without an important context for understanding the passage.\nIn Kinywang'anga it became clear to me that the Do Not Worry passage makes no sense at all in a village where people are living in ongoing poverty. The villagers tried to find a spiritual message in the saying, maybe because it was not reasonable to live a careless life, as Jesus seemed to be advising. They interpreted the saying in the light of the Kingdom of God (v. 33), which they seemed to have understood within a spiritual context.\nBut what about people who have already lost the basic necessities that were needed for living: the sources of food and drink (field, cattle), access to water supply (such as a well) and the possibility of making or purchasing adequate clothing? In Kinywang'anga I met one person who fit this description; he was a young man behaving strangely, dressed even more poorly than the villagers and seemingly suffering from one or more severe illness. According to the locals he was mentally ill.\nDuring the spring of 2010 I also visited the Palestinian territories in the West Bank. Although I did not read this particular passage with the Palestinians, I discussed the Kingdom of God with them. As Muslims their understanding was also spiritual, but compared to the people in Kinywang'anga, their understanding was much more concrete. The Kingdom of God for them was 'doing God's will' and therefore not only a spiritual entity. Quite the contrary, the Palestinians, who suffered from injustice by the Israelites, understood the Kingdom of God as a movement of oppressed people who have God as their shelter when they do God's will. The Kingdom of God was equivalent to the intifada.\nWilliam R. Herzog II (2010) has written:\nIn the hierarchy of rural life, then, there are two thresholds at which peasants may lose their previous status, and it is at these moments that they will resist their decline most fiercely.\n(Herzog II 2010:5152)\nQuoting James C. Scott (1976), he concludes that:\nWhen threatened with the loss of their land and the security of their village, they will form movements and perhaps even rebel. The same is true when peasants reach the second, more desperate threshold, 'when the subsistence guarantees within dependency collapse', and the relative stability of tenancy gives way to the perilous life of a day laborer.\n(James C. Scott 1976:3940)\nThis had obviously not happened in Kinywang'anga, where most people still had the security offered by village life and their small farms. In the Palestinian territories, in contrast, the people had suffered from injustice and loss of land. The life of many Palestinians had become very difficult. In that context it is much easier to imagine how they would react to the exhortation 'Do Not Worry'. Especially young men would eagerly join any movement resisting the unjust oppressor. They could stop worrying about the questions of daily life and strive for the movement that they believed brings justice, peace and welfare.11\nThe context of do not worry in the gospels\nIn the Gospels we can find three groups where Jesus' words on not worrying about daily life could have been understood and maybe even hailed as good news. The first one is the group of landless peasants, who had quite recently lost all their property to some rich landowners, probably absentee landlords, as a result of debts they were not able to pay. Such people would have quickly fallen under the sustenance level and their future was either to become slaves, beggars, criminals, bandits or some other social outcast. These are just the kind of people who might form movements for resistance.\nIf the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have heard the words of Jesus as a proclamation of power. However, in the literal context of Matthew's gospel there are no clear indications that the words should be understood this way. The Do Not Worry passage is a part of the Sermon on the Mount and although the Gospel of Matthew also contains an apocalypse later in chapter 24, it would be a stretch to read the chapter 6 passage in light of this. Rather, the verbal context of Matthew leads one to think about one's relation to property rather than to the end times. Preceding Mattew 6:2534 the evangelist talks about almsgiving (6:14), prayer, including central petitions concerning daily living (6:515), fasting (6:1618),12 storing property or treasures (6:1921), envy, or the evil eye (6:2223)13 and the impossibility of serving both God and Mammon (6:24). In chapter 7, the themes change from property to one's relationships with other people.\nTherefore, it seems to me that, at least in its Matthean context, Jesus' words would not have made sense as an eschatological proclamation. In the context of Q this might have been possible, but the sequence of Q (its different phases and the social context of Q) are still debated so much that it is not possible to enter into that discussion in this article.\nThe second possible group for whom Jesus' Do Not Worry saying would have been understandable was in a group made up of 'itinerant charismatic preachers'. The earliest followers of Jesus were supposedly people living in Galilean villages where Jesus' proclamation of the Kingdom of God was welcomed and understood as a liberating action that would soon free them from subjugation to the Roman Empire. Heavy taxation, wars, punishments and other consequences of the occupation were a tremendous burden on the peasant population. The message of the Kingdom of God was spread from village to village by Jesus' disciples, who had left their earlier lives (whether voluntarily or under pressure) and lived solely on the support of villagers who accepted the movement's message. These are the people that were sent to proclaim the Kingdom of God without carrying a purse, a bag or sandals (Lk 10:112).14\nItinerant, wandering charismatic preachers did not need to work for their living. They did not have to worry about their living in the same way that peasants who were dependent on their crops did. They adopted a lifestyle, which made them free from worries concerning agricultural production. Therefore, they were like the birds in the sky. They trusted the benevolence of the people in the villages that they visited, some of whom might have been their relatives or friends (the most popular reason for going to nearby villages and towns for Tanzanian villagers is to visit relatives and friends). However, this interpretation also fits much better in the rural context of Q and not so well into the more urban context of the Gospel of Matthew.15 Also, Matthew places the Q material concerning the itinerant preachers elsewhere in the Gospel, not in the Sermon on the Mount.\nIt is still important to know that Matthew, when including material from Q into his Gospel, took these texts as a larger entity of texts dealing with property and poverty and placed them in Jesus' longest speech in chapters 57.\nThe third group of people for whom the Do Not Worry saying makes sense can be found in the immediate context of the speech. The geographical context was naturally the city where the Gospel of Matthew was written. The majority of modern scholars locate the gospel geographically to Syria16 and suggest that it was written in Antioch, the third largest city of the Roman Empire at the time (e.g. Meier 1982:2227; Luz 1985:7374; Stambauch & Balch 1986:145; Stark 1996:147162; Brown 1997:21213; Carter 2008:21).17\nAndries van Aarde (2007) writes:\nThe Matthean Jesus' exposure of the power of the Roman Empire (and that of the Temple authorities) does not mean that Gentiles are excluded from God's inclusive basileia or that the marginalized now included were only Israelite peasants. The 'lost sheep of the house of Israel' pertain to both Israelites and non-Israelites and include people such as:\n- the economically poor who are without family support (such as those referred to in Mt 19:21),\n- the socially homeless (such as a 'partriarchless' woman divorced by her husband in Mt 19:9 and the children without parents mentioned in Mt 19:1315),\n- and ethnic outcasts (such as the Canaanite mother in Mt 15:2128 and the Roman centurion in Mt 8:513 and Mt 27:54).\nSeen from the perspective of Israel as a covenantal family, the above group were marginalized and those were the kind of people who could be among the crowds that followed Jesus 'from Galilee and the Decapolis and Jerusalem and Judea and from across the Jordan' (Mt 4:23). They were those who were granted God's goodness because of God's righteousness, the 'last who became the first' (Mt 20:115).\n(Van Aarde 2007:423)\nIn light of understanding the Gospel of Matthew as proclaiming the Kingdom of God, not only as anti-Roman, but also inclusive of the marginalised people, both Israelites and non-Israelites, the Do Not Worry saying makes sense in its Matthean context and becomes more understandable from the viewpoint of the poor. The poor in the Gospel of Matthew were not ordinary Israelite peasants living in small farms, but people with no family support and no home and even from different ethnic origins. According to Matthew, they formed the audience of the Sermon on the Mount (4:2325). Jesus says to them that they should first strive for the kingdom of God and his righteousness. When these outcasts are accepted as true members of the family-like community of Jesus' followers, they do not have to worry about their future, because they will be the 'last who became the first'. The community will take care of their material needs.\nChoosing Kinywang'anga as a test case for reading the Do Not Worry exhortation was challenging: I did not have any idea how the poor peasant farmers in the village would comprehend the passage. I must say that it was first a disappointment that they did not seem to understand it any better than I did. The saying made no sense in their context. However, the test case study helped me to see that most probably it was as difficult to understand in 1st century Galilean villages as in an African village nearly 2000 years later. The poor who first heard these words were not poor peasants still working in their tiny fields and worrying about daily sustenance. However, if these kind of people lose their security as a result of oppression (that is 'persecution' in the New Testament), as has happened in the West Bank, the exhortation becomes empowering for them in uniting them for struggle for their own rights.\nWith the example of Kinywang'anga I wanted to show the usefulness to biblical scholarship, to say nothing of the necessity, of getting to know people living in poverty and to understand their living conditions. Of course, Tanzania is not 1st century Palestine. It is, however, much closer to it than the Western world where most scholarly work on the Bible is done. For me my visits to the African villages gave me new insights into the Bible and helped me to understand how large the cultural gap is between our world and the New Testament World of the poor. Did I gain a better understanding of the poverty texts? No, quite the contrary. Unfortunately, it is not possible to present more examples here, but it is my hope that the one presented in this article makes it clear how hard it is to understand the words of Jesus or the evangelists, not to speak of applying those words to our own modern lives.\nBrown, R.E., 1997, An introduction to the New Testament, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland. (The Anchor Bible Reference Library). [ Links ]\nCarter, W., 2008, Matthew, storyteller, interpreter, evangelist, rev. edn., second printing, Hendrickson, Peabody, Massachusetts. [ Links ]\nFunk, R.W., Hoover, R.W. & the Jesus Seminar, 1993, The five gospels: What did Jesus really say? The search for the authentic words of Jesus, MacMillan, New York. [ Links ]\nHanson, K.C. & Oakman, D.E., 2008, Palestine in the time of Jesus: Social structures and social conflicts, 2nd edn., Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]\nHerzog, W., 2010, 'Why peasants responded to Jesus', in R.A. Horsley (ed.), Christian Origins. A people's history of Christianity 1, pp. 47-70, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]\nHoffmann, P., 1972, Studien zur Theologie der Logienquelle, Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen, Neue Folge 8., Verlag Aschendorff, M\u00fcnster. [ Links ]\nHorsley, R.A., 2008, Jesus in context: Power, people & performance, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]\nKloppenborg Verbin, J.S., 2000, Excavating Q: The history and setting of the Sayings Gospel, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]\nLuz, U., 1985, Das Evangelium nach Matth\u00e4us 1 (Mt 17). Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. Band I/1., Benziger Verlag, Z\u00fcrich, Einsiedeln, K\u00f6ln; Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins GmbH, Neukirchen-Vluyn. [ Links ]\nMalina, B., 2001, The New Testament world: Insights from cultural anthropology, 3rd edn., revised and expanded, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, Kentucky. [ Links ]\nMalina, B.J. & Rohrbaugh, R.L., 2003, Social-science commentary on the synoptic gospels, 2nd edn., Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ]\nMeier, J.P., 1982, 'Antioch', in R. Brown & J.P. Meier (eds.), Antioch and Rome: New Testament cradles of Catholic Christianity, pp. 1186, Chapman, London. [ Links ]\nMeier, J.P., 2001, A marginal Jew: Rethinking the historical Jesus. Volume three: Companions and competitors, The Anchor Bible reference library, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland. [ Links ]\nNolland, J., 2005, The gospel of Matthew: The new international Greek Testament commentary, Eerdmans Publishing co., Grand Rapids, Michigan and Paternoster Press, London. [ Links ]\nOverman, J.A., 1996, Church and community in crisis: The gospel according to Matthew, The New Testament in context, Trinity Press International, Valley Forge, PA. [ Links ]\nSanders, E.P., 1985, Jesus and Judaism, SCM Press, London. [ Links ]\nSato, M., 1988, Q und Prophetie: Studien zur Gattungs- und Traditionsgeschichte d. Quelle Q., WUNT 2,29, Mohr, T\u00fcbingen. [ Links ]\nScott, J.C., 1976, The moral economy of the peasant: Rebellion and subsistence in southeast Asia, Yale University Press, New Haven. [ Links ]\nShah, A., 2009, Poverty facts and stats, viewed 05 April 2010 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats. [ Links ]\nStambauch, J.E. & Balch, D.L., 1986, The New Testament in its social environment, Library of early Christianity, Westminster Press, Philadelphia. [ Links ]\nStark, R., 1996, The rise of christianity: A sociologist reconsiders history, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. [ Links ]\nUNAIDS, 2008, 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic', viewed 05 April 2010, from http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global_report.asp. [ Links ]\nVan Aarde, A.G., 2007, Jesus' mission to all of Israel emplotted in Matthew's story, Neotestamentica 41(2), 416436. [ Links ]\nVan Tilborg, S., 1972, The Jewish leaders in Matthew, Brill, Leiden. [ Links ]\nPikku-kaari 20 B, 70420 Kuopio, Finland\nReceived: 23 Apr. 2010\nAccepted: 16 Aug. 2010\nPublished: 07 June 2011\nNote: Dr Sakari H\u00e4kkinen is participating as a research associate of Prof. Dr Andries G. van Aarde, Honorary Professor at the Faculty of Theology of the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\n1.The work of the Jesus Seminar resulted in the publication of Funk, Hoover and the Jesus Seminar 1993. Not even this work, even though born from the co-operation of numerous biblical scholars, represents the final truth on what the historical Jesus once said. The debate still goes on.\n2.According to the 2007 estimations of UNAIDS (a joint United Nations and World Health Organization program on HIV and AIDS) in the southern parts of Africa of the adult population (1549) 25% 28% were infected by HIV. In the Tanzanian area I visited, the estimation was the worst in the country, 15.7% of the adult population.\n3.I am very grateful to Tumaini University for assigning two assistants, Rev. Aleck Mhanga and Rev. Yekonia Koko to me as well as for the use of a car during my stay in mid-Tanzania.\n4.The data I acquired in the field has been tabulated, but is not presented here for practical reasons.\n5.Kinywang'anga's village chief was not present. I was told that he might join us later (or perhaps he had something else to do). I did not meet him at all. Instead, the executive secretary gave me all the information I needed and I noticed that he also had some authority in the village and was considered to be one of the wealthiest men in the village with his herd of 25 cows. In my opinion, the 'executive secretary' in every Tanzanian village is the modern equivalent of the 'scribes' in Galilean villages. Both the executive secretaries and the Galilean scribes (and later rabbis) were responsible for the village archives and official documents. See Hanson and Oakman (2008:166167).\n6.The office of the village chief was quite stark. It had a table and a chair, a wooden bench and a tiny shelf, that seemed to hold some papers and a huge cardboard box containing condoms!\n7.The saying is originally from Q and thus is also in Luke 12:2234. Parts of the text can be found also in P. Oxy p. 655, which contains saying 36 of the Gospel of Thomas.\n8.Visitors and foreigners in Tanzania are advised not to drink the water that comes out of these pipes.\n9.For example, Meier (2001:517) takes for granted that Jesus is warning about the dangers of wealth, as if the people worrying about their daily life would seek wealth. This seemed not to have been the situation amongst the villagers in Kinywang'anga. Nolland (2005:305316) speaks about 'hard work to earn enough to purchase the cloth' and 'Jesus can assume that his hearers will share his aesthetic judgment that natural beauty outshines the most artful of human productions'.\n10.This came to me when I was visiting the villages. As a foreigner, I was viewed by them as being 'rich'.\n11.There were also some Muslims attending the discussion in Kinywang'anga, but they did not differ from the other villagers in terms of their attitude to work or worrying.\n12.From a poor person's perspective, fasting is a very interesting phenomenon. If people were already poor and were enduring what amounted to forced fasting, Jesus' advice to put oil on their heads and to wash their faces must have sounded very strange indeed. The saying is more suited to an urban environment and possibly in a society whose members are not suffering from poverty.\n13.The concept of the 'evil eye' referred to envy (Malina 2001:108133).\n14.The synoptic sayings source Q was probably composed and used by Galilean villagers from several villages that formed a network consisting of twofold followers of Jesus: itinerant missionaries and settled disciples of Jesus (e.g. Hoffmann 1972:329333; Sato 1988:379380). For other scholars promoting the wandering (charismatic) missionaries and their localised allies (or leaders?), see Kloppenborg Verbin (2000:179184; deviating claims: 184196).\n15.The gospel was most probably written for a community living in an urban environment. Urban locale may be suggested by 26 uses in the Gospel of 'city' compared to four of 'village' (Brown 1997:212).\n16.Syria is added in Matthew 4:24 to Mark's description of Jesus' activity. Also, the early Jewish Gospel of the Nazarenes, which is related to Matthew, circulated in Syria. In Syria, the Jesus-believing Jews were called 'Nazoraioi', the Greek term used in Matthew 2:23 (Luz 1985:74; Brown 1997:212).\n17.The main arguments for Antioch are (1) Ignatius of Antioch seems to have known and probably cited the Gospel of Matthew (the citation is not clearly from Matthew, however); (2) The Didache quotes Matthew and is located by most scholars in Antioch; (3) The first two chapters of the Fourth Ezra (later known as the Fifth Ezra) quoted from Matthew; (4) Antioch as a Greek-speaking city that had a relatively large Jewish population fits well with the conditions mentioned in the Jewish Gospel written to a mixed audience in Greek and; (5) The dominant influence that Matthew's gospel would have in subsequent Christianity suggests that it served as the Gospel of a major Christian church in an important city, such as Antioch. According to Brown (1997:213), the most persuasive evidence stems from the correspondence of the internal evidence. Brown argues quite convincingly that the gospel was addressed to a once strongly Jewish Christian church that had become increasingly Gentile in composition and J.P. Meier has shown how the history of Christianity in Antioch fits that situation. There were probably more Jews in Antioch than in any other place in Syria and their ceremonies attracted many Gentiles (Josephus, War 7.3.3). Also, Paul's mission to the Gentiles began in Antioch, but the community there seems to have later been led by more conservative Jews, as Paul lost the battle (described in Gl 2) and departed Antioch in the 50s. Overman (1996:1617) suggests a Galilean city (perhaps Capernaum or Sepphoris), followed by at least D. Harrington, A.J. Saldarini and A. Segal (who thinks both a Galilean environment and Antioch are possible). Galilee belonged formally to Syria. Tilborg (1972) suggests Alexandria, but Overman (1617) quite convincingly denies this possibility. Overman also provides other suggestions given by scholars on the location of the Gospel, but thinks them improbable. The earliest references to the Gospel according to Matthew by the Church Fathers imply a Palestinian location.", "id": "<urn:uuid:aff6c1f4-e31d-46d6-ad4f-3e28892cc397>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0259-94222011000100013&lng=es&nrm=iso", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9697895646095276, "token_count": 9344, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Climate change has already pushed the nation's wildlife into crisis, according to a report released Wednesday from the National Wildlife Federation (NWF), and further catastrophe, including widespread extinction, can only be curbed with swift action to curb the carbon pollution that has the planet sweltering.\nEntitled Wildlife in a Warming World: Confronting the Climate Crisis, the report looks at 8 regions across the U.S. where \"the underlying climatic conditions to which species have been accustomed for thousands of years,\" the report explains, have been upturned by human-caused climate change.\n\u201cSome of America\u2019s most iconic species\u2014from moose to sandhill cranes to sea turtles \u2013 are seeing their homes transformed by rapid climate change,\u201d stated Dr. Amanda Staudt, climate scientist at the National Wildlife Federation.\nFeb 15, 2013 Living on Earth: STARVING POLAR BEARS Polar Bears have long been the poster species for the problem of climate change. But a new paper in Conservation Letters argues that supplemental feeding may be necessary to prevent polar bear populations from going extinct. Polar bear expert Andrew Derocher from the University of Alberta joins Host Steve Curwood to discuss how we can save the largest bear on the planet.http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=13-P13-00007&segmentID=2", "id": "<urn:uuid:8f73ff6f-28d6-4d1c-b460-f3a592885a8d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scoop.it/t/why-has-putin-closed-the-archives-relating-to-the-holocaust-and-why-has-russian-joined-the-wto/p/3371169705/israel-shells-syria-and-gaza-sabbah-report", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9093286991119385, "token_count": 286, "score": 3.265625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When selecting a solar electric\nback power system for your home or business, it is important to know\napproximately how much power you will need to have available to\npower emergency loads during a blackout. Unlike an offgrid solar\nsystem which needs to replenish the amount of power consumed\nwith available sunlight within each day that the system is\noperating. A backup power system need only supply power for the\nanticipated duration of a blackout, which in most cases is only\na few hours. In fact in most cases, solar panels are not\nnecessary in such a system because the backup power system's\nbatteries can be recharged in anticipation of the next power\nfailure by using utility power once it has returned to normal\noperation. The only advantage that solar panels would serve in\nsuch a system would be in the event that a prolonged outage\n(More than 24 hours) should occur.\nIn a typical backup power\nsystem, batteries store the energy that is needed to power the\ndesignated emergency loads for the pre-determine period of time.\nJust like a small UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) for your\ncomputer can supply power for 5 to 15 minutes allowing you time\nto safely shut you computer off, a backup power system supplies\npower but in this case for hours or even days, allowing you to\noperate your home or business until the power has returned.\nIn order to select the\nappropriate system for your backup power needs, it is important to\nmatch your anticipated power consumption with your back up\nsystem's battery bank capacity. To correctly size a system for your\nhome or business you must first determine the wattage of each item that you\nwish to power during a power failure and also determine how long each item\nwill run during the power failure.\nFor example a 60 watt light\nbulb that is used for 5 hours will consume 300 watt hours. Watts\nmultiplied by time is equal to watt hours. A microwave oven that\nconsumes 800 watts that runs for 15 minutes, consumes 200 watt\nhours, 800 watts times .25 hours equals 200 watt hours.\nSo to correctly size a system, simply make a list of each item\nthat you intend to run. Next to each item write down it's power\nconsumption in watts and next to that write down the amount of\ntime that the item will run during the power failure, then multiply the watts of\nthe item by the amount of time that it will run and write that\nnumber down in the last column. After you have calculated the\nwatt hour consumption for each item, simply add each item's watt\nhour rating together and you'll have your total consumption.. For example:\nOnce we have this information,\nit's a simple matter to match the number of batteries that you will need in order to store enough power for what you\nChoosing an inverter for your\nbackup power system\nDC to AC inverters are\navailable as inverter units only, or may have additional\ncircuits added that allows them to charge batteries when an\nexternal AC source is fed into the inverter. This type of\nconfiguration is know as an inverter/charger. In addition to\nthe charger circuit, these units will typically include a\ndevice known as an AC transfer switch.\nThe advantage to purchasing an\ninverter/charger with transfer switch is that it can function\nas a highly reliable automatic power backup unit or UPS.\nWhen the utility company is operating\nnormally the inverter/charger passes the utility company power\nthrough its internal transfer switch to your appliances and\nmaintains a charge on your battery bank. As soon as the\nutility power fails, the inverter automatically stops charging\nthe battery bank and begins producing its own AC power which\nis passed on to your appliances through its internal AC\nWhen the utility power returns, the\ninverter goes back to charging the batteries and again passes\nthe utility power though the transfer switch to your\nappliances. Most inverter/chargers switch from utility power\nto inverter power and back again so fast that most of your\nappliances will hardly miss a beat.\nSizing the wattage rating of an\ninverter for your backup system is a simple matter of\ndetermining the total number of appliances that you would\ntypically be operating on a concurrent basis, and adding a\nbuffer of at least 500 watts. In other words if there was a\npossibility that you would have your 600 watt microwave, a 200\nwatts coffee maker and a 200 watt stereo running at the same\ntime, you would be drawing 1000 watts, then you should choose a\n1500 watt inverter. An inverter should never be run at it's\nmaximum rating for prolonged periods of time, doing so will\nshorten the life of the inverter.\nAnother issue to consider is\nthe amount of surge current that your appliances draws. Any\nappliance that uses a transformer, motor or other magnetic\ndevice draws what is known as surge current at startup. These\ndevices are otherwise known as inductors. Inductors appose the\nflow of electrical current.\nWhen an inductor is first\nenergized there is a great degree of inertia that must be\novercome for the magnetic field which surrounds the inductor to\nreach it's maximum field. Just as it's difficult to initially\npush a car by hand that is at rest and gets easier to push as it\ngets going. Initially starting an inductor takes a great\ndeal of current to get it started but backs off on the current\nafter it gets going.\nDevices such as microwave\novens, refrigerator compressors, fan motors and large\ntransformer based appliances can draw from 3 to 6 times it's\nnormal wattage in an initial surge of current. This initial\nsurge of current typically only lasts milliseconds but it's\nenough to shut down an inverter if it's not sized properly. Thus\nit's important to choose an inverter that has enough surge\ncapacity to start such appliances. For example a meager 600 watt\nmicrowave oven will typically require a 2000 watt inverter just\nto get it started.\nIf all of this\ninformation seems a little overwhelming, don't worry our\nfriendly knowledgeable staff are here to help you every step of\nAnd finally, be cautious when\npurchasing a backup power system for your home or place of\nthe Internet. Get to know who you're dealing with. Many of the\nbackup power kits that are available on the Internet are actually\nhome made configurations. Many websites on the Internet that\nwould appear to be large reputable companies are actually home\nbased affairs that operate from an impossible to trace POB\n(PO Box). Remember,\nyou're about to give this individual your personal information\nand more importantly your credit card number.\nIs his company solvent ? Does\nhe have liability insurance ? Does he really have the\nitems that you're about to purchase in stock ? Does he\nhave any stock ? With the advent of the energy crisis,\ndozens of home based dealers with little or no formal training\nor experience have cropped up on the Internet.\nEven if you don't live nearby, ask the dealer if you can get\ndirections to his place of business so you can stop by and take\na look at some products. If you can't get directions or a\nstraight answer from him, then in our opinion, steer clear !\nIt's important to remember that it takes only minutes to upload\na website to the Internet and only seconds to take it down.\nwould like to learn more about protecting yourself when shopping\non the Internet", "id": "<urn:uuid:b26c9f8c-855d-4238-886a-cd60d6fe52ec>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.solarkits.com/gettingstartedbackup.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9384167194366455, "token_count": 1599, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Problems of Philosophy\nChapter 5 - Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description\nAfter distinguishing two types of knowledge, knowledge of things and knowledge of truths, Russell devotes this fifth chapter to an elucidation of knowledge of things. He further distinguishes two types of knowledge of things, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. We have knowledge by acquaintance when we are directly aware of a thing, without any inference. We are immediately conscious and acquainted with a color or hardness of a table before us, our sense-data. Since acquaintance with things is logically independent from any knowledge of truths, we can be acquainted with something immediately without knowing any truth about it. I can know the color of a table \"perfectly and completely when I see it\" and not know any truth about the color in itself. The other type of knowledge of things is called knowledge by description. When we say we have knowledge of the table itself, a physical object, we refer to a kind of knowledge other than immediate, direct knowledge. \"The physical object which causes such-and-such sense-data\" is a phrase that describes the table by way of sense-data. We only have a description of the table. Knowledge by description is predicated on something with which we are acquainted, sense-data, and some knowledge of truths, like knowing that \"such- and-such sense-data are caused by the physical object.\" Thus, knowledge by description allows us to infer knowledge about the actual world via the things that can be known to us, things with which we have direct acquaintance (our subjective sense-data).\nAccording to this outline, knowledge by acquaintance forms the bedrock for all of our other knowledge. Sense-data is not the only instance of things with which we can be immediately acquainted. For how would we recall the past, Russell argues, if we could only know what was immediately present to our senses. Beyond sense-data, we also have \"acquaintance by memory.\" Remembering what we were immediately aware of makes it so that we are still immediately aware of that past, perceived thing. We may therefore access many past things with the same requisite immediacy. Beyond sense-data and memories, we possess \"acquaintance by introspection.\" When we are aware of an awareness, like in the case of hunger, \"my desiring food\" becomes an object of acquaintance. Introspective acquaintance is a kind of acquaintance with our own minds that may be understood as self-consciousness. However, this self-consciousness is really more like a consciousness of a feeling or a particular thought; the awareness rarely includes the explicit use of \"I,\" which would identify the Self as a subject. Russell abandons this strand of knowledge, knowledge of the Self, as a probable but unclear dimension of acquaintance.\nRussell summarizes our acquaintance with things as follows: \"We have acquaintance in sensation with the data of the outer senses, and in introspection with the data of what may be called the inner sense\u2014thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.; we have acquaintance in memory with things which have been data either of the outer senses or of the inner sense. Further, it is probable, though not certain, that we have acquaintance with Self, as that which is aware of things or has desires towards things.\" All these objects of acquaintance are particulars, concrete, existing things. Russell cautions that we can also have acquaintance with abstract, general ideas called universals. He addresses universals more fully later in chapter 9.\nRussell allocates the rest of the chapter to explaining how the complicated theory of knowledge by description actually works. The most conspicuous things that are known to us by description are physical objects and other people's minds. We approach a case of having knowledge by description when we know \"that there is an object answering to a definite description, though we are not acquainted with any such object.\" Russell offers several illustrations in the service of understanding knowledge by description. He claims that it is important to understand this kind of knowledge because our language uses depends so heavily on it. When we say common words or proper names, we are really relying on the meanings implicit in descriptive knowledge. The thought connoted by the use of a proper name can only really be explicitly expressed through a description or proposition.\nBismarck, or \"the first Chancellor of the German Empire,\" is Russell's most cogent example. Imagine that there is a proposition, or statement, made about Bismarck. If Bismarck is the speaker, admitting that he has a kind of direct acquaintance with his own self, Bismarck might have voiced his name in order to make a self-referential judgment, of which his name is a constituent. In this simplest case, the \"proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply standing for a certain object, and not for a description of the object.\" If one of Bismarck's friends who knew him directly was the speaker of the statement, then we would say that the speaker had knowledge by description. The speaker is acquainted with sense-data which he infers corresponds with Bismarck's body. The body or physical object representing the mind is \"only known as the body and the mind connected with these sense-data,\" which is the vital description. Since the sense-data corresponding to Bismarck change from moment to moment and with perspective, the speaker knows which various descriptions are valid.\nStill more removed from direct acquaintance, imagine that someone like you or I comes along and makes a statement about Bismarck that is a description based on a \"more or less vague mass of historical knowledge.\" We say that Bismarck was the \"first Chancellor of the German Empire.\" In order to make a valid description applicable to the physical object, Bismarck's body, we must find a relation between some particular with which we have acquaintance and the physical object, the particular with which we wish to have an indirect acquaintance. We must make such a reference in order to secure a meaningful description.\nTo usefully distinguish particulars from universals, Russell posits the example of \"the most long-lived of men,\" a description which wholly consists of universals. We assume that the description must apply to some man, but we have no way of inferring any judgment about him. Russell remarks, \"all knowledge of truths, as we shall show, demands acquaintance with things which are of an essentially different character from sense-data, the things which are sometimes called 'abstract ideas', but which we shall call 'universals'.\" The description composed only of universals gives no knowledge by acquaintance with which we might anchor an inference about the longest-lived man. A further statement about Bismarck, like \"The first Chancellor of the German Empire was an astute diplomatist,\" is a statement that contains particulars and asserts a judgment that we can only make in virtue of some acquaintance (like something heard or read).\nStatements about things known by description function in our language as statements about the \"actual thing described;\" that is, we intend to refer to that thing. We intend to say something with the direct authority that only Bismarck himself could have when he makes a statement about himself, something with which he has direct acquaintance. Yet, there is a spectrum of removal from acquaintance with the relevant particulars: from Bismarck himself, \"there is Bismarck to people who knew him; Bismarck to those who only know of him through history\" and at a far end of the spectrum \"the longest lived of men.\" At the latter end, we can only make propositions that are logically deducible from universals, and at the former end, we come as close as possible to direct acquaintance and can make many propositions identifying the actual object. It is now clear how knowledge gained by description is reducible to knowledge by acquaintance. Russell calls this observation his fundamental principle in the study of \"propositions containing descriptions\": \"Every proposition which we can understand must be composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted.\"\nIndirect knowledge of some particulars seems necessary if we are to expressively attach meanings to the words we commonly use. When we say something referring to Julius Caesar, we clearly have no direct acquaintance with the man. Rather, we are thinking of such descriptions as \"the man who was assassinated on the Ides of March\" or \"the founder of the Roman Empire.\" Since we have no way of being directly acquainted with Julius Caesar, our knowledge by description allows us to gain knowledge of \"things which we have never experienced.\" It allows us to overstep the boundaries of our private, immediate experiences and engage a public knowledge and public language.\nThis knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description theory was a famous epistemological problem-solver for Russell. Its innovative character allowed him to shift to his moderate realism, a realism ruled by a more definite categorization of objects. It is a theory of knowledge that considers our practice of language to be meaningful and worthy of detailed analysis. Russell contemplates how we construct a sense of meaning about objects remote from our experience. The realm of acquaintance offers the most secure references for our understanding of the world. Knowledge by description allows us to draw inferences from our realm of acquaintance but leaves us in a more vulnerable position. Since knowledge by description also depends on truths, we are prone to error about our descriptive knowledge if we are somehow mistaken about a proposition that we have taken to be true.\nCritics of this theory have held that Russell's hypothesis of knowledge by description is confusing. His comments when defining sense-data, that the physical world is unknowable to us, contradict his theory of knowledge by descriptions. He implies that \"knowledge by description\" is not really a form of knowledge since we can only know those things with which we are acquainted and we cannot be acquainted with physical objects. Russell's theory amounts to the proposition that our acquaintance with mental objects appears related in a distant way to physical objects and renders us obliquely acquainted with the physical world. Sense-data are our subjective representations of the external world, and they negotiate this indirect contact.\nWhile innovative, Russell's theory of knowledge by description is not an attractive theory of knowledge. It is clearly unappealing because our impressions of the real world, on his view, are commensurate with muddy representations of reality. Though we have direct access to these representations, it seems impossible to have any kind of direct experience of reality. Reality, rather, consists in unconscious, inferential pieces of reasoning.\nReaders' Notes allow users to add their own analysis and insights to our SparkNotes\u2014and to discuss those ideas with one another. Have a novel take or think we left something out? Add a Readers' Note!", "id": "<urn:uuid:0abbeab1-fafa-4389-9f7e-7573eb693c9e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/problems/section5.rhtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9639775156974792, "token_count": 2196, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In terms of their breadth, we can describe plans as strategic or tactical. Strategic plans are plans that are organization-wide (apply to the entire organization). The plans establish overall objectives, and position an organization in terms of its environment. Strategic plans drive the efforts of an organization to achieve its goals, and they serve as a basis for the tactical plans.\nTactical plans often referred to as operational plans. Tactical plans are plans that specify the details of how an organization\u2019s overall objectives should be achieved. Unlike strategic plans that tend to cover long periods of time, tactical plans tend to cover short periods of time. Some examples of tactical plans are an organization\u2019s monthly, weekly, and daily plans.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e67d30d4-c4a4-403a-85d2-2da1385de225>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.swotanalysistemplate.info/2011/05/strategic-and-tactical-planning.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.969585657119751, "token_count": 144, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "An illustration of NASA\u2019s Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. Credit: NASA JPL\nNASA\u2019s Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have been trekking across the Martian surface for the past half decade, surviving dust storms, sand traps, and three freezing winters with only minor setbacks.\nNow Spirit, having just received much\nfanfare in celebration of its five-year anniversary on the planet, appears to\nbe running awry, and its operating team is concerned. It plans to conduct\ndiagnostic tests on the rover later this week.\nEngineers first noticed Spirit\u2019s peculiar behavior on Sunday. The rover had radioed to say that it had received its driving commands for the day, but strangely, it had not moved. While NASA says that this can happen for a number of reasons, the rover also failed to record its day\u2019s activities to its nonvolatile memory\u2013storage that is retained even when the rover is powered off. The next day, the team asked the rover to determine its orientation by locating the sun. Spirit found the sun, but it inaccurately reported its location.\nThe Spirit team does not yet have an explanation for why the rover may be a little out of whack, but one hypothesis is that it could be suffering the fleeting effects of cosmic rays hitting its electronics. Diagnostic tests should provide a more definitive answer soon.\nSpirit, like Opportunity, is a warrior of the Red Planet. Both rovers, launched in January 2004, were scheduled to last a minimum of three months and a maximum of six. Now, after five years, the rovers have turned Mars into what seems like a next-door neighbor\u2013not the alien planet that it once was.\nSince landing, the rovers have made important scientific discoveries. Spirit discovered deposits of salts and minerals such as sulfur and silica, which only form with water. This happened when it inadvertently dug a trench behind itself while dragging a broken right front wheel. This video highlights Spirit\u2019s adventures:\ncrater-exploring rover, was fortunate to land on exposed bedrock that was\ndetermined to be laid down in water some 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. This was the first\nevidence of ancient surface water. It also discovered tiny balls of material\nthat appear to have formed in the presence of water. This video highlights Opportunity\u2019s activities:\nScott Maxwell, a rover driver at NASA\u2019s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, says that \u201cthe mission just keeps getting better and better the longer it goes.\u201d\n\u201cMars is such a\ncomplex place, and these are such capable vehicles that there will never come a time when we\u2019re done; five years\nfrom now there is going to be some wonderful, tantalizing thing just beyond our\nreach that we didn\u2019t quite get to,\u201d adds Steve Squyres, principal investigator of the rovers at Cornell University.\nVideos by NASA\nSmaller design teams can now prototype and deploy faster.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9d188311-c05e-471e-b6fe-ec2998b7be06>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.technologyreview.com/view/411820/mars-rover-behaving-oddly/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9588230848312378, "token_count": 618, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Pricing Carbon Emissions\nA bill before Congress may prove a costly way to reduce greenhouse gases.\n- Friday, June 5, 2009\n- By Kevin Bullis\nExperts are applauding a sweeping energy bill currently before the United States Congress, saying that it could lead to significant cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions and improve the likelihood of a comprehensive international agreement to cut greenhouse gases. \"It's real climate-change legislation that's being taken seriously,\" says Gilbert Metcalf, a professor of economics at Tufts University. But many warn that the bill's market-based mechanisms and more conventional regulations could make these emissions reductions more expensive than they need to be.\nThe bill, officially called the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, is also referred to as the Waxman-Markey Bill, after its sponsors, Henry Waxman (D-Ca.) and Edward Markey (D-Mass.). The legislation would establish a cap and trade system to reduce greenhouse gases, an approach favored by most economists over conventional regulatory approaches because it provides a great deal of flexibility in how emissions targets are met. But it also contains mandates that could significantly reduce the cost savings that the cap and trade approach is supposed to provide.\nIn a cap and trade system, the government sets a cap on total emissions of greenhouse gases from various industrial and utility sources, including power plants burning fossil fuels to generate electricity. It then issues allowances to polluters allowing them to emit carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases; total emissions are meant to stay under the cap. Over a period of time, the government gradually reduces the cap and the number of allowances until it reaches its target. If companies' emissions exceed their allowances, they must buy more.\nEconomists like the system because companies can choose to either lower their emissions, such as by investing in new technology, or buy more allowances from the government or from companies that don't need them--whichever makes the best economic sense. It is meant to create a carbon market, putting a value on emissions.\nIn the proposed energy bill, the government will set caps to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions by 17 percent by 2020 (compared with 2005 levels) and by 80 percent by 2050--targets chosen to prevent the worst effects of climate change. Setting caps will make electricity more expensive, as companies turn to cleaner technologies to meet ever lower caps or have to spend money to buy allowances from others with lower emissions. But the bill has some provisions for cushioning the blow, especially at first. For one thing, it gives away most of the allowances rather than charging for them, and it also requires that any profits gained from these free allowances be passed on to electricity customers. It also allows companies to buy \"offsets\" that permit them to pay to reduce emissions outside the United States.\nIf the program is designed right, there are fewer allowances than the total emissions when the program starts. At first, when the caps are relatively easy to meet, the prices for allowances on the carbon market will be low. But eventually, they will get higher as the allowances become scarcer. In an ideal world, companies will predict what the price of the allowances will be, and plan accordingly.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ecbdee27-d586-4d08-a03d-036829352851>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.technologyreview.in/energy/22755/page1/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9556233286857605, "token_count": 648, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "We hear so much about toxins in fish, you\u2019re probably wondering \u2013 what exactly is safe to eat? According to Health magazine, experts say that most seafood is healthy to eat twice a week. It contains high-quality protein, heart-healthy omega-3s, and low levels of saturated fat. Some types also contain pollutants such as mercury, which could harm developing babies. It is important to avoid these. Luckily, it\u2019s pretty easy to do. Here\u2019s how.\n- Think small. Tim Fitzgerald is a scientist and senior policy specialist with the Environmental Defense Fund. He says that the best way to reduce exposure to contaminants is to cut back on eating big fish. Pollutants from the atmosphere regularly settle into the ocean, and fish that grow large - like shark, marlin and Chilean sea bass - accumulate more contaminants in their bodies during their long lives.\n- Also: Mix it up. You want to eat a variety of seafood to lower the risks of contaminants. For example, if you like tuna, eat it only once a week because it\u2019s a bigger fish. Then choose something smaller, such as shrimp, for your next meal.\nWhatever you do, don\u2019t stop eating all seafood out of fear. Dr. Dariush Mozaffarian is a director with the Harvard School of Public Health. He says that eating fish is the single best dietary change you can make to reduce your risk of heart disease. Studies show that the abundant omega-3 fats in seafood help your heart by lowering blood-fat levels, slowing the buildup of plaque in your arteries, and lowering blood pressure. Also, the Environmental Defense Fund has come up with a new \u201cSuper Green\u201d list of seafood that\u2019s both low in contaminants, great sources of omega-3s, and easy on the planet \u2013 meaning they\u2019re not caught by trawls and dredges, which damage the ocean floor. This list includes farmed muscles, oysters and trout, wild Alaskan salmon, pole-caught Albacore tuna, and wild Pacific sardines. So go ahead and enjoy them.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6de77555-710b-4a8c-9632-9cfcf8b11a04>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.tesh.com/topics/home-and-food-category/which-seafood-should-you-eat/cc/7/id/8290", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9534217119216919, "token_count": 440, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Is the U.S. Ready for Human Rights? :: Discussion Guide\nThe articles mentioned below are available on our website: see our Focus index to our Human Rights issue. You are welcome to download and photocopy the articles free of charge. If you would like to purchase multiple copies of YES! or subscriptions for your class or group, please phone 800/937-4451.\nThe United States has been proud of its leadership in human rights. Many times throughout history, we have amended our constitution to answer demands for increased tolerance and equal treatment of all citizens. Yet now we find uncharged captives held indefinitely in Guant\u00e1namo Bay, reports of torture in Abu Ghraib, limits on prisoners' access to habeas corpus, and other violations.\nIn order for any great nation to progress, it must reflect upon itself, celebrating its accomplishments, addressing areas of concern, and working towards improvement. One of the key goals of this issue of YES! is to present such a \u201clook in the mirror\u201d for the United States.\nThis discussion guide will focus on the following articles:\n- Sometimes a Great Nation by Eric Foner\n- Check Your Rights at the Border by Justin Akers Chacon\n- Who's Afraid of Economic Human Rights? by Carol Estes\n- Mere Justice by Jesse Wegman\n- Yes. We're Ready. by Larry Cox & Dorothy Thomas\n- The Universal Declaration of Human Rights with footnotes by the YES! team\nSometimes a Great Nation\nSEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Sometimes a Great Nation by Eric Foner\nThe United States has sometimes been the world leader in human rights. Yet as Thomas Jefferson warns, \u201cthe price of liberty is eternal vigilance.\u201d Has our record of courage and decency led us to assume that we are still the gold standard of human rights enforcement? Foner urges us to examine our true history\u2014one made up of both justice and injustice, of honor and cowardice. Can we reclaim our right to call ourselves a truly great nation in terms of human rights? Foner says yes.\n- In your opinion, what are the some of the U.S.'s greatest achievements in human rights? What are some of the times the U.S. has fallen short of its ideals?\n- Consider a time when someone discriminated against you based on your gender or the color of your skin, or something more abstract, like your faith or level of education. Discuss this experience. Were you treated with less dignity than you deserve? How did it make you feel?\n- Throughout history, various groups have been denied equal opportunities for reasons that seem justified at the time. In examining past differences that were once intolerable, but are now accepted, perhaps we can learn something. Do you see any commonalities among groups of the past and present that have been excluded and oppressed?\n- Sometimes, we are a great nation. With concentrated effort, we can reclaim a national identity associated with upholding human rights. What steps can you as an individual take to advance this change?\nCheck Your Rights at the Border\nSEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Check Your Rights at the Border by Justin Akers Chacon\nU.S. trade policy is one of the factors contributing to the immigration of people from Mexico and Central America seeking work in the United States. Free trade agreements have lowered tariffs and undermined traditional economies. Chacon says that human rights are among the many things immigrants leave behind while making the journey north.\n- Part of eliminating stereotypes is identifying and addressing them. What words or images come to mind when you think of the word \u201cimmigrant?\u201d Where did these associations come from?\n- Consider your own heritage. If your ancestors immigrated to the United States, what stories have they passed down in your family? Did they experience economic, cultural, social, or other kinds of discrimination?\n- What role do immigrants play in our country? What are the advantages and disadvantages of easing the limitations on international migration? What effect would that have in your own life, neighborhood, and job?\n- What distinguishes \u201cbeneficial\u201d immigration from \u201charmful\u201d immigration?\nWho's Afraid of Economic Human Rights?\nSEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Who's Afraid of Economic Human Rights? by Carol Estes\nEvidently, the U.S. government is. Even though 155 of the world's nations have ratified the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which recognizes economic rights for all, the United States has not. Carol Estes argues that people who live in the richest country in the world should be entitled to housing, food, and medical care.\n- \u201cIf you're homeless, you must have done something wrong to end up there, and you alone are responsible for getting yourself out of that situation.\u201d Have you seen or heard messages like this? If so, where have they come from? Do you agree or disagree with them?\n- The UDHR recognizes that every human being has economic rights. Do you think that in the United States we treat basic economic security as a right, or something to be earned?\n- Does having a population of permanently poor people serve to sustain, or even benefit, an economic system?\n- How would your life be different if our government provided the basic economic security outlined in the UDHR to all its citizens? What might you lose? What might you gain?\nSEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Mere Justice by Jesse Wegman\nIn his article, Wegman discusses the obstacles faced by prisoners who seek review of their cases using habeas corpus. He explains the origin of AEDPA, the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, which dramatically hinders access to this right. The Act speeds up the process by which death-row inmates are pushed to executions, and simultaneously restricts all other prisoners' ability to appeal for justice.\n- Do you think prisoners have too much access to court review of their cases, or too little?\n- Wegman mentions that many politicians crack down on prisoners' rights because they are afraid of being perceived as \u201csoft\u201d or \u201csympathetic\u201d towards criminals. How do you feel about this? What does this tell us about our society?\nYes. We're Ready.\nSEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Yes. We're Ready. by Larry Cox & Dorothy Thomas\nLarry Cox, the executive director of Amnesty International, and Dorothy Q. Thomas, senior program advisor to the U.S. Human Rights Fund, say that human rights are a powerful unifying force for activists, and many groups are drawing on human rights theory to make change.\n- Think of a cause about which you feel strongly. Does this cause share values with those promoting human rights? Could you imagine forming a meaningful connection with someone working towards a cause different from your own, based on human rights?\n- How might you expand the human rights network within your own community?\nThe Universal Declaration of Human Rights\nSEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights with footnotes by the YES! editorial team\nIn 1948, the UDHR was birthed into the world through the efforts of Eleanor Roosevelt and the newly formed United Nations. The document was the first of its kind. Its 30 articles define the basic rights we all own, simply by virtue of being human. The UDHR has been translated into hundreds of languages, yet its contents are unfamiliar to many. Examine your rights. Then consider the YES! footnotes, showing a U.S. position on each article.\n- Had you seen the UDHR before? Do any of the 30 articles surprise you? If so, which ones, and why?\n- The YES! team debated long and hard over whether to include the footnotes about the U.S.'s position on each article. How did you feel about these interjections? Did they make the document more meaningful, or take away from its inherent beauty?\n- How do you feel about this document? Is it just a case of one group imposing norms on others, or are there such things as \u201cuniversal human rights\u201d? If such rights exist, does this document capture them? What rights do you feel are missing from the document, if any?\nWhat are you doing?\nHow are you using this discussion guide? How could we improve it?\nPlease share your stories and suggestions with us at editors @ yesmagazine.org, with \u201cDiscussion Guide\u201d as the subject.\nYES! is published by the Positive Futures Network, an independent, nonprofit organization whose mission is to support people's active engagement in creating a more just, sustainable, and compassionate world.\nThat means, we rely on support from our readers.\nIndependent. Nonprofit. Subscriber-supported.", "id": "<urn:uuid:962d29cd-6022-40da-af97-5793ae9f5f1b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.yesmagazine.org/issues/is-the-u.s.-ready-for-human-rights/is-the-u.s.-ready-for-human-rights-discussion-guide", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704132298/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113532-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9504677057266235, "token_count": 1804, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sole, Lemon \u2013 UK\nLemon Sole is a medium sized flatfish found along the northern European coast on coarse gravelly and rocky bottoms at depths ranging from 40 to 200 m. They mature relatively quickly and live up to nine years.\nLemon Sole appear to be at medium levels of abundance, although information about population size is somewhat limited. In the United Kingdom, they are generally taken by beam and otter trawls as bycatch in mixed whitefish fisheries that target Cod, Haddock, and Whiting. Bottom trawls can damage the seafloor. Management of Lemon Sole in the United Kingdom is limited and bycatch levels are mostly unknown.\nThis fish may have high levels of PCBs that could pose a health risk to adults and children. More contaminant info here.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e9cf0b0c-4bc1-4b52-8901-35265776f71e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blueocean.org/seafoods/sole-lemon-uk/?showimg=366&imgpage=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511297941207886, "token_count": 164, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Brock student launches interactive children\u2019s book for iPad\nPublished on February 05 2013\nA Brock PhD student\u2019s idea for an interactive children\u2019s book has grown into reality.\nDanielle Beckett, a certified classroom teacher who now studies learning and cognition in the Faculty of Education at the University, created The Gingerbread Man storybook for the iPad through her start-up company GroDigital.\nAnd this is no ordinary touch and flip e-book for children. Beckett\u2019s creation also doubles as a reading assessment tool because of groundbreaking voice-recognition technology developed by computer science students from Brock.\n\u201cThe voice recognition allows for the child to be assessed while reading and providing feedback to improve their reading performance,\u201d says Beckett. \u201cWith this project, we\u2019re spearheading voice recognition technology.\u201d\nThe interactive choose-your-own-adventure e-book is based upon the popular 19th-century fairy tale, The Gingerbread Man, and is designed for children ages 4 to 8.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4ed9b7d3-15e1-4c84-a02f-34fe545ec2aa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://brocku.ca/news/21845", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9310110211372375, "token_count": 217, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Initial surveys began this week and are focusing on the collection of water samples for eDNA analysis. Electroshocking and netting survey efforts will also be conducted starting next week. The eDNA surveys will occur in the Sandusky River and Bay, and the Maumee River and Bay. Samples will be collected in the areas where positive eDNA samples were collected in 2011 and at additional locations believed to provide suitable bighead and silver carp habitat. MDNR Research Program Manager Tammy Newcomb said, \"Our coordinated sampling efforts with partner agencies are very important in order to revisit areas where positive samples were collected last year, and to expand sampling to areas that may be reproductively favorable for bighead or silver carp. These are the areas where we can be most effective in preventing expansion of these species should they be present.\"\nMDNR and ODNR requested assistance from the USFWS to develop and implement this assessment effort. The USFWS is contributing significant technical and logistical expertise, as well as personnel, survey equipment and vessels. The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) will analyze the collected eDNA water samples.\nAccess the joint release with additional details and links to information including videos and images (click here). [#GLakes]\n32 Years of Environmental Reporting for serious Environmental Professionals", "id": "<urn:uuid:1da944ff-f613-4437-88c4-f052b1514ec0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://greatlakesenvironment.blogspot.com/2012_08_02_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9535783529281616, "token_count": 263, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Lice are tiny insects that do not need wings.\nThey are brownish coloring and they're very small when they are born. That\u2019s exactly why it is really not easy to see them. Full grown head lice are usually about the size of a little sesame seed. Head lice can not fly or swim and they only by individual touching another person.\nHow do the lice reproduce\nIt begins with a female louse laying eggs near the hair roots to keep the eggs comfortable and warm. The eggs hatch about a week later and baby lice are born. The nits or the vacant eggshells remain glued on the hair. When your hair grow out the eggshells end up being detectable and you may notice that there is something white-colored stuck to your head. Then you'll definitely know that you almost certainly have lice. It takes them about seven to 10 days for being fully grown. If they are grown they start to move from 1 head to some other, usually searching for a brand new home.\nLady lice may lay eggs already after the 6th day after she came into this world. So to get rid of lice you have to act immediately and get rid of all the lice before the sixth day. If you don\u2019t then the cycle starts all over again given that sole head lice could lay up to 10 eggs each day.\nTo discover these tiny pests you need to search really carefully. You must search your entire head by a single small area of hair at a time. You will need to do this in a very good light or you will miss out on them. The eggs are extremely small however you can easily spot them because they're very white-colored. You can only see the eggs very close to the scalp. The eggs are glued on your hair with a highly effective material.\nWho should you treat\nOnly people who have head lice should be technically treated, however it is a good idea to look at your whole family for lice. Especially when a kid is carrying lice, since you are in close contact with the kid. The best method is to wet the hair and use a thin hair comb to go through the hair very carefully. When your child has lice then it'sbest if you inform all other parents of youngsters that your kid is in contact with and also the school. Without treating everyone the kid might be in touch with the head lice are going to be back again.\nTips on how to avoid lice from coming back again?\nThe first thing to do is to clean every thing which you've had contact with. Ensure that you use high temperature. You really need to thoroughly clean covers, hats, clothing, scarves and headwear to be sure. On the other hand do not need to clean the entire residence, because the lice aren't able to live for an extended time without humans. It's going to take them just a few days to pass away from hunger.\nHope it helped on how to get rid of lice.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2a9b6a30-7de5-45ef-ae13-88abcb4be5ca>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://itchyheadhelp.blogspot.com/2012/01/problems-with-head-lice.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9783230423927307, "token_count": 621, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "October 20 2008\nPosition Paper No. 611: Peeking Behind the Blue Ribbon\nDownload the complete report below.\nThe No Child Left behind Act of 2002 (NCLB) was enacted to shine more light on student performance previously hidden by school-wide, aggregate achievement results. NCLB makes important progress toward that goal by requiring states to report the performance of various student sub-groups, including minority children, students with disabilities, and non-native English speakers. One of the country's most prestigious distinctions is to be named a U.S. Department of Education No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Blue Ribbon School.\nIn 2007, only 133 public schools nationwide were honored as Blue Ribbon Schools for scoring in the top 10 percent on state assessments. \"These schools are proving that when we raise the bar our children will rise to the challenge,\" according to Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings.[i] These schools also did not enroll many from disadvantaged backgrounds, and a closer look at these award-winning schools reveals that many of them do not live up to that touted \"Blue-Ribbon\" label.\nOn average, just 11 percent of students at those 2007 Blue-Ribbon schools came from impoverished backgrounds, three percent of students were classified with limited English proficiency (LEP), and only eight percent of students had disabilities.[ii] The median home value in the schools' neighborhoods exceeded $300,000 on average, and the median family income approached $100,000. Yet at one in three of those Blue-Ribbon schools, at least 25 percent of students in at least one grade were not proficient in at least one core subject tested.\nOn average, more than a quarter of students in two grades scored below proficiency in two subjects at those underperforming 2007 Blue-Ribbon schools. Specifically, at underperforming award schools, the percentage of students in at least one grade who did not score proficient ranged from 26 to 62 percent in reading, and from 26 to 56 percent in math. Many Blue-Ribbon schools that underperformed in those core subjects also had similarly poor performance in at least one grade in science.\nThis analysis finds many states are engaging in NCLB accountability-avoidance, unwittingly aided by the Blue-Ribbon award designation. Such avoidance is likely to increase as the 2013-2014 school year deadline for 100 percent student proficiency approaches, making a U.S. Department of Education blue ribbon an increasingly unreliable indicator of academic quality in the coming years, absent necessary reforms. Instead of piling on additional, expensive federal mandates, this analysis recommends improved public accountability through greater transparency to preserve the delicate balance between flexibility for states and accurate information for parents.\nSpecific recommendations include reporting grade-level student proficiency in all core subjects tested as a condition for receiving federal NCLB funds. State proficiency results should also be reported alongside nationally-representative proficiency results to make declines in state standards more apparent. To ensure universally rigorous assessment, states should publicize annual passing scores on their tests and their annual student proficiency targets. The best accountability assurance of all-better than any blue ribbon-is for the U.S. Department of Education to provide parents with information that is both accurate and actionable, then enforce their children's right of exit from underperforming schools.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ac8391b9-5fa3-4b92-8edf-07c8e2a75400>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://iwf.org/publications/2435131/Position-Paper-No-611:-Peeking-Behind-the-Blue-Ribbon", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9622230529785156, "token_count": 670, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Our Baby Parrots\nAll of our baby parrots are left with their mother for the first three weeks of their lives. Doing this ensures a strong immune and gut flora system develops. At three weeks of age, the babies are taken from the nest, are handfed and the socialization period begins.\nAt around eight weeks old, the babies have a complete examination by a licensed avian veterinarian to make sure they are healthy and doing fine. At the same time as the checkup we have them DNA-sexed. As the babies start the weaning process, we introduce them to a great variety of pellets, fruits, rice, pasta, eggs, vegetables and even some chicken.\nThis usually begins at approximately five to six weeks of age, but they are also still being handfed. We gradually start to cut back on the handfeeding as the babies grow and mature. We let the babies let us know when that time arrives. When they are not hungry, they will spit the formula back out or they just won\u2019t open their beaks. It is very common for a baby parrot to lose some of their body weight at this point.\nAll our babies are raised in our home, in a family environment. Our house is a very busy place, with lots of ongoing activity. We are Foster Parents, so we have children of all ages playing with, cuddling and just talking to the baby parrots. Running around the house also are two tiny Yorkshire Terriers and a Toy Maltese. Needless to say, our babies are exposed to many different faces and voices. The babies get to run around our kitchen for large periods of time throughout the day \u2013 this is their time to play together and get acquainted with their siblings and friends.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6acd00b3-50de-4826-91bc-c141feb8e47b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://loveparrots.ca/our-parrots/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9781198501586914, "token_count": 356, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What are managed lanes?\nHighway facilities or a set of lanes where operational strategies are proactively implemented and managed in response to changing conditions.\nTransportation agencies are faced with growing challenges of congestion and a limited ability to expand freeway capacity due to construction costs, right-of-way constraints, and environmental and societal impacts. Transportation officials are taking advantage of opportunities to address mobility needs and provide travel options through a combination of limited capacity expansion coupled with operational strategies that seek to manage travel demand and improve transit and other forms of ridesharing. The managed lanes concept is gaining interest around the country as an approach that combines these elements to make the most effective and efficient use of a freeway facility.\nThe distinction between managed lanes and other traditional forms of freeway lane management is the operating philosophy of \"active management.\" Under this philosophy, the operating agency proactively manages demand and available capacity on the facility by applying new strategies or modifying existing strategies. The agency defines from the outset the operating objectives for the managed lanes and the kinds of actions that will be taken once pre-defined performance thresholds are met.\nYou will need the Adobe Acrobat Reader to view the PDFs on this page.\nUnited States Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration", "id": "<urn:uuid:a2bf4085-1745-4ba3-afd8-5a46d9ad2a75>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ops.fhwa.dot.gov/freewaymgmt/managed_lanes.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9293321371078491, "token_count": 247, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Croatia should apologize for World War II genocide before joining the EU\nCroatian fascists murdered hundreds of thousands of victims as part of a campaign against Serbs and Jews.\nCroatia is nearing the finish line of a multiyear race to join the European Union. Its accession has been pushed along by traditional ally Germany, and by the United States, which has encouraged the EU\u2019s southwest expansion to include all of the Balkans and even Turkey.Skip to next paragraph\nSubscribe Today to the Monitor\nCroatia has complied with most of the formal entry requirements and is expected to join in 2012.\nHowever, there is another \u2013 moral \u2013 requirement Croatia should have to meet for its own sake before being admitted.\nIt should fully and publicly acknowledge its role in World War II as a loyal ally of the Nazi cause, and its ardent participation in genocide against its Serbian, Jewish, and Gypsy (Roma) populations. The scattered, vague, and half-hearted denials masking as apologies that Croatia has used to improve its image in recent years don\u2019t count. The country should come to grips with its genocidal role in the same way Germany has come to grips with its Nazi past.\nJust this week, the Serbian parliament apologized for its role in the infamous Srebrenica massacre of 1995 that killed some 7,000 Bosnian Muslims. Such an apology was considered unthinkable even a few years ago, yet the pressures of joining the EU helped nudge that nation to account for this war crime.\nIt\u2019s time Croatia did the same. Croatia has more than its share of apologies to make for crimes it committed during the Balkans conflict of the 1990s, but it can start with the massive killings it unleashed during World War II.\nAlthough estimates vary, between 300,000 and 700,000 victims were murdered by Croatian fascists during the war.\nWhen Hitler\u2019s forces invaded Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941, Croatian right-wing extremists, under the leadership of Ante Pavelic and his fascist \u201cUstashi\u201d movement, were given control of Croatia. Pavelic aligned the country enthusiastically to the Nazi cause and immediately launched a horrific onslaught against the Serbian minority. The official policy was popularly expressed as: Kill one-third of the Serbs, convert another third to Roman Catholicism, and expel the remaining third from Croatia.\nThe Roman Catholic Church insists it condemned the atrocities, but the record suggests a mix of official responses, ranging from weak condemnations to tacit support. While the killing was under way, the Croatian archbishop, Aloysius Stepanic, blessed the new regime and Pavelic was granted an audience with Pope Pius XII. A number of Franciscan monks participated in the killing. After the war ended, the Vatican helped Ustashi criminals evade capture and flee to South America.", "id": "<urn:uuid:124540ca-cb27-4764-8971-8b25601e08f7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2010/0402/Croatia-should-apologize-for-World-War-II-genocide-before-joining-the-EU", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.970992386341095, "token_count": 582, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The benefits of exercise are many, from producing physically fit bodies to providing an outlet for fun and socialization. When added to a weight control program these benefits take on increased significance.\nWe already have noted that proper exercise can help control weight by burning excess body fat. It also has two other body-trimming advantages:\n1) Exercise builds muscle tissue and muscle uses calories up at a faster rate than body fat and\n2) Exercise helps reduce inches and a firm, lean body looks slimmer even if your weight remains the same. Additional benefits may be seen in how exercise affects appetite. A lean person in good shape may eat more following increased activity, but the regular exercise will burn up the extra calories consumed. There are other physical benefits of regular exercise as well.\nRegular physical activity helps you feel better because it:\n\u2022 Increases your strength, movement, balance, and flexibility.\n\u2022 Helps control blood pressure and blood sugar.\n\u2022 Helps build healthy bones, muscles, and joints.\n\u2022 Helps your heart and lungs work better.\n\u2022 Boosts energy during the day and may aid in sleep at night.\nThe psychological benefits of exercise are equally important to the weight conscious person. Exercise decreases stress and relieve tensions that might otherwise lead to overeating.\n\u2022 Exercise builds physical fitness which in turn builds self-confidence, enhanced self-image, and a positive outlook. When you start to feel good about yourself, you are more likely to want to make other positive changes in your lifestyle that will help keep your weight under control.\n\u2022 In addition, exercise can be fun, provide recreation and offer opportunities for companionship.\nThe exhilaration and emotional release of participating in sports or other activities are a boost to mental and physical health. Pent-up anxieties and frustrations seem to disappear when you\u2019re concentrating on going that extra mile.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ae10b993-5d18-4860-abed-b7693ce836b3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.definitionpsychology.com/benefits-of-exercise-in-a-weight-control-program/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.94240802526474, "token_count": 380, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The word Diwali has its origin from the Sanskrit word \"Deepavali\" which means \"rows of light\". Diwali is the festival that falls on the night of \u201cAmavasya\u201d (no moon) but the \u201cdiyas\u201d we light gives us the message of spreading light and driving the darkness away. On Diwali day, shops are packed with people buying fire crackers; mothers are busy preparing special dishes for family feasts. Late evening is the time for a special Pooja at home, and illuminating the houses with rows of oil lamps, candles and colourful lanterns.\nEach day of the festival has a significance in life -\nBalipadyami - \u201cTruth alone wins\u201d\nHealthy eating is not about strict nutrition philosophies, staying unrealistically thin, or depriving yourself of the foods you love. Rather, it\u2019s about feeling great, having more energy, and keeping yourself as healthy as possible. As the saying goes \u201cTruth alone wins\u201d, it\u2019s mostly the kind of food that makes the person you are.\nHere are a few ways to eat healthy -\n- Eat enough calories but not too many\n- Eat a wide variety of foodsespecially vegetables and fruits\n- Keep portions moderate, especially high-calorie foods\n- Don\u2019t be the food police, you can enjoy your favorite sweets and fried foods in moderation\n- An excellent way to add healthy sweetness to your meals is by using sweet vegetables like sweet potatoes or yams and reduce your craving for other sweets\nNaraka Chaturdashi - \"Burn the evil\"\nBurning the evil need not be burning the idols of evil powered Gods only. This can be about burning evil thoughts in our minds and the unhealthy foods that have made their way into our lives.\nLet\u2019s make a conscious effort to give up the unhealthy eating pattern -\n- Do not rush through your meals. Take time to chew your food slowly, savoring every bite\u2026 Reconnect with the joy of eating.\n- Avoid stress while eating. Try taking some deep breaths prior to beginning your meal, or light candles and play soothing music to create a relaxing atmosphere.\n- Listen to your body; ask yourself if you are really hungry. It actually takes a few minutes for your brain to tell your body that it has had enough food, so eat slowly.\n- Start your day with a healthy breakfast to jumpstart your metabolism.\n- Eating small, healthy meals throughout the day can help you ward off snack attacks.\nLakshmi Pooja - \"Wealth is Worship\"\nLife is not merely to be alive but to be healthy and wealthy. A Spanish proverb says \"A man who is too busy to take care of his health is like a mechanic too busy to take care of his tools\". Health and Wealth decides the quality of life we lead. If you want to lead a happy life, wealth and health are both important.\nHere is a gentle reminder of all the wonderful benefits of healthy eating -\n- A long life is worth living only when there\u2019s quality, and good eating patterns provide a good quality of life\n- Happiness need not be temporary, but can be a permanent one. By eating healthy foods you'll suffer less from those terrible ups and downs that make you moody\n- Vitality can be achieved by healthy eating along with exercise\n- The better you sleep, the more rested you feel when you wake up\nSesame Seed (Til) - Khoya laddu\n2 cups khoya\n1 1/2 cups of coarsely powdered roasted sesame seeds (til)\nPowdered sugar to taste\nKesar, chopped almonds and pistas for decoration\n- Roast the khoya on low flame till it is very light golden yellow in color.\n- Let it cool for a few minutes.\n- Then add coarsely powdered roasted sesame seeds and mix it.\n- Add powdered sugar when the above mixture is luke warm.\n- Mix well and shape into small balls. If the mixture is too hot, then the sugar will melt, so care has to be taken that mixture is not hot.\n- Arrange in a plate and decorate with kesar, chopped almonds and pistas.", "id": "<urn:uuid:09d58943-e4ac-47d4-8d9c-f995f771c725>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.desidieter.com/get-in-shape-2011/article/diwali.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9415346384048462, "token_count": 887, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Contact: Science Press Package\nAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science\nCaption: In this audio file, a University of Oregon archaeologist provides an overview of his research at Oregon's Paisley Caves since he began excavating there in 2002. He refers to much earlier work at the site by archaeologist Luther Cressman, who died in April 1994 after 35 years on the UO faculty. This audio file relates to a paper that appeared in the July 13, 2012, issue of Science, published by AAAS. The paper, by Dennis L. Jenkins at University of Oregon in Eugene, Or., and colleagues was titled, \u201cClovis Age Western Stemmed Projectile Points and Human Coprolites at the Paisley Caves.\u201d\nCredit: [Audio courtesy of University of Oregon]\nUsage Restrictions: Please cite the owner of the audio file when publishing. This audio file may be freely used by reporters as part of news coverage, with proper attribution. Non-reporters must contact Science for permission.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6419d6a4-8c4c-4bbe-ad2a-eaeb7f2f9d83>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/pub/45488.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9523813128471375, "token_count": 215, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Dengue Fever in India\n04 March 2013\nDengue fever is a growing concern in India. In 2012, 247 deaths were recorded as a result of dengue fever nationwide.\nLatest data on disease prevalence released by the Health Ministry shows a significant rise in the incidence of dengue fever from 18 860 cases in 2011, to 49 606 in year 2012.\nAround 1700 dengue cases were reported from Delhi in 2012.\nAdvice for Travellers\nIndia is a popular tourist destination and travellers should be aware of the risk of dengue fever. Avoidance of mosquito bites, particularly during daylight hours, by covering up with clothing, the use of bite avoidance measures such as repellent and bed nets is advised. Elimination of breeding sites around hotel rooms/houses is advised for longer term stays.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cec56b3f-1f86-4cf0-8456-717120369364>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fitfortravel.scot.nhs.uk/news/newsdetail/3908.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9577683210372925, "token_count": 170, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Updated: 4/10/2007 10:12 am\n||Published: 4/10/2007 10:12 am\nFor your car's engine to be able to start, several things have to happen. The flywheel needs to turn the crankshaft, which moves the pistons up and down, which in turn makes the valves draw air into the combustion chamber to mix with fuel to ignite. The process starts when your car's starter motor connects gears with the flywheel after the key switch is turned to start. The starter motor will disengage after the engine is started. Your car's battery provides electricity to turn the starter, and your car's alternator keeps the battery charged and powers all the accessories in your car once it's running. The alternator generates more electricity the faster your car's engine runs. The voltage regulator in your car controls the amount of current to the battery and prevents damage from overcharging. Contact a qualified mechanic in your area for more information on your car's starting system.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9eea44d6-be2b-40c4-ba2b-12698fe59b77>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fox16.com/guides/auto/topic/Starting-system/wqZDctonbE2wYwsuNMJBww.cspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.942940354347229, "token_count": 205, "score": 3.625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Story and photos by Nikki Carlson\nOn THE MILK RIVER - Water sloshing against the river banks and bending around rocks gives the Milk River a fine-tuned heartbeat. This rhythmic dance whispers the river's past and future.\nUSDA Natural Resources Conservation Service watershed specialist Warren Kellogg says the Milk River is a precious \"jewel in our back yard\" and its legacy should continue for future generations.\n\"You feel like you've gone back in time\" when you're on the river, Kellogg said.\nNRCS's mission is to educate people about conservation, management and improvement of the environment and natural resources. Last Friday, 15 nature enthusiasts - including three members of the Hill County Conservation District board of supervisers, staffers, family members and guests - grabbed their paddles and floated an 8-mile stretch of the Milk River. Among them was conservation district administrative assistant Shannon Patterson.\n\"We just wanted to keep (the float) educational for the supervisors and people who might find it interesting,\" Patterson said.\nThe weather was sunny and complimented the 5-hour float.\nAs they moved downstream, they noted improvements that can be made in the areas of safety, wildlife habitat and conservation. They observed pump sites, bank erosion and weeds.\n\"Having a waterway like this 100 years ago was very important for other reasons than right now,\" Kellogg said. \"Right now, the importance is community recreation, tourism, municipal water and irrigation.\"\nRows of rusty antique cars lining parts of the riverbank are one issue the conservation district and NRCS are concerned about. The cars were initially placed on some riverbanks about 50 years ago, Kellogg said, as a preventative measure against erosion. Kellogg said the car bodies should be replaced with rock as a safer and more attractive alternative.\n\"People used to use them a long time ago as riprap. Aesthetical and water quality-wise, this isn't a practical practice.\" Conrad Nystrom, conservation district chairman, said the state Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks is planning to remove the car bodies this fall when the water level drops.\n\"(The cars) are an eyesore, pollutant to the water, a hazard for recreationists, rafts, and there's erosion going on behind the car bodies,\" Nystrom said. \"It really didn't solve the problem as well as people thought it would.\"\nAnother topic was a non-native shrub known as Russian olive that's growing along the riverbanks. Why all of the shrub talk? Kellogg said this particular shrub \"invades and crowds out native plants\" in the area.\n\"They're very adaptive to dry areas, but it's also on river water and it's kind of a nuisance,\" Kellogg said. \"If it's allowed to go, eventually you could have 100 percent Russian olive on this river bottom.\"\nOn a positive note, the cottonwood tree is also making a comeback along the Milk River. At a stopping point, Kellogg pointed out young cottonwoods along the bank.\n\"They're starting to come back now due to a change in management over the years,\" he said.\nYears of erosion have left the roots of some cottonwoods naked along the riverbank, clearly suggesting that they will eventually fall over into the water. In order to prevent that, Kellogg suggested the trees be cut down and the roots left alone so even more erosion will not occur.\nBarbed wire fences gliding down the slopes beneath the river's surface were another cause for alarm for the supervisors because of the hazard they create for boaters.\nAfter the guided canoe tour, the group had gained a lifelong experience on the Milk River.\nSo what's in store for the Milk River? Now its whispers are being heard.\n\"I think it's a beautiful trip, beautiful day, and nice company,\" said Nystrom. \"I appreciate Warren being here and giving us lots of good information.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:f93f1d87-0fb0-40f3-a658-d8c9eeb3b6dd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.havredailynews.com/cms/news/story-132380.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9698136448860168, "token_count": 814, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "To finish Aladdin's Window\u2014i.e. to attempt to complete something begun by a great genius, but left imperfect. The genius of the lamp built a palace with twenty-four windows, all but one being set in frames of precious stones; the last was left for the sultan to finish; but after exhausting his treasures, the sultan was obliged to abandon the task as hopeless.\nTait's second part of Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel is an Aladdin's Window.\nSource: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, E. Cobham Brewer, 1894\nMore on Aladdin's Window from Infoplease:", "id": "<urn:uuid:92aeab83-f5b2-4db6-8b32-8d35c7333850>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.infoplease.com/dictionary/brewers/aladdins-window.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9401439428329468, "token_count": 136, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Islamic slavery has been the most horrible, yet the least known slavery in history. So, author M. A. Khan decided to publish the chapter \"Islamic Slavery\" from his book \"Islamic Jihad: A Legacy of Forced Conversion, Imperialism and Slavery\". This part contains: 1) INTRODUCTION, 2) THE QURANIC SANCTION OF SLAVERY, 3) THE PROPHETIC MODEL OF SLAVERY. (Part 2)\n\"Allah sets forth (another) Parable of two men: one of them dumb, with no power of any sort; a wearisome burden is he to his master; whichever way he directs him, he brings no good: is such a man equal with one who commands Justice, and is on a Straight Way?\" --- Allah, in Quran 16:76\n\"(Allah) brought those of the People of the Scripture\u2026 and cast panic into their hearts. Some (adult males) ye slew, and ye made captive some (women and children).\" --- Allah, in Quran 33:26\u201327\n\"It is written in the Quran that all Nations who should not have acknowledged their (Muslims\u2019) authority were sinners; that it was their right and duty to make war upon whoever they could find and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners; and that every Mussulman who should be slain in battle was sure to go to Paradise.\" --- Tripoli\u2019s London ambassador Abd al-Rahman to Thomas Jefferson & John Adams (1786) on by what right the Barbary States enslaved American seamen.\nThe cover image shows Muhammad & his followers on a\nJihad raid, in which he used to plunder and capture the\nwomen and children as slaves.\nSlavery is a socio-economic institution, in which some human individuals, called slaves, become property of others, called masters or owners. Devoid of freedom and liberty, slaves are expected to provide loyal and diligent service for the comfort and economic well-being of their masters. Deprived of any human rights, slaves are the unconditional possession of their owners: mere chattels, having no right to leave, refuse work, or receive compensation for their labor. The position of slaves in society in many respects is akin to that of domesticated animals. Just as cows, horses and other beasts of burden are trained and utilized for economic advantage, such as for pulling carts or plowing fields\u2014slaves are exploited for the benefit, comfort and economic well-being of the owner. Slave-trade, integral to slavery, involves buying and selling of human beings as a commodity like any other commercial transaction. Slavery, in essence, is the exploitation of the weak by the strong and has a very long history.\nOne major criticism of the West by all, and particularly by Muslims, pertains to the trans-Atlantic slave\u2011trade by European powers and their mindless exploitation and degrading treatment of slaves in the Americas and West Indies. Muslims are often quick to point fingers at the European slave-trade; they often claim that the exploitation of slaves enabled countries like the United States to amass the huge wealth they enjoy today. One young Muslim, born in America, wrote: \u2018Do you know how the American slave-hunters went to Africa, seized the black people and brought them to America as slaves? America\u2019s economic power owes a great deal to the labor of those slaves\u2019 (personal communication). Terming the 350-year trans-Atlantic slave-trade \u2018the worst and most cruel slavery\u2019 in history, the Nation of Islam Minister Louis Farrakhan claims that some white Americans do not know that \u2018they are in the privileged position\u2026 today based on what happened to us (Blacks)\u2019 in the past. An overwhelming majority of Muslims believe that Islamic history is devoid of the abhorrent practice of slavery. Rocky Davis (aka Shahid Malik), an Australian Aboriginal convert to Islam, told the ABC Radio that \u2018Christianity were the founders of slavery. Not Islam.\u2019 When Muslims in India talk about the practice of slavery in the subcontinent\u2014they talk about the harrowing tales of how the Portuguese transported slaves from coastal areas of Goa, Kerala and Bengal in terrible conditions. It is already noted that history books in Pakistan teach that before Islam, there was exploitation and slavery, which vanished with the coming of Islam. They will never talk about the slavery that Muslim invaders and rulers practiced on a grand scale in India.\nThis Muslim silence about the widespread practice slavery under Islamic rules, such as in India, likely results from their ignorance of historical facts. In modern history writing in India, there is extensive whitewashing of the atrocities that took place during the Muslim invasions and the subsequent Islamic rule. Such distortions of the true picture of Islamic history compound Muslims\u2019 ignorance about Islamic atrocities in medieval India and create an erroneous perception amongst them about the extensive slavery practised by Muslim rulers. As recounted throughout this book, slavery was regrettably a prominent institution throughout the history of Islamic domination everywhere. It also had unique features, namely large-scale concubinage, eunuchs, and ghilman (described below).\nTHE QURANIC SANCTION OF SLAVERY\nThe institution of slavery in Islam was formalized in the following Quranic verse, in which Allah distinguishes free human beings or masters, who exercise justice and righteousness, from the dumb, useless and burdensome ones, the slaves:\nAllah sets forth (another) Parable of two men: one of them dumb, with no power of any sort; a wearisome burden is he to his master; whichever way he directs him, he brings no good: is such a man equal with one who commands Justice, and is on a Straight Way? [Quran 16:76]\nAllah warns the believers against taking the slaves as equal partner in status and in sharing their wealth, lest they have to fear them as anyone else:\n\u2026do ye have partners among those whom your right hands possess (i.e., slaves, captives) to share as equals in the wealth We have bestowed on you? Do ye fear them as ye fear each other? [Quran 30:28]\nAllah recognizes some human beings, namely the masters, as more blessed by Himself than the less favored slaves as part of His divine plan. He warns Muslims against sharing His gifts to them equally with their slaves. Those who would take slaves as equal, warns Allah, would deny Him:\nAllah has bestowed His gifts of sustenance more freely on some of you than on others: those more favoured are not going to throw back their gifts to those whom their right hands possess, so as to be equal in that respect. Will they then deny the favours of Allah? [Quran 16:71]\nAllah does not only sanction the institution of slavery, He also gave divine blessing to masters (Muslim men only can own slaves) to have sex with the female slaves:\nAnd those who guard their private parts, Except in the case of their wives or those whom their right hands possess\u2014for these surely are not to be blamed [Quran 70:29\u201330]\nAnd who guard their private parts, except before their mates or those whom their right hands possess, for they surely are not blameable [Quran 23:5\u20136]\nTherefore, if there are women amongst the captives or slaves, Muslims are divinely sanctioned to have sex with them as they do with their wives. This verdict of Allah founded the institution of sex-slavery or slave-concubinage in Islam, which was widespread in the pre-colonial Muslim world and continued well into the mid-twentieth century. As far as legal marriage is concerned, there is a limitation of four wives for a man at one time [Quran 4:3], but no such limitation on the number of sex-slaves.\nAllah also gave a divine sanction to Muslims for acquiring female slaves for sexual engagement by waging wars against the infidels:\nO Prophet! surely We have made lawful to you your wives whom you have given their dowries, and those whom your right hand possesses out of those whom Allah has given to you as prisoners of war\u2026 [Quran 33:50]\nMuslims can engage in sex with the captured slave women even if they are married, but not with the married free Muslim women:\nAlso (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess\u2026 [Quran 4:24].\nThere are other verses in the Quran that talks approvingly of slaves and capturing them in wars. Thus, according to the divine commands of the Islamic God as enshrined in the holy Quran, Muslims are allowed to keep slaves. They can amass slaves by waging wars, have sex with the female slaves, and of course, use them as they wish. For Muslims, having sex with female slaves is as legal as having sex with their married wives. Slavery appears to be one of the most desired divine privileges in Islam, since Allah took the pain of reminding Muslims about this divine right time and again in so many verses.\nTHE PROPHETIC MODEL OF SLAVERY\nAllah did not rest with repeatedly reminding Muslims to engage in slavery, but also took the initiative to guide Prophet Muhammad on how to enslave the infidels, such as in the following verse:\nAnd He (Allah) brought those of the People of the Scripture (i.e., Banu Qurayza) who supported them (i.e., the Quraysh) down from their strongholds, and cast panic into their hearts. Some (adult males) ye slew, and ye made captive some (women and children)\u2026 [Quran 33:26\u201327]\nIn this verse, Allah charged the Banu Qurayza Jews with supporting the Quraysh of Mecca \"from their strongholds\" against Muslims in the battle of the Trench (627). Based on this unsubstantiated accusation, Allah commanded that some of the Jews, the adult males, were to be slain, and the rest, the women and children, enslaved. The Prophet duly complied with this divine command. He distributed the enslaved women and children among his disciples, himself acquiring one-fifth of them. The young and pretty ones amongst the female captives were made sex-slaves; the Prophet himself took beautiful Rayhana, whose husband and family members had been slain in the massacre. He took her to bed on the same night.\nAfter conquering Khaybar the following year, Muhammad carried away their women and children as slaves. In many other attacks, the Prophet and his followers enslaved and carried away the women and children of the vanquished. Therefore, after aggressively attacking and defeating the infidels, enslaving the women and children became a model of Muhammad\u2019s wars. Some of the slaves could be sold or ransomed for generating revenues. The young and pretty ones amongst the female captives became sex-slaves.\nSince emulating Muhammad in action and deed is central to living a good Muslim life in Islamic thought, Muslims duly embraced his model of slavery (comprising enslavement, slave-trade and slave-concubinage) and perpetuated it during the later centuries of Islamic domination. Muhammad\u2019s example of dealing with the Jews of Banu Qurayza or Khaybar became the standard template for capturing slaves. This led to a massive rise in enslavement, sex-slavery and slave-trade in medieval Islamdom. After Muhammad\u2019s death, Muslims\u2014armed with sanctions of the Quran and Sunnah\u2014embarked on an unbridled mission of waging holy war to conquer the world for the purpose of spreading Islam and expanding Islamic rule. As Islam burst out of Arabia, Muslim invaders became adept at capturing the vanquished infidels, particularly the women and children, in large numbers as slaves.\nIn Islamic thoughts (as noted already), the civilizations preceding and outside of Islam are jahiliyah or erroneous in nature, invalidated with the coming of Islam. Only Muslims were in the sole possession of truth in the form of the true faith of Islam. In their thoughts, the world outside the boundary and religion of Islam, notes Bernard Lewis, \u2018was inhabited by the infidels and barbarians. Some of these were recognized as possessing some form of religion and a tincture of civilization. The remainder, polytheists and idolaters, were seen primarily as sources of slaves.\u2019 Muslims captured slaves in such great numbers that slave-trade became a booming business enterprise; markets across the Muslim world became teeming with slaves. Accordingly, \u2018it goes to the credit of Islam to create slave trade on a large scale, and run it for profit like any other business,\u2019 writes Lal.\n(Complete bibliography will be posted in the last part)\n. Farrakhan L, What does America and Europe Owe?, Final CalL, 2 June 2008\n. ABC Radio, Aboriginal Da\u2019wah - \"Call to Islam\", 22 March 2006; http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/relrpt/stories/s1597410.htm\n. Famous scholar Abu Ala Maududi in his interpretation of this verse notes: \u201cWhen you do not make your own slaves partners in your wealth, how do you think and believe that Allah will make His creatures partner in His Godhead?\u201d [Maududi AA, Towards Understanding the Quran, Markazi Muktaba Islami Publishers, New Delhi, Vol. VIII]. In other words, associating partners with Allah, which is the most abhorrent thing to do in Islam, is tantamount for a man to take his slaves as equal partner.\n. Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, Karachi, p. 461-70\n. Lewis B (1966) The Arabs in History, Oxford University Press, New York p. 42\n. Lal KS (1994) Muslim Slave System in Medieval India, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi, p. 6\nwritten by Cyril Methodius , September 04, 2011", "id": "<urn:uuid:9b4f5d68-3cf9-428a-97bb-adc49d688674>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.islam-watch.org/http:/ww?~/index.php/authors/70-darwish/Others/AbulKasem/AbulKasem/WomenInIslam/AbulKasem/WomenInIslam/Amarkhan/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=809:islamic-slavery-part-1&catid=65:khan&Itemid=58", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9608153700828552, "token_count": 2923, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "New Smell Discovered\nA newly discovered smell is the olfactory equivalent of white noise, scientists report in the journal Proceedings of the National Academies of Science\nCREDIT: MrGarry, Shutterstock\nScientists have discovered a new smell, but you may have to go to a laboratory to experience it yourself.\nThe smell is dubbed \"olfactory white,\" because it is the nasal equivalent of white noise, researchers report today (Nov. 19) in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Just as white noise is a mixture of many different sound frequencies and white light is a mixture of many different wavelengths, olfactory white is a mixture of many different smelly compounds.\nIn fact, the key to olfactory white is not the compounds themselves, researchers found, but the fact that there are a lot of them.\n\"[T]he more components there were in each of two mixtures, the more similar the smell of those two mixtures became, even though the mixtures had no components in common,\" they wrote.\nAlmost any given smell in the real world comes from a mixture of compounds. Humans are good at telling these mixtures apart (it's hard to mix up the smell of coffee with the smell of roses, for example), but we're bad at picking individual components out of those mixtures. (Quick, sniff your coffee mug and report back all the individual compounds that make that roasted smell. Not so easy, huh?)\nMixing multiple wavelegths that span the human visual range equally makes white light; mixing multiple frequencies that span the range of human hearing equally makes the whooshing hum of white noise. Neurobiologist Noam Sobel from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel and his colleagues wanted to find out whether a similar phenomenon happens with smelling. [7 New Flavors Your Tongue May Taste]\nIn a series of experiments, they exposed participants to hundreds of equally mixed smells, some containing as few as one compound and others containing up to 43 components. They first had 56 participants compare mixtures of the same number of compounds with one another. For example, a person might compare a 40-compound mixture with a 40-compound mixture, neither of which had any components in common.\nThis experiment revealed that the more components in a mixture, the worse participants were at telling them apart. A four-component mixture smells less similar to other four-component mixtures than a 43-component mixture smells to other 43-component mixtures.\nThe researchers seemed on track to finding the olfactory version of white noise. They set up a new experiment to confirm the find. In this experiment, they first created four 40-component mixtures. Twelve participants were then given one of the mixtures to sniff and told that it was called \"Laurax,\" a made-up word. Three of the participants were told compound 1 was Laurax, three were told it was compound 2, three were told it was compound 3, and the rest were told it was compound 4.\nAfter three days of sniffing their version of Laurax in the lab, the participants were given four new scents and four scent labels, one of which was Laurax. They were asked to label each scent with the most appropriate label.\nThe researchers found that the label \"Laurax\" was most popular for scents with more compounds. In fact, the more compounds in a mixture, the more likely participants were to call it Laurax. The label went to mixtures with more than 40 compounds 57.1 percent of the time.\nAnother experiment replicated the first, except that it allowed for participants to label one of the scents \"other,\" a way to ensure \"Laurax\" wasn't just a catch-all. Again, scents with more compounds were more likely to get the Laurax label.\nThe meaning of these results, the researchers wrote, is that olfactory white is a distinct smell, caused not by specific compounds but by certain mixes of compounds. The key is that the compounds are all of equal intensity and that they span the full range of human smells. That's why roses and coffee, both of which have many smell compounds, don't smell anything alike: Their compounds are unequally mixed and don't span a large range of smells.\nIn other words, our brains treat smells as a single unit, not as a mixture of compounds to break down, analyze and put back together again. If they didn't, they'd never see mixtures of completely different compounds as smelling the same.\nPerhaps the next burning question is: What does olfactory white smell like? Unfortunately, the scent is so bland as to defy description. Participants rated it right in the middle of the scale for both pleasantness and edibility.\n\"The best way to appreciate the qualities of olfactory white is to smell it,\" the researchers wrote.\nMORE FROM LiveScience.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:f2d606a9-b80e-4cf6-8522-6d25d60c1d08>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.livescience.com/24890-new-white-smell-discovered.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Livesciencecom+%28LiveScience.com+Science+Headline+Feed%29", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9731128215789795, "token_count": 1009, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Frederick Starr: Anthropologist Lost from the History Books\nYou probably haven\u2019t heard of Frederick Starr. Like his contemporary Franz Boas, Starr was an anthropologist coming to fame while the discipline of anthropology was still being formed. Throughout his career, Starr studied people and cultures on three different continents, and still found time to make a name for himself as a lecturer at the University of Chicago. But unlike Boas\u2014who is considered the father of American Anthropology\u2014you won\u2019t find Starr\u2019s name in many textbooks. The tale of how Frederick Starr was nearly forgotten is one full of controversy and ideology.\nStarr\u2019s Early Life and Career\nFrederick Starr was born in 1858 in Auburn, New York, to the Reverend Frederick Starr Jr. and Helen Mills Starr. As a child, Starr was a strong student and an avid collector of fossils and minerals. He explored that interest further at the University of Rochester, where he studied geology; two years later, he transferred to Lafayette College in Pennsylvania and graduated in 1882. He received a doctorate in geology from Lafayette College in 1885.\nIn the late 1800s, anthropology was still a new and growing discipline, so Starr didn't study it formally. It wasn\u2019t until after his schooling, while teaching at Coe College, that Starr discovered his interest in the subject. He conducted both ethnographic and archaeological fieldwork among the local Sauk and Fox Indian tribes and reputedly taught the first anthropology course in Iowa while at Coe. It's not clear who or what specifically spurred Starr\u2019s interest in anthropology, but he pursued it avidly, leaving his studies of geology behind. Following his work at Coe College, Starr held several short-term positions, including working with the ethnological collection at the American Museum of Natural History, before finally accepting a long-term faculty position at the University of Chicago in 1892.\nDuring his time at the University of Chicago, Starr became a very influential public speaker, frequently giving lectures on anthropological subjects that were open to the public through the University\u2019s extension program. After attending an extension course about prehistoric and primitive art, W.R. French, the director of the Art Institute of Chicago at the time, wrote that Starr\u2019s lectures were \u201cboth authoritative and agreeable,\u201d and that \u201cProfessor Starr has eminently the art of making scientific truth interesting to intelligent but unprofessional academics.\u201d\nAn Anthropologist is Born\nAccording to Donald McVicker, author of Frederick Starr: Popularizer of Anthropology, Public Intellectual, and Genuine Eccentric, Starr engaged in an incredibly varied anthropological career at the turn of the 20th century. He conducted notable research in Mexico, among many Native American tribes in the United States, with the Ainu people of Japan, and in several regions of Africa.\nThe World\u2019s Fairs that took place in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries seemed to provide Starr with the perfect opportunities to put his work on display. Much to his dismay, however, Starr was not allowed an influential position at the famous World\u2019s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. He was excluded by better known anthropologists like Boas and Frederic Ward Putnam, director of Harvard\u2019s Peabody Museum. Starr was commissioned to collect data about and artifacts from the Eastern Cherokee people in North Carolina for Putnam and Boas, but contributed little else to this fair.\nAt the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis in 1904, however, Starr\u2019s work made a much bigger splash. The anthropologist brought nine Ainu people and a translator back with him from Japan to be part of an exhibit at the fair. These Ainu, members of a Japanese indigenous group from Hokkaido in the northern part of the country, were to be displayed as part of a literal representation of the evolutionary stages of humanity towards civilization; along with several other indigenous groups assembled by other anthropologists, they were on display as \u201cbarbarous and semi-barbarous peoples.\u201d While this is unquestionably offensive to today's sensibilities, the visitor response to the exhibit at the time was overwhelmingly positive, as most people had never before heard of the Ainu and were intrigued by their appearance and practices. In a 1993 article about the Ainu exhibit, anthropologist James W. Vanstone reports the reactions from writers and visitors to the exhibit:\nOne enthusiastic writer referred to the Ainu as \"mysterious little Japanese primitives\" and noted that visitors were impressed by their cleanliness and polite manners, but somewhat disappointed that they were no \"man-eaters, dog-eaters or wild men.\"\nIn addition to contributing to these World\u2019s Fairs, Starr produced several publications in conjunction with his fieldwork. These publications included many scholarly and other articles, as well as books like The Truth about the Congo, about his studies in that region; Indians of Southern Mexico: An Ethnographic Album; and In Indian Mexico: A Narrative of Travel and Labor, about the performance and findings of his extensive work with Indian tribes in Mexico.\nStarr\u2019s Methods and Misconduct in Mexico\nHis appearance in St. Louis with the Ainu may have been Starr\u2019s most publicly recognized work, but if he is remembered at all today, it's for his fieldwork in Mexico. Starr recalls his purpose there in In Indian Mexico:\nThe work I planned to do among these indian towns was threefold: 1. The measurement of one hundred men and twenty-five women in each population, fourteen measurements being taken upon each subject; 2. The making of pictures,\u2014portraits, dress, occupations, customs, buildings, and landscapes; 3. The making of plaster busts of five individuals in each tribe.\nThe primary goals in making such recordings were to observe the differences between various Mexican tribes and to establish the placement of such people, and their race and culture, on the same scale that he had placed the Ainu, from barbarous to civilized. It was assumed at the time that there were physical characteristics, such as cranial shape and size, that could mark such distinctions between races (a theory that has long since been disproved).\nIn his book, Starr refers to the Mexican people he is studying as \u201cignorant, timid, and suspicious.\u201d He also makes regular references to them being too drunk to allow their measurements to be taken. All of these characteristics assigned to these Mexican Indians by Starr explained, in his point of view, the difficulty he often had in securing subjects for measurement, and justified the forceful methods he felt compelled to use. Starr took advantage of the fact that prisoners could not refuse his requests to measure them, and regularly photographed and measured imprisoned subjects for his work. What\u2019s more, if there were individuals he wished to measure who did not acquiesce, he would threaten them with arrest and jail time so that they could no longer refuse. The authorities did not object to these methods, instead providing support for Starr by collecting subjects and keeping order. Starr even recounts a specific incident where policemen stopped a bullfight in progress in order to obtain a young man taking part in the fight for Starr\u2019s research.\nStarr Fading from View\nOver time, Starr\u2019s brutish, unethical methods and offensive ideas became questionable in the eyes of the anthropological community. The theories of his contemporary Boas, however, began to amass a great deal of support from other anthropologists and academics.\nBoas, born and educated in Germany, moved to the United States in 1887 and proceeded to make substantial contributions to the methodology of American anthropology. By incorporating the methods of natural science into the discipline of anthropology, Boas emphasized the importance of conducting research before developing theories, as well as approaching studies in the most ethical and unbiased ways possible. What\u2019s more, he developed the modern interpretation of culture, viewing it as learned behavior and a product of a people's history, rather than a hierarchical measurement of civilization that would place the western world on top.\nWhile most anthropologists, inspired by Boas, began to recognize the people they studied as part of the larger, equal human race, Starr continued to regard them as primitive and inferior, demonstrated by his attitude towards his subjects in Mexico. Soon, Starr\u2019s methods of fieldwork were widely considered unethical and his ideas about culture outdated.\nStarr\u2019s charisma and ability as a speaker managed to keep him relevant in public education spheres toward the end of his career. In this capacity, Starr overshadowed Boas, who preferred not to address the general themes of anthropology necessary in public lecturing and was nervous about his skill in speaking English, which was not his first language. The academic discipline of anthropology, though, became dominated by Boas\u2019 methods and, over the years, Frederick Starr and his methods were phased out. Today, his work is rarely read, or even mentioned, in discussions or classes on anthropological history.\nAfter 31 years at the University of Chicago, Starr retired from his post in 1923. True to form, he continued to travel the globe and engage in public speaking events until his death; he died unexpectedly of pneumonia while in Japan in 1933.", "id": "<urn:uuid:806f50b6-e6e5-47f2-aad2-fe78c3a1e6b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mentalfloss.com/article/48744/frederick-starr-anthropologist-lost-history-books", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9816401600837708, "token_count": 1911, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "n\u00e1ma: (lit. 'name'): 'mind',\nmentality. This term is generally used as a collective name for the 4 mental groups (ar\u00fapino\nkhandha), viz. feeling (vedan\u00e1), perception (sa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1), mental\nformations (sankh\u00e1ra) and consciousness (vi\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1na). Within the 4th link\n(n\u00e1ma-r\u00fapa) in the formula of the paticcasamupp\u00e1da (q.v.), however, it\napplies only to karma-resultant (vip\u00e1ka) feeling and perception and a few\nkarma-resultant mental functions inseparable from any consciousness. As it is said (M. 9;\nD. 15; S. XII, 2): \"Feeling (vedan\u00e1), perception (sa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1), volition (cetan\u00e1),\nimpression (phassa), mental advertence (manasik\u00e1ra): this, o brother, is\ncalled mind (n\u00e1ma).\" With the addition of 2 more mental factors, namely,\nmental vitality (j\u00edvita) and concentration (sam\u00e1dhi), here 'stationary\nphase of mind' (cittatthiti), these 7 factors are said in the Abhidhammattha\nSangaha to be the inseparable mental factors in any state of consciousness.\nFor the complete list of all the 50 mental\nformations of the sankh\u00e1ra-kkhandha (not including feeling and perception), s.\nn\u00e1ma-k\u00e1ya: the 'mind-group' (as\ndistinguished from r\u00fapa-k\u00e1ya, the corporeality-group) comprises the 4 immaterial\ngroups of existence (ar\u00fapino khandh\u00e1; s. khandha). This twofold grouping,\nfrequent in Com., occurs first in D. 15, also in Pts.M. (I, 183); n\u00e1ma-k\u00e1ya alone\nis mentioned in Sn. 1074.\nn\u00e1ma-r\u00fapa (lit. 'name and form'):\n'mind-and-body', mentality and corporeality. It is the 4th link in the dependent\norigination (s. paticcasamupp\u00e1da 3, 4) where it is conditioned by consciousness,\nand on its part is the condition of the sixfold sense-base. In two texts (D. 14, 15),\nwhich contain variations of the dependent origination, the mutual conditioning of\nconsciousness and mind-and-body is described (see also S. XII, 67), and the latter is said\nto be a condition of sense-impression (phassa); so also in Sn. 872.\nThe third of the seven purifications (s. visuddhi),\nthe purification of views, is defined in Vis.M. XVIII as the \"correct seeing of\nmind-and-body,\" and various methods for the discernment of mind-and-body by way of\ninsight-meditation (vipassan\u00e1, q.v.) are given there. In this context, 'mind' (n\u00e1ma)\ncomprises all four mental groups, including consciousness. - See n\u00e1ma.\nIn five-group-existence (pa\u00f1ca-vok\u00e1ra-bhava,\nq.v.), mind-and body are inseparable and interdependent; and this has been illustrated by\ncomparing them with two sheaves of reeds propped against each other: when one falls the\nother will fall, too; and with a blind man with stout legs, carrying on his shoulders a\nlame cripple with keen eye-sight: only by mutual assistance can they move about\nefficiently (s. Vis.M. XVIII, 32ff). On their mutual dependence, see also paticca-samupp\u00e1da\nWith regard to the impersonality and\ndependent nature of mind and corporeality it is said:\n\"Sound is not a thing that dwells\ninside the conch-shell and comes out from time to time, but due to both, the conch-shell\nand the man that blows it, sound comes to arise: Just so, due to the presence of vitality,\nheat and consciousness, this body may execute the acts of going, standing, sitting and\nlying down, and the 5 sense-organs and the mind may perform their various functions\"\n\"Just as a wooden puppet though\nunsubstantial, lifeless and inactive may by means of pulling strings be made to move\nabout, stand up, and appear full of life and activity; just so are mind and body, as such,\nsomething empty, lifeless and inactive; but by means of their mutual working together,\nthis mental and bodily combination may move about, stand up, and appear full of life and\n\u00f1\u00e1na: 'knowledge, comprehension,\nintelligence, insight', is a synonym for pa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1 (q.v.); see also vipassan\u00e1.\nof knowledge and vision', is the last of the 7 purifications and a name for path-knowledge\n(magga\u00f1\u00e1na), i.e. the penetrating realization of the path of Stream-winning,\nOnce-returning, Non-returning or Arahatship. Vis.M. XXII furnishes a detailed explanation\nof it (s. visuddhi, VII).\nIn A. IV, 41 \u00f1\u00e1nadassana\napparently means the divine eye (dibbacakkhu, s. abhi\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1), being produced\nthrough concentrating the mind on light.\nn\u00e1natta-sa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1: The 'variety (or\nmultiformity) - perceptions are explained under jh\u00e1na (q.v.).\n\u00f1\u00e1na-vipph\u00e1r\u00e1 iddhi: the 'power\nof penetrating knowledge', is one of the magical powers (iddhi, q.v.).\nunderstanding (or comprehension) of the known', is one of the 3 kinds of full\nunderstanding (pari\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1 q.v.).\nnatthika-ditthi: 'nihilistic view'\n(a doctrine that all values are baseless, that nothing is knowable or can be communicated,\nand that life itself is meaningless), s. ditthi.\nis one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).\nnatural morality: pakati-s\u00edla\nnavanga-buddha (or satthu)- s\u00e1sana:\nnava-satt\u00e1v\u00e1sa: s. satt\u00e1v\u00e1sa.\nnaya-vipassan\u00e1: s. kal\u00e1pa\n\u00f1\u00e1ya: 'right method', is often\nused as a name for the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga), e.g. in the Satipatth\u00e1na\nSutta (M. 10, D. 22).\nnekkhamma: 'freedom from sensual\nlust', renunciation. Though apparently from nir + \u00d6 kram, 'to go forth\n(into the homeless state of a monk)', this term is in the P\u00e1li texts nevertheless used as\nif it were derived from k\u00e1ma, lust, and always as an antonym to k\u00e1ma. It\nis one of the perfections (s. p\u00e1ram\u00ed). N. sankappa, thought free\nfrom lust, or thought of renunciation, is one of the 3 kinds of right thought (samm\u00e1-sankappa),\nthe 2nd link of the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga, 2), its antonym being k\u00e1masankappa,\nnesajjikanga: one of the 13 dhutanga\nneutral, karmically: avy\u00e1kata\n(q.v.); n. feelings, s. vedan\u00e1.\n'sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception', is the name for the fourth absorption\nof the immaterial sphere (ar\u00fap\u00e1vacara), a semi-conscious state, which is\nsurpassed only by the state of complete suspense of consciousness, called 'attainment of\nextinction' (nirodha-sam\u00e1patti, q.v.). See jh\u00e1na (8).\nn'eva-sekha-n'\u00e1sekha: 'neither in\ntraining nor beyond training', i.e. neither learner nor master. Thus is called the\nworldling (puthujjana, q.v.), for he is neither pursuing the 3-fold training (sikkh\u00e1\nq.v.) in morality, mental culture and wisdom, on the level of the first 3 paths of\nsanctity, nor has he completed his training as an Arahat. See sekha. - (App.).\nneyya: 'requiring guidance', is\nsaid of a person \"who through advice and questioning, through wise consideration, and\nthrough frequenting noble-minded friends, having intercourse with them, associating with\nthem, gradually comes to penetrate the truth\" (Pug. 162). Cf. ugghatita\u00f1\u00f1\u00fa.\nneyyattha-dhamma: A 'teaching\nthe meaning of which is implicit, or has to be inferred' as contrasted with a 'teaching\nwith an explicit or evident meaning' (n\u00edtattha-dhamma). In A. I, 60 (PTS) it is\nsaid: \"Whoso declares a sutta with an implicit meaning as a sutta with explicit\nmeaning (and conversely), such a one makes a false statement with regard to the Blessed\nOne.\" - See paramattha.\nNibb\u00e1na, (Sanskrit nirv\u00e1na):\nlit. 'extinction' (nir + \u00d6 va, to cease blowing, to become extinguished);\naccording to the commentaries, 'freedom from desire' (nir+ vana). Nibb\u00e1na\nconstitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all Buddhist aspirations, i.e. absolute\nextinction of that life-affirming will manifested as greed, hate and delusion, and\nconvulsively clinging to existence; and therewith also the ultimate and absolute\ndeliverance from all future rebirth, old age, disease and death, from all suffering and\nmisery. Cf. Parinibb\u00e1na.\n\"Extinction of greed, extinction of\nhate, extinction of delusion: this is called Nibb\u00e1na\" (S. XXXVIII. 1).\nThe 2 aspects of Nibb\u00e1na are:\n(1) The full extinction of defilements (kilesa-parinibb\u00e1na),\nalso called sa-up\u00e1di-sesa-nibb\u00e1na (s. It. 41), i.e. 'Nibb\u00e1na with the groups\nof existence still remaining' (s. up\u00e1di). This takes place at the attainment of\nArahatship, or perfect holiness (s. ariya-puggala).\n(2) The full extinction of the groups\nof existence (khandha-parinibb\u00e1na), also called an-up\u00e1di-sesa-nibb\u00e1na (s.\nIt. 41, A. IV, 118), i.e. 'Nibb\u00e1na without the groups remaining', in other words, the\ncoming to rest, or rather the 'no-more-continuing' of this physico-mental process of\nexistence. This takes place at the death of the Arahat. - (App.: Nibb\u00e1na).\nSometimes both aspects take place at one\nand the same moment, i.e. at the death of the Arahat; s. sama-s\u00eds\u00ed.\n\"This, o monks, truly is the peace,\nthis is the highest, namely the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum\nof rebirth, the fading away of craving, detachment, extinction, Nibb\u00e1na\" (A. III,\n\"Enraptured with lust (r\u00e1ga), enraged\nwith anger (dosa), blinded by delusion (moha), overwhelmed, with mind\nensnared, man aims at his own ruin, at the ruin of others, at the ruin of both, and he\nexperiences mental pain and grief. But if lust, anger and delusion are given up, man aims\nneither at his own ruin, nor at the ruin of others, nor at the ruin of both, and he\nexperiences no mental pain and grief. Thus is Nibb\u00e1na visible in this life, immediate,\ninviting, attractive, and comprehensible to the wise\" (A. III, 55).\n\"Just as a rock of one solid mass\nremains unshaken by the wind, even so neither visible forms, nor sounds, nor odours, nor\ntastes, nor bodily impressions, neither the desired nor the undesired, can cause such a\none to waver. Steadfast is his mind, gained is deliverance\" (A, VI, 55).\n\"Verily, there is an Unborn,\nUnoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. If there were not this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated,\nUnformed, escape from the world of the born, the originated, the created, the formed,\nwould not be possible\" (Ud. VIII, 3).\nOne cannot too often and too emphatically\nstress the fact that not only for the actual realization of the goal of Nibb\u00e1na, but also\nfor a theoretical understanding of it, it is an indispensable preliminary condition to\ngrasp fully the truth of anatt\u00e1 (q.v.), the egolessness and insubstantiality of\nall forms of existence. Without such an understanding, one will necessarily misconceive\nNibb\u00e1na - according to one's either materialistic or metaphysical leanings - either as\nannihilation of an ego, or as an eternal state of existence into which an ego or self\nenters or with which it merges. Hence it is said:\n\"Mere suffering exists, no sufferer\nThe deed is, but no doer of the deed is\nNibb\u00e1na is, but not the man that enters\nThe path is, but no traveler on it is\nLiterature: For texts on\nNibb\u00e1na, see Path, 36ff. - See Vis.M. XVI. 64ff. - Anatt\u00e1 and Nibb\u00e1na, by Nyanaponika\nThera (WHEEL 11); The Buddhist Doctrine of Nibb\u00e1na, by Ven. P. Vajiranana & F. Story\n'rebirth', is a synonym for patisandhi (q.v.).\n-pa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1): 'morality (concentration, wisdom) connected with penetration'; s. h\u00e1na-bh\u00e1giya-s\u00edla.\nof aversion', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight; s. vipassan\u00e1 (4), samatha-vipassan\u00e1\n(2), visuddhi (VI, 5).\nperception (or consciousness, or view) of permanency, is one of the 4 perversions\nnihilistic view: natthika-ditthi;\nexercise' s. kasina.\nnimitta: mark, sign; image;\ntarget, object; cause, condition. These meanings are used in, and adapted to, many\ncontexts of which only the doctrinal ones are mentioned here.\n1. 'Mental (reflex-) image', obtained in\nmeditation. In full clarity, it will appear in the mind by successful practice of certain\nconcentration-exercises and will then appear as vividly as if seen by the eye. The object\nperceived at the very beginning of concentration is called the preparatory image (parikamma-nimitta).\nThe still unsteady and unclear image, which arises when the mind has reached a weak degree\nof concentration, is called the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta). An entirely clear\nand immovable image arising at a higher degree of concentration is the counter-image (patibh\u00e1ga-nimitta).\nAs soon as this image arises, the stage of neighbourhood (or access) concentration (upac\u00e1ra-sam\u00e1dhi)\nis reached. For further details, s. kasina, sam\u00e1dhi.\n2. 'Sign of (previous) kamma' (kamma-nimitta)\nand 'sign of (the future) destiny' (gati-nimitta); these arise as mental\nobjects of the last karmic consciousness before death (maran\u00e1sanna-kamma; s.\nkarma, III, 3).\nUsages (1) and (2) are commentarial (s.\nApp.). In sutta usage, the term occurs, e.g. as:\n3. 'Outward appearance': of one who has\nsense-control it is said- that \"he does not seize upon the general appearance' of an\nobject (na nimittagg\u00e1h\u00ed; M. 38, D. 2; expl. Vis I, 54f; see s\u00edla).\n4. 'Object': the six objects, i.e.\nvisual, etc. (r\u00fapa-nimitta; S. XXII, 3). Also, when in explanation of animitta-cetovimutti,\nsignless deliverance of mind (s. cetovimutti, vimokkha), it is said, 'sabba-nimitt\u00e1nam\namanasik\u00e1r\u00e1', it refers to the 6 sense-objects (Com. to M. 43), and has therefore to\nbe rendered \"by paying no attention to any object (or object-ideas).\" - A\npleasant or beautiful object (subha-nimitta, q.v.) is a condition to the arising of\nthe hindrance of sense-desire; a 'repellent object' (patigha-nimitta) for the\nhindrance of ill-will; contemplation on the impurity of an object (asubha-nimitta;\ns. asubha) is an antidote to sense-desire.\n5. In Pts.M. II, in a repetitive series of\nterms, nimitta appears together with upp\u00e1do (origin of existence), pavattam\n(continuity of existence), and may then be rendered by 'condition of existence' (s. Path,\nnimm\u00e1na-rati: the name of a class\nof heavenly beings of the sensuous sphere; s. deva.\nnine abodes of beings: s. satt\u00e1v\u00e1sa.\nninefold dispensation: s: s\u00e1sana.\nnippapa\u00f1ca: s. papa\u00f1ca.\ncorporeality', is identical with r\u00fapa-r\u00fapa, 'corporeality proper', i.e. material\nor actual corporeality, as contrasted with 'unproduced corporeality'\n(anipphanna-r\u00fapa), consisting of mere qualities or modes of corporeality, e.g.\nimpermanence, etc., which are also enumerated among the 28 phenomena of the corporeality\ngroup. See khandha, Summary I; Vis.M. XIV, 73.\nniraya: lit. 'the downward-path',\nthe nether or infernal world, usually translated by 'hell', is one of the 4 lower courses\nof existence (ap\u00e1ya, q.v.). The Buddhists are well aware that on account of the\nuniversal sway of impermanence a life in hell, just as in heaven, cannot last eternally,\nbut will after exhaustion of the karma which has caused the respective form of rebirth,\nnecessarily be followed again by a new death and a new rebirth, according to the stored-up\nnirodha: 'extinction'; s. nirodha-sam\u00e1patti,\nof extinction', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassan\u00e1 q.v.). See \u00e1n\u00e1p\u00e1nasati\nnirodha-sam\u00e1patti: 'attainment of\nextinction' (S. XIV, 11), also called sa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1-vedayita-nirodha, 'extinction of\nfeeling and perception', is the temporary suspension of all consciousness and mental\nactivity, following immediately upon the semi-conscious state called 'sphere of\nneither-perception-nor-non-perception' (s. jh\u00e1na, 8). The absolutely necessary\npre-conditions to its attainment are said to be perfect mastery of all the 8 absorptions (jh\u00e1na),\nas well as the previous attainment of An\u00e1g\u00e1mi or Arahatship (s. ariya-puggala).\nAccording to Vis.M. XXIII, the entering\ninto this state takes place in the following way: by means of mental tranquillity (samatha)\nand insight (vipassan\u00e1) one has to pass through all the 8 absorptions one after\nthe other up to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and then one has to\nbring this state to an end. If, namely, according to the Vis.M., the disciple (An\u00e1g\u00e1mi\nor Arahat) passes through the absorption merely by means of tranquillity, i.e.\nconcentration, he will only attain the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception,\nand then come to a standstill; if, on the other hand, he proceeds only with insight, he\nwill reach the fruition (phala) of An\u00e1g\u00e1mi or Arahatship. He, however, who by\nmeans of both faculties has risen from absorption to absorption and, having made the\nnecessary preparations, brings the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception to an\nend, such a one reaches the state of extinction. Whilst the disciple is passing through\nthe 8 absorptions, he each time emerges from the absorption attained, and regards with his\ninsight all the mental phenomena constituting that special absorption, as impermanent,\nmiserable and impersonal. Then he again enters the next higher absorption, and thus, after\neach absorption practising insight, he at last reaches the state of\nneither-perception-nor-non-perception, and thereafter the full extinction. This state,\naccording to the Com., may last for 7 days or even longer. Immediately at the rising from\nthis state, however, there arises in the An\u00e1g\u00e1mi the fruition of An\u00e1g\u00e1miship\n(an\u00e1g\u00e1mi-phala), in the Arahat the fruition of Arahatship (arahatta-phala).\nWith regard to the difference existing\nbetween the monk abiding in this state of extinction on the one hand, and a dead person on\nthe other hand, M 43 says: \"In him who is dead, and whose life has come to an end,\nthe bodily (in-and-outbreathing), verbal (thought-conception and discursive thinking), and\nmental functions (s. sankh\u00e1ra, 2) have become suspended and come to a standstill,\nlife is exhausted, the vital heat extinguished, the faculties are destroyed. Also in the\nmonk who has reached 'extinction of perception and feeling' (sa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1-vedayita-nirodha),\nthe bodily, verbal and mental functions have been suspended and come to a standstill, but\nlife is not exhausted, the vital heat not extinguished, and the faculties are not\nFor details, see Vis.M. XXIII; for texts\ns. Path 206.\n'analytical knowledge of language', is one of the 4 patisambhid\u00e1 (q.v.).\nnirvana: (Sanskrit= ) Nibb\u00e1na\nnissarana-pah\u00e1na: 'overcoming by\nescape', is one of the 5 kinds of overcoming (pah\u00e1na q.v.).\nnissaya: 'foundation'. The 2 wrong\nfoundations of morality are craving (tanh\u00e1-nissaya) and views (ditthi-nissaya).\nHence there are two wrong bases of morality: morality based on craving (tanh\u00e1-nissita-s\u00edla)\nand morality based on views (ditthi-nissita-s\u00edla). (App.)\n\" 'Based on craving' is that kind of\nmorality which has come about by the desire for a happy existence, e.g.: 'O that by this\nmorality I might become a godlike or heavenly being!' (A.IX, 172). 'Based on views' is\nthat morality which has been induced by the view that through the observation of certain\nmoral rules purification may be attained\" (Vis.M. I).\nnissaya-paccaya: 'support', base,\nfoundation, is one of the 24 conditions (s. paccaya, 8).\nn\u00edtattha-dhamma: A 'doctrine with\nevident meaning', contrasted with a 'doctrine with a meaning to be inferred' (neyyattha-dhamma,\nq.v.). See also paramattha.\nn\u00edvarana: 'hindrances', are 5\nqualities which are obstacles to the mind and blind our mental vision. In the presence of\nthem we cannot reach neighbourhood-concentration (upac\u00e1ra-sam\u00e1dhi) and full\nconcentration (appan\u00e1-sam\u00e1dhi), and are unable to discern clearly the truth. They\n1. sensuous desire (k\u00e1macchanda),\n2. ill-will (vy\u00e1p\u00e1da),\n3. sloth and torpor (th\u00edna-middha),\n4. restlessness and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca),\n5. skeptical doubt (vicikicch\u00e1;\nIn the beautiful similes in A. V, 193,\nsensuous desire is compared with water mixed with manifold colours, ill-will with boiling\nwater, sloth and torpor with water covered by moss, restlessness and scruples with\nagitated water whipped by the wind, skeptical doubt with turbid and muddy water. Just as\nin such water one cannot perceive one's own reflection, so in the presence of these 5\nmental hindrances, one cannot clearly discern one's own benefit, nor that of others, nor\nthat of both.\nRegarding the temporary suspension of the\n5 hindrances on entering the first absorption, the stereotype sutta text (e g. A. IX, 40)\nruns as follows:\n\"He has cast away sensuous desire; he\ndwells with a heart free from sensuous desire; from desire he cleanses his heart.\n\"He has cast away ill-will; he dwells\nwith a heart free from ill-will, cherishing love and compassion toward all living beings,\nhe cleanses his heart from ill-will.\n\"He has cast away sloth and torpor;\nhe dwells free from sloth and torpor; loving the light, with watchful mind, with clear\nconsciousness, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor.\n\"He has cast away restlessness and\nscruples; dwelling with mind undisturbed, with heart full of peace, he cleanses his mind\nfrom restlessness and scruples.\n\"He has cast away skeptical doubt;\ndwelling free from doubt, full of confidence in the good, he cleanses his heart from\n\"He has put aside these 5 hindrances,\nand come to know these paralysing defilements of the mind. And far from sensual\nimpressions, far from unwholesome things, he enters into the first absorption, etc.\"\nThe overcoming of these 5 hindrances by\nthe absorptions is, as already pointed out, a merely temporary suspension, called\n'overcoming through repression' (vikkhambhana-pah\u00e1na). They disappear forever on\nentering the 4 supermundane paths (s. ariyapuggala), i.e. skeptical doubt on\nreaching Sot\u00e1panship; sensuous desire, ill-will and mental worry on reaching\nAn\u00e1g\u00e1miship; sloth, torpor and restlessness on reaching Arahatship.\nFor their origination and their\novercoming, s. A. I, 2; VI, 21; S. XLVI, 51.\nSee The Five Mental\nHindrances, by Nyanaponika Thera (WHEEL 26).\nniy\u00e1ma: the 'fixedness of\nlaw' regarding all things; cf. tathat\u00e1. - Pa\u00f1ca-niy\u00e1ma is a commentarial\nterm, signifying the 'fivefold lawfulness' or 'natural order' that governs: (1)\ntemperature, seasons and other physical events (utu-niy\u00e1ma); (2) the plant life (b\u00edja-n.);\n(3) karma (kamma-n.); (4) the mind (citta-n.), e.g. the lawful sequence of\nthe functions of consciousness (s. vi\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1na-kicca) in the process of cognition;\n(5) certain events connected with the Dhamma (dhamma-n.), e.g. the typical events\noccurring in the lives of the Buddhas. (App.).\nniyata-micch\u00e1ditthi: 'wrong views\nwith fixed destiny', are the views of uncausedness of existence (ahetuka-ditthi),\nof the inefficacy of action (akiriya-ditthi), and nihilism (natthika-ditthi).\nFor details, s. ditthi; and M. 60, Com. (WHEEL 98/99). - (App.)\nniyata-puggala: a 'person with a\nfixed destiny', may be either one who has committed one of the 5 'heinous deeds with\nimmediate result' (\u00e1nantarika-kamma, q.v.), or one who follows 'wrong views with\nfixed destiny' (niyata-micch\u00e1-ditthi, q.v.), or one who has reached one of the 4\nstages of holiness (s. ariya-puggala). About the latter cf. the frequent passage:\n\"Those disciples in whom the 3 fetters (of personality-belief, sceptical doubt and\nattachment to mere rules and ritual; s. samyojana) have vanished, they all have\nentered the stream, have forever escaped the states of woe; fixed is their destiny (niyata),\nassured their final enlightenment.\"\nnoble abodes: s. vih\u00e1ra.\nnoble family, Passing from n.f.\nto n.f.: kolankola; s. sot\u00e1pa\u00f1\u00f1\u00e1.\nnoble persons: ariya-puggala\nnoble power: ariya iddhi; s.\nnoble truths, the 4: ariya-sacca;\ns. sacca. - The 2-fold knowledge of the n.t.; s. sacca-\u00f1\u00e1na.\nnoble usages, the 4: ariya-vamsa\nis one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).\nnon-violence: s. avihims\u00e1.\nnot-self: s. anatt\u00e1.\ncorporeality', designates the 4 primary elements (mah\u00e1bh\u00fata or dh\u00e1tu), as\ndistinguished from the 'derived corporeality' (up\u00e1d\u00e1-r\u00fapa), such as the\nsensitive organs, etc. Cf. khandha, I.\nnutriment: s. oj\u00e1, \u00e1h\u00e1ra.\n- \u00e1h\u00e1ra is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) - n.- produced\ncorporeality; s. samutth\u00e1na.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1f42ae89-6657-46f0-bd5e-b007d6e09d74>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.phathoc.net/tu-dien-phat-hoc/565211_buddhist_dictionary/p16.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8075189590454102, "token_count": 6995, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cart: 0 items\nThe Power of the Stop Shot (Part 2)\nThe Power of the Stop Shot (part 2 of 2)\nIn Part 1 of this 2-part series, we defined the stop shot and all its wonderful benefits. You learned to use the stop shot to calibrate your stroke, stop the cue ball, and control the slide in the early stages of position play. I promised you that once you were able to execute the stop shot from any distance at any speed, then you would always be able to predict which direction the cue ball is going. By now, I\u2019m assuming you\u2019ve had the opportunity to shoot hundreds, maybe thousands of stop shots. Have you mastered it yet? Are you able to consistently get that cue ball to slide and stop at the point of contact? If you\u2019ve grasped the concept of a sliding cue ball then you\u2019re ready for part 2.\nIn this lesson, we will use the same speed and tip position that we learned, to execute a stop shot, to cut shots. Before, when the shot was lined up straight in, the cue ball had nothing to do but to stop. It transferred 100% of its energy into the object ball. Now, if you apply that same speed and tip position to cause a sliding ball at the point of contact, you can predict which direction the cue ball will be traveling.\nWhere is Whitey Going?\nAs a basic rule of thumb, when the cue ball is sliding at the point of contact with the object ball, you can trust it will travel at an imaginary perpendicular line from the line of which the object ball is traveling.\nThis diagram illustrates the direction the cue ball slides when it contacts the object ball. Obviously, the more extreme the cut angle, the less energy the cue ball transfers to the object ball. Therefore, the cue ball will come off at a greater speed. To keep that cue ball on the perpendicular line while controlling the speed, the same theory applies that we used with the stop shot.\nTo achieve the same results, LOWER SPEED = LOWER TIP POSITION.\nAll position play begins with understanding the slide zone. When you know which direction the neutral cue ball is going, you can manipulate that line simply by aiming higher or lower. Aiming above center causes a rolling cue ball and moves the line forward, above perpendicular. Aiming lower to cause backspin brings the cue ball backward below the perpendicular line.\nWhen you\u2019re able to control the rock, not only does it mean you can play better position for your next shot, but think how handy it will be when you need to avoid a scratch or break out a group of balls. These fine points are what keep players from finishing a run out.\nThings to Consider\n- How clean are the balls? If the balls are dirty they will act as gears upon contact and cling together for a fraction of time before the cue ball slides on the perpendicular line. Likewise, if the balls are newly washed, they can become much more responsive. If the balls were just cleaned, you may want to aim a little higher than you would think or bring your speed down.\n- How worn is the cloth? Slippery, new cloth will also make a surprising difference. When a table is freshly recovered, the cue ball tends to slide in place, even though it may be rolling. Therefore, this will shift the slide window. You\u2019ll need to bring your speed down to achieve the desired results.\n- Is the cue ball actually sliding at the point of contact? Playing with the Aramith Pro Cup Measle Cue Ball helps you see exactly where the cue ball is sliding at various speeds and distances. You can also easily identify if you\u2019ve inadvertently hit too high or low based on the cue ball\u2019s response after it contacts the object ball.\n- Did you cheat the pocket? Object balls can still go in even if they don\u2019t enter the center of the pocket. Whichever side of the pocket the object ball enters will shift the perpendicular line of the cue ball. This can be used to your advantage when you need to create more or less angle but always be specific with exactly where you intend to pocket the ball.\nUnderstanding how to adjust your speed and tip position to manipulate the slide zone will help you predict the path of the cue ball.\nThe next time you\u2019re in the mile high area and looking for a Denver billiard instructor, be sure to look me up.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4e883fc6-f615-400a-921c-110aa695a7e6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.pooldawg.com/article/pooldawg-library/the-power-of-the-stop-shot-part-", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9266163110733032, "token_count": 924, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A Short History of the Permanent Diaconate\nTHE EARLY CHURCH\nTraditionally, the beginning of the order of deacons is traced back to the story in Acts of the Apostles, Acts 6: 1-6. Whether this pertains to the history of the ordained order of deacons as they developed in the early centuries of the church is in dispute, but it is very much in the spirit in which the diaconate was and has been understood ever since. Very early in the history of the church, deacons were understood to hold a special place in the community, along with bishops and presbyters. The role of all ordained ministries is to be modeled on the life of Christ, and that of deacons especially was and still is, that of Christ the servant. Perhaps the earliest reference to deacons in this sense (ca. 53 A.D.?) occurs in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians in which he addresses \"all the saints in Christ Jesus who are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons\".\nHowever, it would be a mistake to interpret the servant role too literally as one of \"waiting on tables\". One of the seven first deacons, Stephen, was stoned to death because of his bold preaching of the Gospel, Acts 6: 8-15, 7: 54-60 . He is the first recognized martyr of the church, and his feast day is celebrated on December 26. Of the remaining seven, those of whom we have historical knowledge, it is clear that their ministry also quickly broadened to preaching and spreading the Gospel message.\nThe deacon became the eyes and ears of the bishop, his \"right hand man\". The bishop's principal assistant became known as the \"archdeacon\", and was often charged with heavy responsibilities, especially in the financial administration of the local church, above all in distribution of funds and goods to the poor. One measure of the importance of the deacon in the early church is the number of deacons elected pope in the early Middle Ages. Of the thirty-seven men elected pope between 432 and 684 A.D., only three are known to have been ordained to priest before their election to the Chair of Peter. (Llewellyn)\nDuring the first Christian millennium deacons undertook, as the bishops' assistants, the functions that are today those of the vicar general, the judicial vicar, the vicar capitular, the cathedral chapter and the oeconome, or finance officer. In current canon law these are almost exclusively priests' functions. (Galles)\nJohn Collins, writing in Pastoral Review, has this to say about the meaning of \"diakonia\" as understood in the early church:\n\"Two final segments: firstly my description of the semantic character of diakon- as applied to deacons in the early church (from Appendix I, Diakonia, p. 337).\nAs is well known, Vatican II cited this \u201cnot unto the priesthood, but unto the ministry\u201d in Lumen Gentium. Thus it was understood that deacons were ordained not for any specific set of duties for serving the needy but to serve the bishop in whatever set of duties he would determine. The circumstances today are, of course, far different than in the early church. The size and complexity of the modern diocese makes such an intimate relationship with the bishop impractical. Although deacons serve in a wide variety of settings, including hospitals and prisons, the focus for today's deacon is normally parish based. However, he retains the historical tie with his bishop, whose \"servant\" he remains. The major point we should take from a study of early church history and the witness of the early Fathers of the Church is that they acknowledge the importance of the diaconal ministry. Saint Ignatius of Antioch, about 100 AD, says that it would be impossible to have the Church without bishops, priests and deacons. He explains that their task was nothing less than to continue \u2018the ministry of Jesus Christ'.\nBeginning as early as the fifth century, there was a gradual decline in the permanent diaconate in the Latin church, although it remained, right to the present, a vital part of the Eastern churches, both Catholic and Orthodox. One important factor was simply a failure on the part of both presbyters and deacons to understand the unique value of the diaconate as a distinct order in its own right. Deacons with too much power were often self-important and proud. Presbyters, on their part, were resentful at the fact that often deacons had power over them! St. Jerome demanded to know why deacons had so much power \u2013 \"After all, deacons could not preside at Eucharist, and presbyters were really the same as bishops\". By the early middle ages, the diaconate was perceived largely as only an intermediate step toward the reception of ordination to the priesthood. It was this prevailing attitude of the \"cursus honorum\" that was most responsible for the decline of the diaconate. The \"cursus honorum\" was simply the attitude of \"rising through the ranks\", following a tradition of gradual promotion, inherited from practices of secular government of the Roman Empire. Most older Catholics will be familiar with the many levels of \"minor orders\" and \"major orders\". First came the liturgical rite of \"tonsure\" which conferred upon a man the status of \"cleric\", and made him eligible for ordination. Then came the minor orders of porter, lector, exorcist and acolyte. These were ordinations but they were not sacraments. Finally came the major orders of sub deacon, deacon and priest. Sub diaconate, although a major order, was not a sacrament. The sub deacon did not receive a stole. Deacon and priest were, of course, sacramental in character. The whole process is well illustrated in a drawing (thanks to Dr. William Ditewig):\n\"Then, in 1972, Paul VI, following the direction of Vatican II, issued Ministeria quaedam, which realigned these things for the Latin Rite. Tonsure was suppressed, and now a person becomes a cleric through SACRAMENTAL ORDINATION AS A DEACON; this was a change to a pattern of more than 1000 years standing! The Pope also suppressed the minor orders altogether, converting two of them into \"lay\" ministries no longer requiring ordination; he also suppressed the subdiaconate, shifting the promise of celibacy to the diaconate. That left only two orders, both sacraments, from the old schema. Since Vatican II itself had taught about the sacramental nature of the bishop, we wound up with the three-fold ordained ministry that we have now, all of which are conferred by ordination and all of which confer a sacramental \"character.\" Finally, the three orders are further subdivided by those orders that are sacerdotal (bishop and presbyter) and the orders that are diaconal (bishop and deacon). Yes, right now, presbyters are also deacons because they were ordained transitional deacons on their way to the presbyterate, BUT, as Guiseppe points out, this could be easily changed, and many are arguing for that (it's not likely anytime soon, but the case still needs to be pushed!)\" (Ditewig)\nThe time finally came during deliberations of the Second Vatican Council in 1963, calling for restoration of the diaconate as a permanent level of Holy Orders. In June 1967 Pope Paul VI implemented this decree of the Council when he published the Apostolic letter Diaconatus Ordinem, in which he re-established the permanent diaconate in the Latin Church. The Council in its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium) returns to the roots of the diaconate which we have previously discussed, roots going back to the New Testament and the early church Fathers:\nAt a lower level of the hierarchy are deacons, upon whom hands are imposed \"not unto the priesthood, but unto a ministry of service\". For strengthened by sacramental grace, in communion with the bishop and his group of priests they serve in the diaconate of the liturgy, of the word, and of charity to the people of God. It is the duty of the deacon, according as it shall have been assigned to him by competent authority, to administer baptism solemnly, to be custodian and dispenser of the Eucharist, to assist at and bless marriages in the name of the Church, to bring Viaticum to the dying, to read the Sacred Scripture to the faithful, to instruct and exhort the people, to preside over the worship and prayer of the faithful, to administer sacramentals, to officiate at funeral and burial services. Dedicated to duties of charity and of administration, let deacons be mindful of the admonition of Blessed Polycarp: \"Be merciful, diligent, walking according to the truth of the Lord, who became the servant of all.\" (Lumen Gentium para. 29)\nAnd so we have come full circle. The permanent diaconate has proved to be a resounding success, growing at an astounding rate throughout the world, but nowhere so much as here in the United States. The theology of the diaconate has yet to be fully explored, but with the help of the Holy Spirit, it will mature.\nAn excellent selection of books dealing with both the history and theology of the diaconate is available from the National Association of Diaconate Directors, http://www.nadd.org/publications.html .\nFor an excellent recent (Nov. 2006) scholarly article dealing with the meaning of \"diakonia\" see http://www.thepastoralreview.org/cgi-bin/archive_db.cgi?priestsppl-00127 .", "id": "<urn:uuid:13493cb6-b079-4ca5-9483-997395b28779>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rcan.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/feature.display/feature_id/403/index.cfm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9731214046478271, "token_count": 2057, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "An end-stop occurs when a line of poetry ends with a period or definite punctuation mark, such as a colon. When lines are end-stopped, each line is its own phrase or unit of syntax. So when you read an end-stopped line, you'll naturally pause. In that sense, it's the opposite of enjambment, which will encourage you to move right along to the next line without pausing.\nBright Star, would I were as stedfast as thou art\u2014\nNot in lone splendor hung aloft the night,\nAnd watching, with eternal lids apart,\nLike nature's patient, sleepless Eremite,\nSee how the lines each have their own units of sense? And they each end in a punctuation mark that indicates a pause. These, Shmoopers, are end-stopped lines. In fact, \"Bright Star\" is mostly end-stopped, with only two examples of enjambment. Check out the poem, and see if you can find them.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5b4e2121-53a2-4aea-9260-95c8c60be13a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.shmoop.com/literature-glossary/end-stop.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9516472816467285, "token_count": 216, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Vinca is very drought-tolerant and has an extremely long blooming season. It can also tolerate the highest temperatures we face during the summer growing season.\nGreat improvements have been made in vinca flower colors and varieties during the past 25 years. In the 1980s, gardeners had few choices in terms of vinca growth habits, flower colors or disease resistance. In the 1990s, new forms and new flower colors arrived with rapid expansion occurring between 2000-2005.\nVinca flower colors now include pink, deep rose, red, blush, scarlet, white, white with a red eye, lavender blue, peach, apricot, orchid, burgundy and many others. You can have vinca varieties that are upright and vinca varieties that are spreading. Plants generally grow 18-20 inches tall with a spread of 12-14 inches. Spreading types, though, have more trailing or ground cover habits and reach only 6-8 inches tall (at the most) with spreads of 18-14 inches.\nWe do have vinca problems in the landscape, and based on the number of calls with vinca issues this spring, this is a bad year for vinca. This is surprising considering we now have disease-resistant varieties and we had a very dry spring and early summer.\nThe main disease culprit is a fungus called Phytophthora, which always is present in our soils. It is often responsible for root rots and crown rots, and it attacks many types of plants. This fungus causes a disease seen shortly after planting, but it also can be found later in the year.\nRhizoctonia is another disease common on vinca in Louisiana. It normally shows up in the summer after plants are established. Plant pathologists can also find Botrytis (gray mold) and Alternaria (leaf spot) on vinca in summer and fall.\nTo get the best performance out of vinca in your landscape, consider the following LSU AgCenter recommendations:\n\u2022Begin with good quality plants. Inspect plants obtained from the greenhouse grower or retail garden center for healthy roots.\n\u2022Select a full-sun location. Vinca need at least eight hours of direct sun daily for optimum performance.\n\u2022Properly prepare the landscape bed to allow for drainage and aeration. Raise the bed at least 6 inches if drainage is questionable. If beds are already established, all debris from the previous planting needs to be removed. Possibly, mulch should be removed also and add another couple inches of landscape soil prior to planting.\n\u2022Although late April through early May is the ideal first planting date for the spring, you can continue planting vinca through the summer. The main thing to remember is that vinca love warm soil.\n\u2022Plant so that the top of the root ball is level with or slightly higher than the soil of the bed. Proper spacing also is important because a crowded planting limits air circulation and can create conditions more favorable to disease development. Space transplants at least 8-10 inches apart. The more quickly plants grow together, the higher the likelihood of disease moving through foliage later in the year.\n\u2022Mulch to decrease splashing of rainfall and irrigation water from soil onto the lower stems and foliage of the plants. Bedding plants should be mulched to a depth of about 1 inch. Pine straw is the preferred mulch material.\n\u2022Manage irrigation properly. This is the main culprit in plant decline in commercial landscape beds. Vinca need very little irrigation once they\u2019re established. Avoid regular overhead irrigation. Even if the landscape bed drains very well, an adequate volume once a week is the most water that should be applied.\n\u2022Don\u2019t plant periwinkles in the same bed year after year. Rotate them with other summer bedding plants that like sunny locations, such as blue daze, lantana, pentas, angelonia, scaevola, verbena, melampodium or sun-tolerant coleus.\nVarieties of vinca available in Louisiana include Pacifica, Cooler, Mediterranean, Victory, Titan, Nirvana and Cora series. Cooler and Pacifica are older varieties that still perform well with correct care. Mediterranean vincas spread and should be planted only in hanging baskets and containers. Titans have the largest flowers of all the vinca groups. The newer and more expensive Nirvana and Cora vincas have genetic resistance to Phytophthora. A few other vincas we have evaluated at the LSU AgCenter recently are not being sold in any significant quantities in Louisiana.\nIt is late in the bedding-plant season, but pay attention to vinca in landscapes. Are you noticing them looking good or looking bad? Try to figure out why a particular planting is performing well or not performing well. Vinca can have trouble through the summer and fall if proper practices are not followed, so consider the above options to improve your success.\nFor more information, contact Dr. Chris Robichaux, county agent/area horticulturist, St. Martin/Iberia Parishes, at 332-2181 or 369-4440.", "id": "<urn:uuid:88214c93-2b8d-4d36-b4f0-52523683ad12>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.techetoday.com/pages/full_story/push?article-Vincas+vary+in+landscape+performance%20&id=14885411", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9433591961860657, "token_count": 1082, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fans of Lake St. Clair's 420 square miles of water connecting Lake Erie and Lake Huron want to make it the sixth Great Lake. They should forget it.\nAt 26 miles long and 14 miles wide at its widest, this lake is important as a link and an established part of the Great Lakes waterway system. But a Great Lake? The notion makes no more sense than an effort four years ago to designate Lake Champlain, which lies between Vermont and New York, a Great Lake.\nLeading the campaign to promote Lake St. Clair, a puddle in comparison with Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, are two members of the Macomb Water Quality Board. Their aims are as economic as ecological, as connected to sport fishing as to shipping, and to clean water as to biodiversity.\nWhat's behind their petition to the Great Lakes Commission is money. Lake St. Clair's characterization as a \u201cGreat,\u201d though it flies in the face of common sense, would entitle it to federal dollars allocated to the real Great Lakes for pollution and weed control, to save wetlands, correct contamination from runoff, and help get rid of noxious marine life such as the gobey and the zebra mussel brought in by foreign vessels.\nBut Lake St. Clair, because it connects Lake Erie and Lake Huron, may be entitled to some of this money anyway. If the lake is contaminated, if it harbors alien noxious species, they will be quick to spread to the Great Lakes. It is a key part of the system.\nIs this money possible? Of course it is. The Great Lakes Commission last year set aside a half million dollars in federal funds to correct chronic pollution in Lake St. Clair.\nIt could use some of its allocations under the Great Lakes Legacy Act to keep conditions in Lake St. Clair comparable to those in the Great Lakes.\nAnd if there is a reason to fix Lake St. Clair, surely it is easier for Congress to fix it than to see this relatively small body of water declared a Great Lake.\nMichael J. Donahue, who heads the Great Lakes Commission, acknowledges that the commission staff has been calling St. Clair the sixth Great Lake for a while, if only to illustrate the importance of the whole water system.\nBut even he concedes that the name is not the issue, that what Lake St. Clair needs is some kind attention and some recognition because it \u201cmight be a lot more important, economically and ecologically, than the five Great Lakes.\u201d\nMaybe so, but there are not six Great Lakes, only five.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0e82ea0f-5a9c-4368-91cc-06a997c2409a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.toledoblade.com/Editorials/2002/10/13/Only-five-lakes-are-Great.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9496713280677795, "token_count": 535, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Christian parents should gather their families together each day for spiritual instruction and prayer. This opportuity must be seized when the children are young. Even a child of two will bow his head, and say \"Amen\" at the end of a prayer. This Catechism has been made available to help you teach your children the Word of God. Family worship might well include:\n1. Two or three verses of a hymn\n2. The reading of a few verses of Scripture\n3. Catechism questions and answers\n4. Prayer need not be tedious or long-winded\nEncourage the children to pray. Use your imagination to make family worhsip attractive and interesting. The children will sometimes be ready to discuss the Catechism answers with you. They will enjoy looking up passages of scripture where the Catechism truths are found. Pray for the guidance and help of the Holy Spirit. God will honour you if you are faithful. Remember the promise, \"Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it\" (Proverbs 22:6).\n1. Q. Who made you?\nA. God made me (Gn 1:26, 27, 2:7; Eccl. 12:1; Acts 17:24-29).\n2. Q. What else did God make?\nA. God made all things (Gn 1, 31; Acts 14:15; Rom. 11:36; Col 1:16).\n3. Q. Why did God make you and all things?\nA. For his own glory (Ps 19:1; Jer 9:23, 24; Rv 4:11, 4:15).\n4. Q. How can you glorify God?\nA. By loving him and doing what he commands (Eccl. 12:13; Mk 12:29-31; John 15:8-10; 1 Cor 10:31).\n5. Q. Why ought you to glorify God?\nA. Because he made me and takes care of me (Rom. 11:36; Rv 4:11; cf. Dan 4:39).\n6. Q. Are there more gods than one?\nA. There is only one God (Deut 6:4; Jer 10:10; Mk 12:29; Acts 17:22-31).\n7. Q. In how many persons does this one God exist?\nA. In three persons (Mt 3:16, 17; John 5:23, 10:30, 14:9, 10, 15:26, 16:13-15; 1 John 5:20; 2 John 9; Rv 1:4, 5).\n8. Q. Who are they?\nA. The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (Mt 28:19; 2 Cor 13:14; 1 Pet 1:2; Jude 20, 21).\n9. Q. Who is God?\nA. God is a Spirit, and does not have a body like men (John 4:24; 2 Cor 3:17; 1 Tim 1:17).\n10. Q. Where is God?\nA. God is everywhere (Ps 139:7-12; Jer 23:23, 24; Acts 17:27, 28).\n11. Q. Can you see God?\nA. No. I cannot see God, but he always sees me (Ex 33:20; John 1:18; 1 Tim 6:16; Ps 139; Prov. 5:21; Heb. 4:12, 13).\n12. Q. Does God know all things?\nA. Yes. Nothing can be hidden from God (1 Chron 28:9; 2 Chron 16:9; Lk 12:6, 7; Rom. 2:16).\n13. Q. Can God do all things?\nA. Yes. God can do all his holy will (Ps 147:5; Jer 32:17; Dan 4:34, 35; Eph 1:11).\n14. Q. Where do you learn how to love and obey God?\nA. In the Bible alone (Job 11:7; Ps 119:104; Is 8:20; Mt 22:29; 2 Tim 3:15-17).\n15. Q. Who wrote the Bible?\nA. Holy men who were taught by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet 1:20, 21; Acts 1:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 1 Pet 1:10, 11).\n16. Q. Who were our first parents?\nA. Adam and Eve (Gn 2:18-25, 3:20, 5:1, 2; Acts 17:26; 1 Tim 2:13).\n17. Q. Of what were our first parents made?\nA. God made the body of Adam out of the ground, and formed Eve from the body of Adam (Gn 2:7, 21-23, 3:19; Ps 103:14).\n18. Q. What did God give Adam and Eve besides bodies?\nA. He gave them the breath of life and they became living souls (Gen. 2:7; Job 33:4; Eccl 12:7; Zech 12:1).\n19. Q. Have you a soul as well as a body?\nA. A soul is not something a person has, it is the person. Man was not given a soul, but rather he became a soul. (Gen. 2:7; Mk 8:34-37, 12:30).\n20. Q. Can a soul die?\nA. Yes. The soul that continues in sin shall die. (Ezek. 18:20; Mt 10:28; Mk 8:34-37).\n21. Q. What is your soul?\nA. My soul includes all of me that should know and love God (Mk 8:34-38; Eph. 3:16-19).\n22. Q. In what condition did God make Adam and Eve?\nA. He made them holy and happy (Gn 1:26-28; Ps 8:4-8).\n23. Q. Did Adam and Eve stay holy and happy?\nA. No. They sinned against God (Gn 3:1-7; Eccl 7:29; Hos 6:7 where \"men~~ = Adam). 24.\n24. Q. What was the sin of our first parents?\nA. Eating the forbidden fruit (Gn 2:16, 17, 3:6).\n25. Q. Why did they eat the forbidden fruit?\nA. Because they did not believe what God had said (Gn 3:1-6; cf. Heb. 11:6).\n26. Q. Who tempted them to this sin?\nA. The devil tempted Eve, and she gave the fruit to Adam (Gn 3:1-13; 2 Cor 11:3; 1 Tim 2:13, 14; cf. Rv 12:9).\n27. Q. What happened to our first parents when they had sinned?\nA. Instead of being holy and happy, they became sinful and miserable (Gn 3:14-24, 4:1-24; James 1:14, 15).\n28. Q. What effect did the sin of Adam have on all mankind?\nA. All mankind is born in a state of sin and misery (Ps. 5 1:5; Rom. 5:12, 18, 19; 1 Cor 15:21, 22; 1 John 5:19).\n29. Q. What do we inherit from Adam as a result of this original sin?\nA. A sinful nature (1 Kings 8:46; Ps 14:2, 3, 58:3; Eccl 9:3; Mt 15:18-20; John 2:24, 25; Rom. 8:7).\n30. Q. What is sin?\nA. Sin is any transgression of the law of God (1 John 3:4; Rom. 3:20; James 2:9-11).\n31. Q. What is meant by transgression?\nA. Doing what God forbids (1 Sam 13:8-14, 15:22, 23; Hos 6:7; Rom. 1:21-32).\n32. Q. What does every sin deserve?\nA. The anger and judgment of God (Deut 27:26; Rom. 1:18, 2:2; Gal 3:10; Eph 5:6).\n33. Q. Do we know what God requires of us?\nA. Yes, he has given us his law both in our hearts and in writing (Rom. 2:14-15).\n34. Q. How many commandments did God give on Mt. Sinai?\nA. Ten commandments (Ex 20:1-17; Deut 5:1-22).\n35. Q. What are the ten commandments sometimes called?\nA. God's moral law (Lk 20:25-28; Rom. 2:14, 15, 10:5).\n36. Q. What do the first four commandments teach?\nA. Our duty to God (Deut 6:5, 6, 10:12, 13).\n37. Q. What do the last six commandments teach?\nA. Our duty to our fellow men (Deut 10:19; Mic 6:8; cf. Gal. 6:10).\n38. Q. What is the sum of the ten commandments?\nA. To love God with all my heart, and my neighbor as myself (Deut 6:1-15; 11:1; Mt 22:35-40; James 2:8).\n39. Q. Who is your neigHeb.or?\nA. All my fellow men are my neighbors (Lk 10:25-37, 6:35).\n40. Q. Is God pleased with those who love and obey him?\nA. Yes. He says, 'I love them that love me' (Prov. 8:17; Ex 20:6; 1 John 4:7-16).\n41. Q. Is God pleased with those who do not love and obey him?\nA. No. 'God is angry with the wicked every day' (Ps 7:11; Mal 2:17; Prov. 6:16-19; 1 Cor 16:22).\n42. Q. What is the first commandment?\nA. The first commandment is, You shall have no other gods before Me (Ex 20:3; Deut 5:7).\n43. Q. What does the first commandment teach us?\nA. To worship God only (Is 45:5, 6; Mt 4:10; Rv 22:8, 9).\n44. Q. What is the second commandment?\nA. The second commandment is, You shall not make for yourself [a]an idol, or any likeness of what is in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the water under the earth. You shall not worship them or serve them; for I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children, on the third and the fourth generations of those who hate Me, but showing lovingkindness to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments (Ex 20:4-6; Deut 5:8-10).\n45. Q. What does the second commandment teach us?\nA. To worship God in the right way, and to avoid idolatry (Is 44:9-20, 46:5-9; John 4:23, 24; Acts 17:29).\n46. Q. What is the third commandment?\nA. The third commandment is, Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain (Ex 20:7; Deut 5:11).\n47. Q. What does the third commandment teach us?\nA. To reverence God's name, word, and works (Is 8:13; Ps 29:2, 138:2; Rv 15:3, 4).\n48. Q. What is the fourth commandment?\nA. The fourth commandment is, Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy man-servant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it (Ex 20:8-11, 23:12; Deut 5:12-15).\n49. Q. What does the fourth commandment teach us?\nA. To keep the Sabbath holy (Lv 19:20, 23:3; Is 58:13, 14).\n50. Q. What day of the week is the Christian Sabbath?\nA. The first day of the week, called the Lord's Day (Acts 20:7; Rv 1:10).\n51. Q. Why is it called the Lord's Day?\nA. Because on that day Christ rose from the dead (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:9; Lk 24:1-6; John 20:1).\n52. Q. How should the Sabbath be kept?\nA. In prayer and praise, in hearing and reading God's Word, and in doing good to our fellow men (Is 58:13, 14; Acts 20:7; 1 Cor. 16:2; Lk 4:16; Mt 12:10-13).\n53. Q. What is the fifth commandment?\nA. The fifth commandment is, Honor thy father and thy mother that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee (Ex 20:12; Deut 5:16).\n54. Q. What does the fifth commandment teach us?\nA. To love and obey our parents (Mt 15:3-6; Eph. 6:1-3; Col. 3:20).\n55. Q. What is the sixth commandment?\nA. The sixth commandment is, Thou shalt not kill (Ex 20:13; Deut 5:17)\n56. Q. What does the sixth commandment teach us?\nA. To avoid hatred, all that leads to it, and all that follows from it. (Mt 5:21-24; 1 John 3:15; James 4:1-3).\n57. Q. What is the seventh commandment?\nA. The seventh commandment is, Thou shalt not commit adultery (Ex 20:14; Deut 5:18).\n58. Q. What does the seventh commandment teach us?\nA. To be pure in heart, language and conduct (Mt 5:27, 28; Eph. 5:3-5; Phil. 4:8, 9).\n59. Q. What is the eighth commandment?\nA. The eighth commandment is, Thou shalt not steal (Ex 20:15; Deut 5:19).\n60. Q. What does the eighth commandment teach us?\nA. To be honest and not to take the things of others (Ex 23:4; Prov. 21:6, 7; Eph. 4:28).\n61. Q. What is the ninth commandment?\nA. The ninth commandment is, Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neigHeb.or (Ex 20:16; Deut 5:20).\n62. Q. What does the ninth commandment teach us?\nA. To tell the truth and not to speak evil of others (Ps 15:1-3; Zech 8:16; 1 Cor 13:6; James 4:11).\n63. Q. What is the tenth commandment?\nA. The tenth commandment is, Thou shalt not covet thy neigHeb.or's house, thou shalt not covet thy neigHeb.or's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neigHeb.or's (Ex 20:17; Deut 5:21; Rom. 7:7).\n64. Q. What does the tenth commandment teach us?\nA. To be content with what we have (Phil 4:11; 1 Tim 6:6-8; Heb. 13:5).\n65. Q. Can any man keep these ten commandments?\nA. No mere man, since the fall of Adam, ever did or can keep the ten commandments perfectly (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:19, 20; James 2:10; 1 John 1:8, 10).\n66. Q. Of what use are the ten commandments to us?\nA. They teach us our duty, make clear our condemnation, and show us our need of a Saviour (1 Tim 1:8-11; Rom. 3:20; Gal 3:24).\n67. Q. Does God condemn all men?\nA. No. Though he could justly have done so he has graciously entered into a covenant to save many (Rom. 3:19, 20, 23-25; John 17:11, 12; Is 53:11).\n68. Q. What is a covenant?\nA. A covenant is an agreement between two or more persons (e.g., 1 Sam 18:3; Mt 26:14, 15).\n69. Q. What is the covenant of grace?\nA. It is an eternal agreement within the Trinity to save certain persons called the elect, and to provide all the means for their salvation (Gn 17:1-8; Rom. 11:27; Heb. 10:16, 11; 13:20, 21; Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:25-28).\n70. Q. What did Christ undertake in the covenant of grace?\nA. Christ undertook to keep the whole law for his people, and to suffer the punishment due to their sins (Rom 8:3, 4; Gal 4:4, 5; Heb. 6:17-20, 7:22, 9:14, 15, 13:20, 21).\n71. Q. Did our Lord Jesus Christ ever sin?\nA. No. He was holy, blameless and undefiled (Heb. 7:26; Lk 23:47; Heb. 4:15; 1 Pet 2:22; 1 John 3:5).\n72. Q. How could the Son of God suffer?\nA. Christ, the Son of God, took flesh and blood, that he might obey and suffer as a man (John 1:14; Rom. 8:3; Gal 4:4; Phil 2:7, 8; Heb. 2:14, 17, 4:15).\n73. Q. What is meant by the atonement?\nA. The atonement consists of Christ's satisfying divine justice, by his sufferings and death, in the place of sinners (Mk 10:45; Acts 13:38, 39; Rom. 3:24-26, 5:8, 9; 2 Cor 5:19-21; Gal 3:13; 1 Pet 3:18).\n74. Q. For whom did Christ obey and suffer?\nA. Christ obeyed and suffered for those whom the Father had given him (Is 53:8; Mt 1:21; John 10:11, 15, 16, 26-29, 17:9; Heb. 2:13).\n75. Q. What kind of life did Christ live on earth?\nA. Christ lived a life of perfect obedience to the law of God (Mt 5:17; Rom. 10:4; 1 Pet 2:21, 22).\n76. Q. What kind of death did Christ die?\nA. Christ experienced the painful and shameful death of the cross (Ps 22; Is 53; Gospel records).\n77. Q. Who will be saved?\nA. Only those who repent of sin and believe in Christ will be saved (Mk 1:15; Lk 13:3,5; Acts 2:37-41, 16:30, 31, 20:21, 26:20).\n78. Q. What is it to repent?\nA. Repentance involves sorrow for sin, leading one to hate and forsake it because it is displeasing to God (Lk 19:8-10; Rom. 6:1, 2; 2 Cor 7:9-11; 1 Thess. 1:9, 10).\n79. Q. What is it to believe in Christ?\nA. A person believes who knows that his only hope is Christ and trusts in Christ alone for salvation (John 14:6; Acts 4:12; 1 Tim 2:5; 1 John 5:11, 12).\n80. Q. How were godly persons saved before the coming of Christ?\nA. They believed in the Saviour to come (John 8:56; Gal 3:8, 9; 1 Cor 10:1-4; Heb. 9:15, 11:13).\n81. Q. How did they show their faith?\nA. They offered sacrifices according to God's commands (Ex 24:3-8; 1 Chron 29:20-25; Heb. 9:19-23, 10:1, 11:28).\n82. Q. What did these sacrifices represent?\nA. They were symbolic of Christ, the Lamb of God, who was to die for sinners (Ex 12:46 cf. John 19:36; Heb. 9, Heb. 10; John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7; 1 Pet 1:19).\n83. Q. What does Christ do for his people?\nA. He does the work of a prophet, a priest and a king (Heb. 1:1-3; Rv 1:5; Mt 13:57; Heb. 5:5-10; John 18:37).\n84. Q. How is Christ a prophet?\nA. He teaches us the will of God, reveals God to us, and really was God in human flesh. (Deut 18:15, 18; John 1:18, 4:25, 14:23, 24; 1 John 5:20).\n85. Q. Why do you need Christ as a prophet?\nA. Because I am ignorant (Job 11:7; Mt 11:25-27; John 6:67-69, 17:25, 26; 1 Cor 2:14-16; 2 Cor 4:3-6).\n86. Q. How is Christ a priest?\nA. He died for our sins and prays to God for us (Ps 110:4; 1 Tim 2:5, 6; Heb. 4:14-16, 7:24, 25; 1 John 2:1, 2).\n87. Q. Why do you need Christ as a priest?\nA. Because I am guilty (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:19-23; Heb. 10:14, 27, 28; 1 John 1:8, 9).\n88. Q. How is Christ a king?\nA. He rules over us and defends us (Ps 2:6-9; Mt 28:18-20; Eph 1:19-23; Col 1:13, 18; Rv 15:3, 4).\n89. Q. Why do you need Christ as a king?\nA. Because I am weak and helpless (John 15:4, 5; 2 Cor 12:9; Phil 4:13; Col 1:11; Jude 24, 25).\n90. Q. What did God the Father undertake in the covenant of grace?\nA. By His goodness and mercy, God the Father elected, and deteRom.ined to justify, adopt and sanctify those for whom Christ should die (Ex 33:18, 19; Eph 1:3-5; Rom. 8:29-33; Gal 4:4-7; Heb. 10:9, 10; 1 Cor 1:8, 9; Phil 1:6; 1 Thess. 4:3, 7, 5:23, 24).\n91. Q. What is election?\nA. It is God's goodness as revealed in his grace by choosing certain sinners for salvation (Eph 1:3, 4; 1 Thess. 1:4; 1 Pet 1:1, 2).\n92. Q. What is justification?\nA. It is God's regarding sinners as if they had never sinned and granting them righteousness (Zech 3:1-5; Rom. 3:24-26, 4:5, 5:17-19, 8:33; 2 Cor 5:21; Heb. 8:12; Phil. 3:9).\n93. Q. What is righteousness?\nA. It is God's goodness as revealed in his law, and as honored in Christ's perfect obedience to that law. (Ex 33:19, 34:6; Ps 33:5; Hos 3:5; Rom. 11:22).\n94. Q. Can anyone be saved by his own righteousness?\nA. No. No one is good enough for God (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:10-23; Eph. 2:8-10; Phil. 3:8, 9).\n95. Q. What is adoption?\nA. It is God's goodness in receiving sinful rebels as his beloved children (John 1:12; Eph. 1:5; Eph. 5:1; Gal 4:7, 31; 1 John 3:1-3).\n96. Q. What is sanctification?\nA. In sanctification God makes sinners holy in heart and conduct so that they will demonstrate his goodness in their lives (John 17:17; Eph. 2:10, 4:22-24; Phil. 2:12-13; 1 Thess. 5:23).\n97. Q. Is this process of sanctification ever complete in this life?\nA. No. It is certain and continual, but is complete only in heaven (Phil. 3:12-15; 2 Pet 1:4-8; 1 John 3:1-3).\n98. Q. What hinders the completion of sanctification in this life?\nA. The Scripture says \"The flesh lusts against the Spirit so that you cannot do the things you would\" (Gal. 5:17).\n99. Q. Since we are by nature sinful, how can one ever desire to be holy and to gain heaven where God lives?\nA. Our hearts must be changed before we can be fit for heaven (Eph. 4:17-24; Col 3:5-12).\n100. Q. Who can change a sinner s heart?\nA. Only the Holy Spirit can change a sinner's heart. (John 3:3; Rom. 8:6-11; 1 Cor 2:9-14; 2 Thess. 2:13, 14; Titus 3:5-6).\n101. Q. What did the Holy Spirit undertake in the covenant of\nA. He regenerates, baptizes, and seals those for whom Christ has died (Eph. 2:1-8; 1 Cor 12:13; Eph. 1:13, 14; Eph. 4:30; 2 Cor 1:22).\n102. Q. What is regeneration?\nA. It is a change of heart that leads to true repentance and faith (Gal 5:22; Eph. 2:5-8; 2 Thess. 2:13).\n103. Q. Can you repent and believe in Christ by your own power?\nA. No. I can do nothing good without God's Holy Spirit (John 3:5, 6, 6:44; Rom. 8:2, 5, 8-11; 1 Cor 2:9-14; Gal 5:17, 18; Eph. 2:4-6).\n104. Q. How does the Holy Spirit baptize believers?\nA. He puts them into the body of Christ by making them a living part of all those who truly believe in Him (1 Cor 12).\n105. Q. How does the Holy Spirit seal believers?\nA. He comes to live within them to guarantee that they will receive the wonders God has promised those who love Him (Rom. 8:9-11; Eph. 1:13, 14; Eph. 4:30; 2 Tim 1:9; 2 Cor 1:22).\n106. Q. How can you receive the Holy Spirit?\nA. God has told us that we must pray to him for the Holy Spirit (Lk 11:9-13; John 4:10, 16:24); but the evidence of His presence is seen most clearly in our trusting and loving the Lord Jesus Christ. (Lk 12:8-10; John 3:3-5, 16, 20, 21, 14:17-21; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Pet 1:2; 1 John 5:6-12). Part 117\n107. Q. What is prayer?\nA. Prayer is talking with God (Gn 17:22, 18:33; Neh 1:4-11, 2:4; Mt 6:6; Rom. 8:26, 27).\n108. Q. In whose name should we pray?\nA. We should pray in the name of the Lord Jesus (John 14:13, 14, 16:23, 24; Heb. 4:14-16).\n109. Q. What has Christ given to teach us how to pray?\nA. The Lord's Prayer (Mt 6:5-15; Lk 11:1-13).\n110. Q. Can you repeat the Lord's Prayer?\nA. \"Our Father who is in heaven, Hallowed be Your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, On earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not lead us into temptation, but deliver us from evil.\"\n111. Q. How many petitions are there in the Lord's Prayer?\n112. Q. What is the first petition?\nA. \"Hallowed be thy name\" (Mt 6:9; Lk 11:2).\n113. Q. What do we pray for in the first petition?\nA. That God's name may be honored by us and all men (Ps 8:1, 72:17-19, 113:1-3, 145:21; Is 8:13).\n114. Q. What is the second petition?\nA. \"Thy kingdom come\" (Mt 6:10; Lk 11:2).\n115. Q. What do we pray for in the second petition?\nA. That the gospel may be preached in all the world, and believed and obeyed by us and all men (Mt 28:19, 20; John 17:20, 21; Acts 8:12, 28:30, 31; 2 Thess. 3:1).\n116. Q. What is the third petition?\nA. \"Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven\" (Mt 6:10; Lk 11:2).\n117. Q. What do we pray for in the third petition?\nA. That men on earth may serve God as the angels do in Heaven (Ps 67, 103:19-22; John 9:31; Rv 4:11).\n118. Q. What is the fourth petition?\nA. \"Give us this day our daily bread\" (Mt 6:11; Lk 11:3).\n119. Q. What do we pray for in the fourth petition?\nA. That God will give us all things needful for our bodies (Ps 145:15, 16; Prov. 30:8, 9; 1 Tim 4:4, 5).\n120. Q. What is the fifth petition?\nA. 'And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us\" (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4).\n121. Q. What do we pray for in the fifth petition?\nA. That God will pardon our sins, and help those who have sinned against us (Ps 51: Mt 5:23, 1 John 4:20, 21). us to forgive 24; 18:21-35;\n122. Q. What is the sixth petition?\nA. 'And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil\" (Mt 6:13; Lk 11:4).\n123. Q. What do we pray for in the sixth petition?\nA. That God will keep us from sin (1 Chron 4:10; Ps 119:11; Mt 26:41).\n124. Q. How does the Holy Spirit bring us to salvation?\nA. He uses the Bible, which is the Word of God (1 Thess. 1:5, 6, 2:13; 2 Tim 3:15, 16; James 1:18; 1 Pet 1:22, 23).\n125. Q. How can we know the Word of God?\nA. We are commanded to hear, read and search the Scriptures (1 Pet 2:2; Rv 3:22; Mt 21:42, 22:29; 2 Tim 3:14-17).\n126. Q. What is a church?\nA. A church is an assembly of baptized believers joined by a covenant of discipline and witness who meet together regularly to minister to one another that they might grow \"in the grace and knowledge of the Lord\" (Mt 18:20; Acts 2:42).\n127. Q. What two ordinances did Christ give to his Church?\nA. Baptism and the Lord's Supper (Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:24-26).\n128 Q. Why Did Christ give these ordinances?\nA. To show that his disciples belong to him, and to remind them of what he has done for them (Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:24-26)\n129. Q. What is Baptism?\nA. The dipping of believers into water, as a sign of their union with Christ in his death, burial, and resurrection (John 3:23; Acts 2:41, 8:12, 35-38; Col 2:12).\n130. Q. What is the purpose of baptism?\nA. Baptism testifies to believers that God has cleansed them from their sins through Jesus Christ (Acts 22:16; Col 2:11-14).\n131. Q. Who are to be baptized?\nA. Only those who repent of their sins, and believe in Christ for salvation should be baptized (Acts 2:37-41, 8:12, 18:8, 19:4, 5).\n132. Q. Should babies be baptized?\nA. No; because the Bible neither commands it, nor gives any example of it.\n133. Q. What is the Lord's Supper?\nA. At the Lord's Supper, the church eats bread and drinks wine to remember the sufferings and death of Christ (Mk 14:22-24; 1 Cor 11:23-29).\n134. Q. What does the bread represent?\nA. The bread represents the body of Christ, broken for our sins (Mt 26:26; 1 Cor 11:24).\n135. Q. What does the wine represent?\nA. The wine represents the blood of Christ, shed for our salvation (Mt 26:27, 28; 1 Cor 11:25).\n136. Q. Who should partake of the Lord's Supper?\nA. The Lord's Supper is for those only who repent of their sins, believe in Christ for salvation, receive baptism, and love their fellow men (Mt 5:21-24; 1 Cor 10:16, 17, 11:18, 20, 27-33; 1 John 3:24-27, 4:9-11).\n137. Q. Did Christ remain in the tomb after his crucifixion?\nA. No. He rose from the tomb on the third day after his death (Lk 24:45-47; 1 Cor 15:3, 4).\n138. Q. Where is Christ now?\nA. Christ is in heaven, seated at the right hand of God the Father (Rom. 8:34; Col 3:1; Heb. 1:3, 10:12, 12:2).\n139. Q. Will the bodies of the dead be raised to life again?\nA. Yes. 'There shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the faithful and unfaithful' (Acts 24:14, 15; John 5:28, 29; 1 Corinthians 15:54-57; Dan 12:2).\n140. Q. What will happen to the wicked in the day of judgment?\nA. They shall perish and be destroyed in the Lake of Fire which is the second death (Psalm 1:6 Psalm 145:20; John 3:16; Ps 9:16, 17; Lk 12:5; Rom. 2:8, 9, 12; 2 Thess. 1: 9; Rv 20:12-15).\n141. Q. What will happen to the righteous in the day of judgement?\nA. They shall receive eternal life and live with God forever (John 3:16; John 12:25; Rom. 2:8, 9, 12; 1 Thess. 4:17; Rv 21:3-4).\n142. Q. In light of these truths, what should you do?\nA. I should cry out to God for mercy, repent of sin and believe savingly in the Lord Jesus Christ (Lk 13:23, 24; John 6:27; Acts 16:31).", "id": "<urn:uuid:abef63bc-6d6e-41f5-bde2-d403a24092de>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.truthaccordingtoscripture.com/documents/catechism/childrens-catechism.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8985065817832947, "token_count": 8201, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Some individuals with disabilities require assistive technology (AT) in order to access computers. Hundreds of Windows AT third-party products are available, making it possible for almost anyone to use Windows\u00ae applications, regardless of their disabilities. The Microsoft\u00ae Windows\u00ae operating systems also provides a core set of basic accessibility features and AT applications, which can be deployed on all computers in a computer lab or classroom without additional cost. These applications provide students with basic accessibility features from any workstation, maximizing the inclusiveness of the learning environment.\nIt should be noted that the AT applications that are bundled with Windows provide only a minimum level of accessibility, not the full set of features that many users require for equal access to the operating system, educational programs, and other software applications. Therefore, many educational entities deploy the standard set of Windows AT on all workstations by default, but additionally 1) provide a small number of dedicated workstations that are equipped with commonly requested third party AT, and 2) are prepared to purchase and install additional AT as needed by specific students.\nIt should also be noted that the availability of AT does not itself guarantee accessibility. Software applications must be designed in a way that is compatible with AT and other accessibility features of the operating system. For information about purchasing software products that are accessible, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How can I tell whether a software application is accessible? \nThe following is a list of basic accessibility features that are included with Windows XP. Previous versions of Windows also included several of these same features.\nDisplay and Readability:\nThese features are designed to increase the visibility of items on the screen.\n- Font style, color, and size of items on the desktop\u2014using the Display options, choose font color, size and style combinations.\n- Icon size\u2014make icons larger for visibility, or smaller for increased screen space.\n- Screen resolution\u2014change pixel count to enlarge objects on screen.\n- High contrast schemes\u2014select color combinations that are easier to see.\n- Cursor width and blink rate\u2014make the cursor easier to locate, or eliminate the distraction of its blinking.\n- Microsoft Magnifier\u2014enlarge portion of screen for better visibility.\nSounds and Speech:\nThese features are designed to make computer sounds easier to hear or distinguish - or, visual alternatives to sound. Speech-to-text options are also available.\n- Sound Volume\u2014turn computer sound up or down.\n- Sound Schemes\u2014associate computer sounds with particular system events.\n- ShowSounds\u2014display captions for speech and sounds.\n- SoundSentry\u2014display visual warnings for system sounds.\n- Notification\u2014Get sound or visual cues when accessibility features are turned on or off.\n- Text-to-Speech\u2014Hear window command options and text read aloud.\nKeyboard and Mouse:\nThese features are designed to make the keyboard and mouse faster and easier to use.\n- Double-Click Speed\u2014choose how fast to click the mouse button to make a selection.\n- ClickLock\u2014highlight or drag without holding down the mouse button.\n- Pointer Speed\u2014set how fast the mouse pointer moves on screen.\n- SnapTo\u2014move the pointer to the default button in a dialog box.\n- Cursor Blink Rate\u2014choose how fast the cursor blinks\u2014or, if it blinks at all.\n- Pointer Trails\u2014follow the pointer motion on screen.\n- Hide Pointer While Typing\u2014keep pointer from hiding text while typing.\n- Show Location of Pointer\u2014quickly reveal the pointer on screen.\n- Reverse the function of the right and left mouse buttons\u2014reverse actions controlled by the right and left mouse buttons.\n- Pointer schemes\u2014choose size and color options for better visibility.\n- Character Repeat Rate\u2014set how quickly a character repeats when a key is struck.\n- Dvorak Keyboard Layout\u2014choose alternative keyboard layouts for people who type with one hand or finger.\n- StickyKeys\u2014allow pressing one key at a time (rather than simultaneously) for key combinations.\n- FilterKeys\u2014ignore brief or repeated keystrokes and slow down the repeat rate.\n- ToggleKeys\u2014hear tones when pressing certain keys.\n- MouseKeys\u2014move the mouse pointer using the numerical keypad.\n- Extra Keyboard Help\u2014get ToolTips or other keyboard help in programs that provide it.\nThe Accessibility Wizard is designed to help new users quickly and easily set up groups of accessibility options that address visual, hearing and dexterity needs all in one place. The Accessibility Wizard asks questions about accessibility needs. Then, based on the answers, it configures utilities and settings for individual users. The Accessibility Wizard can be run again at any time to make changes, or changes can be made to individual settings through Control Panel.\nWindows Accessibility Utilities:\n- Magnifier\u2014a display utility that makes the computer screen more readable by creating a separate window that displays a magnified portion of the screen.\n- Narrator\u2014a text-to-speech utility that reads what is displayed on the screen\u2014the contents of the active window, menu options, or text that has been typed.\n- On-Screen Keyboard\u2014displays a virtual keyboard on the computer screen that allows people to type data by using a pointing device or joystick.\n- Utility Manager\u2014enables administrator-level users to check an accessibility program's status and start or stop an accessibility programs\u2014automatically, if required.\n- Speech Recognition\u2014Vista and newer versions of the OS have built-in speech recognition\nFor more information about how to access these features and utilities in Windows products visit Microsoft's website Windows Accessibility Resources .\nFor a comparison of accessibility features across operating systems, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How does accessibility differ across operating systems? \n-  How can I tell whether a software application is accessible?\n-  Windows Accessibility Resources\n-  How does accessibility differ across operating systems?", "id": "<urn:uuid:01f2efa8-409c-4d7f-b4a6-49f6ed605cc0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.washington.edu/doit/Faculty/print.html?ID=1012", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368706890813/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516122130-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8651604652404785, "token_count": 1234, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Latin\u00e9 loqui disce sine molesti\u00e1!\nLearn to speak Latin with ease! \u00a1Aprende a hablar lat\u00edn sin esfuerzo!\nApprenez \u00e0 parler latin sans peine! Impara a parlare latino senza sforzo! Lernen Sie latein zu sprechen ohne M\u00fche!\nyou will need to have the following font installed on your system:\nMaybe this font can be downloaded for free from the Internet.\nThe alphabet used by the Romans of the classical period consisted of the following letters:\nA B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z\nIt is basically the same alphabet as is still used today by a majority of languages in the world. The ancient Romans already observed a functional difference between the standard I and a more elongated alternative, which would later became J, but didnt conceive of a meaningful distinction between V and U, as was later established, nor did they use other variants like \u00c7, \u00d1 or W.\nThe Romans of the classical period had several styles to write the above letters, greatly depending on the materials used to write. As is true for most scripts, nevertheless, these styles can be grouped into two distinct ones.\nThere is a formal one, that we now call capit\u00e1lis, that was used on monuments, legal documents, public announcements, books for sale, jewelery, and in general whenever the text was meant to endure and might even have some sort of ornamental value. We can see it below used on stone, bronze, plastered walls, papyrus or, later on, parchment, and on many other surfaces and objects.\nThere was a second style, the informal one, that we now call curs\u00edva, that was used for everyday transactions with no ornamental value. This is less well known to most people, because of the precarious nature of the materials on which it was used and the lesser artistic value of the objects where we find it; but it was in fact the main style most Romans would have used in their practical lives. We can see it below on waxen or wooden tablets, wall graffiti or bone, and was used on many similar surfaces.\nIn time there developed a third style, the unci\u00e1lis, which is just a smaller version of the capit\u00e1lis with some strong influence of the curs\u00edva.\nThe shapes of the letters of the capit\u00e1lis style are practically identical with our present capitals, whereas the curs\u00edva may have influenced the evolution of the former into the unci\u00e1lis, a smaller version which is in turn the predecessor of our lower case characters; but it is important to understand that, in Roman times, the difference between the capit\u00e1lis and the curs\u00edva, or even the later unci\u00e1lis, was not at all comparable to the difference we now make between capitals and lower case when we use capitals at the beginning of some words, or for titles, in texts otherwise written in lower case.\nThey were just different styles to write the same single case of letters, and were equivalent rather to the duality that exists between our printing and our handwritten letters. They would of course not have been mixed in any one piece of writing, as we would not type some letters and write others by hand within the same text, let alone the same word.\nJust like the Arabs or the Japanese, therefore, in spite of a variety of writing styles, the Romans didnt either have an equivalent to our meaningful alternation between capitals and lower case within the same piece of writing in any of them, nor did they write any differently the first letter of a sentence or proper name and the rest.\nThe Romans, in order to save space, given the high cost of most of the materials they wrote on, used the so called lig\u00e1t\u00far\u00e6, i.e. groupings of letters written as a cluster by sharing a common stroke. There were many of them: AE could be found as \u00c6, and similarly AN, TR, VM and many others could appear fused together in groups of two, three and even more letters.\nThe Romans had only two diacritics, and they didnt use any of the two with any regularity.\nThe Romans would often write without even separating the words with spaces, as we have seen above in several instances. Moreover, they certainly never distinguished sentences or phrases using commas, semicolons, colons or stops, neither did they know of question or exclamation marks, brackets, inverted commas or any other diacritic we are used to. In fact, the only sign they used, and only in the more elegant writings, like monumental ones, was a dot they used not as final stop, but to separate single words. We have also seen this on the inscriptions above. This dot could sometimes take more sophisticated shapes, as a little ivy leaf, for instance, as below.\nThe Romans of the most sophisticated period of classical culture used, as much in monumental writing as in more domestic texts, a sign called apex, identical to what we nowadays know as acute accent ( \u00b4 ). This sign, nevertheless, was not used to indicate the accent or stress in the word as in a minute number of modern vernaculars, but to mark long vowels (see the file on pronunciation), as is still done today in languages like Icelandic, Hungarian, Czech and many others.\nLatin spelling nowadays\nIt is obvious that the writing practices of the Romans of the classical period were rather primitive in comparison with present ones. Some people believe for that reason that our spelling habits are vernacular, and therefore somehow spurious and artificially imposed on Latin subsequently. They forget that most of our spelling customs are the natural development of Roman practices and were organically furthered throughout history by people who spoke and wrote in Latin, in order to achieve greater clarity and distinction when reading and writing Latin itself, not the vernacular languages; and these usages passed on from Latin to the vernaculars, and not the other way around.\nThe ancient difference in shape between a shorter and a more elongated I (i/j), the latter of which, already in antiquity, was frequently used in the cursiva in word-initial position, often corresponding to the consonantal sound, as can be seen in the illustrations above, was formalised in later periods for this useful function specifically, thus allowing for complete transparency as regards the difference in pronunciation between the first sound in janua and in iambus, or in meaning between forms like perjerat and perierat. The previously meaningless difference between the pointed V of the capitalis and the rounded u of some forms of cursiva or of the uncialis was equally put to the service of a more transparent spelling. It was thus finally possible duly to distinguish vowels from consonants. Other variants that could be allocated no distinctive phonetic value, like a taller or shorter T or a more or less stretched S, were either kept for merely aesthetic purposes or eventually dropped as functionally improductive. Some ligatures like \u00e6 or were likewise preserved to help distinguish the corresponding diphthongs from the hiatuses ae and oe, whereas many others were abandoned. The separation of words by means of spaces was found to be such a useful device that few contemporaries would be able to read without it; and the rich variety of signs of punctuation introduced also in later stages of the history of Latin helped reading with the necessary pauses, and allowed us to distinguish the component parts of sentences, or to determine beyond doubt whether we are confronted with a statement, an exclamation or a question. Finally, the distinction between capitals and lower case brought in not only a certain elegance, but also some further clarity to grammar (highlighting proper names) and to discourse structure (marking the beginnings of sentences).\nThere has most unfortunately arisen, nevertheless, and for all the wrong reasons, a fashion of spelling fundamentalism that, abandoning a more than reasonable tradition of centuries of Latin writing, purports to go back to the writing usages of the ancient Romans. This is as absurd as wanting to give up the use of paper or the modern book, and claiming that something is not classical Latin unless its written on papyrus rolls. It should be obvious to anyone that we can be completely respectful of ancient culture and cultivate the purest form of classical Latinity while using more developed methods of writing than our ancestors had at their disposal and which are moreover the result of centuries of Latin tradition. Of course, since fundamentalists rarely guide themselves by reason, the return to the old usages doesnt follow any further criteria than their own arbitrary whim, and they sometimes are purists and sometimes not, as they please. Thus, some have set about eliminating the distinction between i and j as non-Roman, but they are only too happy against all logic to keep that between v and u. Others consider that the use of capitals should be eliminated, and they do use lower case letters at the beginning of sentences, but they then arbitrarily keep capitals for proper names or even adjectives. Of course, none of those purists has dared to admit the fact that a return to ancient usage would imply writing everything rather in capitals than in lower case, and that they would in fact have to stop using any punctuation at all.\nThe saddest aspect of the modern spelling mess is that it has nothing to do with Latin. It originates in attempts at spelling reforms that seemed to make perfect sense in a vernacular like Italian, but which some people felt the need to force also upon Latin, with deplorable consequences. While most European languages, including Latin, felt very comfortable with the century-old usage of i and j, and v and u, as all those letters represented clearly different sounds or appeared in clearly different syllabic contexts, in Italian the use of i and j had become so complicated by conflicting and arbitrary uses without too much relation with any phonetic reality that people struggled to determine when a word had to be written with i and when with j. Italian being a language with otherwise very straightforward spelling principles, a pressure arose therefore to drop the use of j. Now, this absolutely sensible measure for Italian was unnecessarily applied also to Latin by people who were persuaded that Latin must be spelt as modern Italian. Obviously, they could never have convinced the international Latin using community on such grounds, so they started to contrive specious justifications: that the sound of the vowel and the semivowel were similar enough (even though it is exactly the same difference that i and j have in German and many other languages that have never considered dropping the spelling distinction), that it brought Latin spelling closer to ancient practices (although, as we have explained, the distinction between i and j has in fact a much more ancient history than that of u and v), etc. Of course, they never mentioned that every single one of those reasons applies with exactly equal force to the Latin pair i/j (where [i] differs from [j]) and to the pair u/v (where [u] differs from either [w] or [v], however we care to pronounce it), which the Italians had no intention to simplify because in Italian it made sense to continue to use both letters in the latter case. As the international community began to drop the use of j in a quest for ancient purity, it became more and more obvious to everyone who hadnt given up the human capacity to reason, that it made absolutely no sense in Latin to drop the j without dropping also the v; so, having genuinely assimilated the specious excuses of the Italians to bring Latin spelling closer to Roman times, the best philologists around the world felt it absolutely necessary to do without v too, and many critical editions of classical texts are now published that way. We have thus a traditional i/j/u/v system, which was foolishly undermined and turned into just i/u/v in accordance with some vernacular spelling reforms, but in a move that has now inevitably but most unfortunately backfired (certainly against the expectations of those who promoted the use of i/u/v) into an ugly i/u system as the only reasonably acceptable outcome. Not only that, following the same perverse train of thought, many now feel the need also to drop the use of capitals in Latin texts. Where this absurd nonsense will take Latin spelling is difficult to foresee, but we cannot but lament that the narrow-minded whim of a nation with the most arrogant attitude towards the language of our common civilisation has managed to bring absolute chaos to an elegant, sensible, and century-long Latin spelling tradition.\nWe consider that our spelling usages were developed through millennia according to criteria of utility and clarity, which it is as absurd as it is unnecessary to renounce. Even if some certainly rude spirits could consider giving up aesthetic developments like the distinction between capitals and lower case, it seems absolutely preposterous to eliminate usages that reflect better the pronunciation of the language and help reading.\nIndeed, we should avoid as non-transparent spelling those practices which, with the specious excuse of being truer to ancient practices or following vernacular considerations, disregard centuries of legitimate Latin spelling tradition and prefer to hinder learning of the Latin language by failing to represent transparently its different sounds. Using one and the same letter i to represent both the vowel [i] and the consonant [j] may be true to the most ancient practices, but it is as unfortunately as unnecessarily non-transparent because it doesn't allow to distinguish which is which in words like \"iam\" (where the i represents a semivowel, pronounced as English y in yes) and \"iambus\" (where the i represents a vowel, pronounced as English i in it), etc. Non-transparent spelling makes that more and more people nowadays fail to learn the language properly as they are preposterously kept in the dark about the sounds the words they read and write actually contain (we've heard many a professor, let alone students, pronounce \"iam\" rhyming with Ian and \"iambus\" starting as yummy). Using i for the vowel and j for the semivowel is conversely a much more transparent spelling, which is justified by centuries of Latin spelling tradition and which allows us to see immediately which is which by writing \"jam\" but \"iambus\", etc. Equally using the same ae combination both for the diphthong in \"aereus\" (where the ae represent a diphthong, pronounced in one syllable, rather like English eye) and the hiatus in \"aerius\" (where the ae represent an hiatus, pronounced in two syllables, rather like English a in father followed by the e in error), etc. is sadly non-transparent (and leads to error just as many). Using \u00e6 for the diphthong and ae of the hiatus, or at least ae for the diphthong but a\u00eb for the hiatus, is a much more transparent spelling and it allows us to see immediately which is which by writing \"\u00e6reus\" but \"aerius\" (or \"aereus\" but \"a\u00ebrius\"), etc.\nAs inconsistent spelling we must avoid spelling practices that choose to be transparent in some cases but not in others with no legitimate phonetic or historical reason to do so in one case and not in the other whatsoever, as when some people choose to distinguish the vowel [u] from the semivowel [w] by writing the former as u and the latter as v, which is a nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as u, which would be non-transparent, and they don't care in this case not to be true to ancient practices; but then, with no phonetic or historical reason to do so, they choose not to to distinguish the vowel [i] from the semivowel [j] by writing the former as i and the latter as j, which would be nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as i, which is non-transparent. Equally choosing to distinguish the diphthong \u00e6 from the hiatus ae in a usefully transparent way, rather than writing both as ae, but at the same time not distinguishing the diphthong from the hiatus oe and writing both non-transparently as oe, would be also inconsistent.\nFinally, indicating the length of the vowels in writing was something that the ancient Romans didn't need to do because they just knew which was which, either because they were native speakers or because they could learn to pronounce the words by listening to native speakers. The use of the apex in ancient inscriptions or manuscripts is therefore quite haphazard. For us, on the other hand, using a more thorough form of spelling, consistently marking all long vowels, is much more poignantly required if we aspire ever to learn to pronounce the words correctly. There was one case, nevertheless, when even ancient native speakers advocated that the use of the apex is actually necessary (cf. Quint. Inst. 1,7,2s), and that is when when a difference of length in a vowel can produce a different meaning in a word, as in \"malus\" and \"m\u00e1lus\" or \"liber\" and \"l\u00edber\" or \"rosa\" and \"ros\u00e1\" or \"loqueris\" and \"loqu\u00e9ris\". We must certainly never omit such necessary apices.\nIt is absolutely unnecesary to give up our spelling lore, on any grounds; and we advocate the full reinstatement of our century-long, sensible spelling tradition, in the interests of transparency, consistency, and thoroughness.", "id": "<urn:uuid:25ce0131-3a0f-410c-af57-29b3ca07f9fe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://avitus.alcuinus.net/schola_latina/litterae_en.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9668256640434265, "token_count": 3657, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This is another image I found on Google+\nAll lines are absolutely straight, parallel and perpendicular but why does it appear to have a curvature?\nRelated: How does this illusion work?\nLike these questions :) Many of these illusions come from Prof. Akiyoshi Kitaoka, a japanese Psychologist and expert for Gestalt Psychology. On his website you'll find some more fascinating illusions and questions to ask here ;)\nThe illusion above is named Cafe Wall illusion and the newest model to explain those illusions is the contrast-polarity model. Short explanation from his webpage:\nThe paper explained it better to me:\nThis explains why you perceive a tilt. If you position the smaller squares now in distinct edges of the big squares, you can achieve 2- and 3-dimenional illusions. Here you see a increasing of the tilt due to more smaller squares:\nHere you can see that the positioning of the smaller squares is critical to achieve the 3D effect of the orignial bulge effect in your question:\nNotice that Gestalt Psychology is a non-reductionistic theory approach and investigates mainly the phenomenology and underlying Gestalt Laws of visual perception. How these Gestalt Laws developed on a deeper level is a question of neurobiological evolution similar to, \"why have some species of apes color-vision and some not\". The ellipses in the explaining picture above show you, that our cognitive visual machine somehow tries to group divided objects (square and line of same contrast/brightness) in one line and we see a tilt. I'm guessing here, but this is probably due to cognitive brain algorithm that saves things and objects we see and perceive mainly by countor and shapes, rather than pixel by pixel like a computer and digital camera do it, which of course don't perceive any tilt or 3D illusion in any of those trick images :)\nRead the papers for more explanations and examples, not behind a paywall:", "id": "<urn:uuid:41b7145c-e537-491e-9369-ebe5ab5d7f66>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://biology.stackexchange.com/questions/3015/why-does-this-illusion-work", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9356653690338135, "token_count": 399, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Giant Marble Harvests Energy From Sun And Moon\nIt looks like a giant, glass marble. But this globe is no game. It\u2019s a sun-tracking, solar energy concentrator created by Barcelona-based architects Rawlemon and, according to the designers, is able to collect not just sunlight but moonlight as well. The weatherproof sphere is designed to rotate and follow the sun across the sky. It\u2019s so sensitive to light that at night, it can even harvest moonlight and convert it into electricity.\nAndre Rawlemon, the architect and designer, says his spherical, sun-tracking glass globe is able to concentrate sunlight and moonlight up to 10,000 times and that the system is 35 percent more efficient than photovoltaic designs that track the sun. One of Rawlemon\u2019s idea is to build these globes into the exterior walls of buildings and use them to generate electricity.\nOther products to invest in when this technology reaches full commercialization potential: Bounty and Windex.\nSeriously though, the ability alone to convert moonlight to electricity could be a game changer for the manufacturers of photovoltaic cells where typical solar panels offer a range of 8 to 12 hours of usable daylight for the generation of electricity.\nCoupled with products that offer greater efficiency and other simple behavioral aspects like turning off computers and monitors (or at least put in stand-by) when they\u2019re not being used could add up to significant savings and longer-term environmental benefits.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c7368a18-07c3-4533-a5bc-fdfa84a78c7c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blu3rsx.tumblr.com/post/31860127960/abluegirl-giant-marble-harvests-energy-from-sun", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.928649365901947, "token_count": 313, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Yesterday I responded to novelist Laurie Halse Anderson\u2019s question about whether John Adams actually wrote about 1777 as \u201cthe year of the hangman.\u201d I quoted Adams\u2019s words from over a decade later indicating that unspecified, untraceable \u201cTories\u201d had said that 1777 \u201chad three gallowses in it, meaning the three sevens.\u201d\nHowever, Adams didn\u2019t write \u201cthe year of the hangman,\u201d and neither did anyone else I can find in the 1770s. The label doesn\u2019t appear the Archive of Americana database of period newspapers and pamphlets. Nor is it in the Adams family letters, the George Washington Papers, and the other digital databases I usually check for period usage.\nIn fact, the earliest use of that phrase for 1777 that I found through Google Books is Lynn Montross\u2019s The Reluctant Rebels: The Story of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, published in 1950. That book includes a chapter titled \u201cYear of the Hangman,\u201d and at one point says, \u201cIt was the year of the hangman, and the gallows jokes exchanged in the State House were not so humorous after the imprisonment of [Richard] Stockton...\u201d\nAs far as I can tell, Montross coined that phrase; I haven\u2019t uncovered an earlier usage. He didn\u2019t say the words came from 1777, only that it reflected how the Patriots saw their situation that year. But then the same words appeared in other books, with the growing implication that it was a genuine period phrase:\n- The 1966 Encyclopedia of the American Revolution, edited by Mark Boatner, included an entry on \u201cHangman, year of the.\u201d\n- One part of The River and the Rock: The History of Fortress West Point, 1775-1783, authored by Dave Richard Palmer in 1969, carried that title.\n- The phrase \u201cyear of the gallows\u201d comes from a character\u2019s mouth in Thomas Fleming\u2019s 1976 novel Liberty Tavern.\n- John S. Pancake\u2019s 1777: The Year of the Hangman (1977) quotes Adams\u2019s original letter to explain its subtitle.\n- Gary Blackwood\u2019s The Year of the Hangman (2002) is an alternate history marketed to teen-aged readers.\n- The strategy game shown above, designed by Ed Wimble, is \u201can operational study of the campaign for Philadelphia.\u201d\n- Most recently, Glenn F. Williams\u2019s award-winning military history Year of the Hangman: George Washington\u2019s Campaign Against the Iroquois was published in 2005.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1db6bfb3-d6f4-4402-8660-4d995b0285db>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://boston1775.blogspot.com/2008/07/hunting-for-year-of-hangman.html?showComment=1216852500000", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9482001662254333, "token_count": 571, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Scientific name: Coenonympha tullia\nRests with wings closed. Some have row of \u2018eyespots\u2019 on underwings, like Ringlet, but some don\u2019t.\nThe Large Heath is restricted to wet boggy habitats in northern Britain, Ireland, and a few isolated sites in Wales and central England.\nThe adults always sit with their wings closed and can fly even in quite dull weather provided the air temperature is higher than 14B:C. The size of the underwing spots varies across its range; a heavily spotted form (davus) is found in lowland England, a virtually spotless race (scotica) in northern Scotland, and a range of intermediate races elsewhere (referred to aspolydama).\nThe butterfly has declined seriously in England and Wales, but is still widespread in parts of Ireland and Scotland.\nSize and Family\n- Family \u2013 Browns\n- Small/Medium Sized\n- Wing Span Range (male to female) - 41mm\n- Listed as a Section 41 species of principal importance under the NERC Act in England\n- Listed as a Section 42 species of principal importance under the NERC Act in Wales\n- Classified as a Northern Ireland Priority Species by the NIEA\n- UK BAP status: Priority Species\n- Butterfly Conservation priority: High\n- European Status: Vulnerable\n- Protected in Great Britain for sale only\nThe main foodplant is Hare's-tail Cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) but larvae have been found occasionally on Common Cottongrass (E. angustifolium) and Jointed Rush (Juncus articulatus). Early literature references to White Beak-sedge (Rhyncospora alba), are probably erroneous.\n- Countries \u2013 England, Scotland and Wales\n- Northern Britain and throughout Ireland\n- Distribution Trend Since 1970\u2019s = -43%\nThe butterflies breed in open, wet areas where the foodplant grows, this includes habitats such as; lowland raised bogs, upland blanket bogs and damp acidic moorland. Sites are usually below 500m (600m in the far north) and have a base of Sphagnum moss interspersed with the foodplant and abundant Cross-leaved Heath (the main adult nectar source).\nIn Ireland, the butterfly can be found where manual peat extraction has lowered the surface of the bog, creating damp areas with local concentrations of foodplant.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3a335f27-c035-4215-b4c2-b0179298929c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://butterfly-conservation.org/309-884/large-heath.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9135313630104065, "token_count": 520, "score": 3.5, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The concept of disability has changed significantly through history. At one point, disability was seen as the result of sin, either by the person with the disability or his or her parents. Disability was associated with guilt and shame, and people with disabilities were hidden away.\nMerriam-Webster\u00eds definition of disability: limitation in the ability to pursue an occupation because of a physical or mental impairment; lack of legal qualification to do something; or a disqualification, restriction or disadvantage. Most of the time, we apply these definitions to a person who \u010fhas\u0112 a disability. What if it is society that has the disability, not the individual?\nWith the advent of modern medicine, a medical understanding of disability developed. In a medical model of disability, the person with a disability is seen as having an illness, which presumably should be cured. The person with a disability, as someone who is sick or diseased, is excused from normal life and responsibilities such as working, family obligations and household maintenance.\nThe approach of the Social Security Administration supports the idea of disability as something that excludes one from a normal life. To fit the administration\u00eds definition of disability, a person must be able to prove that he or she is incapable of gainful employment. The inference is that by having a disability, one remains outside mainstream society.\nYet there is another way to view disability. This view considers disability as a normal part of life. After all, most of us will have a disability, whether temporary or permanent, at some time in our life. As many people with disabilities will attest, their disabilities are integral to what makes them who they are. It isn\u00edt the disability that needs to be changed. The physical and attitudinal barriers people with disabilities face are what need to change.\nFor example, people who are unable to walk may still be able to move around as much as anyone with the use of wheelchairs and other assistive technology. The inability to use their limbs may be less of a limitation than heavy doors that don\u00edt open automatically or stairs that keep them from a building.\nSimilarly, culture and environment can dictate whether something is a disability. In a culture where healers and shamans regularly interact with a spirit world, hearing voices isn\u00edt a disability. Only in societies where reading is essential to daily functioning is a learning disability recognized. In our society, a vision impairment that necessitates wearing glasses isn\u00edt considered a disability, but a mobility impairment that requires a person to use a walker is. Disability is defined by context. It follows, then, that what makes something a disability is external to the individual.\nIf we presumed that people with disabilities were able to live full and enriching lives, participate fully in their communities and have adult responsibilities, couldn\u00edt we make it so by removing the societal barriers that we create? When we view disability as a natural part of life, our entire approach to disabilities has to change.\nTara Kiene is the director of case management with Community Connections Inc.", "id": "<urn:uuid:77410cee-4537-4925-bfef-b65e28696047>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://durangoherald.com/article/20130108/COLUMNISTS06/130109638/0/Past-campus-presents-new-possibilities-for-FLC/Disability-is-natural-part-of-life", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9733148217201233, "token_count": 617, "score": 3.78125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Treating Hirschsprung's disease\nrequires surgery to remove the affected bowel\nand then join the healthy bowel segments. There are three different approaches, each with a high rate of success. The choice depends on the overall health of the child and the training and experience of the surgeon\nSometimes a single surgical procedure is recommended to remove the aganglionic segment\n, then bring the healthy bowel down into the rectum\n, and join it to the rectal wall\n: this is called a \"pull-through\n. If an infant\nis too small or a child is critically\nill, a temporary colostomy\nmay be necessary prior to the pull-through.\nIn a colostomy, the colon is brought out to the surface of the abdomen\nso that stool contents can be discharged\ninto a special bag for disposal\nSubsequent to the colostomy, the pull-through surgery can be planned. The colostomy opening can then closed at the time of the pull-through, or, in some cases, at a third operation after it is clear that the pull-through is working.\nFor most children with Hirschsprung's disease, there are no long-term complications\nafter successful surgery. A significant minority of children, though, are troubled with persistent constipation\n), or persistent enterocolitis\nPersonal Note: Being affected with this disease, and not having had the surgery due to incorrect early diagnosis, I am inspired to say that living with this problem without surgery is very difficult. You may experince humiliation due to inability to control bowel movments, severe pain when having bowel movments, and constant illness due to the inability to remove toxins from the body. Please do not allow a child to grow up with this disease.", "id": "<urn:uuid:45bc42a5-ae7b-4850-b2b2-e926b1d0f47b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://everything2.com/title/Hirschsprung%2527s+disease", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.933249831199646, "token_count": 360, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Intellectual knowledge appears to be innate and privy to the few, but in fact, access to information, development of intellectual work skills, time investment, and the maintenance of intellectual appearances are key to being perceived as an intellectual.\nTo make education more equitable, professors must go beyond knowledge transmission and instruct students in the concrete skills of knowledge acquisition and knowledge presentation. Instruction in intellectual skills-acquisition implies the breakdown of the traditional professor-student relationship and of the academic intellectual hierarchy and professors must learn to cope with the consequences of adopting new pedagogies. If we wish to share the secrets of our professions, how do we prepare our students for such a democratic approach and at the same time maintain our professional status?\nThe author, a professor of Spanish language and literature, presents strategies for democratizing education and demystifying intellectual work through the application of skills-based pedagogical methodologies to the teaching of literature. The implications that these strategies have for a new type of learning and the impact that they have on social stratification will also be discussed.\n|Keywords:||Democratizing Education, Demystifying Intellectual Work, Knowledge Acquisition Skills, Interpretative Skills, Teaching Literature, Skills Based Teaching|\nAssistant Professor of Spanish, Department of Literature and Languages, Roosevelt University, Chicago, Illinois, USA\nThere are currently no reviews of this product.Write a Review", "id": "<urn:uuid:2db016d0-d509-4003-8288-668024b1c2bf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ijl.cgpublisher.com/product/pub.30/prod.2349", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8936924934387207, "token_count": 280, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A new study shows that inheritance may be the cause for the rise in diabetes in the U.S.\nScientists are studying additional forms of inheritance, besides DNA, like metabolic programming, which can occur in the womb or shortly after birth, and causes permanent changes in metabolism.\nResearchers in the study looked at mice with diets high in saturated fat and studied the results in the mice and their offspring. They found that a high-fat diet brought on type 2 diabetes in the adult mice.\nIf a pregnant female mouse stayed on a high-fat diet, their offspring had a greater chance of developing diabetes, even when given a moderate-fat diet.\nResearchers say that these studies have only been tested on mice, so there\u2019s no further reason as of yet to warn mothers to eat differently during pregnancy. Even mated with healthy mice, the next generation offspring could develop diabetes as well.\nThis study was published in the September issue of the Journal of Lipid Research.\nSource: Journal of Lipid Research", "id": "<urn:uuid:51b48948-9ea8-4176-a208-9908c3a47fc8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://inventorspot.com/articles/new_study_shows_diabetes_may_be_transmitted_from_parents_childre_17193", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9667507410049438, "token_count": 206, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "See also the\nBrowse High School Calculus\nStars indicate particularly interesting answers or\ngood places to begin browsing.\nSelected answers to common questions:\nMaximizing the volume of a box.\nMaximizing the volume of a cylinder.\nVolume of a tank.\nWhat is a derivative?\n- Deriving Simpson's Rule [06/07/1998]\nCan you show me a derivation of Simpson's Rule?\n- Deriving the Area of a Sphere [10/21/2003]\nI know the area of a sphere is 4phi(r^2), but I'm wondering how to\nderive that formula. I know it should be done in cylindrical\ncoordinates, and I'm thinking that the arc of a circle is defined as\nrd(theta) and it's multiplied with rd(phi) to get (r^2)d(theta)d(phi).\nCould you please help explain this?\n- Deriving the Gamma Function [12/15/2000]\nHow can you prove that sqrt(pi)/2 = (1/2)!, and what is a fractional\nfactorial like that equal to?\n- Deriving the Integral for the Surface Area of a Sphere [06/28/2001]\nI need to find the cost per square foot of steel that makes up a tank, so\nI need a way to derive the surface area of part of a sphere with a given\n- Deriving the Quotient Rule [9/5/1995]\nHow do I prove this derivation: (f/g)' = fg'-fg'/g^2 ?\n- Deriving Trig Functions; Taylor Series [05/01/2001]\nHow would I find, from first principles - no tables, no calculator - for\nexample, 32 degrees? If I use a formula, how is it derived?\n- Descartes' Method for Tangents [09/02/1998]\nCan you help me find the equation of the tangent of y^2 = 2x using\n- Design a More Efficient Soda Can [4/23/1995]\nThe problem is to design a more efficient soda can that holds the regular\n12 oz. of liquid. The can needs to have the least possible surface area.\n- Determining Tangent to an Ellipse, Minimizing Area [02/20/1998]\nFind the equation of the tangent to the ellipse that forms, with the\ncoordinate axes, the triangle of smallest possible area.\n- Determining the Length of a Coil of Ribbon [08/31/2001]\nHow will calculus give me the same answer I found with algebra and\n- Determining Whether a Function is Continuous [06/10/2000]\nHow can you tell whether or not a function is continuous?\n- Differentiability, Intervals, Inflection Points of Piecewise Function [05/13/1998]\nFor what values of k and p will the function be continuous and\ndifferentiable? On what interval will it be increasing? Find all points\n- Differential Equations and Flow Rate [02/14/1999]\nA solution containing 3 lb/gal of dye flows into a 100 gal tank at 5\n- Differential Notation [04/16/2009]\nWhy is the second derivative written as d^2y/dx^2?\n- Differentials [09/18/1998]\nWhat is the difference between finding the derivatives of a function\n(dy/dx), and finding its differentials (dy,dx)?\n- Differentiate Twice [11/14/1997]\nIf y = xsin(3x) prove that y''+9y = 6cos(3x), where y'' is its second\n- Differentiating [01/14/1998]\nPlease help me differentiate (y^2) * cos (1/y) = 2x + 2y.\n- Differentiating and Integrating the Formula for Area of Circle [05/11/1998]\nThe formula for a circle's circumference is the derivative of the formula\nfor its area. What is the significance of this?\n- Differentiating a Polynomial [04/25/1999]\nDifferentiate with respect to x: f(x) = x^8 + 3x^5 + (3-5x)^4.\n- Differentiating the Ceiling Function [10/16/2000]\nHow do I find dD/dp for an equation involving the ceiling function? How\ndo I minimize D as a function of P?\n- Differentiating the Rate of Decay [3/14/1996]\nA lump of radioactive subtance is disintegrating at time 't' days after\nit was first observed to have mass 10 grams and: (dm/dt) = -km (where k\nis a positive constant). Find the time, in days, for the substance to\nreduce to 1 gram in mass, given that its half life is 8 days.\n- Differentiating Under the Integral Sign [01/11/2001]\nCan you give me an example of the integration method called\n\"differentiating under the integral sign\"?\n- Differentiating y with Respect to ... y? [11/05/2010]\nA student familiar with differentiation struggles to take the derivative of a function with\nrespect to the self-same variable. Doctor Ali puts the student back on track with a\n- Differentiating y = x^x [11/3/1994]\nPlease could you differentiate y=X^X (that's X to the power of X)?\n- Differentiation Problem [11/15/1997]\nA light shines from the top of a pole 50 ft. high. A ball is dropped from\nthe same height at a point 30 ft. away from the light...\n- Distance From a Point to a Plane [03/31/1998]\nCan you show me the proof of the formula for the distance between a point\nand a plane?\n- Distance to the Sun [04/16/1999]\nFind the distance from Earth to the sun when t = 90 days...\n- Does f Have a Local Extrema at x = 0? [07/10/2003]\nf(x) = (x^3)/6 + (x^2)/2 + cosx - 1. Does f have a local extremum at x\n- Domain, Asymptotes, Intercepts of a Function [04/01/2003]\nWhat is the domain of this function? What asymptotes does it have?\nWhat are the x and y intercepts? Etc...\n- Domain/Range of a Function [01/22/1997]\nHow do you find the domain and range of the function f(x) = 2x^2-3x+1?\n(Both with and without calculus.)\n- Dominant Terms [03/25/1998]\nWhat are dominant terms, and how do you obtain their values?\n- Donkey Grazing Half a Field [08/08/1997]\nA donkey is attached by a rope to a point on the perimeter of a circular\nfield. How long should the rope be so that the donkey can graze exactly\nhalf the field?\n- Double Integration in Polar Coordinates [03/27/2003]\nEvaluate double integral x-y/x*2+y*2 over x*2+y*2 equal to or less\n- e as a Series and a Limit [03/30/1998]\nWhy does e = 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + ... and lim (1 + 1/n) ^ n, as n --\n- An Easy Definition of Calculus [9/4/1995]\nWhat is calculus?\n- e^(e^x) = 2 [01/28/2002]\nI have been trying to solve e^(e^x) = 2. Help!\n- An Ellipse Or A Circle? - Parametric Equations [12/05/1998]\nIs this parametric equation elliptical or a circle?... And how do I\ncompute the slopes at points 0, pi/4, pi/2, 3pi/2,and 2pi?\n- An Elliptic Integral [01/05/2003]\n- Epsilon/Delta Definition of Limits [08/26/1999]\nCan you explain how to use the epsilon/delta definition of limits?\n- Epsilon-Delta Proofs [09/28/2004]\nAn explanation of the thinking behind two epsilon-delta proofs, one\nfrom a calculus textbook and one from an answer in our archives.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2bbf72e8-313f-48ed-8dab-5e0b80a41377>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/sets/high_calculus.html?start_at=161&num_to_see=40&s_keyid=38489150&f_keyid=38489152", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8147158622741699, "token_count": 1849, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(Phys.org)\u2014Controlling \"mixing\" between acceptor and donor layers, or domains, in polymer-based solar cells could increase their efficiency, according to a team of researchers that included physicists from North Carolina State University. Their findings shed light on the inner workings of these solar cells, and could lead to further improvements in efficiency.\nPolymer-based solar cells consist of two domains, known as the acceptor and the donor layers. Excitons, the energy particles created by solar cells, must be able to travel quickly to the interface of the donor and acceptor domains in order to be harnessed as an energy source. Researchers had believed that keeping the donor and acceptor layers as pure as possible was the best way to ensure that the excitons could travel unimpeded, so that solar cells could capture the maximum amount of energy.\nNC State physicist Harald Ade and his group worked with teams of scientists from the United Kingdom, Australia and China to examine the physical structure and improve the production of polymer-based solar cells. In findings published in two separate papers appearing this month online in Advanced Energy Materials and Advanced Materials, the researchers show that some mixing of the two domains may not be a bad thing. In fact, if the morphology, or structure, of the mixed domains is small, the solar cell can still be quite efficient.\nAccording to Ade, \"We had previously found that the domains in these solar cells weren't pure. So we looked at how additives affected the production of these cells. When you manufacture the cell, the relative rate of evaporation of the solvents and additives determines how the active layer forms and the donor and acceptor mix. Ideally, you want the solvent to evaporate slowly enough so that the materials have time to separate \u2013 otherwise the layers 'gum up' and lower the cell's efficiency. We utilized an additive that slowed evaporation. This controlled the mixing and domain size of the active layer, and the portions that mixed were small.\"\nThe efficiency of those mixed layers was excellent, leading to speculation that perhaps some mixing of the donor and acceptor isn't a problem, as long as the domains are small.\n\"We're looking for the perfect mix here, both in terms of the solvents and additives we might use in order to manufacture polymer-based solar cells, and in terms of the physical mixing of the domains and how that may affect efficiency,\" Ade says.\nExplore further: Femtosecond 'snapshots' reveal a dramatic bond tightening in photo-excited gold complexes\nMore information: \"From Binary to Ternary Solvent: Morphology Fine-tuning of D/A Blend in PDPP3T-based Polymer Solar Cells\", Advanced Materials, 2012.\nIn the past decade, great success has been achieved in bulk hetero-junction (BHJ) polymer solar cells (PSCs) in which donor/acceptor (D/A) bi-continuous interpenetrating networks can be formed and in some recent reports, power conversion efficiency (PCE) even approach 8%. In addition to the intrinsic properties of active layer materials, such as band gaps and molecular energy levels, morphological properties of the D/A blends including crystallinity of polymers, domain size, materials miscibility, hierarchical structures, and molecular orientation, are also of great importance for photovoltaic performance of the devices. Therefore, several strategies including slow growth, solvent annealing, thermal annealing, selection of solvent or mixed solvent have been applied to modify or control of the morphology of the D/A blends. Among these, binary solvent mixtures have been successfully used in morphology control. For example, the dichlorobenzene (DCB) or chlorobenzene (CB)/1, 8-diiodooctane (DIO) binary solvent system has been widely applied in PSC device fabrication process. By mixing a few volume percent of DIO with the host solvent (DCB or CB), efficiencies of many kinds of polymers can be improved dramatically. Besides DIO, other solvents, like 1, 8-octanedithiol (OT), N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), 1-chloronaphthalene (CN), chloroform (CF), can also be used. According to these works, it can be concluded that crystallinity, as well as domain size in the blends can be tuned effectively by using binary solvent mixtures, and thus binary solvent mixtures play a very important role in high performance PSCs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cb5db99f-40e4-45b6-9b59-e96df82a88dc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://phys.org/news/2012-10-reveal-solvent-mixtures-affect-solar.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9460513591766357, "token_count": 946, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "WASHINGTON, DC \u2014 The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) today announced the launch of a website, DOepatents, which allows search and retrieval of information from a collection of more than 20,000 patent records. The database represents a growing collection of patents resulting from R&D supported by DOE and demonstrates the Department\u2019s considerable contribution to scientific progress from the 1940s to the present.\n\u201cFrom helping the blind to see again to identifying hidden weapons through holographic computerized imaging technology, the U.S. Department of Energy has supported and will continue to support research addressing some of the world\u2019s most pressing scientific challenges,\u201d Under Secretary for Science Dr. Raymond L. Orbach said. \u201cContent within DOepatents represents a truly impressive demonstration of DOE research and development and technological innovation.\u201d\nHighlighted at DOepatents is a compilation of noteworthy DOE innovations from the past few decades. These technologies have improved quality of life and provided national economic, health and environmental benefits. One such invention is the Artificial Retina, a collaborative research project between DOE national laboratories, universities and the private sector aimed at restoring vision to millions of people blinded by retinal disease. Another invention is the DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory\u2019s pioneering multi-junction solar cell. A cell based on this design set a world efficiency record in converting sunlight to electricity. The DOepatents database also includes inventions of Nobel Laureates associated with DOE or its predecessors such as Enrico Fermi, Glenn Seaborg and Luis Alvarez, along with other distinguished scientists.\npatents consists of bibliographic records, with full text where available via either a PDF file or an HTML link to the record at the United States Patent and Trademark Office. The DOepatents database is updated quarterly with new patent records. The website is updated on a regular basis with news and information about significant and recent inventions. Resource links for inventors are included at the site, as well as Recent Inventions and Patent News pages. DOepatents was developed by the DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI) and may be viewed at http://www.osti.gov/doepatents/.\nOSTI, a part of the DOE Office of Science, accelerates discovery by making research results rapidly available to scientists and to the public. The Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the nation.\nJeff Sherwood, DOE, (202) 586-5806\nCathey Daniels, OSTI, (865) 576-9539", "id": "<urn:uuid:d8e7ee42-2942-4f4e-bc3f-b0ba6d06cc68>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://science.energy.gov/news/in-the-news/2007/09-18-07/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9138389229774475, "token_count": 541, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Heel Bursitis is another type of heel pain. The sufferer of this kind of heel pain experiences pain at the back of the heel when the patient moves his joint of the ankle. In the heel bursitis type of heel pain there is swelling on the sides of the Achilles\u2019 tendon. In this condition the sufferer may experience pain in the heel when his feet hit the ground. Heel bruises are also referred as heel bumps they are usually caused by improper shoes. The constant rubbing of the shoes against the heel.\nWhat is bursitis?\nBursitis is the inflammation of a bursa. Normally, the bursa provides a slippery surface that has almost no friction. A problem arises when a bursa becomes inflamed. The bursa loses its gliding capabilities, and becomes more and more irritated when it is moved.\nWhen the condition called bursitis occurs, the normally slippery bursa becomes swollen and inflamed. The added bulk of the swollen bursa causes more friction within an already confined space. Also, the smooth gliding bursa becomes gritty and rough. Movement of an inflamed bursa is painful and irritating.\n\u201cItis\u201d usually refers to the inflammation of a certain part of the body, therefore Bursitis refers to the constant irritation of the natural cushion that supports the heel of the foot (the bursa). Bursitis is often associated with Plantar Fasciitis, which affects the arch and heel of the foot.\nWhat causes bursitis?\n- Bursitis and Plantar Fasciitis can occur when a person increases their levels of physical activity or when the heel\u2019s fat pad becomes thinner, providing less protection to the foot.\n- Ill fitting shoes.\n- Biomechanical problems (e.g. mal-alignment of the foot, including over-pronation).\n- Rheumatoid arthritis.\nBursitis usually results from a repetitive movement or due to prolonged and excessive pressure. Patients who rest on their elbows for long periods or those who bend their elbows frequently and repetitively (for example, a custodian using a vacuum for hours at a time) can develop elbow bursitis, also called olecranon bursitis. Similarly in other parts of the body, repetitive use or frequent pressure can irritate a bursa and cause inflammation.\nAnother cause of bursitis is a traumatic injury. Following trauma, such as a car accident or fall, a patient may develop bursitis. Usually a contusion causes swelling within the bursa. The bursa, which had functioned normally up until that point, now begins to develop inflammation, and bursitis results. Once the bursa is inflamed, normal movements and activities can become painful.\nSystemic inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, may also lead to bursitis. These types of conditions can make patients susceptible to developing bursitis.\n- Cold presses or ice packs.\n- Anti-inflammatory tablets.\n- Cushioning products.\n- Massaging the foot / muscle stimulation.\n- Stretching exercises.\n- Insoles or orthotics.", "id": "<urn:uuid:76a4c6bc-e63f-4d77-8492-c24be187795c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sugarlandheelpain.com/?page_id=78", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9026477932929993, "token_count": 667, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Green building facts\n- Buildings consume 32% of the world\u2019s resources including 12% of fresh water and 40% of the world\u2019s energy (7).\n- In Australia commercial buildings produce almost 9% of our national Greenhouse gas emissions (8).\n- To make way for the new Law School the Edgeworth David building and the Stephen Roberts lecture theatre were demolished in 2006. Over 80% of the materials from these buildings were recycled including the valuable copper from the roof of the lecture theatre\nThe new Law School Building\n7. \u201cEnvironmentally Sustainable Buildings: Challenges and Policies\u201d OECD (2003)\n8. \u201cAustralia State of the Environment Report\u201d Department of Environment & Heritage (2001)", "id": "<urn:uuid:354e6914-456e-4541-8c57-6410f91b48cd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sydney.edu.au/facilities/sustainable_campus/buildings/index.shtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9172208905220032, "token_count": 150, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fri 23 Sep, 2011\nTags: 1920s, 1930s, Agness \"Aggie\" Underwood, gold diggers, Hazel Glab, Herald-Examiner, Los Angeles Record, murder, Robert J. James, snake handlers, William Randolph Hearst\nLos Angeles has always had more than its share of creative felons, so it stands to reason that it would take an equally creative, gutsy, and dedicated reporter to cover them. One of the most revered reporters who ever worked in Los Angeles was Agness \u201cAggie\u201d Underwood.\nUnderwood began her career at the LOS ANGELES RECORD in the 1920s. She was sharp, but there were lots of sharp people in the news business at that time. What made Aggie great were her instincts. She seemed to know just how to approach a story to get the most from it. By relying on her gut feelings she managed to keep several paces ahead of her competition, and to earn a reputation for solving crimes.\nWhen the Los Angeles Record folded in the mid-1930s Aggie, who by this time loved the newspaper business (and needed the money), agreed to work for William Randolph Hearst\u2019s Los Angeles daily, THE HERALD-EXAMINER.\nHer decision to join Hearst\u2019s paper was the making of her career. Twelve years after joining the paper she was promoted to editor. Agness Underwood was the first woman in the U.S. to become the editor of a major metropolitan newspaper.\nAggie Underwood\u2019s work as a reporter inspired the lecture that I\u2019m going to give on October 8, 2011, 2 p.m., in the Taper Auditorium at the Central Library in downtown Los Angeles.\nThe lecture is entitled \u201cGOLD DIGGERS & SNAKE HANDLERS: Deranged L.A. Crimes from the Notebook of Aggie Underwood\u201d and it is sponsored by Photo Friends. Photo Friends is a non-profit whose mission is to promote and to preserve the photographs in the collection of the Los Angeles Public Library.\nI hope that you\u2019ll join me as I examine two murder cases from 1936, both of which were covered by Aggie Underwood.", "id": "<urn:uuid:03a016e8-4b46-4f4c-ac69-af5dba4f2e5b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://vintagepowderroom.com/?tag=agness-aggie-underwood", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.98014235496521, "token_count": 470, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The atoll is closed to the public and travel to the island is not allowed.\nBoth the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll in 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and 1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now complete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed by May 2005. Toxic waste from both operations is buried on the island.\nThe Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently discussing future management options, in the interim Johnston Atoll and the three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force.\nTropical, but generally dry; consistent northeast trade winds with little seasonal temperature variation.\nStrategic location in the North Pacific Ocean; Johnston Island and Sand Island are natural islands, which have been expanded by coral dredging; North Island (Akau) and East Island (Hikina) are manmade islands formed from coral dredging; egg-shaped reef is 34 km in circumference some low-growing vegetation. Highest point: Summit Peak, at 5 meters\n Get in\n By plane\nThere is an abandoned airstrip on Johnston Island.\n By boat\n[add listing] Buy\nThere is currently no economic activity on Johnston Atoll.\n[add listing] Sleep\nThere are no public accommodations on Johnston Atoll.", "id": "<urn:uuid:732a6862-a11e-474a-91a6-91be7fc0a495>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wikitravel.org/en/Johnston_Atoll", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9453921914100647, "token_count": 353, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In Writing Secure PHP, I covered a few of the most common security holes in websites. It's time to move on, though, to a few more advanced techniques for securing a website. As techniques for 'breaking into' a site or crashing a site become more advanced, so must the methods used to stop those attacks.\nMost hosting environments are very similar, and rather predictable. Many web developers are also very predictable. It doesn't take a genius to guess that a site's includes (and most dynamic sites use an includes directory for common files) is an www.website.com/includes/. If the site owner has allowed directory listing on the server, anyone can navigate to that folder and browse files.\nImagine for a second that you have a database connection script, and you want to connect to the database from every page on your site. You might well place that in your includes folder, and call it something like connect.inc. However, this is very predictable - many people do exactly this. Worst of all, a file with the extension \".inc\" is usually rendered as text and output to the browser, rather than processed as a PHP script - meaning if someone were to visit that file in a browser, they'll be given your database login information.\nPlacing important files in predictable places with predictable names is a recipe for disaster. Placing them outside the web root can help to lessen the risk, but is not a foolproof solution. The best way to protect your important files from vulnerabilities is to place them outside the web root, in an unusually-named folder, and to make sure that error reporting is set to off (which should make life difficult for anyone hoping to find out where your important files are kept). You should also make sure directory listing is not allowed, and that all folders have a file named \"index.html\" in (at least), so that nobody can ever see the contents of a folder.\nNever, ever, give a file the extension \".inc\". If you must have \".inc\" in the extension, use the extension \".inc.php\", as that will ensure the file is processed by the PHP engine (meaning that anything like a username and password is not sent to the user). Always make sure your includes folder is outside your web root, and not named something obvious. Always make sure you add a blank file named \"index.html\" to all folders like include or image folders - even if you deny directory listing yourself, you may one day change hosts, or someone else may alter your server configuration - if directory listing is allowed, then your index.html file will make sure the user always receives a blank page rather than the directory listing. As well, always make sure directory listing is denied on your web server (easily done with .htaccess or httpd.conf).\nOut of sheer curiosity, shortly after writing this section of this tutorial, I decided to see how many sites I could find in a few minutes vulnerable to this type of attack. Using Google and a few obvious search phrases, I found about 30 database connection scripts, complete with usernames and passwords. A little more hunting turned up plenty more open include directories, with plenty more database connections and even FTP details. All in, it took about ten minutes to find enough information to cause serious damage to around 50 sites, without even using these vulnerabilities to see if it were possible to cause problems for other sites sharing the same server.\nMost site owners now require an online administration area or CMS (content management system), so that they can make changes to their site without needing to know how to use an FTP client. Often, these are placed in predictable locations (as covered in the last article), however placing an administration area in a hard-to-find location isn't enough to protect it.\nMost CMSes allow users to change their password to anything they choose. Many users will pick an easy-to-remember word, often the name of a loved one or something similar with special significance to them. Attackers will use something called a \"dictionary attack\" (or \"brute force attack\") to break this kind of protection. A dictionary attack involves entering each word from the dictionary in turn as the password until the correct one is found.\nThe best way to protect against this is threefold. First, you should add a turing test to a login page. Have a randomly generated series of letters and numbers on the page that the user must enter to login. Make sure this series changes each time the user tries to login, that it is an image (rather than simple text), and that it cannot be identified by an optical character recognition script.\nSecond, add in a simple counter. If you detect a certain number of failed logins in a row, disable logging in to the administration area until it is reactivated by someone responsible. If you only allow each potential attacker a small number of attempts to guess a password, they will have to be very lucky indeed to gain access to the protected area. This might be inconvenient for authentic users, however is usually a price worth paying.\nFinally, make sure you track IP addresses of both those users who successfully login and those who don't. If you spot repeated attempts from a single IP address to access the site, you may consider blocking access from that IP address altogether.\nOne excellent way to make sure that even if you have a problem with someone accessing your database who shouldn't be able to, you can limit the damage they can cause. Modern databases like MySQL and SQL Server allow you to control what a user can and cannot do. You can give users (or not) permission to create data, edit, delete, and more using these permissions. Usually, I try and ensure that I only allow users to add and edit data.\nIf a site requires an item be deleted, I will usually set the front end of the site to only appear to delete the item. For example, you could have a numeric field called \"item_deleted\", and set it to 1 when an item is deleted. You can then use that to prevent users seeing these items. You can then purge these later if required, yourself, while not giving your users \"delete\" permissions for the database. If a user cannot delete or drop tables, neither can someone who finds out the user login to the database (though obviously they can still do damage).\nPHP contains a variety of commands with access to the operating system of the server, and that can interact with other programs. Unless you need access to these specific commands, it is highly recommended that you disable them entirely.\nFor example, the eval() function allows you to treat a string as PHP code and execute it. This can be a useful tool on occasion. However, if using the eval() function on any input from the user, the user could cause all sorts of problems. You could be, without careful input validation, giving the user free reign to execute whatever commands he or she wants.\nThere are ways to get around this. Not using eval() is a good start. However, the php.ini file gives you a way to completely disable certain functions in PHP - \"disable_functions\". This directive of the php.ini file takes a comma-separated list of function names, and will completely disable these in PHP. Commonly disabled functions include ini_set(), exec(), fopen(), popen(), passthru(), readfile(), file(), shell_exec() and system().\nIt may be (it usually is) worth enabling safe_mode on your server. This instructs PHP to limit the use of functions and operators that can be used to cause problems. If it is possible to enable safe_mode and still have your scripts function, it is usually best to do so.\nFinally, Be Completely and Utterly Paranoid\nMuch as I hate to bring this point up again, it still holds true (and always will). Most of the above problems can be avoided through careful input validation. Some become obvious points to address when you assume everyone is out to destroy your site. If you are prepared for the worst, you should be able to deal with anything.\nReady for more? Try Writing Secure PHP, Part 3.", "id": "<urn:uuid:88a3943e-6d77-4211-8079-34a232f009fd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.addedbytes.com/articles/writing-secure-php/writing-secure-php-2/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9434037208557129, "token_count": 1679, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Electrical workers by Shutterstock\n- It is undeniable that the unemployment rate would be lower if fewer government jobs had been cut.\n- Private sector employment is important for the simple fact that state & local tax revenues fund public sector salaries.\n- The private sector, despite turbulent economic times and uncertainty, continues to be the engine of economic growth.\nEditor's note: This article originally appeared in The New York Times' Room for Debate in response to the question: Are government layoffs the problem? What effect have public-sector job cuts had on the economy? Could governments have responded to the recession in any other way?\nIt is undeniable that the unemployment rate would be lower, and the recovery more pronounced, if fewer government jobs had been cut. But if the private sector is \"doing fine,\" as President Obama famously said, could one reason be those losses in state and local jobs? The answer is yes.\nDuring 2009 and 2010, President Obama and Congress spent 2.6 percent of gross domestic product at the state and local level primarily through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. But despite this huge stimulus spending, the share of G.D.P. contributed by state and local governments has collapsed since 2007.\nWhile state and local spending accounted for nearly 13 percent of G.D.P. in 2008, barely 11 percent of G.D.P. comes from state and local spending today.\nMeanwhile, the private sector, despite the turbulent economic times and the recent uncertainty surrounding the fiscal cliff talks, has continued to be the engine of economic growth. Despite shedding a large number of workers at the start of the recession, the private sector has added 5.0 million new employees since June 2009 as state and local governments have dropped 682,000 jobs. Private sector G.D.P. has continued to grow as businesses innovate and become more productive, finding ways to survive and grow in a challenging business environment.\nPublic sector workers, particularly those involved in education, have an important role to play in the economy. In most states, they account for about 14 percent of all jobs. But real economic growth has to start in the other 86 percent of the economy, where most workers earn their living. Indeed, private sector employment is important if even for the simple fact that state and local tax revenues fund public sector salaries.\nAs of January, the unemployment rate for those classified as government workers by the Bureau of Labor Statistics is only 4.2 percent, compared to 8.6 percent unemployment in the private sector. Clearly, if we care about economic recovery, we should focus our efforts at combating the specter of private sector unemployment. In a study of data from 1939 to 2008 the economist Valerie Ramey concluded that an increase in government spending typically causes private spending to fall significantly.\nThat should mean that the current recession-driven cuts in public expenditures may be exactly the stimulus needed to get the private sector on the road to recovery.", "id": "<urn:uuid:375ec272-00af-488a-80a7-a6c04ea5c393>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.aei.org/article/economics/public-cuts-lead-to-more-private-employment/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9597073793411255, "token_count": 596, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "So I've been reading a LOT of Carl jung's works recently. In 'Dreams, Memories and reflections' as well as 'the archetypes and the collective unconscious', he describes in great detail various communications he has made with his unconscious mind, which manifest themselves in all sorts of figures and scenes. Many of the experiences he describes were prophetic in nature and in my opinion, his description of the archetypes is incredibly fascinating and links in with Tony's idea of the Daemon.\nIn 'On the Relation of Analytical Psychology to Poetry' Jung writes :-\n'The primordial image, or archetype, is a figure--be it a daemon, a human being, or a process--that constantly recurs in the course of history and appears wherever creative fantasy is freely expressed. Essentially, therefore, it is a mythological figure. . . . In each of these images there is a little piece of human psychology and human fate, a remnant of the joys and sorrows that have been repeated countless times in our ancestral history.. '\nConcerning direct communication with this 'Daemon' archetype Jung came up with a method called 'active imagination', which he said he had used on himself and his patients to communicate with their subconscious (their daemon).\nCopied from wikipedia:-\nActive Imagination is a concept developed by Carl Jung between 1913 and 1916. It is a meditation technique wherein the contents of one's unconscious are translated into images, narrative or personified as separate entities. It can serve as a bridge between the conscious 'ego' and the unconscious and includes working with dreams and the creative self via imagination or fantasy. Jung linked Active Imagination with the processes of alchemy in that both strive for oneness and inter-relatedness from a set of fragmented and dissociated parts.\nKey to the process of active imagination is the goal of exerting as little influence as possible on mental images as they unfold. For example, if a person were recording a spoken visualization of a scene or object from a dream, Jung's approach would ask the practitioner to observe the scene, watch for changes, and report them, rather than to consciously fill the scene with one's desired changes. One would then respond genuinely to these changes, and report any further changes in the scene. This approach is meant to ensure that the unconscious contents express themselves without overbearing influence from the conscious mind. At the same time, however, Jung was insistent that some form of participation in active imagination was essential: 'You yourself must enter into the process with your personal reactions...as if the drama being enacted before your eyes were real'.\nOf the origination of active imagination, Jung wrote:\n\u201cIt was during Advent of the year 1913 \u2013 December 12, to be exact \u2013 that I resolved upon the decisive step. I was sitting at my desk once more, thinking over my fears. Then I let myself drop. Suddenly it was as though the ground literally gave way beneath my feet, and I plunged into the dark depths.\u201d \nCarl Jung developed this technique as one of several that would define his distinctive contribution to the practice of psychotherapy. Active imagination is a method for visualizing unconscious issues by letting them act themselves out. Active imagination can be done by visualization (which is how Jung himself did it), which can be considered similar in technique at least to shamanic journeying. Active imagination can also be done by automatic writing, or by artistic activities such as dance, music, painting, sculpting, ceramics, crafts, etc. Jung considered indeed that 'The patient can make himself creatively independent through this method...by painting himself he gives shape to himself'. Doing active imagination permits the thoughtforms of the unconscious, or inner 'self', and of the totality of the psyche, to act out whatever messages they are trying to communicate to the conscious mind.\nFor Jung however, this technique had the potential not only to allow communication between the conscious and unconscious aspects of the personal psyche with its various components and inter-dynamics, but also between the personal and 'collective' unconscious; and therefore was to be embarked upon with due care and attentiveness. Indeed, he warned with respect to '\"active imagination\"...The method is not entirely without danger, because it may carry the patient too far away from reality'. The post-Jungian Michael Fordham was to go further, suggesting that 'active imagination, as a transitional phenomenon ...can be, and often is, both in adults and children put to nefarious purposes and promotes psychopathology'.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_imagination\nHas anybody tried this method or done any further research into it?", "id": "<urn:uuid:3e9d77a7-4e98-4651-92d9-2d11a816fb7f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.anthonypeake.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=11&t=2039", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.970366358757019, "token_count": 953, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Guest Author - Preena Deepak\nMusic and dance rituals were an important aspect of temple worship in ancient India. In this pretext it was also a common Hindu tradition to dedicate or commission young girls to gods. These girls called \u2018Devadasis\u2019 were then separated from their families and trained in music, dance and a unique lifestyle within temple gates unlike their counterparts outside. Their life was from then on, one of service to the gods.\nWhen a Devadasi attained puberty, she was married to the deity in a religious ceremony. From then on she would become a temple prostitute. Indian temples always had the patronage of Kings who ruled the country and in many instances devadasis became the concubines of the kings. In other cases, devadasis lived with their patron who provided them with property and wealth.\nMarriage was forbidden for Devadasis who were eternally bound to the deity. However Devadasis became available to anyone who was able to \u2018afford\u2019 their keep.\nThe word \u2018Devadasi\u2019 means \u2018Servant of God\u2019. The girls dedicated to become Devadasis were mostly from poor, lower caste families for whom devoting one child to the god only meant less pressure on the family\u2019s meager finances. Devadasis were considered blessed as entering into wedlock with the god protected them from widowhood. As a result of these reasons several young girls were pushed into prostitution, under the safe banner of religion.\nTraces of the Devadasi system can be seen in many parts of India, particularly in South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is believed that the Devadasis of Orissa, called \u2018Mahari\u2019 did not practice prostitution but devoted themselves to temple service and had special duties assigned to them.\nWith the decline of monarchy in India and with the invasion of Moghul and British rulers, the Devadasi system began to deteriorate. Christian Missionaries who worked in India, Social Activists and Reformers also had a share in putting an end to this grotesque Indian custom. The Indian Government banned the Devadasi system in 1988. However in spite of this, the Devadasi system continues under cover in India.\nUnder the burden of poverty, many young girls are still commissioned as Devadasis though Indian temples no longer have music and dance rituals or dedication ceremonies. These girls are married to the god and then sent for prostitution in red light areas. Unlike olden days, most of these girls do not have regular patrons and suffer under many men before succumbing to AIDS and other venereal diseases.\nThe children born to Devadasis are forced to follow along the footsteps of their mothers, since they live alienated from main stream life and are rejected from social institutions. This creates a vicious circle in which many young girls in India get trapped even today.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9aa79f17-0445-4d02-8425-01d19cb43d0a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art176785.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9799504280090332, "token_count": 594, "score": 3.640625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Log Boat is an uncommon type of boat that is made with a unique part of hollowed wood, Called \u201cMonoxylon\u201d is the oldest type of boat than have been found by the archeologist, these boats are similar in many countries, but the denomination is very different for example in Germany is called \u201ceinbaum\u201d and in South America are called Canoas.\nIts construction considers several basic steps:\nThe uses that people gave to this boat were very diverse, for example:\nIn South Africa: In Africa was there was many types of fishing boats, Log-Boat were very common in Limpopo River, and many rivers. Log Boat in South Africa used to be used for transport, fishing and hunting.\nIn Europe: If we talk about Log Boat in Europe we will find a big history around these boats. For example Byzantine Empire has used this boat to attack Constantinople, and many people gave different uses such as transport, fishing and hunting.\nIn North America: In North America these boats were famous, with different uses. These boats were used for ceremonial purposes.", "id": "<urn:uuid:621897f8-404f-4d14-b64a-2f4bfd4ec9fb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.boatsdepot.org/types-of-boats/log-boat/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9899735450744629, "token_count": 226, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In the realm of spirituality, Sri Aurobindo remains an enigmatic Indian personality and philosopher. He is one of the giants of modern Indian spirituality, who along with Vivekananda, Tagore, Gandhi and Radhakrishnan, was responsible for putting forth Indian philosophy in a comprehensive modern context, which then could be understood by the Western world at large. Sri Aurobindo's work is the least known of these five, but his teachings of philosophy and spirituality have the wisdom and appeal for a longer survival, similar to those of Vivekananda. Sri Aurobindo's evolution of consciousness was his life's experience that he documented in series of writings, in the process offering the world a critical and original philosophical system.\nIn his formative years, Aurobindo surmised that the oppression of Indian thought by the ruling British had deleterious effects on it. He thus became a revolutionary inCalcutta, working against the British rulers. Four years before Gandhi started political revolution in India, Sri Aurobindo had spent time in Alipore jail in the year 1910, charged with sedition and conspiracy. In the prison, Sri Aurobindo experienced the strength of his inner consciousness and emerged as a spiritual Yogi. His Ashram in Pondicherry has survived until today under the guidance of the spiritual Mother.\nIt is intriguing as to how a boy, who was being groomed to become an 'English Gentleman' by his father (who seemed to loathe anything 'Indian') could transform into a revolutionary freedom fighter first, and then a premier world renowned Yogi, with his own brand of spirituality and philosophy. His life-changing experience, according to him, was a result of an inner consciousness that took shape long before it could be expressed to the outer world. This perhaps explains his intuitive affinity towards his motherland, the culture of which was foreign to him during his childhood.\nSri Aurobindo was the fourth child of Dr. Krishnadhan Ghose, a surgeon, who was a District Medical Officer at Khulna, East Bengal, and Swarnalatha Devi Ghose. He was originally named Aravinda Ackroyd. He was born on August 15, 1872 (that date was to become very significant in Indian history, seventy-five years later). At age five he was sent to Loretto Convent School in Darjeeling for two years. He then was sent to Manchester, England, to be home-schooled by the Dewett family until he was twelve years old. High school was finished in St. Paul's School in Cambridge followed by two years of college at King's College, Cambridge (1890-92).\nWhile at college he addressed the Indian student group called Indian Majlis and advocated freedom for India from the British. His formative years had been spent with a culture alien to India, educated by the Irish nuns of Darjeeling first, and then by the ministers and dons of the Church of England. By the time he finished college he could speak English and French fluently and also could read Greek, Latin and Italian. He could manage to speak Bengali, his mother tongue, only a bit.\nHis affinity for his motherland had been kept alive by a radical newspaper, The Bengalee, which published articles about maltreatment of Indians in the hands of Englishmen. The paper was committed to Indian independence from the British and this fanned the affinity Aravinda Ackroyd had for his motherland, and gave him a patriotic sense of belonging. He returned to India in 1893 with great anticipation. Upon reaching the shores of Bombay, he had an intense and profound spiritual experience, 'a calm that lasted for several months' - as he would later recount.\nParallel Course of Politics and Spirituality\nAurobindo had already dropped the name Ackroyd and joined the service of Maharaja of Baroda. He taught English and French at Baroda College and later became Vice-President of the College. During his twelve year tenure in Baroda, Aurobindo learnt many Indian languages. He became fluent in Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali. In April 1901 he married Mrinalini Bose, a pious Hindu, barely half his age. While at Baroda he wrote a series of literary works, translations and political commentaries which gave him the ability of raising the consciousness of Indians, both in the political and social circles. His own mental development seemed to have progressed along two prongs. He was having unexplained spiritual experiences, seemingly accidental that pushed him more and more towards spiritual quests of higher levels. These experiences were enhanced by his meetings with Sister Nivedita in 1902 and an experience of 'the vacant Infinite' at the Sankarachaya hill in Kashmir in 1903.\nMrinalini Bose, the young wife of Aurobindo had not been able to join in her husband's spiritual journey, and their differences became more than just the differences in their ages, as he became more involved in politics and yoga. Five years after his marriage to her, he wrote to her saying that he was suffering from madness. He categorized his madness at three levels. First, was that he realized his talents and resources had to be used for one purpose only i.e. for God's work. His second madness he describes as his quest to have a direct 'Realization with God'. Thirdly, to him India was the Mother, the divine embodiment of sakti that propelled him towards politics.\nPolitically Aurobindo was becoming more and more determined to help the cause of independence for Indians from the British. He was convinced that the Western influence on the Indian mind was an impediment for the Indian spiritual maturity. He moved to Bengal in 1906 to become the principal of Bengal National College. Here he joined secret political societies, and orchestrated an underground organization with printing of anti-British pamphlets. The same year he assisted Bipin Chandra Pal in founding the radical newspaper, Bande Mataram. Later, he took over the editorship of the newspaper and succeeded Bipin Chandra Pal as the leader of National Party in Bengal. He wrote several articles including the one called 'The Doctrine of Passive Resistance,' that later became the main instrument of Gandhi in his freedom struggle to oust the British from India. For his article in Bande Mataram, he was arrested in 1907, on charges of sedition and then released on bail.\nEven in his development as a political revolutionary, Aurobindo went through several evolutions as well. First he was the secret revolutionary, advocating and preparing for an armed insurrection. Secondly, he undertook the task of convincing the nation that its citizens deserved and could attain independence. The country was in a state of forced subjugation, and thought that the British were too powerful and Indians too impotent to dream of independence. Moreover, Indians were under the impression that the lofty idea about independence was impractical, unattainable and almost an insane chimera. Lastly, Aurobindo had come a full circle when he wrote articles and assisted in organizing people to passively resist and practice non-cooperation.\nAurobindo resigned from Bengal National College and became a leader of the nationalist movement, giving several speeches both in Bengal and Western India. In January of 1908 he met Vishnu Bhaskar Lele, a yogi in Baroda, who taught him the technique of silencing the mind and experiencing the timeless Brahman, a form of spiritual Realization.\nHe was again arrested in 1908 in connection with Alipore conspiracy case and spent a year in jail, including in solitary confinement. He utilized his time in jail studying the Geeta, meditation and practice of yoga. After his acquittal, he started publications of two weeklies - Karmayoga in English and Dharma in Bengali. During his stay in Calcutta for a period of five years as a revolutionary leader, Aravinda Ghose tried to prove to the Indians that a politically oppressed population could not express its distinctive spiritual and cultural genius. Move to Pondicherry\nAurobindo had concluded that independence for India was inevitable, and he then embraced the spiritual evolution of the soul with the same fervor as he had in raising the consciousness of Indians.\nIn the year 1910, when Aurobindo was 37 years old, he abruptly withdrew from active politics and moved to Pondicherry to continue his spiritual work. There he met Paul Richard, a French diplomat who became an ardent fan of Aurobindo. Mira Richard, ** his wife was a spiritual personality (born Mira Alfassa on February 21, 1878 in Paris), who had mystic and psychic experiences during her adolescence. After hearing about Aurobindo she met him in 1914, an encounter instantly and profoundly spiritual for both. Mira Richard was to become \u201cMother\u201d later, a symbol of sakti who was to play a central role in the creation of the Aurobindo Ashram and Auroville in Pondicherry. Mira Richard saw Aurobindo as the divine hero of tomorrow and hope for all humanity. The day after her meeting with him she wrote in her diary:\n\u201cLittle by little the horizon becomes precise, the path becomes clear. And we advance to an even greater certitude. It matters not if there are hundreds of beings plunged in densest ignorance. He whom we saw yesterday is on earth: His presence is enough to prove that a day will come when darkness shall be transformed into light, when Thy reign shall be indeed established upon earth.\u201d\nIn 1915 Paul and Mira Richard returned to France and later went to live in Japan until 1920. Then Mira sailed to Pondicherry to begin her spiritual mission with the man she saw as an avatar of the Divine. She stayed in Pondicherry in a journey with Aurobindo, where each became integral part of their quest \u2013 he as the Divine Yogi and she as the Mother sakti.\nAfter being estranged from him for more than ten years, in 1918, the ill-fated Mrinalini, Aurobindo\u2019s wife, finally decided to go to Pondicherry to join her husband. As fate would have it, they were never meant to see each other again. She was about to embark on her journey to Pondicherry, when she contracted influenza and died.\nSri Aurobindo lived in Pondicherry until his death on December 5, 1950 at the age of seventy-eight. India attained independence that he had dreamed of, on August 15, 1947, coincidentally on his seventy-fifth birthday. The date did not go unnoticed by Sri Aurobindo. He mentioned it in his speech to the nation after attaining independence. He was a satisfied man, to find India finally rid itself of foreign occupation, a task he had worked so ardently during his younger years.\nA Personal Journey\nWhile Indian philosophers like Radhakrishnan, Bhattacharya and Dutta have put forward comprehensive systems of Indian philosophy, they pale in comparison to Aurobindo\u2019s richness in detail and range of topics, as evident in his vast array of writings. Moreover, Aurobindo\u2019s system of philosophy is autobiographical, an account of his personal experience and experiment. As he became more and more knowledgeable during his personal journey of his spiritual quest, he did not hesitate to continually revise his earlier writings and teachings. Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol, Sri Aurobindo\u2019s 24000 line epic poem about spiritual ascent and transformation of the physical world, was revised and added on to until the last days before his death. He also revised his other writings, notably The Life Divineand The Synthesis of Yoga, in order to express his more advanced experiences of his later years. All of his works except Savitri (namely The Essays on the Gita, The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, The Secret of the Veda, and The Life Divine as well as The Synthesis of Yoga) were serialized in his philosophical publication Arya. Here he put forward comprehensive and systematic philosophical compilations based on his own personal experiences. Unlike Ramakrishna, Ramana Maharshi, Sivananda and J. Krishnamurti, who also expressed their experiences in philosophical terms, Sri Aurobindo was successful in developing an original critical and practical philosophical system, including theories of knowledge, existence, the self, natural order and the aim of life.\nIntegral Yoga and Religion\nAt least since 1926 his spiritual eminence was well recognized and the suffix \u2018Sri\u2019 had been added to his name. It was the same year when he withdrew completely, claiming day of siddhi (day of victory), and left the chores of establishing the Ashram and the management of the disciples to Mother. Through his four decades of practice of yoga (sadhana), Sri Aurobindo had published thirty volumes of systematic writings and correspondence. He consistently distinguished his spiritual discipline from traditional religion. He was worried that his work could some day be mistaken for a new religion and repeatedly asserted that he did not want it to be so. Perhaps he did not want his teachings to be construed in a religious sense akin to what developed from profound spiritual experiences of Gautama (Buddhism) and Jesus (Christianity), much after their passing.\n\u201cOur goal is not\u2026. to found a religion or a school of philosophy or a school of yoga, but to create a ground and a way which will bring down a greater truth beyond the mind but not inaccessible to the human soul and consciousness\u2026.\u201d\nSri Aurobindo believed in the creation of Divine life, in the existing human life, in its current form. He believed that it was not inaccessible for an ignorant mind, through discipline, to bring down a greater Truth from beyond, to the human consciousness. It is not only possible to rise out of the ignorant world-consciousness, but it is also possible to bring the supramental powers down (a descent) to the ignorant mind. This can only help in the transformation of ignorance of the mind, body and life, in order to manifest the Divine here, while on earth.\nReligion to him was an anathema. He however conceded that religion could be used as the first step toward achieving the supramental enlightenment. He made a clear distinction between religion and the spiritual. To Sri Aurobindo it was clear that there were three paths a human could take in his journey through life; A spiritual journey (adhyatma-jivana), a religious journey (dharma-jivana), or a journey of ordinary human life (of which mortality is a part). The laws of ignorance guide the ordinary life of average human consciousness. It is separated from its own true self and from the Divine. The religious life is led by some sect or creed that claims to have found the way out of the bounds of earth-consciousness into some beatific Beyond. The religious life is as ignorant because it often is only mired in rites and rituals, ceremonies and practices or set ideas and forms, without any attempt at dispelling ignorance. The spiritual life, in contrast, proceeds directly by a change of consciousness, wherein one finds one\u2019s true self and comes into direct and living contact and into union with the Divine. For the spiritual seeker this change of consciousness is the one thing he seeks and nothing else matters.\nAurobindo taught us the possibility of transformation of the world-consciousness through a spiritual journey of discipline and yoga. Though the potential is inherent in all, it is a receptive mind that through discipline can grasp the profound and succeed in attaining Realization. In his series of articles that became increasingly more informative as his consciousness matured, he showed us his way of self discipline through integral yoga. He never discounted the fact that this realization is possible for the ignorant during one\u2019s lifetime. He used Mother to achieve his own personal spiritual journey (and vice versa), and considered Mother as an expression of his own consciousness. But it was the Mother who was truly the chief organizer of the Ashram in Pondicherry.\nThe Mother: Architect of the Future\nIn 1951 Mother founded the Sri Aurobindo International University to modernize and expand the scope of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry. In this endeavor she also established the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Delhi Branch together with Surendranath Jauhar in 1956. The Mother's International School, which is also located in the Sri Aurobindo Ashram (Delhi Branch), has since grown into one of the biggest and most important schools of its kind in India.\nThere was a danger that after his death, his teachings might not have the same appeal. However, Mother and his other disciples successfully ran the Ashram in Pondicherry and then in 1968, at the age of ninety, Mother began the Auroville project (with the architect Roger Anger), in expectation of a new species of enlightened humans, and to accommodate such species. \u201cA new species of higher consciousness will be revealed to us, little by little and Auroville wants to consciously hasten that advent. Auroville wants to be the bridge between the past and the future. Auroville belongs to no one and belongs to humanity as a whole. To live in Auroville, one must be a willing servitor of Divine Consciousness.\u201d\nIt is here where Aurobindo\u2019s vision of spiritual discipline and selfless action (Karmayoga) are implemented. In addition, on Mother\u2019s commission, cyber-artist, musician and futurist Michel Montecrossa established Mirapuri center in Italy, which is actively spreading the ideals of Sri Aurobindo in the international scene. A Miravillage, a satellite of Mirapuri is also attracting disciples in Germany.\nThen in 1973, the year she died, she also gave her blessings to Michel Montecrossa to establish a cultural center and guest house for the Friends of Mirapuri in Auroville. It is named 'New Community' and is located in the Auroville settlement 'Certitude,' opposite the building called 'Auroson's Home'.\nThroughout her life she wanted to create a new type of city for all those who wanted to develop their consciousness for a spiritually inspired evolution. In 1957 ideas for such a township again were in the air but did not materialize. In 1967 plans were made and some land acquired to found a city in the Indian state Gujarat, which she named Ompuri. This project also did not move further. There have been other disappointments. In 1982, an organized attack on Auroville by violent and sectarian movement that halted all progress at Auroville and its promise of becoming a place of peace for world unity as envisaged by the Mother came to an abrupt halt. This led to the creation of Mirapuri, that later opened its branches in Italy and the Miravillage in Germany.\nThe Mother continued the work of Consciousness Evolution, leaving a stunning legacy of wisdom, knowledge, realization and impulses for making the Integral Yoga physically effective, in a life where Spirit and Matter are one. Mother died in 1973 at the ripe age of ninety-five, twenty three years after the Master had passed on. Sri Aurobindo\u2019s legacy and teachings have survived and are thriving internationally today, thanks to the brilliant planning and forethought of the Mother.\n** Mira Alfassa (Richard) studied art and became an accomplished artist and musician. 1897 she married Henri Morisset and gave birth to her son Andr\u00e9. In 1905 she began to study parapsychology and occult sciences in Algeria together with Max Theon and his wife. After her divorce from Henri Morisset she founded a group of spiritual seekers, which was named l'Id\u00e9e Nouvelle.\nIn 1911 she married Paul Richard and traveled to India with him, where she met Sri Aurobindo for the first time in 1914, and started together with Sri Aurobindo and Paul Richard the journal 'Arya', which became the birth place for most of the writings of Sri Aurobindo, which later appeared in book-form.\nTill 1920 Mira Alfassa stayed in Japan and then came back to India to live with Sri Aurobindo. They both collaborated to further develop the Integral Yoga. Sri Aurobindo and Mira Alfassa founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in 1926 to accommodate the growing number of people who became interested in the Integral Yoga. After 1926 Mira Alfassa became known as The Mother, the individual expression of the power of spiritual consciousness.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d75780fb-80df-4b1b-a592-2f28ec9f07f8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.boloji.com/index.cfm?md=Content&sd=Articles&ArticleID=927", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9811670184135437, "token_count": 4283, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Pop-up book of Ancient Egypt, \u00a314.99\nExplore / Online Tours\nWord into art\nWord into Art\nThis tour brings together the work of contemporary artists from the Middle East and North Africa. The use of writing - quotations, words and even single letters - has emerged as a common theme in this vibrant and original art. Each object presented here is inscribed in or draws its inspiration from Arabic, the main script of the region used to write a variety of languages including Persian.\nA Sacred Script looks at artworks which are based around the holy texts of the Qu'ran and the Bible. Literature and Art shows how poetry and the rich literary traditions of the Middle East have inspired artists in different ways. The works in Deconstructing the Word have been created using single words or letters. History, Politics and Identity examines how art has responded to crises and wars that have affected the Middle East. In the entry for each work, the artist's country of origin is cited first after their name, and their current place of residence second.\nThe tour includes highlights from Word into Art: Artists of the Modern Middle East, a free exhibition at the British Museum (Room 35) from 18 May to 3 September 2006. The exhibition draws mainly on works collected by the British Museum, with some loaned objects. It includes pieces by about eighty different artists, some of whom are represented here. This tour shows how writing, so important as both a method of communication and an art form in the ancient and Islamic cultures, continues as a powerful thread running through the art of the region today.\nThe exhibition was part of Middle East Now, a season of special events which includes lectures, films, poetry readings and music. The exhibition and the season were produced in partnership with Dubai Holding.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a6b46965-51d3-4c0f-909c-c9d8f29f8393>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/museum_and_exhibition/word_into_art/word_into_art.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9738302826881409, "token_count": 360, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This week Intel privately shared parts of\nits roadmap for memory technologies through 2008. Intel\u2019s\nprogress on phase-change memory, PCM or PRAM, will soon be\nsampled to customers with mass production possible before the end of the year.\nPhase-change memory is positioned as a replacement for\nflash memory, as it has non-volatile characteristics, but is faster and can be\nscaled to smaller dimensions. Flash memory cells can degrade and become\nunreliable after as few as 10,000 writes, but PCM is much more resilient at more\nthan 100 million write cycles. For these reasons, Intel believes that\nphase-change memory could one day replace DRAM.\n\u201cThe phase-change memory gets pretty close to Nirvana,\u201d said\nEd Doller, CTO of Intel\u2019s flash memory group. \u201cIt will start to displace some\nof the RAM in the system.\u201d\nFor its implementation of phase-change memory, Intel has since 2000 licensed technology from Ovonyx Inc.. The Ovonyx technology uses the properties of chalcogenide\nglass, the same material found in CD-RW and DVD-RW, which can be switched\nbetween crystalline and amorphous states for binary functions.\nEvery potential PCRAM memory maker thus far licenses Ovonyx technology. According\nto Ovonyx\u2019s Web site, the first licensee of the technology was Lockheed Martin\nin 1999, with Intel and STMicroelectronics in the following year. Four years\nafter that, Nanochip signed an agreement. Elpida and Samsung were the next two in 2005,\nand Qimonda marks the latest with a signing this year.\nIBM, Macronix and Qimonda detailed last December its recent developments on\nphase-change memory. Researchers at IBM\u2019s labs demonstrated a prototype\nphase-change memory device that switched more than 500 times faster than flash\nwhile using less than one-half the power to write data into a cell. The IBM device\u2019s cross-section is a minuscule 3 by 20 nanometers in size, far\nsmaller than flash can be built today and equivalent to the industry\u2019s\nchip-making capabilities targeted for 2015.\nIntel\u2019s initial phase-change technology, however, is already\na reality, as the chipmaker revealed that it has produced a 90\nnanometer phase-change memory wafer. At the 90 nanometer process size, the\npower requirements to write are approximate to that required for flash. Intel\nsaid that its early test work shows data retention abilities of greater than 10\nyears even at temperatures of 85 degree Celsius.\nIntel touts PCM as a \u201cnew category of memory,\u201d as its\nattributes are distinctly different, and typically superior to many of the\nmemory technologies today as it combines the best attributes of RAM, NOR and\nNAND. Intel wouldn\u2019t give a firm date on the availability of its phase-change\nmemory as several details still need to be finalized after the sampling\n\u201cWe're going to be using this to allow customers to get\nfamiliar with the technology and help us architect the next generation device.\u201d\nDoller said. \u201cWe're hoping we can see [mass] production by the end of the year,\nbut that depends on the customers.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:acaee517-f925-4c8d-953a-5cea6da7271d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dailytech.com/article.aspx?newsid=6371&commentid=115758&threshhold=1&red=1040", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9182925224304199, "token_count": 707, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "....that indigo is one of the oldest dye stuffs in the world? For millennia this dye provided the only color fast and light fast clear blue that there was for fabrics. It was very valuable for trade and recipes were often closely guarded secrets. It has been used all over the world to make everything from intricate Japanese kimonos to Levi Jeans for the original 49ers.\nThe thing that is special about indigo is that in its normal state the dye molecules are insoluble in water, they will just sink to the bottom of the vat unless a chemical reducing agent is added. Reducing agents steal a hydrogen atom from the dye molecule, this allows it to try and form lose bonds with the hydrogen in the water so it dissolves and creates the vat. There are all kinds of reducing agents that can be used, from yeast or live bacteria in a fermentation vat to dangerous chemicals like Lye (Sodium Hydroxide). We have a somewhat safer and effective recipe using our Dye House Color remover (Thiorea Dioxide) and Soda Ash. In Europe, one of the oldest reducing agents, and the cheapest, was stale urine. Oral dye history is full of stories about European dye houses that would put out pots for people to donate their urine and dye houses that would be built next to taverns, which provided a steady supply. It is purported that due to the smell of the dye houses they where often restricted to the outskirts of town.\nThis amazing dyestuff naturally occurs in indigo containing plants of the tropical genus Indigofera, which grows in many countries, as well as a less concentrated form in a plant called Woad, which is native to temperate Europe. The most well known, indigofera tinctoria, was native to India, which may have been the earliest major player in the lucrative indigo trade. The name of the compound that makes up the dye is called indican. It is extracted from the plants buy crushing the leaves and soaking them until they ferment and release the indican, which was precipitated and dried in cakes. The cakes were than ground to a powder by the user.\nDesigns on indigo cloth are achieved with various tying techniques, such as traditional Shibori and tie-dye techniques. Other types of resist such as rice paste and wax are also used to protect areas of the fabric to create intricate patterns. Indigo was also be used for printing and painting with use of different chemicals like Arsenic trisulfide, or iron sulfate and thickeners.\nWhen indigo is in solution it is a yellow green color but often the top layer of the vat is blue because it is exposed to the air. Indigo is sometimes called a magic dye because of the way the fabric changes color from a yellow green to the deep blues as the air oxidizes the dye. As the dye molecules oxidize they become insoluble in water again so they don't wash out of the fabric. The fabric is dipped in the indigo vat to soak up some dye, and then hung in the air to oxidize where it turns blue. Another feature of indigo is the ability to build up the depth of color by repeated dippings into the bath. Successive dippings and airings give you darker and darker blues. Shades can thus range from pale sky blue to deepest dark navy indigo.\nWe are all familiar with the characteristic way in which indigo fades as the fabric is used and worn, such as the fade lines on your favorite jeans. This is because indigo does not actually chemically bond to the fabric. Instead it becomes insoluble in water again when it reacts with the air and becomes lodged in the small spaces with the fiber. Over time as the fibers are rubbed with wear it rubs out some of the dye creating faded lines.\nIndigo dyed fabric can also do something called crocking where it rubs off on things, and you, if not properly laundered before use. If you dont want to try out for the Blue Man Group, be sure and wash newly dyed or store bought Indigo dyed fabric and clothing with hot water and Synthrapol. Our Dharma Dye Fixative or Retayne in a hot soak can cause the fabric to retain more of the Indigo before washing, so you will get less fade on the first washing, and still no crocking after.\nSince indigo was one of the only natural blue dyes, and the best, it was often used to over dye yellow fabrics to make greens. In museum tapestries you will often see that many plants are very bluish, this is because natural yellow dyes are more sensitive to fading from UV light than indigo and over time the indigo has become the predominate color in the fibers.\nThese days most indigo dye in commercial use is made synthetically, but you can still enjoy the magic of true indigo with our wonderful natural indigo. Granted it is a little more work then pre-reduced synthetics but it also has greater depth and variation which is all part of the magic.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6dc5340a-41bd-45b6-86ba-1b1a1dc3b3fe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dharmatrading.com/html/eng/6711176-AA.shtml?lnav=home.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9713839888572693, "token_count": 1039, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "R. David Lankes, Ph.D.\nThis paper examines the domain of digital reference services for and by the primary and secondary education community. Data is provided to demonstrate the current understanding of education question types and education users in digital reference. It is believed this data will be of wide utility for digital library builders geared toward primary and secondary users (K-12) such as the International Children's Digital Library  and the National Science Digital Library .\nDigital Reference and Digital Libraries for Education\nDigital reference refers to Internet-based expert answering services [Lankes, 1999b]. In such a service, a user typically poses a question to a digital reference service through a web form, e-mail or a chat interface. An expert (such as a scientist or librarian) uses this input to construct an answer that is both passed back to the user as well as used in some knowledge base or enhancement to a digital library collection. There is a growing body of research and development in digital reference [Janes, 2000; Mardikian and Kesselman, 1995; Tyckoson, 2002; Lagace and McClennen, 1998; Mon, 2000; Ferguson and Bunge, 1997], and digital reference services are being implemented within the context of digital libraries such as the National Science Foundation(NSF) National Science Digital Library [National Research Council, 1998]. Much is known about use of digital reference in primary and secondary education (in this article, the term \"education\" will refer simply to primary and secondary education), and this knowledge has utility not only to digital reference services aimed at this population, but to the larger digital library community as well.\nSpecifically, the author argues that services aimed at primary and secondary users represent a revelatory case for digital reference for three reasons; digital reference services for education are:\nCurrent State of the Art\nIn order to present a picture of digital reference for education, the author first presents two major types of services in the education domain. Each type is then illustrated with an exemplar service.\nTypes of Digital Reference Services in Education\nThere are two obvious, though often overlapping, categories of digital reference services in education: library-based services, and AskA services. AskA services can be further divided into general services that may be of use to the education community as part of a more general mission (such as Ask Joan of Art\u00ae , an AskA service that answers questions concerning American art for anyone who asks, but is particularly useful in art education) and services targeted squarely at the education community (such as AskERIC(sm) , though it covers all levels of education including higher and continuing education). The author will concentrate on education AskA services for this paper.\nFor the purposes of this discussion, \"library reference\" refers to digital reference services either centered in a public, academic, school or special library, or with primary reliance on library programs. With the advent of digital reference, a great number of libraries are now offering reference service to remote patrons [Janes, 2000]. These services take a variety of forms, from e-mail systems, to real-time chat systems. In the library context, digital reference is referred to as virtual reference, e-reference, networked reference, live reference, online reference and even chat reference. While some in the community make a distinction in the mode of delivery and the synchronous nature of the service offered, most agree that these are all part of a single larger concept of digital reference.\nThe library reference community also provides the most in-depth discussion of policy, evaluation [McClure and Lankes, 2001] and the largest set of documented digital reference services (as opposed to the body of systems and development work out of the AskA community discussed later). Much of this work is encapsulated in the proceedings of the annual Virtual Reference Desk (VRD) Conferences [Virtual Reference Desk, 2002], which have a strong library emphasis. In fact, this article and the Digital Reference Research Symposium were outgrowths of the VRD conferences and other work.\nAs a result of this intense interest in digital reference by the library community, several large-scale digital reference projects are available for use by the research and scholarly community. The Collaborative Digital Reference Service (CDRS) spearheaded by the Library of Congress and that has evolved into the QuestionPoint service run by OCLC in cooperation with the Library of Congress, certainly demonstrates the breadth of library-based digital reference services spanning public, academic and international libraries. The National Library of Canada's recent introduction of Virtual Reference Canada  to work with Canadian digital reference services also promises to be a major source of digital reference activity and development. Other prominent digital reference efforts in the library world include KnowItNow  from the Cleveland Public Library, the 24/7 Reference service  that acts as a statewide digital reference network for the State of California, and the recent efforts of the State Library of Washington. Also of interest to researchers in digital reference are digital reference vendors in the library domain including LSSI's Virtual Reference Service . One special case that should not be overlooked is the Internet Public Library , for while it is not based in a library setting (it is part of the School of Information at the University of Michigan), it has its roots and traditions firmly planted in the library community.\nLibrary Reference Exemplar: KidsConnect\nWhile many library services support the education community (of course, academic libraries serve a higher education population and public libraries answer questions of students), few target primary and secondary education exclusively. One exception is the KidsConnect service. KidsConnect is a question-answering, help and referral service to K-12 students on the Internet [KidsConnect, 2002; Bennett, 1998]. It is a project of the American Library Association's American Association of School Librarians (AASL). KidsConnect has three missions: The first is to educate school library media specialists in the use of the Internet and digital reference as part of the larger ICONnect project. The second is to promote information literacy in students through digital reference [Mancall et al., 1999]. The third is to promote local school libraries (and school library media specialists) as valuable sources of information and instruction.\nThe KidsConnect model uses a large number of volunteer school library media specialists (primarily in the United States). Each volunteer is trained using an in-depth mentoring process, then answers questions (ranging from one question a day to one a week). The digital reference transaction is conducted through e-mail and web forms.\nData from the KidsConnect service provides valuable insight into the types of students using digital reference services as well as the types of questions they ask. The service has been widely advertised to schools, particularly to teachers and school library media specialists. This advertising has been done through the professional association for school library media specialists (AASL), as well as through the Internet.\nThe data presented in Figures 1 - 5 are from 1996 - 1998; however, more recent data presented in Figures 6 - 9 are used to estimate the current validity of the earlier numbers.\nFigure 1 shows the number of questions answered by KidsConnect for the years 1996-1998:\nThese numbers are very much in line, though on the high end, with current numbers of library-based digital reference services as reported at recent library meetings, including the 2002 American Library Association conference.\nFigure 2 shows how these questions were distributed across differing student and adult populations:\nThese figures demonstrate a rough equivalence between primary (elementary and middle school) and secondary education (high school). The low number of users identified as \"adult\" is explained by both the focus of the KidsConnect service (K-12 students), but also that any questions KidsConnect received from teachers were routed (sent to) the AskERIC service.\nA more interesting finding, however, was the gender distribution of the questioners as seen in Figure 3:\nOne interesting finding of the KidsConnect staff was the prominence of girls asking questions. While many hypotheses were put forward to explain this situation (e-mail providing a \"safer\" environment to ask questions than the well documented male dominated classroom, for example), no formal research was conducted to follow up on this finding.\nThe other interesting finding from the KidsConnect data related to the topics or subjects of the questions asked of KidsConnect. The KidsConnect team utilized a \"Subject Line Analysis\" technique whereby the subject lines of a random sample of questions were examined and classified inductively into a subject scheme. If the subject lines were felt to be uninformative (they did not indicate topicality but instead were words or phrases like \"Hello\" or \"Please help\") the underlying question was examined. The results of this analysis are shown in Figure 4:\nIt is clear from this figure that questions on the topic of science constituted the bulk of questions received. In order to provide a clearer picture of this category, the analysis was further refined by \"type of science questions\", as shown in Figure 5:\nData such as this should prove of great use to new digital reference services geared towards education, most notably the NSF's National SMETE Digital Library [NSDL, 2002].\nAs mentioned before, these statistics represent somewhat dated analysis (4 years old). In 1999, operation of the KidsConnect service moved from Syracuse University to Drexel University (the previous statistics are based on Syracuse data). Syracuse then transferred much of the staff and processes of KidsConnect into the Virtual Reference Desk Learning Center. This project had a slightly different aim; it had a broader focus and also worked in a network of AskA services with general foci. However, the main concentration of the service was still on school library media specialists answering questions from the education community.\nStatistics from the VRD service show a strong correlation between older KidsConnect statistics and more recent VRD usage. For example, Figure 6 shows the user populations of the VRD service:\nNote the higher \"adult\" population (as compared with Figure 2) reflecting the broader focus of the VRD Network members. However, with this result removed, the distribution in primary and secondary education remains roughly equivalent to the earlier data, with a greater number of \"middle school\" questions. Also note in Figure 7 that science questions still dominate the service:\nOnce again, Figure 8 provides a more fine-grained analysis of science questions:\nThis distributions seems to hold over the three most recent years of the VRD service (as seen in Figure 9):\nFrom these more recent statistics, it seems difficult to argue that there has been a massive shift in the types of education users asking questions or in the types of questions they ask.\nWhat is also clear from analyzing these two services is that the library community has many contributions to make to the digital reference research agenda specifically with respect to education as well as to digital reference research in general. It is also clear the library community contains large-scale digital reference efforts that make excellent research environments capable of being utilized in the search for generalizable knowledge.\nEducation AskA Services\nThe second progenitor of current digital reference systems is AskA services. AskA services take their name from expert question and answer services tending to adopt names such as \"Ask A Scientist\"  and \"Ask A Volcanologist\"  [Lankes, 1999b]. These services tended to originate without interaction with formal library systems and emphasized topical expertise (as opposed to process expertise such as a librarian's ability to search for information).\nA fuller picture of AskA services can be drawn from two studies conducted by Lankes and White [Lankes, 1999b; Lankes, 1999c; and White, 1999]. Lankes presents an in-depth analysis of the structure and commonalities of \"exemplary K-12 digital reference services.\" Specifically this study sought to:\nThe outcome of this study included detailed \"blueprints\" and a tuned framework of AskA services grounded in complexity theory, as seen in Figure 10:\nWhite developed an analytical framework based on systems for evaluating AskA services. This framework was then applied to a variety of 11 services (including library-based services).\nUnlike library digital reference services that to this point have seen modest usage, AskA services, in general, have begun with large usage and have experienced continuing dramatic increases. The most recent Virtual Reference Desk survey of AskA services done in 1999 demonstrates this. Survey results in Table 1 show an average 44% increase in use of these asynchronous services from 1997 to 1998, with an average answer rate of 77% in 1998 [Lankes and Shostack, forthcoming].\nTable 1: Virtual Reference Desk Survey of AskA Service Usage\nCompare these statistics to those of the libraries studied as part of McClure and Lankes Quality Study [Mcclure and Lankes, 2001], \"In all cases the volume of digital reference questions is low, ranging from 3 to 33 per day\" [Gross et al., 2002]. This study covered a range of libraries in terms of size and scope (academic, public, federal, state).\nOne result of the large volume encountered by AskA services has been an emphasis on process, software development and automation. Whereas many library services have quickly adopted real-time technologies in which one-to-one interactions require full human intervention, AskA services have looked to asynchronous technologies. (At least this has been so at their onset. See Figure 11 for the distribution of questions received by AskERIC by mode of digital reference as an example of the predominance of asynchronous means. Note that \"web\" and \"e-mail\" are both asynchronous modes.) AskA services have also looked for means of shunting users to resources. (See Lankes for a more detailed discussion of AskA services and their architectures [Lankes, 1999b].) These run the gambit from sophisticated techniques such as automated searching of previously asked questions (as in the MadSci  service), to forcing users through a list of frequently asked questions before they are able to submit a question (as in the Ask A Volcanologist service).\nAskA services have also tended to develop more in terms of software and systems. Early examples include Ask Dr. Math\u00ae , the MadSci Network, and How Things Work . Though there are excellent examples of software development in the library arena [Meola and Starmont, 2002], library services have by and large adopted software from the help desk and e-commerce community, such as LSSI and 24/7 Reference's use of eGain\u00ae and the common use of LivePerson\u00ae and NetAgent. While this may be changing, AskA services still remain a hot bed of systems development.\nAnother common attribute with AskA services is their attention to the primary and secondary education community. In the case of some services, this attention is part of a larger view of the general Internet population, but in many cases, it is a special attention where education is foremost and the general population is welcome as well. This can be seen in Dr. Math and MadSci Networks. It can also be seen in services, such as AskERIC, which focus on education professionals.\nEducation AskA Service Exemplar: AskERIC\nWhile the KidsConnect discussion sheds light on digital reference use by primary and secondary education students, AskERIC can shed light on use of digital reference by education professionals.\nAskERIC is a project of the U.S. Department of Education's ERIC program. It was initiated and is still operated by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology (though nearly all ERIC components (Clearinghouses, ACCESS ERIC, the ERIC Processing Facility and even the parent institution of ERIC, the National Library of Education) are involved in answering questions). AskERIC has two primary components: a question/answering service staffed by ERIC library and education professionals (see Figure 12 for the volume of questions), and a virtual library of lesson plans, which contains pointers to reviewed sites on the Internet and an archive of previously asked questions. A more in-depth description, though slightly dated, can be found in the author's dissertation [Lankes 1999b].\nThe purpose of AskERIC is to answer questions related to all areas of the education process. The emphasis on education professionals can be seen in AskERIC's mission as well, see Figure 13, by AskERIC's users.\nThis distribution of users, with the majority being K-12 teachers followed by graduate students (pre-service educators are traditionally heavy users of any ERIC service), is in line with AskERIC's stated mission:\nAskERIC is a personalized Internet-based service providing education information to teachers, librarians, counselors, administrators, parents, and anyone interested in education throughout the United States and the world. [AskERIC, 2002]\nIn fact, AskERIC explicitly does not answer \"homework help\" questions:\nThank you for visiting the AskERIC Web site! If you are a K-12 student with a homework question, AskERIC may not have the resources to respond to your question.\nAskERIC is designed to provide education information to teachers, librarians, counselors, administrators, parents, students, and others throughout the United States and the world. Our focus is not on the specific things you are learning in school; instead, we specialize in research and ideas about how students of all ages learn best. As an example, we can respond to a question such as \"What is the best time of day to teach math?\", but not \"What is the formula to determine the radius of a circle?\".\nIf you are looking for information in other specific subject areas or need homework help, you probably won't find AskERIC very helpful. Instead, you may want to investigate the following sites which are designed specifically for students. [AskERIC, 2002a]\nAll student questions received by AskERIC are forwarded to other services such as the Virtual Reference Desk.\nWhat can one determine about AskERIC users besides their educational roles? First, one can determine the education level about which users were asking (a K-12 teacher was asking a question about high school, for example) as seen in Figure 14:\nOne can also analyze the nature of the questions being asked by the professional community. AskERIC user surveys provide the anticipated use of the information gained as seen in Figure 15:\nUsing subject line analysis once again, Figure 16 shows question types identified in AskERIC questions:\nFigure 17 shows the relative stability of this question distribution over time:\nIn Figure 16 and Figure 17, \"subjects\" refers to particular topics or academic disciplines taught in the classroom. (Note: information from AskERIC responses may be used in higher and continuing education contexts as seen in Figure 18 where 18% of answers were intended for higher or adult education.)\nFigure 19 shows the relative stability of these subjects over time:\nOf particular interest in Figure 19 is the predominance of \"language arts\" as a topic for educators versus \"science\" for students, as seen in Figure 4 of the KidsConnect sample. One possible reason for this difference may be the abundance of science material on the Internet (particularly education-related science material) versus instructional resources in language and English instruction.\nAside from the information AskERIC provides on digital reference use by education professionals, it also provides an exemplar of reference authoring [Lankes, 2001]. Reference authoring refers to the capture of information in the reference process and the transformation of this information into resources that can be used outside the reference process as part of a larger digital library context. This authoring process can be from the simple, say the creation of frequently asked questions on a web site, to the complex, say the creation on the MadSci knowledge base.\nThe heart of the AskERIC website consists of a resource collection:\nIn response to questions we've received at AskERIC, our network information specialists have compiled over 3000 resources on a variety of educational issues. This collection includes Internet sites, educational organizations, and electronic discussion groups. [AskERIC, 2002b]\nThis resource collection acts not only as a set of Internet links for end-users, but for AskERIC digital reference specialists as well. As digital reference specialists constantly comb over this collection of Internet resources, ERIC citations, discussion groups and more, they are also finding new resources to add and old resources to delete. This means that it is the digital reference process itself that is used as collection development, annotation and expert review.\nAskERIC is only one example of AskA services geared specifically to the education community. It does, however, serve as a revelatory case. In the AskERIC exemplar we see the predominance of asynchronous technologies, high-volume usage, and the interconnection of the reference process with systems and digital libraries.\nDigital reference for primary and secondary education has a rich and well-documented tradition. It serves as a revelatory case for other digital reference research and provides valuable insight into digital libraries that serve the education community as well as other communities.\nWhat is apparent from this small examination of digital reference in the education context is that all levels of education use digital reference services and education questions, while covering a broad range of topics, concentrate most heavily on science (in the case of students) and language arts (in the case of education professionals). Also apparent is the usefulness of education digital reference services as research environments. AskA services and library reference services alike hold large data sets of question and answer transactions. These data sets can be used to evaluate how questions are asked, what topics are of interest to the education community, and what language is used by the education community, as well as used to examine myriad other facts. Some of these data sets are publicly available on the Internet, while others are proprietary due to privacy concerns.\nFrom this examination of digital reference services, some methodological techniques can be added to the digital reference research discussion. First among these is the concept of subject line analysis. This technique seems to provide excellent exploratory power and may provide a rapid way to compare question types across services.\nLastly, analysis of digital reference services targeted towards the primary and secondary education community (or at least the study of these services) provides a wealth of models, theories and frameworks that can be brought to bear in future research. From The Lankes/Sutton Framework, the General Digital Reference Model (resulting from Lankes' complexity framework) to White's evaluative framework, there are rich analytic tools that can be used in the broader digital reference and digital library domain.\n Ask Joan of Art\u00ae, <http://americanart.si.edu/study/reference-main.html>.\n[ALA] American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy. (1989). Final report. Chicago: Author. (ED 315 028).\n[Bennett] Bennett, B. (1998). Pilot testing the KidsConnect service. In Lankes, R. and Kasowitz, A. (ED), AskERIC starter kit: How to build and maintain digital reference services, (pp. 147-150). Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse University.\n[Bristow] Bristow, A. \"Academic Reference Service over Electronic Mail.\" College & Research Libraries News, 53 (1992): 631-632.\n[Collier] Collier, M. (1997). International Symposium on Research, Development, and Practice in Digital Libraries.\n[Ferguson and Bunge] Ferguson, C. D. and C. A. Bunge. \"The Shape of Services to Come: Values-based Reference Service for the Largely Digital Library.\" College & Research Libraries, 58 (1997): 252-65.\n[Gross, et al.] Gross, M., McClure, C., Hodges, R., Graham, A., and Lankes, R. (2002). Phase II: Site Visit Summary Report.\n[Janes] Janes, J. (2000). Current Research in Digital Reference. VRD Proceedings. (Online) <http://www.vrd.org/conferences/VRD2000/proceedings/janes-intro.shtml>.\n[Kresh] Kresh, D. (2000). Offering High Quality Reference Service on the Web. D-Lib Magazine, 6(6). (Online) <http://www.dlib.org/dlib/june00/kresh/06kresh.html>.\n[Lankes and Sutton] Lankes, R. David and Sutton, Stuart A. (1999). \"Developing a Mission for the National Education Network: The Challenge of Seamless Access.\" Government Information Quarterly. 16(2).\n[Lankes, 1999a] Lankes, R.D. (1999a). \"The Virtual Reference Desk: Question Interchange Profile.\" White Paper for the Virtual Reference Desk. ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology; Syracuse, NY.\n[Lankes, 1999b] Lankes, R. (1999b). Dissertation: Building & Maintaining Internet Information Services, Syracuse University.\n[Lankes, 1999c] Lankes, R. D. (1999). \"AskA's Lesson Learned from K-12 Digital Reference Services.\" Reference & User Services Quarterly. 38(1).\n[Lankes and Shostack] Lankes, R. and Shostack, P. (Forthcoming) \"The Necessity of Real-Time: Fact and Fiction in Digital Reference Systems.\" Reference and User Services Quarterly.\n[Lankes et al.] Lankes, R. David, Collins, J. and Kasowitz, A. S. (Eds.). (2000). Digital Reference: Models for the New Millennium. New York: Neal-Schuman.\n[Lankes, 2001] Lankes, R. D. (2001). \"Creating a New Reference Librarianship.\" VRD Proceedings. (Online) <http://www.vrd.org/conferences/VRD2001/proceedings/reinventing.shtml>.\n[Lewis] Lewis, M. (2001). \"Faking it.\" The New York Times Magazine, New York; July 15, 2001.\n[LITA] LITA (1999). Top Tech Trends. (Online) <http://www.lita.org/committe/toptech/trendsmw99.htm>.\n[Mancall et al.] Mancall, J. and Stafford, B. and Zanger, C. (1999). ICONnect: A Snapshot of the First Three Years. Knowledge Quest. 28(1), p24-37.\n[Marchionini] Marchionini, G. (1999). Augmenting Library Services: Toward the Sharium. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Digital Libraries 1999 (Tsukuba, Japan, September 28-29, 1999). 40-47. <http://ils.unc.edu/~march/sharium/ISDL.pdf>.\n[Mardikian and Kesselman] Mardikian, J., and Kesselman, M. (1995). Beyond the desk: Enhanced reference staffing for the electronic library. Reference Services Review, 23 (1), p21-28.\n[Meola and Starmont] Meola, M. and Starmont, S. (2002). Starting and Operating Live Virtual Reference Services: A How-To-Do-It Manual for Librarians. New York: Neal-Schuman.\n[Mon] Mon, L. (2000). \"Digital Reference Service.\" Government Information Quarterly, 17(3) 309-318.\n[NSDL] NSDL (2002). National Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education Digital Library (NSDL) (Online) <http://www.ehr.nsf.gov/ehr/due/programs/nsdl> <http://www.nsf.gov/search97cgi/vtopic>.\n[National Research Council] National Research Council (1998). Developing a Digital National Library for Undergraduate Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Technology Education. NRC workshop, August 7-8, 1997. (Online). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. <http://books.nap.edu/books/0309059771/html/R1.html> (ED425928).\n[Still and Campbell] Still, J., and Campbell, F. (1993). Librarian in a box: The Use of electronic mail for reference. Reference Services Review, 21(1), pp 15-18.\n[Tyckoson] Tyckoson, D. (2002). On the Desirableness of Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers: The Past and Future of Reference Service. The Future of Reference Papers, (Online) <http://www.ala.org/rusa/forums/tyckoson_forum.html>.\n[White] White, M. D., Ed. (1999). Analyzing Electronic Question/Answer Services: Framework and Evaluations of Selected Services. ERIC Document ED433019.\n[Virtual Reference Desk] Virtual Reference Desk (2002). VRD Conferences. (Online) <http://www.vrd.org/conf-train.shtml>.\n(Corrected coding for navigational links to the editorial and guest editorial 8/31/05.)\nCopyright \u00a9 R. David Lankes", "id": "<urn:uuid:c4bf72ca-a223-42cb-ab7d-59bb533b3c68>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february03/lankes/02lankes.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9243548512458801, "token_count": 6094, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "One of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing\u2019s roots can be traced back over 3,000 years. Beijing is located in the north of the country, and its name in fact means \u2018northern capital\u2019. The city has played a vital role in China since Emperor Qin united China in 221 BC, and it was the capital city of the Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties which ruled China for 1,000 years until the 20th century.\nThe Qing dynasty came to an end in 1911 due to the Xinhai Revolution, a movement for a Chinese Republic. In 1916 the new emperor, Yuan Shikai, died and Beijing fell under the control of regional warlords. Royal residences were ransacked and burned down, and the country degenerated into a semi-feudal society. It took more than three decades for China to recover and on 1st October 1949 the Communist Party Leader, Chairman Mao Zedong, announced the creation of the People's Republic of China.\nModern day Beijing is home to 17 million residents and is an integral part of China\u2019s prosperity. Beijing is a great starting point to explore this vast, populous country, and the coastal metropolis of Shanghai is just 1,000 kilometres to the south.\nBeijing has been described as \u2018a portal between centuries\u2019. Every successive dynasty has made its mark on the city, from the ornate buildings of Imperial China and the boxy architecture of the 1950-70s Sino-Soviet era to proliferation of 21st century skyscrapers.\nImperial China is the most eye-catching place to start, at the 15th century imperial palaces of The Forbidden City. The courtyard-after-courtyard-after-courtyard of The Forbidden City makes up the enormous centre of the ancient walled city of Beijing. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 and is the world\u2019s largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures.\nJust outside of Beijing\u2019s centre is Summer Palace, another UNESCO World Heritage Site and the summer retreat for the Qing Dynasty emperors. Equally as impressive in winter, its collection of palaces, landscaped gardens, gentle hills, pavilions, temples and bridges combine to create a harmonious and breathtaking setting.\nThe architecture of the 1950s has been put to good use in the Dashanzi art district, also known as Factory 798. This thriving community is housed in decommissioned Bauhaus-style military factories, where art galleries, fashion designers, photographers and writers exhibit their wares to numerous visitors.\nModern Chinese architecture is best exemplified by the Beijing National Stadium which attracts up to 30,000 visitors a day. Constructed for the 2008 Beijing Olympics, it is better known as the Birds' Nest due to the myriad of steel beams which criss-cross its exterior.\nThe world\u2019s largest Chinatown, Beijing is the ultimate destination to try Chinese cuisine. Street food is abundant and delicious: try little steamed \u2018baozi\u2019 buns, peking duck or cold noodles with cucumber, tofu and sesame seeds. However, only the strongest of stomach may want to sample the roasted scorpions.\nHead to the famous lantern-lit road of Guijie Street to try a hot pot; this Asian fondue is a simmering stock in which guests cook their own food. Or try Peking Duck in Chao Yang Park \u2013 clich\u00e9d but delicious and an experience in itself.\nNightlife in Beijing is both lively and fun, and the bar and club scenes at San Li Tun and Hou Hai run so far into the next day that\u2019ll you be glad of Beijing\u2019s 24-hour food culture.\nThe Great Wall of China, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the Seven Wonders of the World, embraces such broad dimensions that nothing else compares. It runs 10,000 miles across China from east to west, and can be seen from space. The closest place to visit it is in Badaling, just 75kms north of Beijing. However, it pays to travel an extra 45kms to the 14th century Simatai section in Gubeikou: it is less touristy and the wall is in far better condition. This section is 5.4kms long with 35 watchtowers which snake along the mountain ridges and is a truly remarkable place for sightseeing, hiking and exploration.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c5ef311f-47a2-4449-a3cf-84b421eeab98>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.emirates.com/fi/English/destinations_offers/destinations/asiapacific/china/beijing/guide.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9484001398086548, "token_count": 914, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The VLT Active Optics System\nDue to the low ratio between their thickness and their diameter, the VLT primary mirrors will be rather flexible and sensitive to various disturbances, requiring permanent control of their optical shape.\nActive optics consists in applying controlled forces to the primary mirror and in moving the secondary mirror in order to cancel out the errors. The scheme was developped by ESO for the 3.5-m New Technology Telescope (NTT) and is now applied to the VLT. The system must essentially compensate for static or slowly varying deformations such as manufacturing errors, thermal effects, low frequency components of wind buffeting, telescope inclination, ... It is also used when changing between Cassegrain and Nasmyth foci.\nA schematic view of the system is shown below.\n(Drawing by Ed Janssen, ESO)\nDescriptionThe different elements of the active optics system of the VLT are the primary mirror, with its active support system located within the M1 Cell structure, the M2 unit, the CCD Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (WFS) located in the sensor arm of the adapter, and the computer analysing the wavefront sensor data. There are three modes of operation, that are described below\nBaselineThe active optics baseline operation is the correction of wavefront aberrations generated by the optics of the telescope and by slowly varying temperature inhomogeneities in or near the building. The corrections are based on an image analysis.\nThe active optics system constantly monitors the optical quality of the image using an offset reference star as it is picked up in the field by the wavefront sensor CCD in the adapter sensor arm. The same offset star is also used by the acquisition and autoguiding CCD.\nThe system controls the relative position and the shape of the optical elements. The primary mirror shape can be actively controlled by varying the force pattern applied by means of its support system. The latter consists of 150 computer controlled axial actuators, applying a distribution of forces at the back of the mirror.\nPeriodically the image analyzer calculates the deviation of the image from the best quality. The image analysis typically requires about 30 seconds (1/30 Hz) in order to integrate out the effect of atmospheric seeing. The computer decomposes the deviation into single optical contributions (defocus, astigmatism, coma etc...) and calculates the force correction which each active element has to perform to achieve the optimal quality. The set of 150 correction forces, one for each axial actuator, is computed and transmitted to the local control of the M1 Cell-M3 Tower for execution. The focus and coma terms are corrected by displacements of the secondary mirror.\nFast correctionsThe feedback scheme is the same as above but here the maximum frequency for fast corrections is 1 Hz. These shorter integration times reduce the signal to noise ratio of measurements and affect both the sky coverage (requirement of brighter guide stars in the field) and the number of aberrations which can be corrected (only the lowest spatial frequency ones).\nOpen loop corrections\nThis mode does not use feedback information from the image analyser. The open loop mode is used in the absence of any sufficiently bright guide star, or in the case of image analysis failure, or as initialization for baseline operation after a new telescope preset. For this type of operation accurately predicted forces on M1 (dependent on telescope tube inclination) and predicted positions (dependent also on temperature) are required.\nMore technical information on the principles of active optics can be obtained in the following publications:\nR. Wilson, F. Franza, L. Noethe, Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 34/4, 1987, p. 485 L. Noethe et al., Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 35/9, 1988, p. 1427", "id": "<urn:uuid:ef31c15d-b576-4f1b-b814-4c8cde4af40b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/paranal/telescopes/ut/actopt.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9090043902397156, "token_count": 786, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "I've heard that the \"smog\" in NYC actually helps plants and vegetables grow better. Is there any truth to this, or is it one of those things New Yorkers say to make themselves feel better, like \"We have the best drinking water in the country\"?\n-Sarah from Astoria, NY\nI'm sorry to burst your Big Apple bubble, but this is just wishful thinking. I'll start by blowing your mind and totally turning the question around: Do plants affect the air quality in polluted cities?\nTrees planted in urban areas have actually been proven to reduce air pollution by doing what they do naturally, which is filter the air. Plants suck in carbon dioxide (along with the pollution) and release clean oxygen back into the environment. Woohoo, new clean air! But the flipside of all this is that the plant is sucking in polluted carbon dioxide. And that pollution has gotta end up somewhere...\nToxins pulled in from air, water and soil can eventually be transferred to the leaves and fruit of the plant. All plants are affected differently: Tomatoes, for example, harbor toxins in their leaves and not in their fruit, so you're safe if you're only eating the tomatoes and not the leaves like a weirdo.\nTrees planted along the streets of NYC are actually chosen for their high rate of filtration. High filtering trees help clean the air better, but they also have a strong tolerance for pollution so they can survive the tough NYC air conditions. To learn more about trees planted in NYC, check out the Million Trees Initiative- you can request a tree to be planted on your block!\nSo, sorry Sarah... your New York City garden does not like the smog. But hey, at least you don't live in super-smoggy Los Angeles!\nIf anyone has a specific plant they're growing and would like to know how pollution is affecting it, comment below and I'll find the answer!\nHave a question? Send it to Green Thumb Conundrums!", "id": "<urn:uuid:97e7c153-740f-4b5d-a696-770610ca12f4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.farmtina.com/2010/05/green-thumb-conundrums-nyc-hearts-smog.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9583581686019897, "token_count": 414, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A Brief History\nThe Bureau\u2019s first field office in Cincinnati opened in 1913 under the leadership of Special Agent in Charge Hinton G. Clabaugh. Over the next several years, as the Bureau\u2019s responsibilities grew, the office investigated everything from interstate prostitution to potential espionage during World War I.\n1920s and 1930s\nIn 1920, Cincinnati became one of the Bureau\u2019s eight field divisions, overseeing much of the administrative work of several other offices. In 1926, the division was moved to Columbus, Ohio.\n|Special Agent in\nCharge L.C. Schilder\nIn November 1929, an office in Cincinnati was reopened with L.C. Schilder as special agent in charge. At that time, the division\u2019s territory was far-ranging, encompassing all of Ohio and parts of Kentucky and Indiana. When Bureau offices were established in Indianapolis in 1934 and Cleveland in 1935, the Cincinnati Division\u2019s territory was limited to the Southern Judicial District of Ohio. Still, the division handled a large and diverse number of cases, from helping to pursue John Dillinger to breaking up a number of significant interstate prostitution rings.\nNelson B. Klein\nOn August 16, 1935, the division lost its first agent in the line of duty\u2014Special Agent Nelson B. Klein. The 37-year-old Klein and another agent were pursing a man named George Barrett for car theft and other charges when they tracked him to the northeast border of Indiana. The agents spotted Barrett and asked him to surrender, but he opened fire. Klein was mortally wounded, but his return fire struck Barrett in both legs. The criminal was captured and ultimately convicted of the murder. He was the first person to receive the death penalty under 1934 legislation that outlawed the murder of a federal agent.\nWorld War II and the 1950s\nWith the advent of World War II in 1939, the focus of the division\u2014along with the rest of the Bureau\u2014turned to national security matters. In the coming years, the Cincinnati office searched for spies, helped strengthen the security of manufacturing plants in the area, searched for draft evaders and enemy aliens, and handled other war-time responsibilities. When a band of Nazi saboteurs landed on U.S. soil in 1942, Cincinnati agents helped track down their various contacts.\nOne odd case came along in 1945. A highly explosive thermite bomb was on exhibit at the Gibson Hotel in Cincinnati when a curious newspaper boy picked it up and dropped it out of the window, scaring nearby pedestrians. Cincinnati agents responded to the scene along with police and fire personnel. The bomb didn\u2019t ignite, and no one was harmed.\nAs World War II came to an end, the Cincinnati Division joined the rest of the FBI in handling Cold War espionage and related national security cases. Meanwhile, agents continued to handle a variety of criminal investigations\u2014such as pursuing two robbers who stole $160,000 from a bank in Thornville and a group of individuals who sabotaged telephone lines. In late 1947, the division\u2019s work led to the indictment of 17 people in connection with a major prostitution ring operating in and around Ohio.\n|Cincinnati agents in 1949|\nSome cases were easier than others. In 1950, a fugitive named Fred Whiteacre stopped to stare at his own wanted poster in a federal building. He was quickly arrested by Cincinnati agents. The division also worked to identify surreptitious communist influence in certain unions and to halt attempts by bookies to fix games by intimidating college basketball players. In May 1959, division agents arrested the last escaped prisoner of war from World War II\u2014a German soldier who had been captured in northern Africa but had escaped confinement in Ohio in 1945. The soldier lived and worked under an assumed identity for years, but ultimately turned himself in to the Bureau.\n1960s and 1970s\nThe division continued to tackle a wide range of cases during the 1960s and 1970s.\n|Early Cincinnati field office|\nIn 1963, agents investigated the fraudulent awarding of contracts at a local air force base. Two years later, the office assisted the Bureau\u2019s disaster squad in responding to the crash of an American Airlines flight that killed 58 people near Cincinnati. In the late 1960s, agents tracked the radical activities of black nationalists like H. Rapp Brown, hoping to gain insight into the race riots taking place across the nation. In 1969, the division joined with the FBI office in New Orleans and IRS agents in building a successful case against organized crime figures Sam DiPiazza and William Demming on illegal gambling, tax violation, and other charges. Stronger laws in the coming years would help the FBI to more systematically take down larger Mafia crime families.\nBy 1971, a total of 117 special agents and 75 support staff in Cincinnati were handling an average workload of 2,398 criminal cases, 1,118 national security investigations, and 169 applicant and other matters. In the late 1970s, Cincinnati agents rescued a 3-year-old boy kidnapped from his home and arrested two brothers who plotted to blow up an Ohio school.\n1980s and 1990s\nDuring the next two decades, the division focused largely on cases of white-collar crime, violent crime, property crime, organized crime, and foreign espionage.\nIn December 1982, tragedy struck when four Chicago Division agents were killed in an airplane accident near Montgomery, Ohio. The agents\u2014Terry Burnett Hereford, Charles L. Ellington, Robert W. Conners, and Michael James Lynch\u2014were accompanying bank fraud suspect Carl Henry Johnson and an individual from the law firm representing him to an area where agents believed Johnson had stashed $50,000 in embezzled money. The plane\u2014which was piloted by two of the agents and was apparently experiencing problems with its altitude readings\u2014crashed on approach to Lunken Airport. No one aboard survived.\n|Raymond Luc Levasseur|\nOn November 4, 1984, local police and Cincinnati agents arrested Ten Most Wanted fugitive Raymond Luc Levasseur and his wife in Deerfield, Ohio. A founding member of a left-wing terrorist group known as the United Freedom Front, Levasseur had been placed on the FBI\u2019s Top Ten list in 1977 for his role in a series of bombings and bank robberies across the northeastern United States. He was convicted in 1986 and served in prison until 2004. On November 3, 1988, the division arrested another Top Ten fugitive, John Edward Stevens, who was sought in connection with 22 bank robberies across the country.\nIn the late 1980s, the office handled a number of significant cases, including the collapse of the Home State Savings Bank of Cincinnati and a wide-ranging scheme to fix harness races that led to the indictment of more than a dozen conspirators. From 1986 through 1989, the Cincinnati Division investigated the illegal gambling activities of baseball star and Cincinnati Reds manager Pete Rose, who was later banned from the game. In the late 1980s, the division also investigated a hospital attendant named Donald Harvey, who claimed to have murdered as many as 87 people while working in various medical facilities in Kentucky and Ohio. Harvey was eventually sentenced to several life terms.\nIn the 1980s, Cincinnati agents and IRS investigators began investigating price-fixing in the sale of industrial diamonds used for cutting and grinding tools. The case\u2014which made use of court-authorized wiretaps and the federal witness protection program\u2014led to indictments in March 1994.\nIn July 2001, division agents arrested Danny William Kincaid, the Ohio leader of the white supremacist group known as Aryan Nations, for possessing an explosive device and a trove of other weapons. He pled guilty the following year.\nFollowing the events of 9/11, the Cincinnati Division joined with the rest of the Bureau in making the prevention of terrorist attacks its top priority. It strengthened its Joint Terrorism Task Force, which has components in both Cincinnati and Columbus, and set up a Field Intelligence Group.\nThe terror task force was soon involved in some key investigations. In 2003, working with agents from FBI Headquarters and various partners, the Cincinnati Division began investigating an Ohio truck driver named Iyman Faris. Faris admitted having personal contact with several individuals tied to terrorism, and agents later learned that he had been tasked by al Qaeda operatives with attacking the Brooklyn Bridge and other targets. He pled guilty to terrorism support charges and was sentenced to 20 years in prison in October 2003. Faris also led investigators to Nuradin Abdi\u2014a Somali national living in Columbus\u2014who had plotted with Faris to blow up a shopping mall and discussed potential missile attacks against U.S. landmarks. Abdi pled guilty to various terrorism support charges in July 2007. A third co-conspirator, Christopher Paul, pled guilty in June 2008 to plotting to use a weapon of mass destruction against targets in the United States and Europe.\nMeanwhile, the division continued its work on criminal cases, investigating everything from mortgage fraud and other white-collar crimes to drug trafficking and child pornography.\nWith new intelligence capabilities, new and deepened cooperation with a variety of law enforcement and intelligence partners, and new post-9/11 legal authorities and resources, the Cincinnati Division is committed to continuing its work to protect local communities and the country from a range of national security and criminal threats.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c01b96f4-b8be-4f32-94a3-b9a5514bac08>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fbi.gov/cincinnati/about-us/history", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9644179344177246, "token_count": 1897, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On This Day - 15 April 1918\nTheatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired)\nFighting continues on Bailleul-Wulverghem line, and Germans capture both places.\nVery violent artillery action in Luce Valley (Somme).\nFinland: Germans report occupation of Helsingfors.\nMacedonia: Greek troops cross Struma river and occupy villages in Seres district.\nBritish troops take two villages south-west of Demirhissar.\nNaval and Overseas Operations\nBritish Naval forces sink ten German armed trawlers in Kattegat.\nAustria: Count Czernin's resignation announced.", "id": "<urn:uuid:590dc262-a2b6-47ed-a3c8-e5403df202c7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.firstworldwar.com/onthisday/1918_04_15.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8530672788619995, "token_count": 333, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Who Invented Fireworks Article\nFourth of July for Kids\nThere are many different ways that the Fourth of July can be celebrated. Each year, families everywhere participate in some sort of activity to celebrate the Fourth of July. This year, if you are searching for a way to celebrate the Fourth of July, you should consider simply doing things that surround the enjoyment of your child. Here, you will find many suggestions that you can use to create a Fourth of July for kids. You can implement one of these suggestions this Fourth of July, or all of them!\nOne of the first ways that you can create a Fourth of July for kids is to encourage children to dress in the American colors. You may even allow children to purchase an outfit that reflects the American spirit. You can allow children to create an American hat, or other accessories that they can wear. You may choose to purchase small flags that they can wave as they walk around throughout the day. You may want to teach them what the different symbols and colors on the American flag represent and encourage them to teach others throughout the day of the Fourth of July.\nA Fourth of July for kids can include teaching many patriotic songs like \u201cYankee Doodle\u201d, and teaching the history of the song and why the lyrics are what they are. It is also a great idea to check out books from the library that tell the story of the Fourth of July. These books should be the appropriate grade level for the child that you are sharing it with. There are numerous books, for example, that teach about the Fourth of July for very small children so that they have a basic understanding of the events of the day and why we celebrate it.\nIf you want to celebrate a Fourth of July for kids, you should consider creating many arts and crafts that surround the holiday. You may want to create a firework display from paper, and American flag from fabric or poster board, and similar other things. There are many things that you can create using various items around the house that can teach children about the Fourth of July. This type of tactile learning allows many children to comprehend lessons more easily.\nIf you are going to host a Fourth of July party, you should allow your child to decorate for the event using the lessons that they have learned regarding this holiday. This can prove to be a lot of fun for the child and the people who attend the event will enjoy the creativity of the child. You may also want to allow the child to create small flags or a variety of other items to give to the guests as a thank you for coming to the Fourth of July party.", "id": "<urn:uuid:924db385-4251-42c6-8ee5-9d9722d6afb0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.freelibrty.com/main/4july/who-invented-fireworks.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9766228199005127, "token_count": 530, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Folic Acid and Birth Defects\nFor at least three decades researchers have suggested that low folic acid intake during pregnancy is related to birth defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly. Two more recent studies, one in Hungary and another in England, are even more convincing that supplementing a pregnant woman's diet with this B vitamin dramatically decreases her baby's chance of birth defects.\nHungarian researchers worked with almost 5000 pregnant women. Every day half of the women received a multi vitamin and mineral tablet containing 800 micrograms of folic acid. The rest took a tablet with a minimum of nutrients and no folic acid. All the women took their tablets one month before conception and continued through their first trimester. The folic acid group had 40 percent less birth defects than the women given none of this vitamin and none of their babies with neural tube problems. There were six cases of neural tube defects among the newborns whose mothers who didn't take folic acid (13).\nWhen English investigators gave four milligrams of folic acid each day to women who had given birth to a child with a neural tube defect in the past, the results were even more pronounced. Almost three-quarters of these supplemented women delivered children free\nfrom this birth defect (14). As of last September, health officials at the Centers for Disease Control recommended that all women of childbearing age should take folic acid as a preventive measure (15).\n- Needleman HL, Gatsonis CA. Low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children. Journal of the American Medical Association 1990;263(5): 673-78.\n- Anon. Fatal pediatric poisoning from leaded paint--Wisconsin, 1990. Journal of the American Medical Association 1991;265(16): 2050-51.\n- Jaroff L. Controlling a childhood menace. Time 1991, February 25: 68-69.\n- Sibbison JB. USA: lead in soil. The Lancet 1992;339: 921-22.\n- Anon. Is aluminum a dementing ion? The Lancet 1992;339: 713-14.\n- Sherrard DJ. Aluminum--much ado about something. The New England Journal of Medicine 1991;324(8): 558-9.\n- Farrar G et al. Defective gallium-transferrin binding in Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome: possible mechanism for accumulation of aluminum in brain. The Lancet 1990;335: 747-50.\n- Rosenberg IH, Miller JW. Nutritional factors in physical and cognitive functions of elderly people. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;55: 1237S-43S.\n- Jenner FA. Vitamins in schizophrenia. The Lancet 1973, October 6: 787-88.\n- Foster HD. The geography of schizophrenia: possible links with selenium and calcium deficiencies, inadequate exposure to sunlight and industrialization. Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine 1988;3(3): 135-40.\n- Nielsen FH. Nutritional requirements for boron, silicon, vanadium, nickel, and arsenic: currently knowledge and speculation. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 1991;5: 2661-2667.\n- McBride J. The making of an essential element? Agricultural Research 1989, April: 12-13.\n- Czeizel AE, Dudas I. Prevention of the first occurrence of neural-tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. The New England Journal of Medicine 1992;327(26): 1832-35.\n- MRC Vitamin Study Research Group. Prevention of neural tube defects: results of the Medical Research Council Vitamin Study 1991;338(8760): 131-37.\n- Cimons M. US advises folic acid use to reduce birth defects. Los Angeles Times 1992, September 15: A1 & A17.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f03160cc-e03e-4433-9955-24ed4a39359e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.healthy.net/Health/Article/Food_for_Thought_Nutrition_and_the_Brain/350/3", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8738591074943542, "token_count": 799, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Curandera's Garden\nIt is not uncommon for a Mexican to consult a curandera for spiritual healing while under a medical doctor's care.\nE-mail This Page to Your Friendsx\nA link to %this page% was e-mailed\nIn the 15th century Florentine Codex of Aztec physicians, the healer is \"well versed in herbs, who knows, through experience the roots, the trees, the stones. She keeps her secrets and traditions.\" The healer is clearly female. But where the Codex covers Aztec physicians, the text indicates this role applies to the male gender.\nToday the role of healer or \"curandera\" still exists in Hispanic culture. It is not uncommon for a Mexican to consult a curandera for spiritual healing while under a medical doctor's care. For the very poor with no access to modern medicine, the curandera serves both roles, blending the art of healing the mind with the administration of botanical medicines.\nIn the Mexican neighborhoods of most Southwestern cities you'll find botanicas, which are herb stores that carry dried traditional plant cures of the curandera's trade. If she is fortunate enough to have a plot of land, the curandera would tend a garden of useful plants for her own fresh harvest.\nSome of these plants are quite toxic poisons, but in her training she learned the proper dosage and preparation. Many, such as morning glory and peyote, would be divination plants handed down to her from the Aztec Nahuatl traditions. The most common of these potent medicines is called 'tlapatl' in Nahuatl or 'toloache' in Spanish. It is the wild datura of the desert and Mexico. This nightshade contains serious medicine and may be the single most powerful plant in this garden.\nThe curandera's garden would also contain New World natives and some European herbs introduced by the Spanish early on. Maguey agave is perhaps the most ubiquitous plant in Mexico because of its use in the fermentation of an alcoholic beverage known as \"pulque.\" Its fiber is utilized for everything from scrub brushes to weaving cloth. The agave leaf was scraped and boiled to treat assorted venereal diseases\nThe many benefits of \"nopal\" or prickly pear, Opuntia ficus indica, are just now coming to light in the alternative medicine community. Flat paddle-shaped stems of this plant are chopped and simmered down to a potent brew. It is the main component of treating maladies of the heart such as angina and edema. The mix is drunk on a daily basis as a preventative.\nThe many forms of sagebrush, genus Artemisia, are known as 'ajenjo.' They include both native and European species, all of which are strongly bitter and potentially toxic. The herbs have been used in the Old World and the New to treat intestinal parasites. They also can make up a powerful antibacterial for treating infected wounds.\nSome very long-lived woody shrubs also fall into this curandera garden pharmacoepia. Bushy apache plume, Fallugia paradoxa, is a desert shrub known as 'ponil.' Aspirin-like qualities are found in its inner bark, much like that of aspen and willow. A strong tea of the root and bark is also used for hair-loss treatment. Bright red Ocotillo blossoms from the woody 'oqueria splendens' are boiled, and the tea used to treat sore throat and tonsillitis. The leaves of a bright yellow trumpet flowered shrubby vine, Tecoma stans, known as \"tronadora,\" are used to treat adult diabetes.\nIt is important to remember that these uses of plants are not medical advice or recommendations. The way each is gathered, prepared and administered can range considerably. This is folk medicine handed down verbally from curandera to apprentice, and all are combined with a strong dose of love and personal attention.\nThe curandera's garden is beautiful because it reflects how people have helped one another for centuries. And no one can deny that when the ocotillo turns to fire and datura perfumes the night air, the Aztec gods are pleased that Nahuatl ways live on in the 21st Century.\nFind an excellent compendium of plants and their uses in:\nLos Remedios, by Michael Moore\nTraditional Herbal Remedies of the Southwest\nRed Crane Books\nMaureen Gilmer is a horticulturist and host of Weekend Gardening on DIY-Do It Yourself Network. For more information, visit www.moplants.com or DIYNetwork.com. Distributed by Scripps Howard News Service.\nOn Hawaii's Haleakala volcano you'll find all things lavender -- crafts, soaps and recipes.\nGarden designer Matt James helps a busy California executive transform her backyard eyesore into a personal refuge.(4 photos)\nFitness guru Wes Cole offers valuable advice on how to keep gardening from becoming a pain in the neck -- and back and knees.", "id": "<urn:uuid:539396c1-052a-4349-be7c-4e021bca6dc2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hgtv.com/landscaping/the-curanderas-garden/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9454672336578369, "token_count": 1057, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "History of Western Political Tradition A brief overview of the development of political philosohpy from Socrates to Marx by John A. Sterling\nBiblical origins of American Political philosophy by John A. Sterling. A look at the biblical and philosophical origins of self-government.\nChristianity as an Influence on the Founders A look at some of the best-known founding fathers and what they said about Christianity and the Bible. Also, what their contemporaries said about them and their faith. By John A. Sterling\nScroll down the page for Documents and quotes that demonstrate the ideological basis of American Self-Government\n1. Magna Carta\n2. The Mayflower Compact\n3.Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms.\n4. The Declaration of Independence\n5. The U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights\n6. The Federalist Papers This hyperlink takes you to the THOMAS information site maintained by the U.S. Government. To return to the Law & Liberty Foundation, use the BACK button on your browser.\n7. Davy Crockett's speech on the Floor of Congress 1830\n8. Madison Veto of Public Works Law March 3, 1817\n9. Sermon by Samuel West on the right to rebel against governors, 1789\n10. Offenses Against God by Sir William Blackstone11. Discourse on Civil Liberty by Nathaniel Niles, legislator, judge, & preacher, (1741-1821)\n12. Civil Disobedience: A duty to disobey by Jonathan Mayhew, (1720-1766)\nSites on the Web where you can find many more historical documentsLINKS The Constitution Society\nArticles on Religion and America's Founding", "id": "<urn:uuid:bbf32d6a-77ab-4b8c-b384-05931d4b8a43>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.lawandliberty.org/history.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.873403787612915, "token_count": 355, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Born at Belbrook House, Mountrath, Queen's County, Ireland, 1810; died at Manchester, N.H., 17 September, 1884. Left motherless in infancy, she was confined to the care of a maternal grant-aunt who undertook the formation of her religious character according to the method of F\u00e9nelon. Naturally of a gay disposition, she was carried away by the frivolities of fashionable life until her scruples led her to confide in her director. She followed his advice in offering her services to the foundress of the Congregation of the Sisters of Mercy, whom she assisted in instructing the little inmates of the House for Homeless Children recently erected. Assuming the plain black habit of the institution in 1828, she conducted the affairs of the home while Mother McAuley and two foundress companions were making their novitiate in the Presentation Convent of George's Hill preparatory to the founding of the new congregation. After their return as professed Sisters of Mercy she and six companions assumed the garb of the congregation.\nIn 1837 Sister Mary Francis Xavier was appointed superior of the convent at Carlow, which had been built under her supervision and was the first house of the congregation outside of Dublin. In 1839 she founded the convent of Naas and in 1840 that of Weyford, to which soon after its establishment the public orphan asylum was affiliated. From Wexford foundations have been sent out as far as Australia. The convent of Sligo is perhaps the most noteworthy of her Irish foundations on account of its flourishing training-school for teachers. In 1843 Bishop O'Connor of Pittsburgh applied to Carlow for a foundation for his diocese, and Mother Warde with a band of six left for America. At Pittsburgh the sisters took charge of the cathedral Sunday school and the instruction of adults. Mother Warde's power of language and sympathy allied to ardent zeal won many to the Church. Parochial schools and academies, visitation of the sick poor in their houses and in the poor house, visitation of the penitentiary, and the opening of the first hospital in Pittsburgh followed each other in rapid succession. In 1846 a foundation was made in Chicago in compliance with Mother Warde's promise to Bishop Quarter. In 1848 she opened a second branch house in the Alleghanies on land given by the Reverend Demetrius Gallitzin within the limits of his Catholic settlement of Loretto. In 1850, though the \"Knownothings\" had recently burned the convent of the Ursulines near Boston, Mother Warde accepted the invitation of Bishop O'Reilly of Hartford to open a house in Providence. After the sisters' installation a mob surrounded the convent, threatening them with death if they would not immediately vacate the premises. Mother Warde exacted a promise from each of their Catholic defenders that no shot would be fired except in self defence, and the sisters held possession of the convent. One of the rioters had remarked to his companions:\nWe made our plans without reckoning the odds we shall have to contend with in the strong controlling force the presence of that nun commands. The only honourable course for us is to retreat from this ill-conceived fray. I, for one, shall not lift a hand to harm these ladies.\nIn 1852 Mother Warde opened houses in Hartford and New Haven to which free schools were attached; later on academies were opened and the works of mercy inaugurated. In 1854 Mrs. Goodloe Harper, daughter of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, donated to the congregation a house and some ground at Newport, R.I., for a convent and schools. Her daughter, Miss Emily Harper, was also a generous benefactor. In 1857 free and select schools were opened at Rochester, and later at Buffalo, by desire of Bishop Timon. On 16 July, 1858, Mother Warde and a band of missionaries left Providence for Manchester, by invitation of Bishop Bacon of Portland, and there established night schools for factory children. St. Mary's Academy was opened the same year. In 1861, at the request of Bishop Wood, Mother Warde opened a convent at Philadelphia, where free schools and the works of mercy were instituted. In 1864 a foundation was sent to Omaha; in 1865 a branch house and schools were opened at Bangor, Maine; in 1871 a colony of sisters was sent to Yreka, California, and North Whitefield Mission, Maine, was undertaken by Mother Warde, who likewise sent foundations to Jersey City, Bordentown, and Princeton, N.J. In 1857 Bishop Bacon requested her to open an orphanage in Portland, but a disastrous fire delayed the work until 1872, when the Burlington foundation had been begun. The Kavanagh School was given to the sisters by Miss Winifred Kavanagh; an academy was also opened at Portland. On the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, 1878, Mother Warde sent the sisters to labour among the Indians of Maine at Old Town, Pleasant Point, and Dana's Point. The Government builds the schools houses and pays the sisters salaries for teaching the Indian children. Mother Warde's last works were the opening of an Old Ladies' Home and a Young Ladies' Academy at Deering, Maine. At the time of her golden jubilee in 1883 Mother Warde was the oldest Sister of Mercy living. Her salient characteristics were great purity of heart, earnestness of purpose, sincerity, and large-mindedness. She was exceedingly reserved, but sympathizing and compassionate towards others. Endowed with rare common-sense, she was an optimist in all things. In appearance she was of medium height, erect, and of commanding presence; her forehead was high, and her blue eyes deeply set.\nLife of Mother M. Xavier Warde (Manchester); Annals of Sisters of Mercy, III-IV.\nAPA citation. (1912). Mary Francis Xavier Warde. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15553a.htm\nMLA citation. \"Mary Francis Xavier Warde.\" The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15553a.htm>.\nTranscription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Thomas M. Barrett. Dedicated to my grandmother, Mary Loretta Ashley Barrett.\nEcclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. October 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.\nContact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback \u2014 especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2e8c73cc-348b-45d1-a6e1-488e5dd5cd57>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15553a.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9683645963668823, "token_count": 1447, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "EVEN a material 10 billion times as strong as steel has a breaking point. It seems neutron stars may shatter under extreme forces, explaining puzzling X-ray flares.\nNeutron stars are dense remnants of stars gone supernova, packing the mass of the sun into a sphere the size of a city. Their cores may be fluid, but their outer surfaces are solid and extremely tough - making graphene, the strongest material on Earth, look like tissue paper by comparison.\nThese shells may shatter, though, in the final few seconds before a pair of neutron stars merges to form a black hole - a union thought to generate explosions known as short gamma-ray bursts.\nDavid Tsang of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena and colleagues have calculated how the mutual gravitational pull of such stars will distort their shape, creating moving tidal bulges. As the stars spiral towards each other, orbiting ever faster, they squeeze and stretch each other ever faster too.\nA few seconds before the stars merge, the frequency of this squeezing and stretching matches the frequency at which one of the stars vibrates most easily. This creates a resonance that boosts the vibrations dramatically, causing the star's crust to crack in many places - just as a wine glass may shatter when a certain note is sung, the team says (Physical Review Letters, DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.108.011102).\nThe star's gravity is too powerful to let the pieces fly away, but the sudden movement can disturb its magnetic field, accelerating electrons and leading to a powerful X-ray flare. That could explain observations by NASA's Swift satellite in which a blast of X-rays preceded some short gamma-ray bursts by a few seconds.\nCombining observations of X-ray flares with those of gravitational waves emitted by the stars as they spiral together could fix the exact frequency at which the shattering occurs, which would reveal more about the stars' mysterious interiors, says Tsang.\nIf you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to.\nHave your say\nOnly subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in.\nOnly personal subscribers may leave comments on this article", "id": "<urn:uuid:dde9296d-febe-4cf0-8ed1-a0f99cdc6029>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg21328484.300-glimpse-elusive-matter-in-shattering-star.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9301506280899048, "token_count": 484, "score": 3.921875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The world economy is being reshaped by new technologies, services, and trading relationships. Much of this dynamism is fuelled by ambitious developing-world nation-states like Brazil, India and South Africa. As governments, businesses and regional blocs in the global south expand their horizons, they increasingly bypass rich northern states. But is this south-south cooperation any more progressive or less selfish than the more familiar and hegemonic north-south relationship?\nThe idea of south-south cooperation started to influence the field of development studies in the late 1990s. It was fuelled by a growing realisation that poor nations might find appropriate, low-cost and sustainable solutions to their problems in other developing countries rather than in the rich north. It drew on clear examples of existing waste and alternative opportunity; for example, if African farmers need boreholes to access water, it surely makes more sense to access Indias huge pool of expertise than to send expensive European water engineers.\nThe concept quickly spread from the seminar room to the policy chamber. By 1997, Britains new department for international development (DfID) explicitly aimed under its first minister, Clare Short to withdraw from its aid programmes any requirement to use British service providers. The intention was to encourage recipient governments to spend the aid more effectively especially on solutions sourced from other developing nations.\nBy the early 2000s, some forward-thinking developing nations themselves were incorporating this altruistic principle into their foreign policies. Lu\u00eds Ign\u00e1cio Lula da Silvas Brazil is just beginning to make Africa part of its wider effort to build the countrys global profile; recently it granted fellow-Lusophone Mozambique a project to install and staff its own factory producing anti-retroviral HIV drugs, thus reducing its reliance on expensive imports.\nChina and Africa\nAn even more potent example of south-south cooperation is the Peoples Republic of China. Chinas presence in Africa goes back centuries: archaeologists digging in the ruins of Africas great medieval trading states at Timbuktu and Great Zimbabwe have found fine porcelain and other evidence of a trading network that spanned half the world. After the PRC was founded in 1949, the new state based its relations with the developing world on a defined doctrine, the five principles of peaceful coexistence; it also used its own legacy of colonial aggression and experience of liberation to forge links with the African nation-states emerging from colonial rule. China in the 1960s lacked the resources of the cold-war superpowers, but still invested significant energies in support of independent Africa. The PRC, driven by perceived ideological, anti-imperialist affinities, dispatched Chinese technicians to nominally leftist states to provide military training, modest economic aid and infrastructural monuments to socialist solidarity. The era of liberation wars in the 1970s saw China choose sides and patronise its favoured forces, as in Angola. This interest receded in the 1980s as Chinese development efforts were diverted inwards. But the post-Tiananmen period gave earlier ideological bonds a fresh twist: the hostility of many African leaders to democratic pressures and (especially) western, hegemonic conceptions of human rights chimed with Chinas own preconceptions. Throughout the 1990s, China increased its aid to African governments and resumed its earlier rhetoric of mutual respect and concern for diversity a discourse that resounded strongly in a continent highly attuned to the perceived neo-colonial reflexes of the former ruling powers. In return, Beijing received recognition of its sovereignty over Taiwan, indifference to its human-rights abuses, and support in international organisations. In 2000, a new China-Africa cooperation forum agreed a joint economic and social programme, one that lent a developmental and commercial slant to the five principles. China has subsequently been well in advance of the G8 by cancelling $10 billion of the debt it is owed by African states; at the second Sino-Africa business conference in December 2003, China offered further debt relief to thirty-one African countries, as well as opening the prospect of zero-tariff trade.\nThe tensions in what might be called Chinas developmental evangelism in Africa are evident. The ideological underpinnings retain some potency and the principle of non-interference in domestic politics persists. But as Chinese commercial interests dominate the relationship, the strain of avoiding entanglement in ethically and politically complex questions increases. For China, insensitivity to human-rights abuses can be finessed as respecting cultural diversity, but this gets harder in a more open, regulated trading environment.\nRapid economic growth in China in the last decade, coupled with oil exploration and economic diversification in west-central Africa, has created new links. More than 60% of African timber exports are now destined for east Asia; 25% of Chinas oil supplies are now sourced in the gulf of Guinea region.\nChina-Zimbabwe: a special relationship\nBut China is moving beyond merely securing essential inputs to acquiring stakes in potentially productive African enterprises. Zimbabwe is a prime example of the kind of place where China likes to do business. In return for bailing out Robert Mugabes regime with injections of cash, machinery, equipment and military supplies, Chinese state-owned enterprises have assembled a portfolio of shares in some of Zimbabwes prize assets.\nIn buying a 70% stake in the Zimbabwes only electricity generation facilities at Hwange and Kariba, and stakes in the national railway, the Chinese have stepped in where other developing nations (even Libya) have feared to tread. And on a micro-level, Chinese entrepreneurs are quickly supplanting small-scale retailers and local manufactures on Harares streets.\nZimbabwes deteriorating political situation and asset-hungry officials may deter most private investors, but the Chinese government can instruct managers of state enterprises to take the risk, rely on good intergovernmental relations to guarantee investment flow, and depend on state coffers to absorb any loss in the last resort.\nChinas lack of domestic political criticism, meanwhile, frees its government and companies from reputational risks and pressures that can leave western-based companies exposed. Informed, responsible shareholders might be cautious about backing state-led projects in Sudan or Mauritania which rely on a brutally-enforced stability; such issues have little visibility to the Chinese public.\nChinas new hard-nosed Africa policy gives it a strong incentive to circumvent the kind of multilateral aid and investment agendas promoted by Britains Tony Blair and Gordon Brown at the G8 summit, with their inconvenient governance concerns and transparency provisions. As China moves towards becoming the third-largest investor in Africa, its unilateralism will impact on the internal continental map.\nThe South African alternative\nAmidst the dynamism of the east Asian economies, it is tempting to forget that the continent itself is generating an economic powerhouse. South Africa, freed of its apartheid-era isolationist shackles, has become an interested and aggressive explorer of the rest of the continent. The South African model is mixed: private companies led the charge into the new mobile telecommunications sphere, household names like Shoprite followed across the continent, while para-statals (state-owned enterprises) are also active.\nThabo Mbekis economically liberal instincts have been contained by the job-loss fears of his leftist coalition partners, and he has commercialised rather than fully privatised key state enterprises such as the power utility Eskom. This entity has reinforced Mbekis peace plan for the Democratic Republic of Congo by committing its own $500-million investment to the Inga dam, the 3,500-megawatt hydroelectric facility on the Congo river. This project would undoubtedly light up the DRCs cities but Eskoms greatest benefit is probably tying the potentially huge electricity resource into a regional grid which would feed much-needed power supplies to South Africas industrial zones.\nThis project aptly sums up the dual nature of developing-world investment in Africa. Is such investment, as Mbeki would have it, good for all involved or is it simply a new wave of economic colonisation which will leave most of Africa with as few benefits as in the past? As the developing nations themselves come to rival the investment presence of the G8 and former colonial powers in Africa, it is salutary to recall that south-south cooperation may be more efficient and less wasteful than the wests grand gestures but it is no less self-interested.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0cf1c4ac-c078-4872-b063-38459d65e7e6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-africa_democracy/south_2658.jsp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9492788314819336, "token_count": 1710, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has issued action plans to address the potential health risks of two chemicals used in making polyurethane polymers, adhesives, sealants and coatings.\nBoth plans focus on \u201cthe potential health effects that may result from exposures to the consumer or self-employed worker while using products containing uncured (unreacted) diisocyanates (e.g., spray-applied foam sealants, adhesives, and coatings)\u201d and from incidental exposures to the general population.\nThe plans identify a range of actions the agency is considering under the authority of the Toxic Substances Control Act.\n\u201cThere has been an increase in recent years in promoting the use of foams and sealants by do-it-yourself energy-conscious homeowners, and many people may now be unknowingly exposed to risks from these chemicals,\u201d said Steve Owens, assistant administrator for EPA\u2019s Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention.\n|OSHA regulates workplace exposure to diisocyanate compounds.|\nThe two new plans are the latest in EPA\u2019s program of Chemical Action Plans\nlaunched in 2009. EPA is also currently crafting an Action Plan for siloxanes.\nUncured Compounds at Issue\nDiisocyanates are used to make polyurethane polymers. Most polyurethane products, such as foam mattresses or bowling balls, are fully reacted (cured) and not of concern. Adhesives, coatings, spray foam and other products, however, continue to react while in use and may contain \"uncured\" diisocyanates to which people may be exposed, according to EPA.\nDiisocyanates are known to cause severe skin and breathing responses in workers who have been repeatedly exposed to them. The chemicals have been documented as a leading cause of work-related asthma, and in severe cases, fatal reactions have occurred, EPA says.\nThe Occupational Safety and Health Administration currently regulates workplace exposures through Permissible Exposure Limits. EPA plans to consider the potential risks from consumer exposure to these chemicals.\nThe spray foam industry notes that \u201cpersons developing sensitivity to isocyanates may have dangerous systemic reactions to extremely small exposures, including respiratory failure.\u201d In a report on respiratory protection, it notes: \u201cMDI should be not be heated or sprayed except with strict engineering controls and personal protective equipment.\u201d\nPossible actions to address concerns associated with TDI, MDI and related compounds include:\n- Issuing rules to gather data on significant adverse effects;\n- Obtaining unpublished health and safety data from industry sources;\n- Requiring exposure monitoring studies for consumer products; and\n- Banning or restricting consumer products containing uncured MDI or TDI.\nEPA said it would work \u201cwith other federal agencies, the polyurethanes industry, and others to ensure improved labeling and provide comprehensive product safety information for polyurethane products containing uncured compounds, especially in consumer products.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:c5674089-9d98-475c-9e00-73f296f3dfb0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.paintsquare.com/news/?fuseaction=view&id=5435", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9378237128257751, "token_count": 632, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Right now, the accelerator is stopped for the annual maintenance shutdown. This is the opportunity to fix all problems that occurred during the past year both on the accelerator and the experiments. The detectors are opened and all accessible malfunctioning equipment is being repaired or replaced.\nIn the 27-km long LHC tunnel, surveyors are busy getting everything realigned to a high precision, while various repairs and maintenance operations are on their way. By early March, all magnets will have been cooled down again and prepared for operation.\nThe experimentalists are not only working on their detectors but also improving all aspects of their software: the detector simulations, event reconstruction algorithms, particle identification schemes and analysis techniques are all being revised.\nBy late March, the LHC will resume colliding protons with the goal of delivering about 16 inverse femtobarns of data, compared to 5 inverse femtobarns in 2011. This will enable the experiments to improve the precision of all measurements achieved so far, push all searches for new phenomena slightly further and explore areas not yet tackled. The hope is to discover particles associated with new physics revealing the existence of new phenomena. The CMS and ATLAS physicists are looking for dozens of hypothetical particles, the Higgs boson being the most publicized but only one of many.\nWhen protons collide in the LHC accelerator, the energy released materializes in the form of massive but unstable particles. This is a consequence of the well-known equation E=mc2, which simply states that energy (represented by E) and mass (m) are equivalent, each one can change into the other. The symbol c2 represents the speed of light squared and acts like a conversion factor. This is why in particle physics we measure particle masses in units of energy like GeV (giga electronvolt) or TeV (tera electronvolt). One electronvolt is the energy acquired by an electron through a potential difference of one volt.\nIt is therefore easier to create lighter particles since less energy is required. Over the past few decades, we have already observed the lighter particles countless times in various experiments. So we know fairly well how many events containing them we should observe. We can tell when new particles are created when we see more events of a certain topology than what we expect from those well-known phenomena, which we refer to as the background.\nWe can claim that something additional and new is also occurring when we see an excess of events. Of course, the bigger the excess, the easier it is to claim something new is happening. This is the reason why we accumulate so many events, each one being a snap-shots of the debris coming out of a proton-proton collisions. We want to be sure the excess cannot be due to some random fluctuation.\nSome of the particles we are looking for are expected to have a mass in the order of a few hundred GeV. This is the case for the Higgs boson and we already saw possible signs of its presence last year. If the observed excess continues to grow as we collect more data in 2012, it will be enough to claim the Higgs boson discovery beyond any doubt in 2012 or rule it out forever.\nOther hypothetical particles may have masses as large as a few thousand GeV or equivalently, a few TeV. In 2011, the accelerator provided 7 TeV of energy at the collision point. The more energy the accelerator has, the higher the reach in masses, just like one cannot buy a 7000 CHF car with 5000 CHF. So to create a pair of particles with a mass of 3.5 TeV (or 3500 GeV), one needs to provide at least 7 TeV to produce them. But since some of the energy is shared among many particles, the effective limit is lower than the accelerator energy.\nThere are ongoing discussions right now to decide if the LHC will be operating at 8 TeV this year instead of 7 TeV as in 2011. The decision will be made in early February.\nIf CERN decides to operate at 8 TeV, the chances of finding very heavy particles will slightly increase, thanks to the extra energy available. This will be the case for searches for particles like the W\u2019 or Z\u2019, a heavier version of the well-known W and Z bosons. For these, collecting more data in 2012 will probably not be enough to push the current limits much farther. We will need to wait until the LHC reaches full energy at 13 or 14 TeV in 2015 to push these searches higher than in 2011 where limits have already been placed around 1 TeV.\nFor LHCb and ALICE, the main goal is not to find new particles. LHCb aims at making extremely precise measurements to see if there are any weak points in the current theoretical model, the Standard Model of particle physics. For this, more data will make a whole difference. Already in 2011, they saw the first signs of CP-violation involving charm quarks and hope to confirm this observation. This measurement could shed light on why matter overtook antimatter as the universe expanded after the Big Bang when matter and antimatter must have been created in equal amounts. They will also investigate new techniques and new channels.\nMeanwhile, ALICE has just started analyzing the 2011 data taken in November with lead ion collisions. The hope is to better understand how the quark-gluon plasma formed right after the Big Bang. This year, a special run involving collisions of protons and lead ions should bring a new twist in this investigation.\nExploring new corners, testing new ideas, improving the errors on all measurements and most likely the final answer on the Higgs, that is what we are in with the LHC for in 2012. Let\u2019s hope that in 2012 the oriental dragon, symbol of perseverance and success, will see our efforts bear fruit.\nTo be alerted of new postings, follow me on Twitter: @GagnonPauline or sign-up on this mailing list to receive and e-mail notification.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f37ea100-b3b9-472e-bffa-c0ee6d515f58>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.quantumdiaries.org/2012/01/20/2012-the-year-of-the-dragon/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9405916333198547, "token_count": 1236, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Print This Page\nContribute to ReadWriteThink / RSS / FAQs / Site Demonstrations / Contact Us\nHome \u203a Email\nLesson Plan | Standard Lesson\nAuthor: Carolyn Wilhelm\nChildren find favorite words, phrases, and sentences from familiar stories. Working together, they combine their words and phrases to create a poem. The poem is then shared as performance poetry.\n(A link to this page will be included in your message.)\nBack to this resource\nSend me a copy\n(Separate multiple e-mail addresses with commas. Limited to 20 addresses.)\ncharacters remaining 300\nTo help us eliminate spam messages,\nplease type the characters shown in the image.\n\u00a9 2013 IRA/NCTE. All rights reserved.\nTechnical Help | Legal | International Reading Association | National Council of Teachers of English", "id": "<urn:uuid:b9407660-5cff-455b-8e5b-ebe0d9dae588>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.readwritethink.org/util/email.html?url=/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/bear-poem-composing-performing-835.html?tab=6&title=A+Bear+of+a+Poem%3A+Composing+and+Performing+Found+Poetry&id=835", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8097700476646423, "token_count": 171, "score": 3.265625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The hoary marmot (Marmota caligata), the Alaska marmot (M. broweri), and the woodchuck (M. monax) are the three species of marmots that live in Alaska. The hoary marmot can be found at the bases of active talus slopes in the mountains of central, southeastern, and southwestern Alaska. It also occurs down to sea level along some areas of the coast. The Alaska marmot lives in similar talus habitat throughout much of the Brooks Range. The woodchuck digs its den in loess (wind-deposited soils) along river valleys in the dry lowlands of eastcentral Alaska.\nGeneral description: Large relatives of the squirrel, the hoary and closely related Alaska marmots weigh 10 pounds (4.5 kg) or more and may exceed 24 inches (61 cm) in total length. The woodchuck weighs between 2 and 6 pounds (.4-2.7 kg). They may grow to be 20 inches (50.8 cm) long. The animals attain their maximum weight in late summer, when they accumulate thick layers of fat that will sustain them through winter hibernation. Body shape is similar in all three species: head short and broad, legs short, ears small, body thickset, tail densely furred, and front paws clawed for digging burrows. Hoary and Alaska marmots are predominantly gray with a darker lower back and face and a dark, reddish tail. The hoary marmot has a white patch above its nose and usually has dark brown feet, giving it the Latin name caligata, meaning \u201cbooted.\u201d The Alaska marmot does not have a white face patch, its feet may be light or dark, and its fur is much softer than the stiff fur of the hoary marmot. A uniform reddish brown, the woodchuck has an unmarked brown face. The name woodchuck originated as a Cree Indian word used to describe a number of similar-sized animals and does not describe characteristics of the woodchuck's behavior or habitat preference.\nLife history: In Alaska, all marmots mate in April or May. About a month later, two to six young are born hairless and blind. The young disperse two months after birth and may breed for the first time when they are 2 or 3 years old. Marmots may live to 5 years or more. They feed on grasses, flowering plants, berries, roots, mosses, and lichens.\nHoary and Alaska marmots make their summer homes on the bases of active talus slopes, where the rocks protect them from predators and provide lookout stations. Woodchuck dens may be up to 30 feet long, are dug in the loamy soils of river valleys in Interior Alaska, and end with a chamber containing a large grass nest. Most marmot dens have a main entrance with a mound of dirt near the hole and a number of concealed entrances. Marmots are social animals. Although each family has a separate burrow, these burrows are located near each other, forming a colony.\nTrue hibernators, marmots enter a state of torpor in winter during which all bodily functions are reduced. Hoary marmots and woodchucks hibernate alone in the same burrows in which they spent the summer. To protect themselves from the cold, they plug the tunnel leading to the nest chamber with a mixture of dirt, vegetation, and feces. They emerge from their winter hibernation in April or early May to find food and mates. Adapted to the harsher winter climate of the Brooks Range, Alaska marmots create a special winter den which has a single entrance and is characteristically located on an exposed ridge that becomes snow-free in early spring. The entrance is plugged after all colony members are inside, and no animals can leave until the plug thaws in early May. Consequently, Alaska marmots mate before they emerge from their winter den. These dens are relatively permanent for each colony, and some are used for more than 20 years. Because hibernation begins in September, most marmots in Alaska spend two-thirds of each year locked in their winter dens.\nMarmots are most active in early morning and late afternoon, although they may leave their burrows during other daylight hours. Marmots need wind to control mosquito levels and rarely venture out on calm days. The Alaska marmot marks its territory by rubbing its face and glands on rocks and along trails. The hoary marmot probably marks its territory in the same way.\nThe pelt colors of marmots help them blend with the lichen-colored rocks or rusty-brown soil of their surroundings. Nevertheless, marmots remain alert for predators including eagles, foxes, coyotes, wolves, and bears. When the Alaska marmot is alarmed, it produces a slurred, low-pitched warning call. The alarm call of both hoary marmot and the woodchuck is a loud whistle. They also hiss, squeal, growl, and yip. In areas where marmots are hunted by humans, they have learned to remain quiet when humans approach. Good climbers and swimmers, woodchucks may also take to trees or water to avoid predators.\nMarmots often secondarily benefit other animals and plants. Abandoned marmot holes can become homes for small mammals. In moderation, their digging and defecation loosen, aerate, and improve the soil. Alaska Natives have long relished marmot meat and used its thick coat for warm clothing. Although these wary animals are difficult to approach closely, persistent observers are rewarded by the fascinating sight of a marmot community.\nThe northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus yukonensis) is a gliding (volplaning) mammal that is incapable of true flight like birds and bats. There are 25 subspecies across North America with Interior Alaska being the most northern and western limit of the species' range. The generic name, Glaucomys, is from the Greek glaukos (silver, gray) and mys (mouse). Sabrinus is derived from the latin word sabrina (river-nymph) and refers to the squirrel's habit of living near streams and rivers.\nGeneral description: Adult flying squirrels average 4.9 ounces (139 gm) in weight and 12 inches (30 cm) in total length. The tail is broad, flattened, and feather-like. A unique feature of the body is the lateral skin folds (patagia) on each side that stretch between front and hind legs and function as gliding membranes. This squirrel is nocturnal and has large eyes that are efficient on the darkest nights. Eye shine color is a distinctive reddish-orange. Flying squirrel pelage is silky and thick with the top of the body light brown to cinnamon, the sides grayish, and the belly whitish.\nHabitat requirements: Flying squirrels require a forest mosaic that includes adequate denning and feeding areas. Den sites include tree cavities and witches' brooms. Tree cavities are most numerous in old forests where wood rot, frost cracking, woodpeckers, and carpenter ants have created or enlarged cavities. Witches' brooms, clumps of abnormal branches caused by tree rust diseases, are the most common denning sites of flying squirrels in Interior Alaska. About November or December, when temperatures begin to drop sharply, flying squirrels move out of cavities and into brooms. In the coldest periods of winter, they form aggregations of two or more individuals in the brooms and sleep in torpor.\nFeeding areas preferred by flying squirrels contain fungi (mushrooms and truffles), berries, and tree lichens and may be in either young or old forests. Dried fungi cached in limbs by red squirrels are sometimes stolen by flying squirrels.\nFlying squirrels probably get water from foods they eat and rain, dew, and snow. Constant sources of free water (lakes, ponds, and watercourses) do not appear to be a stringent habitat requirement.\nIn a year's time, a flying squirrel in Interior Alaska may use as many as 13 different den trees within 19.8 acres (8 ha). On a night foray, a squirrel may travel as far as 1.2 miles (2 km) in a circular route and be away from its den tree for up to 7 hours. It may change den trees at night and move to different ones more than 20 times over a year, staying in each for a varying numbers of days. Den trees with brooms are used more than twice as much as trees with cavities.\nFairly dense, old closed-canopy forests with logs and corridors of trees (especially conifers) that are spaced close enough to glide between are needed for cover from predators. High quality flying squirrel habitat can be a community mosaic of small stands of varying age classes in which there is a mix of tall conifers and hardwoods. Part of the mosaic must be old coniferous forest with den trees containing witches' brooms, woodpecker cavities, and natural cavities for nesting sites. Riparian zones provide excellent habitat in all coniferous forest associations.\nLife history: Flying squirrels in Alaska may breed anytime from March to late June, depending on length and severity of the winter. The female can breed before 11 months of age and give birth at about 1 year of age. Gestation requires about 37 days, so the young are born from May to early July. One litter of two per year is probably the usual case for Alaska, but they are known to have litters ranging from one to six in other parts of their range. At birth, the young flying squirrel (nestling) is hairless, and its eyes and ears are closed. Development is slow in comparison with other mammals of similar size. Their eyes open at about 25 days, and they nurse for about 60 to 70 days. By day 240, the young are fully grown and cannot be distinguished from adults by body measurements and fur characteristics. Mortality rate for flying squirrels 1 and 2 years old is about 50 percent, and few live past 4 years of age. Complete population turnover can occur by the third year.\nIndividual flying squirrels nest in tree cavities, witches' brooms, and drays. In Interior Alaska, most brooms and cavity entrances have southerly exposures. Nests in cavities are usually located about 25 feet above the ground but may range between 5 and 45 feet. Flying squirrels excavate chambers in witches' brooms and line them with nesting materials. A dray nest is a ball-like mass of mosses, twigs, lichens, and leaves with shredded bark and lichens forming the lining of the chamber. Flying squirrels build drays entirely by themselves or modify the nests of other species (e.g., bird nests, red squirrel nests). The dray is usually positioned close to the trunk on a limb or whorl of branches with its entrance next to the trunk. Most drays in Alaska are probably conifers.\nFood habits: The flying squirrel is omnivorous. While little is known about its diet in Alaska, the food it consumes in other parts of its range include mushrooms, truffles, lichens, fruits, green vegetation, nuts, seeds, tree buds, insects, and meat (fresh, dried, or rotted). Nestling birds and birds' eggs may also be eaten. Those observed foraging in the wild in Interior Alaska ate mushrooms (fresh and dried), truffles, berries, tree lichens, and the newly flushed growth tips on white spruce limbs. In spring, summer, and fall the diet is mostly fresh fungi. In winter it's mostly lichens. Flying squirrels are not known to cache fungi for winter in Alaska, but they are known to do so elsewhere in their range. Witches' brooms and tree cavities would be likely places to find their caches.\nPredators and parasites: Owls, hawks, and carnivorous mammals prey on flying squirrels. Primary predators are probably the great horned owl, goshawk, and marten due to their common occurrence and widespread range in Alaska's forests. Three different flea species may infest a single squirrel.\nEconomic and ecological value: Flying squirrels are important to forest regeneration and timber production because they disperse spores of ectomycorrhizal fungi like truffles. Truffles are fruiting bodies of a special type of fungus that matures underground. They are dependent upon animals to smell them out, dig them up, consume them, and disperse their spores in fecal material where the animal travels. The animal serves to inoculate disturbed sites (e.g., clearcuts, burned areas) with mycorrhizae that join symbiotically with plant roots and enhance their ability to absorb nutrients and maintain health. The flying squirrel's ecological role in forest ecosystems, therefore, gives it economic value. In addition, they may be important prey for a variety of hawks, owls, small carnivores, and furbearers like marten, lynx, and red fox. Many Alaskans value flying squirrels just for their interesting habits and aesthetic qualities.\nManagement considerations: Logging for house logs, wood for fuel, and lumber can have devastating effects on flying squirrel populations if clearcut size is too large or if some scattered tall conifers in large cuts are not retained as cover and for travel across the open spaces. Management should include retention of other squirrel species in shared habitats. Snags with woodpecker holes or other natural cavities and coniferous trees with witches' brooms must also be maintained in managed forests in order to provide adequate habitat for flying squirrels.\nThe red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) makes itself quite conspicuous with its lively habits and noisy chatter. Cone cuttings on stumps or rocks are common and tracks in snow are numerous where this squirrel occurs. It can be found in spruce forests over most of Alaska and has a wide range in North America. It occupies a wide variety of forest habitat, occurring in the hardwood forests of eastern North America and the coniferous forests of the west and north.\nGeneral description: The active rodent averages 11 to 13 inches in length (28-33 cm), including tail, and is a rusty-olive color on the upper parts of its body with a whitish belly and underparts. In summer, a dark stripe on the side separates the upper rusty color from the white of the belly. The bushy tail is often a lighter orange or red with light tipped hairs.\nLife history: Red squirrels are solitary but pair for mating in February and March. Females usually breed when they are 1 year old. Three to seven young are born after a gestation period of 36 to 40 days. The young are born blind and hairless, weighing about \u00bc ounce at birth. They are weaned at about 5 weeks but remain with the female until almost adult size.\nThe young leave the female and are independent during their first winter. This means that they have to be successful at gathering and storing a winter's supply of food.\nBehavior: Much of the red squirrel's time in the summer is spent cutting and storing green spruce cones. There may be several bushels of cones stored in a cache. Caches may attain a diameter of 15 to 18 feet and a depth of 3 feet. Red squirrels also cache mushrooms on tree branches. They eat seeds, berries, buds, fungi, and occasionally insects and birds' eggs. They are busy collecting and storing food from early morning until dusk and also on moonlit nights.\nNests may be a hole in a tree trunk or a tightly constructed mass of twigs, leaves, mosses, and lichens in the densest foliage of a tree (making the nest almost completely weatherproof). A loose mass of twigs and leafy debris in a high tree is used as a \u201cfair weather\u201d nest. Their ground burrows, also known as middens, are used mostly for food storage. There is usually one large active midden in each territory with perhaps an inactive or auxiliary midden.\nThe home range of red squirrels is about \u00bd to 1 acre, and each squirrel knows its territory well. Each squirrel has several nests in its territory and always seems to know which retreat is nearest. Territorial behavior seems to be most rigid during caching of food and relaxes somewhat in the spring.\nThe red squirrel is active all year but may remain in its nest during severe cold spells and inclement weather. They are agile climbers and, being extremely curious, will often attempt to enter buildings, upsetting anything they can move and gnawing on woodwork. Once in a house or cabin, they can be very destructive, tearing out insulation and mattress stuffing for use as nesting material and caching food stores in any available niche.\nPredators: The main predators of red squirrels are hawks, owls, and marten. Other predators may occasionally take a squirrel but are not serious threats. Around populated areas, one of the predators is the domestic housecat.\nHuman use: The red squirrel is used to a limited extent by man for food and fur. Squirrels may be small but the meat is good eating. In parts of Canada and Alaska the pelts are sold for their fur. Red squirrels may damage trees, cutting off twigs by the bushel, but they are also helpful because they distribute and plant seeds of spruce and other trees.\nThe Arctic Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus Parryii) was named \"tsik-tsik\" by the Inupiat Eskimos on account of a call this little rodent makes when it is alarmed?\nTsik-tsiks are found in both arctic and alpine tundra. They fatten themselves on seeds, mushrooms and berries\u2014almost doubling their body weight over the summer\u2014in preparation for fall hibernation. Although they insulate their winter burrows with grasses and block the entrances with dirt, winter temperatures inside the burrows still fall well below 0\u00b0 F.\nDuring hibernation, the body temperature of the arctic ground squirrel drops from 98.6\u00b0 F to 26.4\u00b0 F\u2014that's below the freezing point of water and is the lowest known body temperature of any living mammal. Most mammals, including people, would be frozen solid at that body temperature! Scientists aren't sure just how these diminutive rodents do it, but they apparently have developed a unique mechanism that allows their body fluids to become supercooled\u2014to fall below the freezing point without crystallizing into ice and damaging cell tissue.\nPeriodically throughout the winter, the tsik-tsik will rouse itself, briefly raising its body temperature more than 70\u00b0 F in four hours, before going back into hibernation. Not until late March or early April does the arctic ground squirrel finally emerge from its winter den to the light of another spring and six months of intense activity.\nArctic ground squirrels are the largest and most northern of the North American ground squirrels. This species is common in the ice-free mountainous regions of Denali. Permafrost and soil type are two of the most important factors limiting ground squirrel distribution in Denali.\nArctic ground squirrels are burrowing animals and they establish colonies in areas with well-drained soils and views of the surrounding landscape. Colonies often consist of multiple burrows and a maze of tunnels beneath the surface. Well-drained soils are important, as flooding of these burrows causes considerable problems for squirrels. Accordingly, squirrels usually avoid establishing colonies or excavating burrows where permafrost is close to the surface.\nLike many other arctic animals, arctic ground squirrels have unique physiological adaptations that allow them to survive during winter. Arctic ground squirrels are obligate hibernators and spend 7 to 8 months in hibernation. Researchers at the University of Alaska at Fairbanks have shown that during hibernation, arctic ground squirrels adopt the lowest body temperature ever measured in a mammal. The body temperature of hibernating squirrels drops below freezing, a condition referred to as supercooling. At intervals of two to three weeks, still in a state of sleep, hibernating squirrels shiver and shake for 12 to 15 hours to create heat that warms them back to a normal body temperature of about 98 degrees Fahrenheit. When the shivering and shaking stops, body temperature drops back to the minimal temperature. This type of hibernation is rare among mammals and scientists are still studying this unique physiological behavior.\nIn Denali, ground squirrels are active from late April to early October, but the sexes and age-classes show some differences in their annual activity patterns. Adult males are usually the first to emerge from hibernation. They dig their way through the snow and stay relatively close to their burrows until the snow cover melts. Breeding occurs in May and a single litter of 5 to 10 pups is born in June. The young develop rapidly and usually emerge from their burrows in mid-July. By late summer, young abandon their natal burrow and occupy a neighboring, empty burrow or excavate a new one.\nAdults start hibernating as soon as they have enough body fat to survive the winter, often in late August when plenty of foods are still available. It is probably safer to enter hibernation early, even when foods are accessible, than to remain on the surface vulnerable to predators. Youngsters, however, take much longer to find foods and put on body fat and they are often active until late September. This means that youngsters are more vulnerable to predation than adults.\nThe diet of arctic ground squirrels is diverse and opportunistic. They eat many types of vegetation including the leaves, seeds, fruits, stems, flowers, and roots of many species of grasses, forbs, and woody plants. They also eat mushrooms and meat from freshly killed animals (including ground squirrels). Because they are active only during the short subarctic summer, arctic ground squirrels must be efficient foragers. As summer progresses, they put on a tremendous amount of fat stores for the winter and often double their body weight by the time they enter hibernation in fall.\nThe social behavior of arctic ground squirrels is complex. This species is highly territorial and squirrels may kill other squirrels over territorial disputes. However, other related females in the colony often care for orphaned youngsters. Further, territorial behavior lessens during late summer, and male squirrels may move between colonies or establish colonies of their own.\nSo many different predators eat arctic ground squirrels that Adolph Murie called them the \"staff of life\" in Denali. They are one of the most important summer food sources for golden eagles, gyrfalcons, foxes, and grizzly bears.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d873cdc6-8d07-4cc3-bc37-832d9f00ff94>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rso.cornell.edu/squirrelclub/squirrelmap/states/AK.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9550888538360596, "token_count": 4751, "score": 4.0625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A Collection of Informative and Interesting Articles\nAbsolutely Free - Start Sharing Your Knowledge Today!\nHome | Submit Articles | Login\nOnline Since Year 2000\nThe Images of Back Children in Gwendolyn Brook's Poetry: A StudyBY: p.suresh kumar R.panneerselvam | Category: Education | Submitted: 2012-04-13 08:18:42\nIn between, her poetic achievement is marked by gradual and progressive ascent. She became the first African American poet to win the Pulitzer Prize in 1950, membership of the Academy if Arts and Letters un 1976, winning if two Guggenheim awards, poet laureateship of Illinois in 1968, the award by the National Endowment for Arts in 1989,JJeffrson lectureship by the National Endowments of the Humanities in 1994, the National Medals of Arts award in 1995, the \"First Woman\" award from the Federal Government in 1999, and more than fifty honorary decorates from various colleges and universities.\nBrools's creative output extends over a period of six decades. Her poetry is distinctive not only in her handling of multiplicity of forms but also in her craftsmanship. She has committed herself to the ideals of social justice for her race and sex as well as ro the aesthetics of art. The issues of racism and an authentic identity have been the recurrent themes of African American Writers. Witnessing the growth of black literature by stages-form anger to defiance, to protest, to recognition, to search for identity, and to reconciliation, Brooks wrote poetry that was at once potent, provocative, poignant, and starling, a poetry that resisted racism, asserted black consciousness, and upheld the black values, a poetry that instilled a new faith in self-reliance and dignity, and a poetry that can be a source of inspiration of succeeding generations writers.\nA study of Brooks's poetry will be incomplete without a study of her poetry for children, who also encounter the same kind of racial discrimination which the adult balcks are subjected to in the racially prejudiced America. Before 1967, Brooks published only one volume of poetry ofr children: Bronzeville Boys and Gorls(1956). The book consists of thirty-four poems, which are illustrated by Ronnai Solbert. All these poems portray the individual experiences of thirty-seven children, but Brooks is objective and detached in her portrayal of these boys and girls.\nIn poems written in couplets, the first line rhymes with the second, the third line rhymes with the foruth, and so on:\nI have a secret place to go.\nNot any one may know.\nAnd sometimes when the wind is rough\nI cannot get there fast enough\nBrooks is sensitive to the prosodic features of language:\nThe loudness in the road\nAnd laughs away from me.\nIt laughs a lovely whiteness,\nAnd whitely whirs away,\nSome other where,\nStill white as milk or shirts.\nSo beautiful it hurts.\nThe compound image \"flitter-twitter\" defines the delicate motion of the snow. The onomatopoeic words \"SUSHES\" and \"hushes\" convey the power of the silent and quite snow to quell \"the loudness in the road.\" \"Loudness\" suggests the traffic and noise, which stand in opposition to the silence of the world of nature. The irregular length of the lines suggests the irregular but the motion of the snow.\nFurther, Brooks's poems for children cannot be categorized as nonsense verses. On the contrary, they are sensible verses. Though they appeal to our imagination, the children in her poems do not live in a pastoral, romantic, or idealized world. They are always the poor black children living in the urban ghettos. They suffer poverty and entrapment. In Gwendolyn Brooks: Poetry and the Heroic voice, Melhem argues that Brooks\" Acknowldges no cruel children but implies cruelty, the indifference that sanctions poverty and compels children to be prematurely involved in adult problems\" (95).\nBrooks's description of the bleak experience of children is an compiled protest against the socioeconomic injustices that they encounter. In \"John, who is Poor,\" Brooks depicts the poverty of the black boy, John, who lives with his widowed mother. She request the children in the neighborhood to sympathize with him, and share their eatables with him:\nOh, little children, be good to John!-\nWho lives so lone and alone.\nWhose Mamma must hurry to toil all day.\nWhose papa is dead and done.\nGive him a berry, boys, when you may,\nAnd Girls, some mint when you can. (1-6)\nBut the poet dies not know\" when his hunger will end, No yet when it began\" (7-8).Brooks makes it clear that racial oppression is the causes of the sufferings of the black children. But her criticism is not overt. Further, she is objective in her description of their poverty, In keeping with the mood of the 1940s and1950s, she beloved that the whites would help the blacks solve their problems. But it took about eleven years, for her, from the year of her publication of Bronzeville Boys and Girls (1956), to realize that the whites remained indifferent to the problems of the blacks.\nAfter 1967, Brooks published three volumes of poetry for Children: Alones, The Tiger Who Wore White Gloves, and Children Coming Home. In Aloness (1971), A reflective poem of fifty-one lines, Brooks projects a child's experience of solitude. The drawings by Leroy Foster present an appealing little black boy. The nine postures of the boy are indicative of this none different moods. Unlike Bronzeville Boys and Girls, which is written in quatrains and couplets with rhyme, Aloneness is written in free verse without rhyme. It is written from the point of view of the black boy, who defines loneliness as the pain of being alone: \"Loneliness means you want somebody./You have not planned to stand somewhere with other people gone./ Loneliness never has a brought color . Perhaps it is gray\"1-3_). As the speaker is a child, the images are simple. The child imagines that the couloirs of loneliness are \"gray.\" The implied idea is the child's association of the color of loneliness with the4 black people's collective loneliness in the racially oppressive America. The child defines aloneness/solitude as the pleasure of beings alone: \"But aloneness is delicious\" (9). He compares aloneness with\" a red small apple\" (12). Then he turns to the image of a pond. Aloneness is \"like loving a pond in summer,\" a simile that graphs the child's experience of place and time (15). Nowhere does the poem mention about racial discrimination. But the poem is educational in tone. Brooks's aim is to develop a positive sense of identity among blacks.\nWhile Aloneness is in free verse, The Tiger Who Wore White Gloves or What You are You are is rhymed like\" Bronzeville Boys and Girls.\" The poem is illustrated by the drawings of Timothy Jones. It is a beast fable. Unlike Aloneness, Which is indirectly didactic, The Tiger is directly didactic, offering strategies for survival. The title implies human folly. The tiger wears white gloves to be fashionable, but his companions ridicule his strange behavior. The theme is self-acceptance and pride:\nTHAT TIGER FLOCK\nAQND WISELY WEARING\nWHAT'S FIERCR AS THE FACE.S\nNOT WHITNESS AND LACE. (15-23)\nThe \"tiger\" represents the black people. \"Whiteness\" Represents the spurious standards of beauty established by the whites. As a metaphor, \"gloves\" represents phenomena like the black people's return to hair-straightening, which, for Brooks, means aping the white values. The idea is that black is that black people should develop their own attributes and esteem them.\nAs a realist, Brooks always portrays what the blacks experience in society. Despite her commitment to black consciousness, she has not forgotten the continuous bleak experiences of the black-adults as well as children. the volume children coming home!1991), Brooks's children do not live in a romantic or an idealized world. They encounter social and economic injustices. In the prefatory poem, \"After School,\" Brooks delineates the odds against children:\n* Not all of the children\n* Come home to cookies and coca.\n* One will be shot on his way home to warmth, wit and wisdom. [t/o]\n* One teacher mutters\"My God, they are gone,\"[t/o]\n* One is ripe to report Ten People to the Principal. [t/o]\n*One whispers\"The Little Black Bastards.\"\nThe poem attests to the simplicity of her poetry written after 1967. In this dramatic monologue, written in a child's voice, Brooks has abandoned lyricism and rhyme, and \"deliberately abandoning the formal virtuosity that characterized her earlier work, Brooks represents children's voices through a seemingly simple, declarative method... (Flynnn494). The image of the innocent child exposes the evils of the social practices. Brooks's intention behind the exposition is to make the children\" seek out their own strength\" (495).\nBrooks. Gwendolyn. Bronzeville Boys and Girals. New York: Harper, 1956.\n---. Aloneness. Dotroit: Broadside, 1969.\n---.The Near-Johannesburg Boy, and Other Poems. Chicago: David, 1987.\n---.The tiger who wore white Gloves: Or You Are What You Are. Chicago: Third world. 1987.\n---.Children Coming Home. cChicago:David,1991\nFlynn, Richard. 'The Kindergarten of New Consciousness':\nCwendolyon Brooks and the Social Construction of Childhood.\"\nAfrican American Review 34.3(2000):483-99.\nMelhem,D.H. Gwendolyn Brooks: Poetry and the Heroic Voice. Kentucky: Up of Kentucky, 1989.\nArticle Source: http://www.saching.com/\nAbout Author / Additional Info:\nComments on this article: (0 comments so far)\n\u2022 Affiliate Marketing in ClickBank and Product Promotional Methods\n\u2022 Used Kitchen Equipment - Consider Buying them at Recycle Shops\n\u2022 Speech Development of Infants Traced to Their Exposure to Auditory Feedback\n\u2022 The Quest For Excellence\nLatest Articles in \"Education\" category:\n\u2022 Adolescence Educational Problem and Remedies\n\u2022 Regulations and the Future of Trade and Investment in Cameroon\n\u2022 How to Get Good Marks in Exam\n\u2022 Ensure Harm to the Client in Electronic Banking\n\u2022 Education System in India.\n\u2022 The Time to Prepare is Now for the Next Disaster\n\u2022 Benefits of Online English Classes\nImportant Disclaimer: All articles on this website are for general information only and is not a professional or experts advice. 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{"text": "Pageant of the Popes, by John Farrow, , at sacred-texts.com\nItaly and France and Spain all struggled to control the next conclave and the latter two powers did not hesitate to try and enlist the aid of Caesar Borgia. But happily the sinister creature was not as active at this important time as he could have been; for he was yet weak from his illness. \"I had counted on the death of my father and had made every preparation for it,\" he lamented, \"but it never occurred to me that I should have at the same time to fight death myself.\" However he threw his influence to favor the candidate of the French king. But to thwart him there now returned to Rome, after an exile of nearly ten years, the antagonist of his father, the experienced and veteran Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere who, friendly though he himself had been with the French, warned the cardinals that if a Frenchman were elected the papacy faced the danger of being returned to Avignon. There seemed then every chance of a deadlock but this prospect was so distasteful to the Sacred College that a name hitherto not mentioned was quickly presented and acclaimed and a month after Alexander's death the Cardinal Francesco Piccolomini, nephew of Pius II, became Pope Pius\n[paragraph continues] III. He was sixty-four years old and was a hopeless invalid; this latter circumstance was probably the real reason that won for him the votes of the conclave for his tenure was expected to be short. Nor were the macabre expectations disappointed. He died in less than a month but during that brief time displayed much charity and kindness and announced reform to be his aim.\nThere was no deadlock at the next conclave for by bargain and by bribe Cardinal della Rovere secured for himself thirty-seven of the thirty-eight votes in proceedings that did not extend a full day. After long years he had finally won the tiara and triumphantly taking the name of Julius II he set out to restore the strength and possessions of the Papal States. This was no easy task, for Alexander had left a sad confusion of debts and trouble, and great properties rightfully belonging to the Church were in the clutches of his son. The Republic of Venice was noisily claiming Romagna, Spain was occupying Sicily and Naples, and the French, ever resolved to maintain a foothold in Italy were willing to resort to arms against any who would oppose them. Julius had been given a domain bankrupt in treasury and bereft of defence but not for nothing had he earned the description of terrible. He was possessed of enormous physical strength and had the courage of a lion, and his will and determination matched both these qualities. His abilities were those of a warrior statesman rather than those of an ecclesiastic but they were talents appreciated by the Romans at this time. He was not a saint and three daughters were testimony that his earlier life had been no better than that of other Renaissance prelates; but, although he had a few relations in high places, the charge of nepotism has never been levelled against him. He won, it is true, elevation to the chair of St. Peter by dubious tactics but once enthroned he acted\nonly for the betterment, as he saw it, of that which had been placed in his care. In spite of his considerable years he was possessed of a driving energy. \"No one has any influence over him,\" reported the Venetian Ambassador. \"He consults few or none. Anything he has been thinking of overnight has to be carried out immediately the next morning, and he insists on doing everything himself. It is impossible to describe how headstrong and violent and difficult to manage he is. Everything about him is on a magnificent scale. There is nothing in him that is small or meanly selfish. Whatever is in his mind must be carried through, even if he himself were to perish in the attempt.\"\nHe despised the name of Borgia yet at the beginning of his reign there was no rupture with Caesar Borgia because of a pact made before his election. At that time he had made sure there would be no opposition from any quarter and Caesar Borgia might have possessed some influence with those cardinals who owed their preferment to his father. But when he became Pope the ill begotten territories of the wicked Duke were included in his program of independence via restoration. Venice had designs on these properties also and there was long disagreement with that Republic. \"From the beginning of Our reign,\" the Doge of Venice was informed, \"it has been Our steadfast purpose to restore to the Church the territories of which she has been despoiled; to this We hold fast, and shall ever do so . . . Nothing shall induce Us to desist from demanding the restitution of these places . . . Therefore We again admonish your Highness with all paternal kindness, and command you in the name of the Lord to do freely and at once that which in justice you are bound to do.\" The Venetians were obstinate but in the end Julius was victorious and the banner of the Papal States was unfurled again over the coveted places. Meanwhile the decline of\n[paragraph continues] Caesar Borgia was startlingly rapid and the man who had been so flamboyantly master of all Italy soon found himself without friends or troops. Julius placed him under a form of arrest and then he was released but only to be imprisoned again. After a captivity of two years he escaped and a few months later was killed whilst fighting with the army of his French brother-in-law.\nThe intrepid and impatient Pope would allow nothing to stand in the way of his plans and he marched with his troops and led them to victory at Orvieto and Perugia and Urbino. Other times the fortunes of war would turn but he was no poltroon and to the despair of less hardy members of his suite he would remain with the warriors, sharing their dangers and discomforts and inspiring them with example. To fit his policies he made and discarded allies as quickly as he made decisions and so the French were invited to assist him vanquish the Venetians and in turn, when the French became too demanding, he enlisted the support of other nations including the Venetians, to drive the French back to France. Before his election he had promised the cardinals that they should have some rights of consultation but any projected opposition from this body was made ineffectual by the creation at various times of twenty-seven new cardinals. A few discontented wearers of the Red Hat were induced by two irate monarchs, Louis XII of France and the Emperor Maximilian, to a foolish rebellion. Both rulers, with designs of their own upon Italy, were alarmed at the Pope's attempts at independence and at their instigation the renegade cardinals convoked a Council at Pisa. The scheme was a pitiful failure. A small number of churchmen did finally assemble but the townspeople were so hostile that the pseudo-Council was forced to adjourn and continue its futile mummery at another place. The world was weary\nof this brand of schism and the activities of the rebels never achieved importance save as a temporary annoyance to the Pope. It might have been otherwise if the French had gained the final victory and indeed for a gloomy time it appeared they would. A series of brilliant successes were achieved by the soldiers of Louis, aided by those of the Emperor, and there was strong likelihood that Rome would be sacked. Further gloom came when the strain imposed upon the overworked Pope had the expected result and he was stricken by an illness so grievous that the physicians pronounced his recovery impossible. Arrangements were made for his funeral and a panic descended upon the city when the news was known. \"Never,\" wrote the Venetian Ambassador, \"has there been such a clang of arms round the death-bed of any former Pope; never has the danger been greater than it is now. May God help us!\"\nTo the amazement of all and to the dismay of his enemies the Pope recovered and quickly restored order to Rome with an iron hand. He was not yet discouraged and with typical determination he set out to win even at this apparently hopeless stage. And win he did for by extraordinary diplomatic skill he succeeded in inducing Maximilian to withdraw his support and separate his troops from the French army. Furthermore the Emperor, suddenly alarmed at the prospect of a French-controlled Italy, permitted Swiss soldiers to pass through his dominions. The Swiss had come in answer to the Pope's pleas and it was they who decisively routed the French. A wild joy prevailed in Rome and thunderous adulation was heard when Julius returned to the Vatican. \"Never,\" reported the observant Venetian envoy, \"was any Emperor or victorious general so honored on his entry into Rome as the Pope has been today.\"\nJulius II. Reigned 1503 to 1513.\nClick to enlarge\nPope Julius II.\nThis is the man who climbed up on the scaffolding to argue with Michael Angelo. See pages 229 to 235.\nNo details seem to miss the attention of this prodigious worker. The vexations and colossal labors of his martial campaigns and political efforts did not hinder a keen interest in the establishment of the bishoprics in the New World; a legate from an important court, a soldier with news from the army, a missionary returned from a remote place, all alike received his rapt interest. Laws and statutes were examined with meticulous care and the machinery of civil law was made less cumbersome. Roads and bridges were built or repaired throughout the Papal States and long needed measures were taken to protect the farmers and their crops from the avarice of the overlords and from the depredations of their soldiery. No matter how great the burden of his anxieties the Pope somehow in the interest of his subjects found the time to write such letters as he wrote to one of his governors: \"A citizen of Bertinoro has complained to the Pope that the Castellan has taken wood from him and injured him in other ways. Let the Castellan and his abettors be punished without fail and take care that no harm comes to the complainant.\"\nNor did the realm of art escape the interest of the amazing man. Surpassed even were the examples of predecessors in this respect and his intense antipathy to all things connected with the Borgia name did not prevent him from continuing with projects commenced in Alexander's reign. Bramanti, the architect, was given the task of rebuilding St. Peter's basilica into a structure vast and magnificent and it was the beginning of the great edifice which stands today. Michael Angelo was called to Rome and the world is aware of the splendid results produced by that inspired summons. The genius of Rafael and the prowess of his gifted colleagues flowered under the warmth of papal encouragement and subsidy. Julius had a rare sympathy for the artistic mind and he understood well, as he put it, \"the\nhumors of such men of genius.\" When Michael Angelo had rushed from Rome in a rage swearing that he would leave his work uncompleted an astonished and shocked official in Florence told him, \"You have behaved towards the Pope in a way that the King of France himself would not have ventured upon. There must be an end of this. We are not going to be dragged into a war, and risk the whole state for you. Go back to Rome.\" The obstinate artist took his time but finally returned and when he appeared before Julius a prelate thought to save him from the expected wrath by pleading, \"Your Holiness should not be so hard on this fault of Michael Angelo; he is a man who has never been taught good manners, these artists do not know how to behave, they understand nothing but their art.\" The Pope turned the full force of his anger upon the unfortunate cleric. \"You venture,\" he roared, \"to say to this man things I should not have dreamt of saying. It is you who have not manners. Get out of my sight, you miserable, ignorant clown.\" From this time on there were no great differences between the Pope and the great man of art, although there were many noisy arguments. Court attendants would marvel at the sight of their formidable master abandoning all dignity and clambering up the dusty scaffolding which festooned the Sistine Chapel. A grimy hand to help him would be extended by the busy genius, sometimes irritated at being interrupted, and there the two would discuss the details and progress of the superb frescoes.\nAfter Julius had secured temporal strength and independence and brought order and prosperity to the States of the Church his restless mind became occupied with the gigantic problem of sorely needed Church reform. He had already issued a pungent bull against simony in papal elections and now he assembled in Rome, after a year of careful\npreparation, a heavily attended Council of the Church. By this time the exhausted and aged pontiff was nearing his end but what he wished to say was read by a cardinal. The congregated dignitaries of all nations were told frankly the critical time had come when drastic measures had to be taken to correct the dreadful state of Church discipline. Would that he had lived longer to employ the full force of his vigor on this project. But his time was run and he was soon on his death bed. Even there the great, if imperfect Pope, weakened though he was, behaved as his usual self, calmly giving the necessary instructions for his funeral, uttering measured words of farewell to his weeping friends, and arranging prayers to be said for his soul. He then died and \"Rome felt that the soul which had passed from her had been of royal mould,\" recorded a friend. \"I have lived forty years in this city, but never yet have I seen such a vast throng at the funeral of any former Pope. The guards were overpowered by the crowds insisting on kissing the dead man's feet. Weeping they prayed for his soul, calling him a true Pope and Vicar of Christ, a pillar of justice, a zealous promoter of the Apostolic Church, an enemy and queller of tyrants.\"\nThe Bull against simony was read aloud at the next conclave and such elaborate precautions were taken to prevent the odious practice that no suspicion of this nature can darken the memory of the next pope, the thirty-eight year old Giovanni de Medici who became Leo X. Certainly a factor to contribute heavily to his winning the majority of the votes was his membership in the powerful Florentine family: although it is true that his life was without scandal and it is also true that to fit him for high ecclesiastical rank he had received a special and comprehensive education from a carefully selected group of distinguished tutors. He was the son of one of the most\nstrong and colourful figures of the Renaissance, Lorenzo de Medici, the ruler of Florence who was called the Magnificent. At thirteen years of age he had been given the dignity of the cardinalate although up to the time of his elevation to the papacy the extent of his clerical progress was a deacon's orders. After receiving the acclaim of the conclave he was ordained priest, consecrated bishop two days later, and then solemnly and with splendor given the tiara on the steps of the now half demolished Basilica of St. Peter.\nThe debris of the broken structure was a strangely fitting background for his coronation because the rebuilding of this edifice provided the incident which in this reign was to bring unparalleled sorrow and disaster to the Catholic Church. To provide the funds for the erection of the new St. Peter's, indulgences were unfortunately offered for money and in Germany an outraged Augustinian friar protested vigorously by writing a series of ninety-five theses against such abuses and nailing his manuscript to the door of the castle church at Wittenberg. The name of the friar was Martin Luther, the fateful day was the 31st of October 1517, and the historic and so tragically symbolic wielding of hammer against church door occurred in the fifth year of Leo's reign. And it was an event which, while receiving instantaneous attention throughout Germany, failed to cause alarm or immediate interest in Rome.\nThe storm had broken, the most critical time in the long history of the Church had arrived, and there was nought but apathy on the part of the Pope. Absorbed in the unsavory intricacies of his politics and pleasures, Leo failed to recognize the importance of Luther's initial deed and there can be little excuse for his catastrophic lethargy. There was no lack of warning. For years past the clamor\nfor reform within the Church had been steadily increasing throughout Europe and matching this spirit in growth and volume was contempt for ecclesiastical authority. At the council which his predecessor had inaugurated and which had continued on into his own reign, lengthy and complicated resolutions had been proposed and accepted; but, as a layman who attended the Council complained, \"We have heard a great deal about the making of laws, but very little about their observance.\" In many ways the new Pope seemed to resemble Alexander VI rather than Julius. His family was enriched and given favours whenever possible and his court, thronged by artists and writers and frivolous noblemen, was that of a gay and youthful prince rather than that of the Bishop of Rome. The delights of the banqueting table, the amusements of dramatic pageants, the mummery of buffoons, the thrill of the hunting field, all these things occupied the time and interest of the man who was pope when Luther began his attack and who, endowed with the tastes and principles of his family, wove a mesh of political activities which kept him continuously embroiled with the various rulers of Europe.\nDeceit and treachery were the habitual characteristics of this dangerous game as played by him and consequently when he tried to raise funds for the prosecution of a new crusade, the response from the nations was mostly a cynical indifference. A Florentine statesman who frequently served and advised him was Niccolo Machiavelli whose name has endured as a synonym for subterfuge and intrigue of the basest type. So it was not unnatural that antipathy to Rome fattened upon the lavish duplicity which was presented as papal diplomacy. The unreal title of Emperor was still desired by kings and this vanity the Pope used freely in his schemes, openly supporting one\naspirant for the historic but illusory honor while at the same time his legates would be whispering encouragement to another deluded prince. The intention behind Leo's ceaseless and complicated negotiations was to keep Spain and France and Germany from further encroachments in Italy. Once in his reign the French did attempt an invasion but they were driven back before the fury of the Swiss mercenaries. In the peace which followed it was agreed that the unsuccessful schism which had begun under French auspices at Pisa should now be abandoned and that, while the French monarch should possess the right of nomination in regard to benefices, canonical investiture could only be given by the pope.\nDespite the resolutions of the recent Council clerical abuses continued and increased, and in Rome when thirty-one cardinals were made at one creation it was well known that although a few new wearers of the purple were indeed worthy men, the majority of their colleagues had openly purchased the honor. One of these was Ferdinando Ponzetti who had commenced life as a physician and who now was able to pay 30,000 ducats for his new rank. At least six wearers of the Red Hat certainly paid nothing, for this number of the Pope's relatives were so honored, and while his brother Giuliano paraded Rome with the title of Captain General of the Church, still another kinsman ruled Florence as temporal overlord. There was great discontent amongst certain of the younger cardinals who had voted for the Pope at the conclave and who felt that they had not been rewarded suitably. One of these unhappy prelates, the Cardinal Petrucci, brooding over supposed injustices, instigated a plot to murder the Pope and the condition and standard of the Sacred College at this time is shown by the dismal fact that four other of its members, including the Dean, gave their support to the\nproposed crime. A conscienceless physician was bribed to commit the murder while attending the pontiff but fortunately for the latter, who trusted few men, a letter was intercepted and the evil scheme revealed. Swift punishment came to the physician and to Petrucci. Both were executed along with a few accomplices, but the other guilty cardinals, perhaps because of the Pope's charity or, more probably, because of the influence of powerful friends, were neither hung nor strangled but merely fined heavily, deprived of their electoral privileges, and banished from the city.\nSuch conditions brought strong discontent everywhere and particularly in Germany where Luther found willing audiences, not because of the soundness of his theology, but because of the appalling abuses permitted and practised by those whom he attacked. The traffic in benefices, the ceaseless appeals from Rome for money, and the harsh fact that in Germany most of the great bishoprics were possessed by scions of royalty and nobility, overshadowed the efforts of those who were desperately working for reform from within the Church. Such men there were but, as is common, virtues and good deeds were submerged beneath the vices and wrongdoings of the spectacularly wicked; and despite the many examples of sincere vocations, the lamentable state of Church discipline was a fact acknowledged and deplored on all sides. More and more the cupidity of the Roman court was being resented and a steadily increasing spirit of nationalism was adding force to this feeling. \"From his own dominion,\" went the words of a widely circulated pamphlet, \"streams of wealth flow in to the Pope as to no other Christian prince; yet we have to pay for palliums, and send asses laden with gold to Rome, and exchange gold for corn, and rest content with blood-lettingspardon me, I mean with indulgences!\n[paragraph continues] Woe to this monster of avarice which is never satisfied! The craftiness of the Florentine discovers a thousand devices, each one more execrable than the last. Let German freedom be mindful not to become tributary, and not to pay tithes.\" Such sentiments as these were echoed vigorously by the type of Humanists, extreme and violently anti-Christian, who at this time possessed great influence in the German universities. Their brand of philosophy frankly glorified paganism and of course viewed all activities of the Church with repugnance and contempt. \"The Pope is a bandit,\" wrote one of the leaders of this movement, \"and the Church is his army.\"\nAbout this time a youthful but powerful prince in Holy Orders, the Elector Albert of Brandenburg, already Archbishop of Magdeburg and Administrator of the See of Halberstadt, was made Archbishop of Mayence. He wished to retain his former sees and after much negotiation with the papal representative he was allowed to do so but on the condition he pay a fee of fourteen thousand ducats besides a special tax of ten thousand of the same coin. It was a shameful transaction but not even yet complete. A banker, Jacob Fugger, advanced the over-beneficed prince the ready gold and then to enable settlement of the banker's loan, Albert was given the privilege of proclaiming the grant of St. Peter's Indulgence through his territories on the terms that he should share equally with Rome all funds so collected.\nIn an age when bribery and simony were to be found in high places, it is not surprising that the granting of indulgences should sometimes be tainted by mercenary consideration although the doctrine of the Church leaves no doubt as to the invalidity of any accepted with the knowledge of such an arrangement. The term Indulgence is derived from the Latin indulgere meaning to be kind\nand it is an excellent explanation for, as defined by the Church in the XIII century, an indulgence is the remission of temporal punishment due to sin after guilt has been forgiven. It is Catholic teaching that even after the guilt of a sin has been forgiven, there may still remain due to the justice of God some measure of punishment (called temporal to distinguish it from the eternal punishment of sin not forgiven because not repented). It is with this temporal punishment, and not with the sin or its guilt, that the Indulgence is concerned. To earn such a favor the suppliant must, in addition to possessing the habitual intention, be in that state of grace which is achieved by true repentance and sincere confession and by the performance of good works such as prayer and charitable undertakings. There are partial indulgences which remit, as the name implies, only in part and there are plenary indulgences which, given by the Pope alone, cancel all temporal punishment due to sin. There are indulgences for the living and those for the dead which actually, because departed souls are of course beyond the Church's jurisdiction, are nothing more than solemn requests for the divine mercy. An indulgence had been proclaimed in the reign of Pope Julius for those who, in addition to fulfilling the usual requirements of penance and contrition, should contribute to the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Because of the eager and none too scrupulous manner in which the monies were gathered and because of the intense and mounting anti-Roman feeling already strong in Germany, there were grave and spirited protests from that country when Leo X, upon becoming Pope, not only renewed the same indulgence but thought by means of it to gather even greater sums for his treasury.\nThe warnings were unheeded and after prolonged bickering the disgraceful arrangement with Albert of Mayence\nwas concluded. The next step towards disaster came when the latter placed the responsibility of bringing the fateful Indulgence to the people in the hands of John Tetzel, a Dominican orator who had considerable experience in such enterprises and who was well known for his skill in gathering the lucre. It was a reputation not at all popular and even one of his brother Dominicans wrote angrily of him that he \"devised unheard-of means of making money. He was far too liberal in conferring offices; he put up far too many public crosses in towns and villages, which causes scandal and breeds complaints among the people.\" This man now embarked upon the money raising campaign, for that is what it frankly was, with more zeal than doctrinal authority; for while he did not err in naming the requirements necessary to obtain indulgences for the living, he did make the mistake of declaring those for the dead could be gained by money alone. His statement was clearly contrary to the doctrines of the Church and the leading theologian of the time, the Cardinal Cajetan, was vehemently positive on the subject of such erroneous teachings. \"Preachers speak in the name of the Church,\" said he, \"only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of Christ and His Church; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination they must not be accepted as mouth pieces of the Church. No one must be surprised if such as these fall into error.\"\nTetzel's route took him to Wittenberg where the district vicar and university lecturer, a thirty-four year old Augustinian priest named Martin Luther, impatiently awaited him with strong opinions and an able pen. Luther had once made a journey to Rome and although at that time he displayed no symptoms of displeasure he later claimed he had been disillusioned and angered at what he\nhad seen. By nature he was deeply impressionable as well as self confident and strong willed. His adoption of the clerical state had not been the result of long and careful consideration but was because the sudden death of a close friend who had been destined for the priesthood convinced him he should take his place. This was done against the earnest pleas of his father, for the young Luther had studied for the law, a process involving hardship and sacrifice both to him and his family who were of humble circumstance. After his reception into monastic life the approval of his superiors encouraged his studies and conduct, and at the age of twenty-five he had become a professor at the new university of Wittenberg. Any measure of success is apt to be a hazard to the restraints of discipline and the academic triumphs of the young monk proved a dangerous stimulant to a proud and stubborn nature. In many ways he resembled Savonarola and even his vocabulary was marked by a similar bitter violence. \"Knaves, dolts, pigs, asses, infernal blasphemers\" were terms he hurled at his opponents with the harsh emphasis akin to that which had stirred the congregations of Florence. But where the Italian had been content to attack the person of a Pope and had not questioned the authority of the Church, the German was to take this fatal step and make denial and offer challenge to orthodox dogma. His \"Ninety-five Theses\" were nailed to the church door and soon all Germany rocked with the altercation which followed.\nTetzel, unlike many other churchmen, immediately realized the dangers underlying Luther's attack, and he countered with a carefully prepared work in which he emphasized that the affair was not a matter of indulgences alone but because of it \"many will be led to despise the authority and supremacy of the Pope and the Holy\n[paragraph continues] Roman See.\" His apprehension did not disturb the equanimity of the Curia or bring any vigorous action from the hierarchy. Luther sent a copy of his theses to the Metropolitan who on the advice of his counsellors referred the matter to Rome with an accompanying letter which expressed the hope \"that His Holiness would grasp the situation so as to meet the error at once, as occasion offers and as the exigency requires and not lay the responsibility on us.\"\nThe apparatus of correction and discipline moved slowly and ineffectually while the new movement, as yet not organized or recognized as such, spread with the rapidity of a fierce and sudden conflagration. The dislike held for Rome and the political and social state of Germany all made for the cause of Luther. The nobles coveted the properties of the Church. The intellectuals, dominated and excited by the Humanist movement, were delighted at an opportunity to destroy the conventional religion. And the peasantry, told of Roman iniquities in the most inflammatory terms, were given the chimerical hope that the new order would better their miserable lot. In the year following the gesture at Wittenberg the Pope instructed the Vicar General of the Augustinians to silence the unruly monk; but Luther disregarded such measures and anticipating excommunication boldly preached that the sentence would be futile because \"the real communion of the Church was invisible and that no one could be affected by it.\" A few months later the Emperor Maximilian, now thoroughly alarmed by the numbers and attitude of the priest's adherents, .wrote to the Pope and declared serious measures should be immediately taken to quell him. Canonical processes commenced and Luther was summoned to Rome; but the only answer was the publication of a series of new pamphlets filled with heresy.\nA Legate, the gentle and learned Cardinal Cajetan, went to Germany where after some difficulty Luther consented to meet him but would give no retractation. At intervals there were further negotiations with other emissaries and there were public debates with such skilled theologians as Johann Eck defending orthodoxy. Sometimes it seemed reconciliation might be possible, for often it was Luther's mood that he would not break with Rome and at these times he would profess obedience to the Pope. But never would he make retractation or express sorrow for his past actions; and as his words grew fiercer the hope became irretrievably lost and there remained only one road for his proud and stubborn nature to follow. Irrevocably he was committed to rebellion and with the full and powerful influence of the Humanists strong upon him politics gradually crowded theology to a lesser position in his sermons. Liberty and patriotism are the unfailing slogan of the revolutionary and to these inflammatory words was now added the name of the Gospel. \"Liberty! Fatherland! Gospel!\" The battlecry was made. \"I have cast the die,\" he boasted, \"I now despise the rage of the Romans as much as I do their favor. I will not reconcile myself to them for all eternity . . . If a thief is punished by a halter, a murderer by the sword, and a heretic by fire, why should not we, with all our weapons attack these teachers of corruption, these Popes, Cardinals, and all the rabble of the Roman Sodom, and wash our hands in their blood.\"\nThirty-two months after the incident at Wittenberg a Bull was issued by Leo condemning forty-one propositions extracted from the writings of Luther and excommunicating him unless he retracted within sixty days. But by now the Friar was firmly entrenched in Germany and had gained the protection of a powerful prince, the Elector\nof Saxony. Scornfully the claims of discipline were dismissed and with ceremony and to the cheers of the populace he publicly burned the Bull and told the students of Wittenberg that \"It is now full time the Pope himself is burned. My meaning is that the Papal chair, its false teachings, and its abominations, should be given to the flames.\" The parchment burned brightly and the crowd roared lusty approval; and in the lurid glow of the noisy scene Protestantism thus became a fact although it was not until a decade later that the name came into use. This was at the Diet of Speyer where it was resolved that the new religion was established but that its adherents must not interfere with or hinder Catholic worship. The followers of Luther protested vigorously at the tolerant decree and hence the term, Protestant.\nLeo died after a reign of eight years and before him the Emperor Maximilian had gone also. He was succeeded by his grandson, Charles of Spain. Henry VIII of England had been a candidate for the Imperial honor and at the long conclave which proceeded the election of the next Pope the name of Henry's counsellor, the great Cardinal Wolsey, received serious consideration. However, the Medici family was resolved that a cousin of Leo should secure the ballots and possibly to avert the evils of deadlock an unexpected name was finally announced, that of the Cardinal Adrian Dedel who in keeping his own name as Pope Adrian VI was to break a two hundred year old tradition. The fact that he possessed the friendship and respect of the new Emperor must have influenced the decision of the cardinals but it was a decision certainly not sought by the man whom it favored. He had not attended the conclave and it was with reluctance that he embarked upon the journey from Spain to accept the responsibilities of the tiara. Born at Utrecht in Holland he was the son\nof a shipwright and by ability and diligence had risen to the position of tutor to the young Charles who was impressed by his talents and his honesty and who never had reason to change the opinion. Successive and successful stages of advancement had eventually brought the Netherlander to the high position of Viceroy in Spain and now had come the Papacy. It was eight months before he was crowned in Rome and it was with coldness that the people of the City greeted him for he was in every way utterly unlike the great prince prelates to whom they were accustomed. Pomp he detested, flattery too, and those noisy and undisciplined crowds of artists and poets and merchants who had fattened on the generosity of former reigns quickly discovered that papal patronage had ceased to be. No lavish court or costly pageants or feasts and games or chances for easy or dubious riches could be expected during the time of this scrupulous northerner who earnestly desired reform and a united and tranquil Christendom. These were his aims, together with plans for a crusade against the Turks who had already won the island of Rhodes, but the obstacles he had inherited seemed insurmountable; he was too late and perhaps it was this realization that hastened his end. He died less than two years after his election.\nThe Romans received a pope more suited to their taste in the person of his successor for this time the plans of the Medici were triumphant. Giulio de Medici, cousin of Leo X, took his place as Clement VII. It was not an easy victory, for the Emperor, the Kings of France and England, the Italian factions, all had their candidates and the conclave lasted fifty days. The struggle for ballots was most lively and for a while it again seemed as though the Englishman, Wolsey, might win; but the supporters of the Medici redoubled their efforts and enlarged their\npromises and so won the majority necessary for their candidate.\nUnfortunately he was in no way equal to the responsibilities and burdens of the great position. He was a cultured and handsome man of fifty-six and was possessed of a grace of manner and ability expected of his birth and breeding. But these values were not sufficient to cope with the complex problems, both temporal and spiritual, which now confronted the papacy and disturbed the world. From the beginning misfortune attended his venturings in the intricate and dubious intrigues which constituted the diplomacy of his day. The Emperor Charles V and King Francis I of France were at war and the Pope adopted a faltering policy of pseudo-neutrality which under the existing circumstances was neither possible nor sincere and which quickly lost him the respect of both princes. Francis repelled a German invasion on his own soil and then marched to enforce his claims in Italy; but at Pavia the Imperial troops engaged again and this time the French were beaten and their monarch taken prisoner. Hopes for a united Christendom had been woefully shattered when, before this battle, the French king, made desperate by impending defeat, had tried unsuccessfully to make an alliance with the Turks. As a prisoner he concluded a treaty of surrender with Charles but the terms were harsh and secretly he plotted to form a new combine. In an effort to escape Teutonic dominance the Milanese and Venetians were susceptible to the arguments of this would-be ally of the Turk and so unfortunately was the Pope.\nWhen the Emperor learned of the covert negotiations his rage was kindled and soon his troops, a wild and long unpaid army of German and Spanish mercenaries, were unleashed upon the Papal States. Rome was defended with spirit and the commander of the attacking forces was\nLeo X. Reigned 1513 to 1521.\nClick to enlarge\nPope Leo X.\nMachiavelli advised him: Luther defied him. See pages 235 to 246.\nkilled but a breach was made in the walls and the city, so rich a prize, was open to a horde of ruffians savagely hungry for loot. All vestiges of discipline disappeared during orgies of killing, burning, sacrilege, and rape which followed. For centuries the sack of Rome had been the terror of those who feared the Turk. It was now a horrible fact but the despoilers of the churches and defilers of the altars did not carry the insignia of Islam. They called themselves Christians and their absent master proudly flaunted Charlemagne's grandiose title, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The Pope and seven of his cardinals fled to a fortress at Orvieto and there remained for many long months; and when he did return to the city it was a ruined and broken landscape which saddened his eye and spirit. He was forced to a peace with Charles and on Imperial terms. Thus papal dignity was sacrificed when the Pope obeyed and travelled to Bologna where with the pomp of ancient ceremony he presided at the Imperial coronation. Another journey made at royal behest and destined to bear great and grave consequences was his voyage to France when his niece married the Duke of Or- leans. It was an opportunity not neglected for the French monarch to discuss many momentous matters, including the historic demand from across the channel that the marriage of Henry VIII and his Queen be dissolved. Francis made plea for the English king and even hinted of the danger to the papacy of incurring a united French and English enmity. The Pope listened and was aware of the peril but he also remembered that the unwanted wife was the niece of the Emperor Charles.\nHenry had married Catherine of Aragon, the young widow of his sickly elder brother, after special permission had been granted by Rome on the grounds that the first marriage had never been consummated. Five children\nhad been born of this union between Spanish Princess and English King but only one survived, Mary, later to be Queen. That the popular and gifted Henry had no sympathy for Luther is a well known story for with a great flourish he banned the Reformer's books from England and composed, with the aid of his divines, the famous treatise in Latin, A Defence of the Seven Sacraments against Martin Luther. In return he received violent abuse from the monk but also the gratitude of the Pope in the form of a title, Defender of the Faith, an honor which was not relinquished for Henry never considered any deed of his to be Protestant in act or intent. Seventeen years he had lived with Catherine before he developed scruples regarding the validity of their marriage and these stirrings were not the product of a stern conscience or sincere canonical doubt but were born of an illicit if not obscure love affair. It would seem that all any man could desire on earth had been Henry's inheritance for not only did the favor of exalted birth give him rank and possessions but he was also superbly endowed in physique and mind. It was natural he should receive vast measure of adulation and flattery and perhaps it was equally natural he should fall prey to such subtle poisons. Maturity usually remedies the weaknesses of adolescence with that kind of sagacity which is born of time and pain, but on those occasions when the circumstances of life are made too easy the passing of years merely serves to ripen the young fruit to rot.\nSo it was with Henry, whose intelligence and body were subjected to temptation in numerous and elaborate forms of enticement and cunning. Self-discipline faded away and the noble ideals of youth became dim and distorted before the capricious demands of gluttony and sensual appetite. One of his mistresses had been Mary\n[paragraph continues] Boleyn and it was her sister Anne, who inflamed his fickle passion and distorted his judgment to such a degree that he became determined she should be his Queen. Eventually he made her so, but not with the sanction of the Pope and this fact stands out, cold and clear, from the morass of intrigue and procrastination which accompanied the royal folly. For six years the headstrong monarch tried by all means possible to win the necessary permission and the complicated negotiations which took place leave little credit to either side. Proceedings dragged on and papal and royal emissaries travelled busily to and fro, laden with the appurtenances of mystery and plot. Hopes were falsely kindled and threats rashly made. Universities were bribed to give opinions in favor of the divorce and crowds of servile courtiers masquerading as prelates eagerly and without shame prostituted their faith and their learning to assure the enamoured monarch that his conduct was correct. Counsellors of this mould even suggested that a solution of the problem would be for the Pope to grant a special dispensation allowing Henry to possess two wives! When the infatuated prince finally made Anne a Marchioness and took her to France where she was presented as the future Queen of England the Pope was forced to action. He threatened excommunication to both if they did not separate. The new Marchioness was pregnant but before her child was born a marriage ceremony was performed and the crown was placed atop her comely head amidst scenes of formal splendour.\nThe time, long dreaded by the timid and procrastinating Pope, had arrived and to his honour he remained firm and true to dignity and responsibility. The loss of allegiance to papal authority in Europe had been devastating and now England's loyalty could be kept at the cost of one divorce. Temptation must have been great but with clarity\nthe final decision was pronounced in Rome; Catherine was the lawful wife of the English King. Persistent and contemptible attempts had been made upon the unfortunate woman by her deluded husband to have her resign her rights, but no argument or humiliation could wring from her an admission that the long years of her married life had been merely a term of concubinage and that their daughter, Mary, was illegitimate.\nKing and Queen met before a court of bishops and Catherine spoke with the calm dignity of a faithful wife and good mother. \"I take God and all the world to witness that I have been to you a true, humble, and obedient wife, ever comportable to your will and touch . . .\" Only once did she pause and then her voice became lower. \"This twenty years or more I have been your true wife, and by me ye have had divers children, although it hath pleased God to call them from this world . . . And when he had me at the first, I take God to be my judge, I was a true maid, without touch of man. And whether this be true or no, I put it to your conscience.\" Pressure was exerted to have her enter a convent and take vows but despite her great piety the cloisters were also rejected. Anne might occupy the royal bed but Catherine knew she was wife and Queen and no act of Henry could change the fact. This was the attitude firmly maintained to her death when with superb charity she wrote to her \"Dear husband and King\" and gave him her forgiveness. \"For the rest, I commend unto you our daughter Mary, beseeching you to be a good father unto her, as I have heretofore desired. I entreat you also, on behalf of my maids, to give them marriage portions, which is not much, they being but three. For all my other servants I solicit the wages due them and a year more, lest they be improvided\nfor. Lastly, I make this vow, that my eyes desire you above all things.\"\nBecause of the failure of the divorce proceedings in Rome the mighty Wolsey lost the favor of his master and after a rapid series of degradations was charged with High Treason. A natural death intervened to save him from a shameful end and before he expired he uttered the pathetic words which were long to be remembered. \"If I had served God as diligently as I have done my King, He would not now have given me over in my grey hairs.\" With the aid of evil Thomas Cromwell, master architect of terror, Henry made himself supreme head of the Church in England and with bloody prodigality the block and the gallows were invoked against the many who would not admit of this presumption. England's greatest Chancellor, the scholar who held the esteem of all Europe, joined the march to the scaffold. \"I die,\" Thomas More said, \"the King's good servant, but God's first.\" Monasteries were suppressed, churches and shrines robbed, yet the outward forms of religion were not changed in Henry's time: his rejection of papal authority brought no sympathy or tolerance for Protestantism or its author.\nIt was different on the continent. The Scandinavian countries were fast adopting Lutheranism, and Switzerland was falling under the influence of a similar-minded and equally eloquent ex-priest, Zwingli. In France the harsh and melancholy doctrines of Calvin were being given attention and in Hungary the prayers of the faithful were disturbed by the dreary wail of muezzins, calling to Allah, for the Turks had become masters of that country and a triumphant Mohammedan army even possessed Vienna.\nAfter eleven unhappy years as Pope, Clement died unexpectedly, leaving both his spiritual and temporal domains in chaotic condition. His unfortunate pontificate marked\nthe end of the Renaissance and had witnessed the birth of the so-called Reformation; but it also cradled the stirrings of a real reformation within the Church for great forces and good men were at work with a sincerity and zeal and genius which could not be denied success. The Lateran Council had been warned that \"men must be transformed by religion, not religion by men\" and these words typified the new spirit. A unity of belief might have been lost but the faith that remained was to be the sturdier because of surviving the storms of doubt and oppression. Spontaneously the new mood invigorated both the secular clergy and the ancient Orders and also caused the formation of other groups of devoted men and women who were moved to unselfish service of God and mankind. There were the Capuchins, the Clerks Regular, the Theatines, the Barnabites, the Somaschi, the Lazarists, the Sisters of Charity, the Ursulines, and others. And the same year that Pope Clement died, an ex-soldier of noble Spanish birth, Don Inigo Lopes Ricalda y Loyola, better known to history as Ignatius of Loyola, banded together a small number of similar-minded friends and communicated to them his enthusiasm and plans. Thus, in Paris, was commenced the disciplined organization which from then on has ever been an important influence in the story of the Church. The Society of Jesus was on the march.\nAn astonishingly rapid election brought success and fulfillment to the plans and ambitions of Alexander Farnese, Paul III, who had been a cardinal for forty years. He was sixty-six years old and was of an ancient Roman family which, in adherence to the obnoxious custom, was now to be deluged with riches and honors. His sons and daughtersfor these, true child of the Renaissance that he was, he possessedwere favored in every way possible and two of his nephews, aged fourteen and sixteen, were\npromptly made cardinals at the commencement of his reign. He had been a cardinal during the reign of Alexander VI and in some respects his life followed the Borgia pattern; yet he often was to display a majesty of purpose akin to that possessed by Julius II and at other times it would seem as though he were moved by the same high motives which had guided the austere Adrian. That he had enjoyed the favour of these popes, so varying in character, and of the Medici too, is proof enough of his skill in diplomacy, apropos of which an ambassador to his court complained that an annoying and typical trait of the Pope was a \"scrupulous avoidance\" of ever uttering a positive \"Yes\" or \"No.\" Save for his extravagant nepotism he was an extremely cautious and sagacious man and he embarked upon a policy of wily neutrality between the ever clashing schemes of the French king and the Emperor. It was a difficult policy to maintain but for the first years of his pontificate it was to have a certain if uneasy degree of success. It was unforgivable that he should have bestowed the Red Hat upon his young relatives but most other cardinals of his creation were noted for their worthiness. The English bishop, John Fisher, languishing in prison and soon to lose his head on the block was thus honored and so too was another deserving Englishman, Reginald Pole, a cousin of Henry VIII, who was in Italy and so safe from the ire of his vindictive kinsman.\nThe menace of Turkish attack was seldom absent from the cares of Paul III. Rakish craft, their lateen sails emblazoned with the Crescent, their decks crammed with blood-hungry warriors, had become a terror to shipping in the Mediterranean until the Emperor, at the behest of the Pope and with money and galleys from the same source, stormed the piratical stronghold at Tunis and administered a thorough and salutary defeat. But when\nwar, despite the urgent entreaties of the pontiff, broke out again between France and Spain and the Emperor's troops became occupied in that direction, Barbarossa, daring chief of the Mohammedan buccaneers, recommenced his depredations upon the Italian coast and it became the boast of the Turkish Sultan that his seraglio would be moved to Rome. There were signs of panic in the Eternal City at this news for the potentate's announcement had strong chances of realization; but by the exercise of great and desperate ingenuity Paul caused an armistice to be declared between the Emperor and the French monarch and together they joined him in the formation of a Holy League. The Venetians, who held a treaty with the Turks, were persuaded that such a pact was wrong and they too became partners in the new alliance, and thus Rome remained unscarred by the scimitar.\nNotwithstanding his own weaknesses Paul was acutely aware of other and less tangible evils which were besieging the papacy and with acrimony the more worldly of his cardinals were told \"they should set an example to others by reforming themselves.\" To introduce peace and authority into the babel of contemporary theological dispute and to muster a united strength against the onslaughts of the papacy's antagonists Paul III made careful plans for the convocation of a General Council, for he was of the opinion that the voice of a Council was needed to reaffirm and clarify ancient dogma and to endorse authority. The scheme was commendable and simple in thought but in actual execution fraught with difficulty and danger. His own temporal strength was negligible and he had no wish, and there was the danger, for any one sovereign or nation to exert influence upon the decision of so important a body under the guise of patronage or protection. Prejudice and patronage must be avoided and the judgments of the\n[paragraph continues] Fathers left unhindered. With all the genius of his diplomatic talent he fought desperately to have it so. The idea of the Council was received with enthusiasm, even by some of the Protestant princes, but as the Pope had anticipated there were many who saw the convention as an avenue for their own designs and innovations.\nThe support of the Emperor was necessary, indeed the approval of all Christians was desired, and unwearyingly the Pope toiled to gain the good will of all and the interference of none. The Emperor was sincerely enthusiastic for he readily perceived that under such auspices the Empire might be strengthened; but the Pope, with wider horizons beckoning, regarded the Imperial zeal with apprehension and even despair and many conflicts arose between the two regarding the policies, the procedure, and even the location of the Council. Usually it was the patient pontiff who was victorious but not without the penalties of strife. Charles was of the opinion that ecclesiastical discipline should be the first concern of the meeting but the Pope held to his plan that questions appertaining to doctrine should be settled before the discussion of a workable policy of discipline.\nAfter many vexations and delays the Council assembled at Trent, in the Austrian Tyrol, on the 13th December, 1543, the eleventh year of Paul's reign. Ten times it was to meet during the remaining four years of his life and it was not to be formally dissolved, although on several occasions it suffered interruptions and a change of scene, until 1563. The decisions made and decrees issued, defining Catholic doctrine, provided splendid support for the champions of the Counter Reformation. By this time the Reformation was rapidly flowering to full development but the Council of Trent was, by a program of practical reform and definition, able to restore vigor to orthodoxy\nand bring strength and hope to the faithful again. The storms of altercation following Luther's outburst, the long theological arguments, the many and confusing interpretations of the Gospels, the admitted need for clerical reform, had brought perplexity to many a simple priest and layman. But now all was to be made clear and the road illuminated. The dogmas of original sin, justification, the sacraments, were explained with exactitude and so too were many other subjects of attack and dispute such as the veneration of saints and the granting of indulgences. Errors in clerical conduct were not merely censured but were exhaustively examined and practical measures for removing abuses were promulgated and adopted. A system of reform was founded which could survive and indeed grow in strength. Precise in its condemnations, constructive in its suggestions, grand in its scope, the Council of Trent can rightfully be regarded as one of the great bulwarks of Catholicity. \"Thus the Council,\" wrote the Protestant historian Ranke, \"that had been so vehemently demanded, and so long evaded, that had been twice dissolved, had been shaken by so many political storms, and whose third convocation, even, had been beset with danger, closed amid the general harmony of the Catholic world . . . Henceforth Catholicism confronted the Protestant world in renovated collected vigor.\"\nPaul III lived with all the gaudy and benevolent luxury of a Renaissance prince and Rome benefited in many ways from his generosity and his appreciation of the arts. New streets were built, churches restored, great bastions were erected, engineers worked diligently on new schemes of fortifications, and scholars toiled over the long catalogues of the Vatican library. Titian, like many a lesser colleague, was subsidized and the classic beauty of St. Peter's dome, superb symbol of the supreme authority, was raised by\n[paragraph continues] Michael Angelo. Paul III had done well and should have died content but the fruits of his nepotism made his end miserable and unhappy. An ungrateful and predatory grandson, with clamor and with violence, was claiming the duchy of Parma as his personal property. \"My sin is ever before me,\" grieved the dying Pope. \"If they had not the mastery over me, then I should have been without great offence.\"\nIt took the cardinals ten weeks to select a successor, Giovanni Ciocchi del Monte, who took the name of Julius III. For a time, at this conclave, it seemed as though the votes would go to Reginald Pole but the conscientious Englishman refused to bargain or make promises and his moment passed. Later, when Mary became Queen, Pope Julius sent him to his native country as Legate and there he officiated as Archbishop of Canterbury, the last of his faith to take that ancient title. The new Pope was friendly with the Emperor, soon to be fighting the French again, but neither alliance with that forceful ruler nor the great responsibilities of his own position gave him the confidence or strength of purpose which had characterized the previous reign. When the Protestant allies of France invaded the Tyrol and caused an adjournment of the Council of Trent, resignation to circumstances was the attitude of the Pope. He seemed overwhelmed by the number and magnitude of his problems, and frankly abandoning all pretence of active policy he retired to the peace of his gardens. Fortunately such indolence was not reflected in the toiling body of the Church for this was the time of such men as the indefatigable Jesuit, Francis Xavier, who before embarking for hostile and unknown shores cheerfully told his fellow adventurers, \"The greatest trials you have until now endured are small in comparison with those you will experience in Japan. Prepare\nyourself for difficulties, by setting aside all consideration for your own interests.\" And later the pen of the same brave man inscribed: \"I am journeying, deprived of all human protection, to the island of Canton, in the hope that a friendly heathen will take me over to the continent of China.\"\nThe pontificate of Julius III lasted five years. The next Pope was Marcellus II of whom much was expected, for as a cardinal and as a priest Marcello Pervino had earned an enviable reputation. Immediately after his enthronement he enthusiastically turned to the subject of reform and one of his first acts was to prohibit any member of his family from coming to Rome. Luxury was banned from his household and the customary elaborate ceremonies of coronation were avoided. In every way the hopes of the pious were fulfilled in the person of this pontiff but unfortunately their jubilance was brief for he was of delicate health and his reign ended abruptly, to the sorrow of all, after a mere twenty-two days. The name of Reginald Pole was mentioned again at the following conclave but he was absent in England and the Spanish influence which favored him was not strong enough to achieve its purpose. Elected instead, and after considerable balloting, was the seventy-nine-year-old Giovanni Pietro Caraffa whose advanced age showed no traces of senilitybut neither had it brought that mellowness of thought and judgment which usually comes with the years.\nPaul IV was a severe and bad tempered old man, somewhat eccentric in manner, who often times affected the simplicity of a monk but on other occasions could formidably play the despot. He was of the reform school and was a founder of the first congregation of Clerks Regular yet he was not exempt from the disease of nepotism and one of his first actions as pope was to bestow\nthe Red Hat upon the head of his undeserving nephew, Carlo Caraffa. His support went to the French in the war with Spain; and guided by his nephew this policy brought matters to such a deplorable state that it was found necessary to employ Protestant mercenaries from Germany to protect the papal provinces from the invading army of the Duke of Alva. Meanwhile the French were defeated elsewhere and the Pope was forced to sue for peace, a costly and humiliating process for one so proud. His reign was characterized by the unbending severities of the true martinet and the punishments which came to those who crossed his will or broke the laws were as heavy as they were prompt. Eventually rumors came to him of the base conduct of his nephew and for once the ties of blood were spurned and the ungrateful and unfit wearer of the purple was expelled from Rome. Paul IV was an ardent supporter of the Inquisition, which as a cardinal he had reorganized, and wide use of its dreaded powers was made during his term. Even the Cardinal Morone, a highly respected member of the Sacred College, became enmeshed in the web of terrible accusation and to prison he went on the grounds of heresy. \"Even if my own father were a heretic,\" said this Pope, refusing a petition for clemency, \"I would gather the wood to burn him.\"\nReginald Pole was another object of his pessimism and suspicion but Pole was in England and had the wisdom to keep from Rome. Clergy of lesser rank looked nervously to their conduct when at one sweep a hundred vagrant monks were despatched to the galleys or to the dungeons. Mercy was a quality lacking in this stern old man and when he died, after being pope four years, the mobs rioted to show their pleasure and to hurl hatred upon his memory. Down toppled his statue to be broken and defiled and with similar demonstrations of insult and delight\nthe gates of the prison of the Inquisition were swept open and the inmates released.\nNearly four months dragged by before the next conclave was concluded and devious and ugly were the intrigues which hindered the cardinals from making a quick decision. \"It is not of the least consequence,\" wrote the obnoxious Cardinal-nephew of Paul IV, \"who will be Pope, the only thing of importance is that he who is chosen should realize that he owes the dignity to the Caraffa. This house does not enjoy any favor with the Spanish or French kings, and everything therefore depends on securing the favor of the future Pope, as otherwise the ruin of the family is assured.\" Other Italian clans had similar ideas and in addition to their dark activities there were the schemes of the various ambassadors, all determined to secure the election of a Pope who would favor their particular national interests. In such an atmosphere the most extravagant promises were made and cunning plots formulated; the audacious Ambassador of Spain even went so far as to gain, by window or secret door, access to the quarters of cardinals, supposedly shut off from the world, and there in the dim night hours whisper his bribes and subtly phrased threats. Finally, out of the tangle of discussion, the name of the Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Medici was proclaimed and this despite the fact that but a short time previously he had disturbed the conclave by remarking during a conversation with another cardinal that, \"as regards the Germans, we should have to summon a Council to see if some concessions could not be made to them with regard to the marriage of priests and Communion under both kinds.\" That the startling statement did not prevent him from becoming Pius IV is indicative of the understanding his colleagues had of an\nexpansive nature which was tolerant and easy going to a fault.\nIn all ways he was unlike his dour predecessor and he was famous for his disregard of formality and ceremony, and the conduct of his private life was continually marked by homely incidents which endeared him to the public. He was a fat man and long appreciation of the pleasures of the table had brought the gout. Thinking to reduce his corpulence and nullify the encroachments of his sickness it became his habit to take long walks. These perambulations, much to the disgust of his court, were conducted at a rapid pace and for considerable distances. \"Exercise,\" he affirmed, \"maintains good health and keeps away illness, and I do not wish to die in bed.\" The traditional geniality which is ascribed to rotundity was indisputably his and the clouds of gloom and suspicion which had hung over Rome during the previous pontificate now disappeared. He displayed no ill-will to the arrogant nephews of Paul IV after his reception of the tiara, but their crimes were many and foul and their enemies so powerful and determined for revenge that retribution was inevitable. A particularly horrible murder within the hated family began the forces of its destruction.\nThe Duke of Paliano, brother of the Cardinal Carlo Caraffa, believed his wife unfaithful, and governed by extravagant ideas of honor he ordered her unfortunate supposed paramour dragged before him and then with shouts of rage he plunged his dagger again and again into the bound body of the wretch until he was dead. The drama became more horrible when the wretched Duchess, pregnant and crying her innocence, was strangled by her own brother, the Count dAlife. That the Cardinal Carlo Caraffa was a party, by knowledge and condonement, to the bloody wickedness could not be denied and with no\nalternative possible the Pope reluctantly set the processes of accusation and judgment in motion. \"If only to secure order,\" he said, \"I have no choice but to bring the haughty nephews of Paul IV to submission.\" A long list of charges was prepared, varying from murder and high treason to heresy, and brought to justice was the Cardinal Carlo, his brother the Duke of Paliano, the brother-in-law the Count d'Alife, and a younger relative, the Cardinal Alphonso Caraffa. After a long trial the latter was pardoned but the others, despite their rank, were given the supreme penalty. All three faced the executioner with dignity, and a letter to his son by the fierce Dukewho was comforted by the Jesuits during his last hoursis a missive to remember because of its faith and beauty: \"This paper contains, I believe, the last words and advice I shall be able to address you in this life,\" he wrote. \"I pray God that they may be such as a father should address his only son. . . . Flee from sin and have compassion on the misery of others; practice works of piety, and flee from idleness, and conversations and pursuits which are not fitting for you; take pains to acquire some knowledge of science and letters, for these are very necessary for a true nobleman, especially for one who has power and vassals, as well as to be able to enjoy the sweet fruits of the Holy Scriptures, which are so precious for both soul and body. If you savour such fruits, then you will despise the things of this sorrowful world, and find no small consolation in the present life. I wish you to show indomitable courage at my death, not behaving like a child, but as a reasonable man, and not listening to the promptings of the flesh, or to the love of your father, or to the talk of the world. For your consolation ponder well the fact that whatever happens is ordained by the decrees of the great God, Who rules the universe with infinite wisdom, and,\nClement VII. Reigned from 1523 to 1534.\nClick to enlarge\nPope Clement VII.\nHe excommunicated Henry VIII. See pages 247 to 254.\nas it appears to me, shows me great mercy by taking me hence in this manner, rather than in any other way, for which I always thank Him, as you also must do. May it only please Him to exchange this my life for that other, the false and deceitful for the true. Do not be troubled by whatever people may say or write; say to everyone: My father is dead, because God has shown him great grace, and I hope He has saved him, and granted him a better existence. Therewith I die, but you shall live, bear no one ill-will of my death.\"\nConciliatory measures were employed with the rulers of Europe by Pius IV, and ably representing him in many important conferences north of the Alps was the Cardinal Morone who had suffered imprisonment because of the delusions of the late pope. Nepotism was not absent from Rome for this Pope had his nephews too, but for once the custom brought glory instead of disgrace: one of these relatives was the Cardinal Charles Borromeo, a truly devout and talented character devoted to reform and good works who was, under the dispassionate scrutiny of a later generation, to be judged worthy of canonization. The goodness and ability of the young Cardinal was responsible for the resumption of the labors of the Council of Trent and in several sessions many important and historic decrees were formulated and in turn confirmed and strengthened by papal Bull. The influence of Cardinal Borromeo did not wane with the death of his uncle for happily the next pope, Pius V, a true and zealous churchman, was of a similar mind and purpose and the work of reform swept on. The new pope was the former Cardinal Michele Ghislieri. He was born of poor parents and had been a member of the Dominican Order since his early youth. As a friar he had taught and preached for twenty-eight years, then episcopal responsibilities had\nbeen given him and later had come the Red Hat and the stern duties of Inquisitor General under Paul IV. He had been well liked by that severe ruler and when he was given the supreme honor the people feared a return to the harsh discipline of the hated regime. There was, it is true, an immediate tightening of the laws, and justice was to move more swiftly than hitherto, but unlike his patron Pius V tempered strictness with mercy and understanding. He was determined Rome should be the model Capital of Christendom and a courtier, sighing for the riotousness of former days, complained that the entire city was taking on the air of a monastery. The courts were purged of bribery, the streets of prostitutes and thieves, and a ruthless war was made on corrupt officials and unjust taxes. The finances of the Papal States were subjected to critical and profound examination and many changes were made. When an enthusiastic official suggested a new scheme for bringing added revenues to the treasury, the Pope chided him and remarked that instead of amassing monies more thought should be given to collecting the allegiance of those nations which had broken away from the church. The papal army was reduced to a few companies, for he was averse to becoming embroiled in martial adventures; although his belief in the wide authority of the Holy See over the conduct of secular princes was unwavering.\nThis belief was responsible for the issuance of a Bull which excommunicated Elizabeth of England and released her subjects from their allegiance to her. The pronouncement was a mistake which only served to bring further resentment against Rome and misery to the English Catholics for the power of England was mounting, new triumphs were being won on and across the seas, and the Queen's name was tightly woven into the cloth of\nnational honor and patriotism. A few years after the papal sentence sturdy seamen, Protestant and Catholic alike, cheered for their good Queen Bess and merry England when they turned their small craft to meet the Armada. The vast array of great ships was laden with the flower of Spanish chivalry and carried the papal benediction but was doomed to an utter and terrible destruction.\nAmbition had not brought the tiara to Pius V and he had wept when informed of the decision of the cardinals. But once elected he worked at the great duties with unflagging energy and scrupulous honesty. It was fortunate that such a man should occupy the papacy so soon after the conclusion of the Council of Trent. The value of his administration to the decrees and decisions of the Council can be likened to the worth of a good cannon to the proper ammunition. Drastic changes were made in Rome. The Curia was reformed, the conduct of the cardinals examined and criticized, and stern measures were undertaken to make bishops reside in their sees. Such important works as the Catechism and the New Breviary and the New Missal were published, the value of seminaries was emphasized, and a vigilant eye was turned upon both the secular clergy and the Orders. One cardinal, an irresponsible creature who owed his Hat to the laxity of a previous reign, was confined in a monastery and placed under the conscientious care of Jesuit chaplains. Indeed no great fondness was held for the majority of the cardinals and once when the Pope was ill he was heard to remark that he was sorry death was approaching, not because he was afraid to face his Maker, but because he was leaving on earth a Sacred College filled with conniving and undeserving men. The acquisition of his high rank had brought no great change in the lowly circumstances of his family, most of whom were forbidden to enter\n[paragraph continues] Rome. \"God has called me to be what I am, in order that I may serve the Church,\" he said, \"and not that the Church might serve me.\" It is true that two nephews received his favor, if such a word can be applied to his austere patronage, but this was only because of his mistrust of the cardinals and the ceaseless intrigues kept in motion by the various ambassadors and faction leaders. In order to find a confidential secretary whose loyalty was beyond all doubt he turned to his family and thus his nephew Michele Bonelli who was also a Dominican became a cardinal. The Pope never quite forgave himself for this action and consequently made life miserable for his relative by a constant inquisitiveness as to his way of living and an equally constant criticism. The unfortunate prelate was seldom at ease and at any hour his larder, his table, his conduct, was liable to a surprise inspection from his uncle. His income was kept at a minimum, he was not allowed silver on his table, and he was even denied the consolation of his parents visiting him. His cousin, a soldier by profession, was made a Captain of the Papal Guard but from the beginning of his service he was in trouble with the Pope who expected his soldiery to live like monks. Finally the warrior, who had far different ideas, was arrested and hauled before the civil court where in the presence of his forbidding kinsman he heard that he was \"to forfeit all his goods and revenues, and under pain of death to leave the Vatican within two days, the Borgo within three, and the Papal States within ten.\" It was a drastic sentence and nothing could induce the Pontiff to extend leniency.\nLittle escaped his stern eye, and the devotees of the bull fight learnt that \"these spectacles, where bulls and wild beasts are baited in a circus or amphitheatre, are contrary to Christian mercy and charity, suitable to demons rather than men. We forbid all clerics, regular and secular, to\nbe present. . . .\" His dislike of war did not prevent him from sending ships and men to Malta where the Knights were besieged by the Turks and later his encouragement helped mould a Christian Alliance which was able to inflict a shattering and decisive defeat upon the Turkish fleet at Lepanto. Throughout his entire reign he suffered from a painful disease which was finally the cause of his death. Pain was seldom absent from his tortured body but he never complained. \"Increase, O Lord, my pains,\" he once cried, \"so long as Thou wilt increase my patience also.\" He was not the kind of man to court popularity and when he had been elected there had been little rejoicing. But when he died there were true tears and the streets of Rome were silent with respect. It was as he would have wished, and so passed Pius V, the last of the popes whose memory has been honored by canonization.\nIn less than two weeks his successor was named, the seventy-year-old Cardinal Ugo Buoncompagni, Pope Gregory XIII, who as a youth had fully enjoyed Renaissance pleasures but who had with the progress of time turned to the sterner delights of duty and reform. As prelate and papal official he had served for many years with distinction and had won considerable renown as a jurist, but neither the course of righteousness nor the possession of judicial talent prevented him on becoming pope from lavishing favors upon two nephews and a son whom he frankly acknowledged. This son was made Governor of St. Angelo while his cousins were invested with the purple. Easy-going to a fault Gregory was inferior to his predecessor; nevertheless the good works begun in the earlier reign did not cease and they continued on before an impetus steadily supplied by individual churchmen and the Orders. The great and main attack of Protestantism had been halted and a vigorous and purified\n[paragraph continues] Catholicism was on the increase. Gregory's chief accomplishments were in the field of education and no fewer than twenty-three new colleges opened their doors during his pontificate. Over two million Roman scudi were expended to help deserving but needy students and besides founding the English, German, Greek, and Maronite colleges in Rome the institution, later to be called the Gregorian College, which owed its existence to St. Ignatius was enlarged to accommodate scholars of all nations. Another inauguration to carry his name through the centuries was the calendar which supplanted the Julian calendar. Neither his relations with other sovereigns nor his temporal rule of the Papal States were blessed by good fortune and when he died after a three years' reign there were difficult problems of government and diplomacy both within and without the papal boundaries to greet his successor, Sixtus V.\nThe former Cardinal Felice Peretti, who as a boy had been a swineherd, was the son of a vineyard laborer and had entered the Franciscan Order in his early adolescence. In nature and bent he resembled his patrons Paul IV and Pius V rather than his immediate predecessor and from the beginning of his reign these stern traits were revealed. The brigandage and disorder which were disturbing the papal territories at the close of the former reign were stamped out by ruthless methods and by the end of his rule his temporal domain had become the most orderly in Europe and an empty treasury had become filled with gold. Imposition of new taxes accomplished this latter feat and it was not a way for him to win the cheers of either the nobles or the merchants; but he cared little for the applause of men and his only interest was his mission. The former swineherd was Pope and he was resolved to exercise without fear and with dignity the majesty\nand authority of his office in all spheres. In support of the Catholic League he excommunicated the King of Navarre, heir presumptive to the French throne, in order to prevent a Protestant from ruling a Catholic nation. It was not a popular decision in France and later the monarch, after becoming a Catholic, was as Henry IV, to make peace with another pope. Sixtus also supported Spain in that country's disastrous war with England, but despite the utmost pressure he would not endorse the Spanish King's designs upon France. Grandiose schemes were propounded by him for the complete overthrow of the Turkish Empire and he dreamed of joining the Red Sea with the Mediterranean and \"thus restoring the commerce of the ancient world.\" Preservation of the historic beauty of Rome and additional architectural projects were tasks he assumed with enthusiasm and an ingenious system, both practical and ornamental, of nobler and wider avenues in the city was devised and commenced.\nThe important decree was issued in this reign which limited the membership of the Sacred College to a maximum number of seventy cardinals and these were ranked in three divisions, six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons. The rule was to stand and equalling it in importance was the bull Immensa issued by the same pope which systemized the centralized government of the Church by forming fifteen Congregations, each consisting of churchmen and officials of varying rank, to assume in specialized departments the burden of detailed administration. Thus, with no diminution of his authority, an immense amount of routine work was lifted from the person of the pope.\nThe five years in which Sixtus occupied the throne of St. Peter were crowded with wise and good works but there were some blemishes to mar the recordhis severity and\nhis nepotism. For he too succumbed to what by this time appeared to be a papal tradition and a fourteen year old relative was elevated to the cardinalate. There can be no justification for such an act; but the contemporary mind was neither surprised nor shocked, and as with former and later reigns the hateful practice was accepted by the majority of both clergy and people with that equanimity which is the due of precedent and tradition. After the death of Sixtus three worthy but ancient prelates in rapid succession and within sixteen months were elected to the papal throne. No grave mistake or scandal can assault their reputations but neither can any of the three be credited with the deeds that are born of exceptional leadership or great initiative. The same pope, Gregory XIII, had made them cardinals on the same day and they were all of an equal age, past seventy. The first to follow Sixtus was Giovanni Batista Castagna, Urban VII, noted for his charities and diplomatic skill. He reigned thirteen days and then came Nicolo Sfondrato of Cremona who in honor of his patron took the name of Gregory XIV. The policies of preceding pontificates remained unchanged during his term which did not last a year and then called was the Cardinal Giovanni Facchinetti who became Innocent IX. Within a few months he too was in his tomb and the Sacred College, after great discussion, decided that the Cardinal Ippolito Aldobrandini should be Pope. He took the name of Clement VII.\nThe choice was a bitter blow to Spanish hopes and indeed the far seeing policies of the new pontiff were to effect a tremendous change in the destiny of that country which was now at the peak of its glory. Clement \"by peaceful means, little by little, without disturbance or excitement, but with all the more security,\" was to strengthen the independence of the papacy by effecting\nhappier relations with France and this circumstance was one of the factors which halted the expansion of Spanish power and made way for the decline of a proud and great nation. During the preceding pontificates Spanish influence upon the diplomatic course of the papacy had gradually become so strong that when Clement took his throne he felt Rome was almost the vassal of Madrid. This meant that the enemies of Spain were automatically on ill terms with the Holy See and no great perception was needed by the pontiff to realize the danger of a permanent rupture with France, the most hated foe of Spain. Henry IV, master of France, had been excommunicated; but now, seeking the united allegiance of his subjects he was imploring to be readmitted to the communion of the Church. Was it the gesture of one who was alleged to have remarked \"Paris is well worth a mass,\" or was the prince truly sincere in his repentance? It was a delicate problem for the Pope. If he were over-severe, schism would be assured and France surely would go the way of England; but if he were foolishly lenient then contempt for papal authority would grow everywhere. A constant clamor of both plea and threat came from the nations involved but the cautious and conscientious Pope trod the difficult and torturous path of negotiation with extraordinary diplomatic skill and never once was principle or scruple sacrificed. He well realized that independence of the Holy See demanded relief from the ever growing dominance of Spain and that relief was possible only with France active as a counter balance; yet the sentence of excommunication could not be lifted lightly, and often the French envoys were in despair. \"Would to God,\" the Pope told an official, \"that we could trust Henry. But what has he done to deserve absolution? . . . Is it enough that he now once makes the Sign of the Cross?\"\nAt length repeated argument and evidence convinced him that the prince indeed was truly penitent and with a great and solemn ceremony, and much to the consternation of Spain, the dreaded sentence was lifted. \"I have no words to praise the kindness of Your Holiness as it deserves,\" Henry wrote with gratitude. \"My life henceforth shall have no other purpose than to glorify God by meritorious obedience. . . .\" The extravagant promise was never to be completely fulfilled but an alliance had been made which brought advantages to both Pope and King. France remained a Catholic country and the papacy was no longer at the mercy of the pretentious dictates of Philip II of Spain who was an absolutist and harbored ambitions of functioning as a kind of Pope-Emperor. When the Duchy of Ferrara was left empty of a legitimate heir the Spanish king presented a candidate to contest the claims of the Pope; but supported by the new friendship of France, Clement was able to remain firm and in the end the Duchy was returned to the Papal States. In pursuance of the papal dream of a united and tranquil Christendom the Pope was able on several occasions to act as a peacemaker between the nations: products of his diplomacy were the Peace of Vervins between Spain and France and the Treaty of Lyons between the latter nation and Savoy.", "id": "<urn:uuid:459a73a6-a073-42e1-8e5b-9313ec0116d3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/ptp/ptp16.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.988547682762146, "token_count": 17899, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Do you know which language is the official language of 21 countries in the world, spanning four continents? It's Spanish (or Espa-ol), of course! Spanish is not only the official language of Spain and Mexico, but also of many countries in South and Central America. Which other countries can you name? Did you know that it's also the official language of a country in Africa? Equatorial Guinea lies on the western coast of Africa and its two official languages are Spanish and French.\nNot all Spanish sounds the same and not all Spanish words mean the same thing in each country.\nMany Spanish words have been incorporated into the English language. Did you know that the word \"burrito\" actually means \"little donkey?\"\nHave you ever heard of someone naming a car \"won't go?\" Not many people would want to buy that car. That's exactly why the Chevrolet Nova didn't sell in Spain and Latin America. \"No va\" means \"won't go\" in Spanish.\nThe United States territory Puerto Rico means \"rich port.\" The Central American country Costa Rica means \"rich coast.\" The state of Colorado's name is actually from the Spanish word meaning \"red.\" Nevada means \"snowy\" or \"snowed upon\" in Spanish. Do you know what state's name comes from an old Spanish term meaning \"earthly paradise?\" California. Can you think of any other common names that stem from the Spanish language?\nHave you heard the saying \"Mi casa es su casa?\" It's a sign of hospitality that means \"my house is your house.\" In English we might more commonly say \"make yourself at home.\" In some parts of India, a salary is called \"pagar,\" which in Spanish means \"to pay.\"\nMany names are actually Spanish words as well. For example, a \"bandera\" is a flag so the actor Antonio Banderas' name means \"flags.\" Geraldo Rivera's last name means \"riverbank\" or \"riverside\" in Spanish, as does the name of the great Mexican artist Diego Rivera. \"Rivera\" looks like the word \"river\" in English but the word for \"river\" in Spanish is actually \"ri-!\"\nSpanish is all around us. What other words of Spanish origin can you find?\n-- Gwendolyn Gallace, Spanish teacher, Jefferson, Maine.\n*** Try to figure out what the Spanish poem, La Boda (right), says!\nHoy en este amanecer,\nSuenan las campanas sin cesar,\nLos musicos tocan su m\u00fasica,\nPorque la boda ya va a empezar.\nLa gente se levanta,\nAl ver la novia entrar,\nCon su vestido blanco,\nY con una alegra\nQue no puede dejar.\nAtras de ella,\nLos pajes tiran flores,\nCon sus caritas peque-as,\nY sus vestidos de muchos colores.\nAl fin la novia para,\nY atras voltea,\nPor su novio espera.\nEl novio ahora camina,\nHacia su novia bella,\nNervioso y feliz,\nPero siempre pensando en ella.\nMientras la ceremonia sigue,\nUn angel del cielo viene,\nLes da amor y felicidad,\nDe la que el tiene.\nEl angel les dice,\nQue vivan felices y llenos de alegra,\nY que el amor siempre encuentren,\nDia tras dia.\n-- por Marian Urias, 11 a-os de edad, Mexicana, 6th grade, El Paso, Texas.", "id": "<urn:uuid:81543595-0ce9-4ed0-87d7-a10aa382f354>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.skippingstones.org/canvas-vol154-page30.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.836442768573761, "token_count": 808, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Its a scarlet tanager kind of yearWritten by George Ellison\n\u201cThe scarlet tanager flies through the green foliage as if it would ignite the leaves.\nYou can hardly believe that a living creature can wear such colors.\u201d\n\u2014 Henry David Thoreau\nThis seems to be a scarlet tanager kind of year. I\u2019ve been seeing and hearing them at my house, along the Blue Ridge Parkway, and in the Great Smokies. No bird in our region is more striking. Jet black wings on a trim red almost luminescent body, the male is impossible to overlook. And it\u2019s easy to recognize by both song and call.\nI almost never encounter the summer tanager (whose entire body is rosy red) in Western North Carolina, but the scarlet tanager is encountered every year \u2014 to a greater or lesser extent \u2014 during the breeding season (mid-April to mid-October) in mature woodlands (especially slopes with pine and oak) between 2,000 and 5,000 feet in elevation. The bird winters in northwestern South America, where it enjoys the company of various tropical tanagers that do not migrate.\nKeep in mind that the female doesn\u2019t resemble her mate except in shape. She is olive-green or yellow-orange in color. Also keep in mind there is a variant form (morph) of the male tanager that is orange rather than scarlet in color. I suspect this variant is the result of something peculiar in its diet. My first and only encounter with an orange scarlet tananger was in the Lake Junaluska area several years ago.\nThe call note used by both the male and female is a distinctive \u201cchip-burr \u2026 chip-burr.\u201d The male\u2019s song is not pretty. He sounds like a robin with a sore throat; that is, the notes in the song are hoarse and raspy. When gathering nesting material, the female sometimes sings a shorter \u201cwhisper\u201d song in response to the male\u2019s louder song.\nMales in adjacent territories often engage in combative counter-singing and will, as a last resort, go beak-to-beak. On our property, a creek sometimes serves as a boundary \u2014 the line drawn in the sand, as it were. The males sing defiantly at one another across the water and sometimes make forays into enemy territory. Meanwhile, the female is busy incubating her eggs. When not squabbling with a nearby male, her mate brings food.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ca369163-a3e7-4e52-a03c-c42485d71a9e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.smokymountainnews.com/outdoors/item/7208-its-a-scarlet-tanager-kind-of-year", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511513710021973, "token_count": 532, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This statistic shows the growth of the real gross domestic product (GDP) in Spain from 2003 to 2013. GDP refers to the total market value of all goods and services that are produced within a country per year. It is an important indicator of the economic strength of a country. Real GDP is adjusted for price changes and is therefore regarded as a key indicator for economic growth. Spain's real GDP growth in 2011 was about 0.4 percent compared to the previous year.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f744db91-8b17-4c6f-8175-3f5a51b3cdfd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.statista.com/statistics/14553/growth-of-the-gross-domestic-product-in-spain/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9676731824874878, "token_count": 94, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Not far from the familiar starry figure of Orion the Hunter are the two star clusters of Taurus the Bull: the Hyades and the Pleiades. The Hyades cluster is punctuated by the bright red star Aldebaran, the eye of the Bull. The fainter Pleiades cluster, or Seven Sisters, is twice as far from us as the Hyades and sometimes is mistaken for the Little Dipper.\nTuesday, November 20, 2012\nStars are born in clusters \u2014 families of dozens to hundreds of stars that share the same age and chemical makeup \u2014 but they don\u2019t remain in clusters their whole lives. Like fledgling birds, stars eventually leave the nest in which they were born to roam the galaxy alone.\nThere are hundreds of star clusters that populate our Milky Way galaxy, many of which are visible from Earth to unaided human eyes. Most appear as faint, fuzzy smudges in the night sky because of their great distance from us, but there are two clusters close enough to allow us to see their brightest members as individual suns.\nOn cold, crisp November evenings, you can spot these two magnificent star clusters in our constellation of Taurus the Bull. They are the Hyades (high-a-deez) and the Pleiades (plee-a-deez) star clusters. The Hyades cluster forms the familiar V-shaped face of Taurus, with the bright orange star Aldebaran as one of his glaring red eyes. Aldebaran itself is not a member of the Hyades but is superimposed on the cluster as a foreground star, only half as far away. At a distance of 153 light years, the Hyades cluster is the closest star cluster to our solar system.\nLeading the Hyades westward across the sky is Taurus\u2019 second star cluster, the Pleiades, marking the Bull\u2019s shoulder. Also known as the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades star cluster lies nearly twice as far from us as the Hyades cluster, so it appears much smaller in size, but its importance to the sky-watchers of the past cannot be overstated. The star Aldebaran received its name from the Arabic words that mean \u201cThe Follower\u201d because it rises just behind the Pleiades and obediently follows them across the heavens.\nThe Hyades and Pleiades star clusters are steeped in ancient legend and have been pondered and ogled by curious eyes since antiquity. Here\u2019s a sample of the star lore surrounding these two clusters.\nHyas was the son of a Titan named Atlas. His seven half-sisters by a different mother were the Hyades, a name that means \u201cthe rainy ones.\u201d Hyas grew into a renowned archer and hunter but one day wound up being killed by his prey \u2014 a wild boar. His sisters were so overcome with grief that they wept themselves to death. Zeus, the king of the Greek gods, immortalized the sisters by placing them among the stars as the Hyades star cluster. During the rainy season of April and May, the Hyades are not seen because they are too close to the sun in our daytime sky. The Greeks considered the springtime rains as the never-ending tears of the Hyades, grieving for their fallen brother.\nThe Pleiades were the seven half-sisters of the Hyades by yet a different mother. After Atlas and the Titans were defeated by Zeus and the Olympians in the great war for control of the universe, Atlas\u2019 punishment was to toil for eternity, holding up the sky. Unable to look after his daughters, Atlas had to watch helplessly as the brute Orion relentlessly pursued the seven beautiful Pleiades. Zeus took pity on them and first changed them into doves so that they might escape Orion\u2019s advances before finally changing them into the seven twinkling stars of the Pleiades star cluster, just out of Orion\u2019s reach. He placed them in the heavens beside their grieving half-sisters, the Hyades.\nLook for the Hyades and Pleiades star clusters high in the eastern sky at about 9 p.m. in late November. The three stars of Orion\u2019s Belt point upward to them like an arrow. The dazzling planet Jupiter shines nearby both clusters this fall and winter. Aim your binoculars at the clusters to see dozens of fainter stars.\nProfessor Jimmy Westlake teaches astronomy and physics at Colorado Mountain College\u2019s Alpine Campus. Check out Westlake\u2019s astrophotography website at www.jwestlake.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5d6e095d-0403-49ae-9d41-ed6e39e4a96b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.steamboattoday.com/news/2012/nov/20/jimmy-westlake-tale-2-clusters/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9593827724456787, "token_count": 953, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When he shot President Lincoln, John Wilkes Booth was 26 years old, and one of the nation\u2019s most famous actors. (Charles DeForest Fredericks/National Portrait Gallery)\nJohn Wilkes Booth, a Maryland native, spent the war performing in theatrical productions. But the conflict was never far from his mind. In a letter to his mother, he expressed chagrin that he hadn\u2019t joined the Confederate army, writing, \u201cI have \u2026 begun to deem myself a coward, and to despise my own existence.\u201d He was outraged by the reelection of Lincoln, whom he viewed as the instigator of all the country\u2019s woes. The month after the inauguration, Booth learned that Lincoln would be attending a performance at Ford\u2019s Theatre on April 14. That night, he crept into Lincoln\u2019s theater box and shot him in the back of the head. It was the first time a president had been murdered. \u201cWanted\u201d posters were issued for Booth, and on April 26, he was cornered in a tobacco barn and shot by a federal sergeant, acting against orders to bring him in alive.\nSeveral months later, Charles Creighton Hazewell, a frequent contributor, sought to make sense of the assassination\u2014speculating that the plot may have been hatched in Canada (where a number of secessionist schemes had originated) and hinting at evidence that the plan had been endorsed at the highest levels of the Confederate government.\u2014Sage Stossel\nThe assassination of President Lincoln threw a whole nation into mourning \u2026 Of all our Presidents since Washington, Mr. Lincoln had excited the smallest amount of that feeling which places its object in personal danger. He was a man who made a singularly favorable impression on those who approached him, resembling in that respect President Jackson, who often made warm friends of bitter foes, when circumstances had forced them to seek his presence; and it is probable, that, if he and the honest chiefs of the Rebels could have been brought face to face, there never would have been civil war,\u2014at least, any contest of grand proportions; for he would not have failed to convince them that all that they had any right to claim, and therefore all that they could expect their fellow-citizens to fight for, would be more secure under his government than it had been under the governments of such men as Pierce and Buchanan, who made use of sectionalism and slavery to promote the selfish interests of themselves and their party \u2026 Ignorance was the parent of the civil war, as it has been the parent of many other evils,\u2014ignorance of the character and purpose of the man who was chosen President in 1860\u201361, and who entered upon official life with less animosity toward his opponents than ever before or since had been felt by a man elected to a great place after a bitter and exciting contest \u2026\nThat one of the most insignificant of [the secessionists\u2019] number should have murdered the man whose election they declared to be cause for war is nothing strange, being in perfect keeping with their whole course. The wretch who shot the chief magistrate of the Republic is of hardly more account than was the weapon which he used. The real murderers of Mr. Lincoln are the men whose action brought about the civil war. Booth\u2019s deed was a logical proceeding, following strictly from the principles avowed by the Rebels, and in harmony with their course during the last five years. The fall of a public man by the hand of an assassin always affects the mind more strongly than it is affected by the fall of thousands of men in battle; but in strictness, Booth, vile as his deed was, can be held to have been no worse, morally, than was that old gentleman who insisted upon being allowed the privilege of firing the first shot at Fort Sumter. Ruffin\u2019s act is not so disgusting as Booth\u2019s; but of the two men, Booth exhibited the greater courage,\u2014courage of the basest kind, indeed, but sure to be attended with the heaviest risks, as the hand of every man would be directed against its exhibitor. Had the Rebels succeeded, Ruffin would have been honored by his fellows; but even a successful Southern Confederacy would have been too hot a country for the abode of a wilful murderer. Such a man would have been no more pleasantly situated even in South Carolina than was Benedict Arnold in England. And as he chose to become an assassin after the event of the war had been decided, and when his victim was bent upon sparing Southern feeling so far as it could be spared without injustice being done to the country, Booth must have expected to find his act condemned by every rational Southern man as a worse than useless crime, as a blunder of the very first magnitude. Had he succeeded in getting abroad, Secession exiles would have shunned him, and have treated him as one who had brought an ineffaceable stain on their cause, and also had rendered their restoration to their homes impossible. The pistol-shot of Sergeant Corbett saved him from the gallows, and it saved him also from the denunciations of the men whom he thought to serve. He exhibited, therefore, a species of courage that is by no means common; for he not only risked his life, and rendered it impossible for honorable men to sympathize with him, but he ran the hazard of being denounced and cast off by his own party \u2026 All Secessionists who retain any self-respect must rejoice that one whose doings brought additional ignominy on a cause that could not well bear it has passed away and gone to his account. It would have been more satisfactory to loyal men, if he had been reserved for the gallows; but even they must admit that it is a terrible trial to any people who get possession of an odious criminal, because they may be led so to act as to disgrace themselves, and to turn sympathy in the direction of the evil-doer \u2026 Therefore the shot of Sergeant Corbett is not to be regretted, save that it gave too honorable a form of death to one who had earned all that there is of disgraceful in that mode of dying to which a peculiar stigma is attached by the common consent of mankind.\nWhether Booth was the agent of a band of conspirators, or was one of a few vile men who sought an odious immortality, it is impossible to say. We have the authority of a high Government official for the statement that \u201cthe President\u2019s murder was organized in Canada and approved at Richmond\u201d; but the evidence in support of this extraordinary announcement is, doubtless for the best of reasons, withheld at the time we write. There is nothing improbable in the supposition that the assassination plot was formed in Canada, as some of the vilest miscreants of the Secession side have been allowed to live in that country \u2026 But it is not probable that British subjects had anything to do with any conspiracy of this kind. The Canadian error was in allowing the scum of Secession to abuse the \u201cright of hospitality\u201d through the pursuit of hostile action against us from the territory of a neutral \u2026\nThat a plan to murder President Lincoln should have been approved at Richmond is nothing strange; and though such approval would have been supremely foolish, what but supreme folly is the chief characteristic of the whole Southern movement? If the seal of Richmond\u2019s approval was placed on a plan formed in Canada, something more than the murder of Mr. Lincoln was intended. It must have been meant to kill every man who could legally take his place, either as President or as President pro tempore. The only persons who had any title to step into the Presidency on Mr. Lincoln\u2019s death were Mr. Johnson, who became President on the 15th of April, and Mr. Foster, one of the Connecticut Senators, who is President of the Senate \u2026 It does not appear that any attempt was made on the life of Mr. Foster, though Mr. Johnson was on the list of those doomed by the assassins; and the savage attack made on Mr. Seward shows what those assassins were capable of. But had all the members of the Administration been struck down at the same time, it is not at all probable that \u201canarchy\u201d would have been the effect, though to produce that must have been the object aimed at by the conspirators. Anarchy is not so easily brought about as persons of an anarchical turn of mind suppose. The training we have gone through since the close of 1860 has fitted us to bear many rude assaults on order without our becoming disorderly. Our conviction is, that, if every man who held high office at Washington had been killed on the 14th of April, things would have gone pretty much as we have seen them go, and that thus the American people would have vindicated their right to be considered a self-governing race. It would not be a very flattering thought, that the peace of the country is at the command of any dozen of hardened ruffians who should have the capacity to form an assassination plot, the discretion to keep silent respecting their purpose, and the boldness and the skill requisite to carry it out to its most minute details: for the neglect of one of those details might be fatal to the whole project. Society does not exist in such peril as that.\njohn wilkes booth, a Maryland native, spent the war performing in theatrical productions. But the conflict was never far from his mind. In a letter to his mother, he expressed chagrin that he hadn\u2019t joined the Confederate army, writing, \u201cI have \u2026 begun to deem myself a coward, and to despise my own existence.\u201d He was outraged by the reelection of Lincoln, whom he viewed as the instigator of all the country\u2019s woes.\nThe month after the inauguration, Booth learned that Lincoln would be attending a performance at Ford\u2019s Theatre on April 14. That night, he crept into Lincoln\u2019s theater box and shot him in the back of the head. It was the first time a president had been murdered. \u201cWanted\u201d posters were issued for Booth, and on April 26, he was cornered in a tobacco barn and shot by a federal sergeant, who acted against orders to bring him in alive.\nSeveral months later, Charles Creighton Hazewell, a frequent Atlantic contributor, sought to make sense of the assassination\u2014speculating that the plot may have been hatched in Canada (where a number of secessionist schemes had originated) and hinting at evidence that the plan had been endorsed at the highest levels of the Confederate government.\nRead the full text of this article here.\nThis article available online at:", "id": "<urn:uuid:b48891ec-4670-49b3-85a7-ec1a2ad95bf5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/print/2012/02/assassination/308804/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9863413572311401, "token_count": 2194, "score": 3.8125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The drought in Texas, during March, was the worst since 1895.\nThat is about the time my parents were born 120 years ago.\nI never thought it could be worse than the drought of the 1950s, but it is. Drive out into grazing country where mesquite aren't too thick and all you can see is dry, cracked soil with an occasional fire ant or a gopher mound in the sandier soil.\nComparing the current drought with the seven-year drought in the 1950s, old-timers say the current drought sapped the soil of moisture faster than it did in the 1950s.\nIt just stopped raining last July, and pasture after pasture was hit by wildfires.\nRight now, there is no potential to produce hay, harvest wheat or plant cotton or grain sorghum this May. Unless there is a week of rain fairly soon there is no hope for agriculture this year.\nThe Texas Ag Extension Service says that, despite a few recent showers in some areas, the cotton growing in Texas and Oklahoma is still in a drought. Any crop planted in southern Texas earlier in the year that got up out of the ground is now being sand blasted by hot, dry winds.\nWildfires have burned at least 1.5 million acres in the state since Jan. 1.\nIn addition to grazing losses, ranchers are facing rangeland stock water tanks that are dry or nearly dry. Streams are not flowing and lakes and big tanks are turning to deep mud.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ea6b2e4-22cb-4c80-8462-ec4f7a51e6d6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.timesrecordnews.com/news/2011/may/01/drought-worst-since-1895/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9750171303749084, "token_count": 305, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Answer: Even better! A lot of ag research stations have investigated the application of chemicals through irrigation systems. Typically they find that fertigation provides the following advantages compared to ground application:\nQuestion: What about chemicals other than fertilizers?\nAnswer: Most of the above advantages extend to pesticide injection. In addition, researchers report:\nQuestion: How does all this fit together with some of the newer irrigation technologies?\nAnswer: Two technological advances offer us examples of the perfect fit between injectors and irrigation systems:\nLow Energy Precision Application (LEPA) heads make pivots even more effective as application devices. LEPA heads are usually arranged to deliver water beneath the crop foliage canopy. Several LEPA head designs have multiple operating modes including the capability to convert between down-spray and up-spray. This feature further improves the flexibility of chemical application by center pivots.\nSub-surface drip irrigation is a technology that couldn't exist without injectors. All crop nutrients are delivered directly to the plant roots through the irrigation lines while the search continues for new systemic pesticides that are well-suited for root uptake. Chemicals must also be injected to keep irrigation lines free of slime that would plug the drip emitters.\nThis article is reprinted from ChemIndustrial Systems, Inc.; CSI INFO/UPDATE #8 Oct 21, 1994", "id": "<urn:uuid:1db88bea-2ba3-4a68-8b1d-bc7810323ce7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.trickl-eez.com/teweb11.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.932559072971344, "token_count": 270, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Posts Tagged \u2018Allergy shots\u2019\nMost people do not experience adverse reactions to allergy shots. Sometimes they may have swelling, redness or itching at the site of injection. These mild reactions are usually treated with antihistamines, and the doctor may adjust the dose for the next injection.\nRarely more severe reactions are manifested. In sensitive individuals, the vaccine can cause asthma symptoms such as difficulty breathing, wheezing or coughing. In addition, an anaphylactic reaction can cause dizziness, nausea, chest tightness or swelling of the throat that prevents you from breathing. These reactions can be treated in the office, but sometimes may require treatment in hospital. Read the rest of this entry \u00bb\nBefore administering vaccines allergy testing is needed to determine which allergens will trigger allergic reactions. These studies include skin or patch tests and a blood test called \u201cradioallergosorbent test\u201d or RAST. The results are not always accurate. You may get a positive test without allergic symptoms or, conversely, to show allergy symptoms even with a negative test.\nHow it is done\nWhen given an allergy vaccine is injected a small amount of allergen under the skin, usually in the fleshy part of the forearm. At the start of treatment, the injections are usually once a week and go increasing doses of allergens gradually with each injection. A patient can achieve the maximum dose, also known as a maintenance dose at four to six months of starting treatment. Read the rest of this entry \u00bb\nAllergy shots, also known as immunotherapy, are a medical procedure that involves making the body insensitive to not overreact to certain allergens. They are given small amounts of the substance to cause discomfort by injection to stimulate the immune system gradually. As the weeks and months will increase the amount of allergens in gradually.\nIt is not yet clear how the allergy shots, but it is estimated that the treatment stimulates an immune response against allergens other, which is more comfortable than traditional allergic response. The vaccines do not provide immediate relief, but may be a good long term solution if they work well. Many people have managed to reverse the symptoms of allergy after completion of treatment (3 to 5 years) with allergy shots.\nIt may take six months to a year before symptoms begin to disappear. For those who respond to treatment, allergy shots can significantly reduce the intensity and frequency of symptoms. However, in some cases, it may not produce any effect or the results are minimal, even after completing a year of treatment. Read the rest of this entry \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:d63883f8-cd83-45f7-ae00-f889c4551b4a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.undyinglove.org/tag/allergy-shots", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443167448043823, "token_count": 523, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Supporting early childhood education: BASF\u2019s \u201cAction on Education\u201d campaign\nAs part of the \u201cAction on Education\u201d campaign, BASF Aktiengesellschaft is supporting seven projects aimed at boosting early childhood education in daycare centers.\nThe projects are being organized and carried out by organizations that operate daycare centers in Ludwigshafen \u2013 the city of Ludwigshafen and Germany\u2019s two main churches. Ludwigshafen\u2019s 89 daycare centers are taking part in the projects together. An academic research group will provide ongoing support and post-project evaluation for the projects, which are intended to be sustainable and to continue after the project phase is over.\nThe projects address topics that are an integral part of the educational guidelines laid down for daycare centers by the state of Rhineland-Palatinate.\n1. Project \u201cLanguage Makes You Strong! Language Bridge Daycare Centers\u201d\nLanguage is the key to successful education and integration, which is why this project aims to improve the development of language skills among children from diverse social and cultural backgrounds.\nPromoting language skills in small groups and in everyday classroom situations helps in the following way: using small groups, trained staff use games to systematically teach children with poor language skills a specific number of new words, e.g., \u201cclothes\u201d or \u201cparts of the body.\u201d To consolidate the new vocabulary, each topic is again dealt with in the entire group and in other ways (for example, by naming the different items of clothes when getting dressed). Parents are children\u2019s most important language partners. Once a week, parents who come from other countries or families with educational problems go to the daycare center with their children. They learn in game form how to encourage the use of language using play and get tips on what to do at home.\n2. Project \u201cPure Nature\u201d\nThis project helps daycare centers to teach children about nature. The idea is to give children a wide variety of ways of learning about nature so that they develop a relationship with nature and the natural world, and experience and understand its relationship with other things. For this reason, an important part of the project is building natural play areas for the centers. Examples include model outdoor play areas, such as building small hillocks, climbing opportunities or making little streams.\n3. Project \u201cFrom Small to Smart\u201d\nThe aim of this project is to encourage children to be curious about scientific phenomena and to help them learn how to express and think about their experiences. Age-appropriate, hands-on experiments help to encourage their interest in chemistry, math and physics. Specially equipped educational workshops in each of the participating daycare centers also encourage the children to learn more easily. In small groups, the children find out what happens, for example, when they mix paints, what substances dissolve in water or discover \u201chidden\u201d air. Using materials found in every household, the children are able to make surprising experiences.\n4. Storytelling Workshop\nListening to stories from different cultures doesn\u2019t just fascinate children, it also helps them to better understand their own and other cultures. This project uses storytelling as an educational tool: children learn to listen and become storytellers themselves, while at the same time coming face to face with stories from other cultures and traditions.\n5. Project \u201cFrom Piccolo to Picasso\u201d\nHelping to develop creative skills in children is the aim of this project, which boosts the esthetic and artistic element of the centers\u2019 curriculum. Children are given the opportunity \u2013 based on their teachers\u2019 suggestions \u2013 to express themselves using colors, shapes and experimental designs. Artists are also invited to come and work with the children. All the participating centers have set up \u201cchildren\u2019s studios\u201d \u2013 their size depends on the available space \u2013 where the children can draw, paint or make things.\n6. Project \u201cGuaranty for quality\u201d\nThis project introduces quality assurance into daycare centers with respect to processes, structures and results. Staff at the centers are trained to monitor and improve the quality of their own work on an ongoing basis. Every year, each center chooses specific areas from a list of defined, quality-relevant subjects that they want to focus on and implement, for example integrating parents into the work of the centers.\n7. Project \u201cObservation and Educational Partnership\u201d\nThis project intends to assist center staff in developing their observational skills: the idea is to be more aware of children\u2019s individuality so that they can be given greater personal support. Center staff are trained to systematically observe children\u2019s development, their strengths and needs and to document these observations for each child. The training also teaches staff how to talk to parents with the aim of persuading them to work more closely with the centers in the interests of the children.Back to top", "id": "<urn:uuid:77113b78-4789-4e1c-a88f-d6ce924d17ab>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/resources/news-and-in-focus-articles/in-focus-articles/2007/knowledge-acquisition-and-sharing/supporting-early-childhood-education-basfs-action-on-education-campaign/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9457119703292847, "token_count": 1012, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Q: When people talk about acidity in a coffee being a positive attribute - what do they mean?\nA: Oftentimes 'acidity' is related to objective pH level (think lemons and grapefruit). Coffee is low in this type of acidity. When we talk of acidity in the coffee cup we refer to the vibrancy, liveliness and fruity brightness, which is characteristic of high grown, high quality arabica beans.\nA: Bitterness is often the result of 2 things:\n- Dark roasting (this may be intentional to create a roasty smokiness that some drinkers enjoy - oftentimes it is unintentional!) OR\n- Over extraction by the barista in creating the cup - the grind of the coffee may be too fine for the brewing method resulting in too little water running through too much coffee\nA: Contrary to popular belief, coffee should never be stored in either fridge or freezer! The four main enemies of the coffee bean are oxygen, heat, moisture, and light. Once the beans are taken out of the fridge or freezer, the coffee will absorb the condensation when the ice-crystals have thawed. Always store your beans in a cool, dark, dry place like the pantry. Remember, coffee absorbs smells so store your beans in an airtight vacuum container.\nA: Coffee is a perishable good - you must think of coffee the same way you think of your fruit and vegetables, which no doubt you probably buy on a weekly basis. Coffee reaches its peak potential between 3 to 12 days after roasting, after which the coffee beans begin to deteriorate quite quickly. To truly enjoy a fresh cup of coffee, you need to be buying coffee fresh from the roaster in small lots. Keep an eye out for one-way valves on the packaging, check for roast on dates (or use by dates!) and store in a cool, dark, dry place. Try to consume ground coffee within a week of grinding, while whole beans should be consumed within 3 weeks of roast date.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4f0a4fcf-3562-4cd5-a948-f2d9266a8df2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.vellanero.com.au/index.php/about/corporate-and-wholesale/corporate-and-wholesale/library/index.php/corporate-and-wholesale/library/component/virtuemart/component/virtuemart/library/faqs", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9481397271156311, "token_count": 418, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The first census to report on how well people were housed was that of 1891, but the only\nstatistics gathered were on the number of rooms and the number of people in each household.\nFrom 1951 onwards, more questions were asked about 'amenities', meaning specific facilities\nthat households either possessed or had shared access to.\nOne interesting measure of progress is the change in the amenities covered by the census. In 1951, these were piped water, a cooking stove, a kitchen sink, a 'water closet' meaning a flush toilet, and a 'fixed bath', as distinct from a tin bath hung on the wall between uses. In 2001, the list of key amenities was shorter: central heating, and 'sole use of bath/shower and toilet'. Differences in what information was recorded by each census complicate comparisons over time, and none of our three measures are entirely consistent.\nOur detailed statistics are held in structures called nCubes, which you can think of as tables with one dimension, or with two ... or with twenty. Their dimensions are defined by the variables each nCube combines, and each variable is made up of categories. These nCubes are available at national level for this theme:\n|Available nCubes||Period covered||Variables\n(number of categories)\n|Total Households||1931 to 2001||\n|Housing Density, redistricted||1931 to 2001||\nPersons per Room\n|Housing Amenity, redistricted||1951 to 2001||\nHousing amenities, simplified", "id": "<urn:uuid:e8744729-008d-44cb-a684-f374fbbff123>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/data_theme_page.jsp?u_id=10064259&c_id=10057024&data_theme=T_HOUS", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9658994674682617, "token_count": 317, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "American Heritage\u00ae Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition\n- n. A common European crow (Corvus corone) having glossy black plumage.\nCentury Dictionary and Cyclopedia\n- n. The common crow of Europe, Corvus corone: so called because it often feeds on carrion. See cut under crow.\n- n. The urubu or black vulture of America, Catharista atrata, a common bird of the southern United States, resembling the turkey-buzzard, and feeding entirely upon carrion.\n- n. The common crow of America, Corvus americanus.\n- n. A name of the European rook, Corvus frugilegus.\nGNU Webster's 1913\n- adj. the common European crow (Corvus corone) which feeds on carrion, insects, fruits, and seeds.\n- n. See under Carrion.\n- n. American vulture smaller than the turkey buzzard\nSorry, no example sentences found.\n\u2018carrion crow\u2019 hasn't been added to any lists yet.\nLooking for tweets for carrion crow.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dd59f312-29a0-47f2-b019-caefaaa33aae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wordnik.com/words/carrion%20crow", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7266031503677368, "token_count": 248, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On January 9th, citizens living in southern Sudan will vote on a referendum to secede from the northern part of the country. A clock in the town of Juba, the political center of southern Sudan, counts down to this referendum, symbolical of the locals\u2019 excitement to part from the hegemonic north. Nearby, the Darfur genocide crisis that continues to plague the area is not an isolated event. It\u2019s all related, part of two brutal civil wars that have been for decades tearing the nation apart; as of late, literally.\nSudan has traditionally been seen by many as the bridge between the Arab and the African worlds\u2014one not particularly easy to cross. The north and the south of Sudan are just about as culturally and religiously different from each other as you could possibly imagine. In the north, Arab culture dominates, and the majority religion is Islam. In the south, the predominant culture is more traditionally sub-Saharan African, and the primary religions are animist belief systems and Christianity. Ever since the country gained independence from Britain in 1956, the cultural and religious systems of the north have been heavily imposed on the whole of Sudan, resulting in southern resistance and the ongoing strife.\nIn particular, this imposition of a differing set of beliefs can in large part be attributed to the current Sudanese president, Omar al-Bashir. Al-Bashir arose to power in 1989 through a bloodless coup, and this past April, won the first ostensibly democratic election the nation has held in 24 years. I hesitate to call the election democratic because many believe that al-Bashir, who is notorious for his corruption, rigged it in his favor. While there is no proof, it is generally not unsafe to consider that leaders who are in power through a coup have significant sway in any following elections. Whether he is rightfully in power or not, al-Bashir has imposed northern ideals throughout the whole nation, a primary cause of the Sudanese civil wars. Many attribute the Darfur genocide, just a single episode of the extensive bloodshed since Sudan\u2019s independence, to al-Bashir. Because of these accusations, he is currently on trial for war crimes, the only current head of state in such a predicament. To drive home his impositional tendencies further, al-Bashir has said that if the south secedes, he will impose Shari\u2019a in the north, in an effort to make northern Sudan officially an Islamic state.\nMy first response to this situation was wondering: How did two peoples so immensely different from one another end up together in the first place? This is not the same as the American Civil War, where regional differences led to ideological differences, which in turn led to secession. In the Sudanese case, ideological and cultural differences existed long before the country gained independence. Thus, one should look to colonialism as the primary cause of Sudan\u2019s problems. It seems to me that Sudan\u2019s independence process was dangerously arbitrary; occurring at the time of mass European decolonization in Africa. It\u2019s as if Britain backed out of the region and drew a national border at random. And now, after over half a century, the people want that to change.\nDespite the referendum on schedule for next month, the potential new border still has not been set. Money, of course, is a factor. Sudan is one of the most oil-rich nations of Africa, but most of the country\u2019s oil is found in the south. On the one hand, the north might not want to draw a new boundary where the south gets all of the resource wealth, a potential cause for even more strife. On the other hand, some see oil as a potential area that could keep the two sides friendly if they do end up splitting. Mutual desire for the oil wealth may bring the two sides together diplomatically if the split ends up happening peacefully.\nAs you can see, this situation is extremely complex, far more so than the south simply saying \u201cwe want to secede\u201d and secession then happening. To better understand the context, one needs to consider the past, but one should also consider the future: what will happen if the current nation of Sudan does in fact split? I am wondering particularly about those who have their roots in the south but live in the north. Since the referendum was announced, many of these people have moved back to the south, but a fair number still remain in the north. What will happen to these primarily non-Muslim people (and Muslims alike) if the north does in fact impose Shari\u2019a on al-Bashir\u2019s whim? Al-Bashir will go from an imposer of northern Arab and Islamic values to being completely intolerant of this significant minority in his newly allotted half of Sudan, and the results would be tragic.\nWhat message would a Sudanese split portray to the rest of Africa, the rest of the world? The African Union fears that a Sudanese split would incite other secessionists around the continent. Other nations undergoing similar domestic, regional conflicts of interest may feel not only that they have a right to secede, but may even feel encouraged to do so. Is this kind of outright division the right answer to such a complicated historical struggle?\nIs there even a right answer? Experts seem to agree that the nation will inevitably split. Whether this bifurcation happens via a timely, democratic, and peaceful referendum or through continuing bloodshed is a matter that only time will tell. I will certainly be following this issue in the coming weeks, and I wrote this article before the scheduled referendum in the hope to spark more interest on the issue. I urge you to follow it in the news; the results affect a much wider area than simply Sudan.\nStay tuned for my next column, where I will compare and contrast two leaders in South America on opposite sides of the political spectrum and compare their respective political systems to that of the United States.\nLatest posts by David Klayton (see all)\n- Should Turkey be a part of \"Europe?\" - February 26, 2011\n- Moderately Extreme: Ideological Flexibility in Latin American Politics - January 27, 2011\n- When One Nation Becomes Two - December 31, 2010", "id": "<urn:uuid:775f924c-1e42-4c9d-96ef-70a47ee35ac0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wupr.org/2010/12/31/when-one-nation-becomes-two/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368696383156/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516092623-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9612796902656555, "token_count": 1284, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by Gregory McNamee\nTalk about your worm\u2019s-eye view of the world. From time to time, I am pleased in this column to announce the discovery of some hitherto unknown species,or the rediscovery of one thought to have disappeared. An international team of scientists has done this one better, announcing the discovery of an entirely new phylum comprising an ocean-dwelling flatworm called Xenoturbella and its kin, collectively the acoelomorphs. Interestingly, these creatures seem to be backward-evolving: their ancestors had gill slits and guts, but the current acoelomorphic configuration lacks them. As researcher Maximilian Telford of University College London puts it, \u201cWe\u2019ve got these very simple worms nested right in the middle of the complex animals. How did they end up so simple? They must have lost a lot of complexity.\u201d\n* * *\nIf in the course of evolution you decided to lose your ears, you would have good reason. The world is a noisy place, thanks to ever-busy humans, and it\u2019s getting noisier. In response, many species of animals are getting noisier themselves in an effort to be heard, a process, notes Rose Eveleth in Scientific American, called the Lombard effect. Right whales and house finches, for their parts, are calling in at different frequencies to get around shipping and urban noise. As Eveleth writes of animals in her provocative piece, \u201cMany of them are doing the vocal equivalent of wandering around asking, \u2018Can you hear me now?\u2019 And increasingly, the answer is no.\u201d\n* * *\nGibbons make a fair amount of noise themselves\u2014and perhaps that stands to reason, given that, next to the great apes, they\u2019re our closest living relatives. That noise is more complex than you might think. Indeed, report researchers from the German Primate Center in G\u00f6ttingen, the crested gibbons of Southeast Asia have distinctive regional accents. These accents suggest both familial typings, as well as the ancient migration of the species from a location to the north of their current range to points farther south.\n* * *\nA new phylum is discovered, but a current species declines. That, sadly, is the way of this noisy world. Scottish scientists, reports the BBC\u2019s Highlands and Islands service, are documenting the decline of the common scoter, a kind of duck, in the islands to the north of the country. The scientists are now studying the effects of climate change, which has implications in predation and in food supply. Says one, \u201cWe believe climate change may be a factor because warmer winters and springs could lead to aquatic insects such as mayflies and caddis flies hatching earlier in the season and not being available to the scoter ducklings when they hatch out themselves. And warmer winters may, over time, lead to more predators surviving and that could make an impact.\u201d\n* * *\nHomer Simpson, his son, Bart, their kin, and the good citizens of Springfield are odd ducks one and all. They\u2019re cartoons, after all, so they\u2019re supposed to be goofy. It\u2019s worth noting, though, that the Homeric lineup lives in the shadow of a nuclear reactor, the river is full of three-headed fish, and the night sky glows unnaturally, all reasons to think that something other than mere cartoonery might be at play. It\u2019s also worth observing, then, that researchers at the University of South Carolina\u2019s Chernobyl Research Initiative have concluded that the offspring of 48 species of birds born in the vicinity of that vast Ukrainian accident site have smaller brain size (by 5 percent, on average) than birds born elsewhere, and that this correlates with both reduced cognitive ability and heightened mortality. This mutation seems to be occurring at relatively low doses of radiation, further correlating with the widespread difficulties of children born in the northern Ukraine since the 1986 disaster, who, the researchers\u2019 report maintains, \u201chave higher rates of neural tube defects and related neurological disorders than other children in uncontaminated regions of the Ukraine and Europe.\u201d Champions of nuclear power, take note.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bfb3a64f-f9a8-41a6-a406-20c8e02d836b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://advocacy.britannica.com/blog/advocacy/2011/02/animals-in-the-news-65/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9562855958938599, "token_count": 883, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bicycles are inherently stable because of their geometry. The geometry causes the bicycle to always turn into the direction it begins to lean, which keeps it upright. The reason is best illustrated through a concept known as counter-steering.\nCounter steering is how all two wheel vehicles turn. When you want to turn towards the left, you turn the handlebars a little to the right. The friction of the wheels pulls the bottom of the bike towards the right, which initiates a lean towards the left. The handle bars then begin to swing towards the left to track through the turn.\nWhen it's time to stop the turn, you turn the handlebars a little more to the left. That pulls the bottom of the bike further towards the left, which brings the bottom of the bike directly under the center of gravity and thus stopping the turn.\nOn many bikes and at low speeds, the counter steering effect can be unnoticed by many riders. However, at high speeds, or with heavier vehicles such as motor cycles it is more significant.\nSo, how does this work where there is no rider? It is because of the rake in the fork and the rail it causes. If you trace an imaginary line through the axis of your fork to the ground, it will hit the ground ahead of where the wheel contacts the ground.\nBecause the wheel contacts the ground behind the steering axis, the wheel will always feel a force from the road trying to bring it to center, pointing straight ahead. When the bike is tipped to one side, the forces begin to push the wheel to the side that the bike is tipped.\nSo all these forces add up. The rake in the fork makes the bike want to go straight forward. And when it feels a bump in one direction or the other, the counter steering will tend to bring the bike the other direction. Then the fork rake will begin pushing the front wheel further away, which will then straighten the bike out, because of the counter steering.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3f72fc15-69d1-4b3b-ac11-18b1fece25a3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://bicycles.stackexchange.com/questions/4656/what-makes-a-bike-stay-upright-when-moving/7866", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9505770802497864, "token_count": 402, "score": 3.6875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The subject of batteries for field shooters used to be as simple as charging them until the red light went out, slapping them on the camera and shooting until they died. Now, the typical ENG/EFP crew carries a much wider array of battery-operated devices. Notebook computers, cell and satellite phones, PDAs, belt-clipped radios, micro-mixers and even GPS receivers may accompany camcorders and batt-lights. Modern field shooters must know their way around battery systems.\nModern batteries communicate digitally to chargers like the Anton-Bauer Dual 2702 Powerchager shown above while talking to the user through an LCD window.\nBatteries are usually defined by the chemistry they use. The three most common types are nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), and lithium ion (Li-ion). Each has its strengths and weaknesses. We\u2019ll compare their performance later in the article. But first, let\u2019s define the specifications we use to judge them.\nRegardless of the battery type involved, there are a few fundamental specifications that field crews will frequently encounter, including energy density, fast-charge time, self-discharge time, maintenance requirement and C-rate.\nEnergy density is a measure of how much power the battery will deliver for its weight, and is usually measured in watt-hours per kilogram (Wh/kg). This is one of the central factors in matching battery type to application.\nFast-charge time is another factor to consider. Usually measured as a fraction of the battery\u2019s rated capacity over time, this parameter has seen dramatic advances with the advent of battery-centric charging using smart batteries and chargers.\nAnother primary factor in matching batteries to their uses is a spec called \u201cself-discharge time,\u201d usually measured as a percentage of capacity per month. This refers to the rate at which the fully charged battery will lose its charge while at rest. Self-discharge is an important parameter because this decline in voltage is not linear.\nThis photo shows the two most common camera battery mounts. The camera on the left has the Anton-Bauer Gold Mount. The other has the Sony V-mount.\nMost battery types tend to lose a significant portion of their charge within the first 24 hours of storage, followed by a slower but steady discharge. Storage at higher-than-normal room temperatures will degrade internal resistance and accelerate self-discharge on any battery.\nA significant specification is the maintenance requirement. This typically refers to how often an equalizing or topping charge should be applied. In the case of nickel-based batteries, the maintenance requirement will include \u201cexercising\u201d the battery by running it down to its end-of-discharge voltage and then fully recharging to combat the infamous memory effect in NiCd batteries.\nThe C-rate is a measurement of the charge and discharge current of the battery. A discharge of 1C will equal the published current capacity of the battery. A battery rated at 500 mAh (milliamp hours) will discharge at 1C to deliver that current for one hour. If discharged at 2C, the same battery should provide 1000 milliamps for a half hour. Note that the measurement is made from maximum capacity to the end-of-discharge level, not to 0V. On NiCds, for instance, the typical end-of-discharge level is 1V per cell. Li-ions generally discharge to 3V.\nWhile there are many other battery specs, such as load current, cost-per-cycle, overcharge tolerance and cycle life, the specs mentioned above will form the basic stepping stones to a good battery-to-application match. Let\u2019s see how the various battery chemistries compare on these main specs.\nDespite the emergence of new battery types, the nickel-cadmium or NiCd batteries maintain a prominent place in powering professional camcorders, batt-lights and portable comm radios. This is due to their exceptional performance in high-current applications. NiCds also accept fast charges quite well compared to the other battery chemistries. Typical fast-charge time on NiCd units is one hour, while NiMH batteries will fast-charge in two to four hours and deliver about one-fourth the load current.\nCameras have shrunk while lenses and batteries have kept their size and weight, allowing each to balance the other. Without rear-mount batteries, smaller cameras would be front-heavy, and on shoulder-mounted cameras, balance rather than weight is the critical factor.\nNiCd batteries will self-discharge slightly faster than NiMH and much faster than Li-ion types. The big edge that the NiMH and Li-ion batteries have over NiCd is in energy density. In applications that require a high power-to-weight ratio, the Li-ion is the king of these beasts, with a typical spec of 100Wh/kg to 130Wh/kg. By comparison, NiMHs offer a power-to-weight ratio ranging from 60Wh/kg to 120Wh/kg, while NiCds range from 45Wh/kg to 80Wh/kg.\nThe Achilles heel of NiCd batteries is their maintenance requirement. They must be regularly exercised (some harried shooters might say exorcised) to avoid the formation of crystals inside the battery and the resulting tendency to discharge only as far as the minimum voltage level to which they have been frequently run. Also, since cadmium is an environmentally toxic metal, NiCd batteries are increasingly seen as a liability. Some countries now severely limit their use due to disposal problems.\nMemory or mismatch?\nFrequently, what appears to be a memory effect may be a mismatch between the cutoff voltage level of the device and that of the battery. To get the full capacity of the battery, its end-of-discharge voltage must be higher than the cutoff voltage for the camcorder or other device being powered. A mismatch in these values will cause the device to quit while the battery still has power. Mimicking the memory effect, this will cause a nickel-based battery to be repeatedly recharged before reaching its own end-of-discharge voltage and eventually develop a real memory.\nGetting simpler again\nThe latest \u201csmart\u201d batteries, chargers and cameras can communicate digitally. The battery can control the smart charger for the perfect charge cycle and the cameras can display all the needed power parameters right in the viewfinder. Just when the mix of battery chemistries and their characteristics was becoming increasingly complex, the advent of digital communication between the central components promises to make things a good bit easier.\nBennett Liles is a writer and TV production engineer in the Atlanta area.", "id": "<urn:uuid:17491b81-e5b3-497e-a74e-3dbb58b5134f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://broadcastengineering.com/newsrooms/battery-basics", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9374974370002747, "token_count": 1393, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The deeper I get into the history of events in central and western Maryland, the more I am convinced that the \u201cdespot\u2019s heel\u201d argument really holds little weight. Not only is the state song out of date, it never really reflected the Civil War era opinion of the state as a whole.\nWhat prompted today\u2019s thought was my seeing a comment made elsewhere about why Maryland didn\u2019t jump in as a seceding state. More or less, the argument was that it was because there were so many Federal troops present that the legislature couldn\u2019t make the move to secession that they (maybe I should place emphasis on \u201cthey\u201d, knowing how some legislators in the deeper South made it clear that \u201cthey\u201d felt that they often knew better what to do than the citizens) really wanted. This was just part of a larger discussion and Maryland wasn\u2019t THE focus of it all.\nIn regard to the presence of Federal troops suppressing Maryland\u2019s \u201cwill\u201d, I think this is exaggerated. True, we have the incident in Baltimore with the boys from Massachusetts on April 19, 1861 (but they were just passing through), and\u2026 even from Unionists, I\u2019ve seen that there was plenty of hub-bub about the control over the legislature (even in the western part of the state) and Governor T.H. Hicks\u2019 handling of situations. Nonetheless, even in the midst of this, there was plenty of pro-Union sentiment being expressed by Maryland\u2019s citizens\u2026 especially in the central and western part (keep in mind that this region is the greater focus of my work and I haven\u2019t spent a great deal of time with the eastern part of the state).\nThere is no doubt that there were plenty who wanted secession, and we can see that more than a fair number of Marylanders ended up wearing gray. I\u2019m sure most of them felt oppressed, repressed, and depressed by the continual downturn of events against their interests, BUT, and this is a critical point\u2026 was it any different than the feelings of Unionists in neighboring Virginia? Furthermore, in the aftermath of all that took place in the first half of 1861, Unionists retained a voice in Maryland and it wasn\u2019t by any means weak. Quite a few expressed their support (and, perhaps, may have been able to do so because of keeping the secessionists in check) for the Union by enlisting in Maryland\u2019s Union regiments and many continued to express it in other ways. When we realize the numbers of these people, why is that some still see Maryland as a state under the despot\u2019s heel? Sure, some people felt it, but not the state as a whole.\nI think there is a lot more to learn from the Civil War-era Maryland than that presented through the narrow understanding offered through the state song. I especially think that an understanding of Maryland\u2019s secessionists may help us to better understand the feelings of the unwavering Unionists in the secessionists states. In fact, I\u2019ve encountered some interesting experiential parallels between the two groups. As I\u2019ve mentioned before in other posts, in examining my home county in Virginia, I\u2019ve discovered stories that reveal a number of heavy-handed methods used by secessionists against anyone who posed a threat to secession and the success of the Confederacy. In turn, I\u2019ve encountered some instances of mob-rule (no different than that which I\u2019ve seen in Virginia) in Washington County, Maryland where secessionists have been not only driven out, but beaten down, literally! I\u2019ll eventually share a story that I found about one rather vocal secessionists and what he experienced at the hands of mob-rule in Williamsport, Md. in 1861.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1cb4788e-d262-4e4d-950f-738bc814cb37>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cenantua.wordpress.com/2010/01/08/maryland-and-the-despots-heel/?like=1&source=post_flair&_wpnonce=d91e0e6d9a", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.975091814994812, "token_count": 791, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Forest Ecosystems: Current Research\nRegional Fire/Climate Relationships in the Pacific Northwest and Beyond\nFire exerts a strong influence on the structure and function of many terrestrial ecosystems. In forested ecosystems, the factors controlling the frequency, intensity, and size of fires are complex and operate at different spatial and temporal scales. Since climate strongly influences most of these factors (such as vegetation structure and fuel moisture), understanding the past and present relationships between climate and fire is essential to developing strategies for managing fire-prone ecosystems in an era of rapid climate change. The influence of climate change and climate variability on fire regimes and large fire events in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and beyond is the focus of this project.\nThere is mounting evidence that a detectable relationship exists between extreme fire years in the West and Pacific Ocean circulation anomalies. The El Ni\u00f1o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) influences fire in the Southwest (SW) and the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) appears to be related to fire in the PNW and Northern Rockies (NR). However, there are reasons to expect that processes driving fire in PNW, SW, and NR are not constant in their relative influence on fire through time or across space and that their differentiation is not stationary through time or across space.\n- How regionally specific is the relationship between large fire events and precipitation/atmospheric anomalies associated with ENSO and PDO during the modern record?\n- What do tree-ring and other paleo-records tell us about the temporal variability of the patterns of fire/climate relationships?\n- How is climate change likely to influence climate/fire relationships given the demonstrated influences of climate variability?\nFigure 1 A simple model of climate\u2013fire-vegetation linkages. This project emphasizes the mechanisms and variability indicated by (1).\nFor publications on climate impacts on PNW forest ecosystems, please see CIG Publications.\nGedalof, Z. 2002. Links between Pacific basin climatic variability and natural systems of the Pacific Northwest. PhD dissertation, School of Forestry, University of Washington, Seattle.\nLittell, J.S. 2002. Determinants of fire regime variability in lower elevation forests of the northern greater Yellowstone ecosystem. M.S. Thesis, Big Sky Institute/Department of Land Resources and Environmental Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman.\nMote, P.W., W.S. Keeton, and J.F. Franklin. 1999. Decadal variations in forest fire activity in the Pacific Northwest. In Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Applied Climatology, pp. 155-156, Boston, Massachusetts: American Meteorological Society.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e4092633-013e-4995-97f5-6212c2dac106>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cses.washington.edu/cig/res/fe/fireclimate.shtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.902677595615387, "token_count": 549, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hanukkah begins this year on December 1st, at sundown. Be honest. When I say \u201cHanukkah,\u201d the first thing you think of is the Adam Sandler song, talking about \u201ceight crazy nights.\u201d If you are a little more connected to Jewish culture, you may also think about a dreidel or potato latkes (pancakes). While it\u2019s commonly called the \u201cFestival of Lights,\u201d a better translation is \u201cDedication.\u201d Being Jewish (circumcised at 8 days, Bar Mitzvah at age 13) and a Christ-follower (for over 15 years), I\u2019d like to give a brief explanation of this holiday, and why it\u2019s a meaningful opportunity to help me worship the Lord.\nHere\u2019s the story of Hanukkah: In the 2nd century BC, Antiochus Epiphanes gained control over parts of the Middle East, including Judea (Israel). He erected an altar to Zeus in the Temple in Jerusalem, and sacrificed pigs there, which are unclean to Jews. The Maccabee family led a revolt, finally liberating Jerusalem and the Temple in 165 BC. Before God could be properly worshiped in the Temple, it had to be cleaned and dedicated. The menorah (lamp) had to burn continuously for 8 days for the purification process. Despite there only being enough olive oil for one day, the oil miraculously lasted for 8 days and nights. That is why Hanukkah is celebrated for 8 nights.\nMost people consider this miracle to be the end in itself, and I think the bigger meaning is missed. The point isn\u2019t just that God did a miracle, but that the miracle was the means to allow Him to be properly worshiped. The Temple needed to be purified in order for Yahweh to be worshiped, but it couldn\u2019t be purified unless He worked a miracle. God worked a miracle so that His people could be near Him in worship.\nLet us not miss that meaning, as we celebrate the Advent of Jesus Christ, the Light of the world (John 8:12). I don\u2019t think we need merely to reflect on the birth of Jesus, but we need to consider why the Father sent His Son. God performed a miracle (the Incarnation) not as an end to itself, but as a means to allow us to be near Him in worship (through Christ\u2019s redemptive sacrifice for our sins). Jesus did not come only to be marveled at as a baby, but to pour out His life and blood, to open the way for a new covenant with Him.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e7cb4707-ca52-448e-b78d-9bafd1458d65>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://differentway4kids.blogspot.com/2010_11_01_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9661436080932617, "token_count": 560, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by Piter Kehoma Boll\nLet\u2019s expand the universe of Friday Fellow by presenting a plant for the first time! And what could be a better choice to start than the famous Grandidier\u2019s Baobab? Belonging to the species Adansonia grandidieri, this tree is one of the trademarks of Madagascar, being the biggest species of this genus found in the island.\nReaching up to 30 m in height and having a massive trunk only branched at the very top, it has a unique look and is found only at southwestern Madagascar. However, despite being so attractive and famous, it is classified as an endangered species by IUCN Red List, with a declining population threatened by agriculture expansion.\nThis tree is also heavily exploited, having vitamin C-rich fruits which can be consumed fresh and seeds used to extract oil. Its bark can also be used to make ropes and many trees are found with scars due to the extraction of part of the bark.\nHaving a fibrous trunk, baoabs are able to deal with drought by apparently storaging water inside them. There are no seed dispersors, which can be due to the extiction of the original dispersor by human activities.\nOriginally occuring close to temporary water bodies in the dry deciduous forest, today many large trees are found in always dry terrains. This probably is due to human impact that changed the local ecosystem, letting it to become drier than it was. Those areas have no or very poor ability to regenerate and probably will never go back to what they were and, once the old trees die, there will be no more baobabs there.\n- \u2013 -\nBaum, D. A. (1995). A Systematic Revision of Adansonia (Bombacaceae) Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 82, 440-470 DOI: 10.2307/2399893\nWikipedia. Adamsonia grandidieri. Available online at <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adansonia_grandidieri>. Access on October 02, 2012.\nWorld Conservation Monitoring Centre 1998. Adansonia grandidieri. In: IUCN 2012. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2012.1. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Access on October 02, 2012.", "id": "<urn:uuid:10459212-d96b-47fa-9ead-4447c5ba731f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://earthlingnature.wordpress.com/2012/10/05/friday-fellow-grandidiers-baobab/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9236477017402649, "token_count": 488, "score": 3.703125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Blink Of An Eye\nThe Facts About Eyelid Cancer\nSymptoms and Types of Cancer\nSun exposure is cumulative \u2014 the older we get, the more likely we are to develop eyelid cancer. People with fair skin, and blonde or red hair and light eyes are particularly at risk.\nThe lower lid is affected most often by eyelid cancer. The corner of the eyelid closest to the nose is the second most common area, followed by the upper eyelid.\nLike other skin cancers, basal cell carcinoma is the most common cancer to affect the eyelid. \u201cYou may see a little nodule or lesion that gets larger. It will usually be pearly with visible blood vessels in the center,\u201d says Dr. Hui. \u201cIt may have crusting or bleeding at the site. You may also notice a loss of eyelashes in that area.\u201d\nA squamous cell carcinoma will progress more rapidly with a non-healing area in the center. More rarely, a melanoma will occur which most often appears as a dark spot. \u201cIdeally, people should be aware of any lump or bump anywhere on their eyelid, especially on the margin in between the lashes,\u201d notes Dr. Hui.\nThe standard of care for eyelid cancer is Mohs microscopic surgery by a dermatologist to remove the lesion, followed by repair of the area by an ocuplastic surgeon.\n\u201cDuring the Mohs procedure, a Mohs-trained dermatologist takes the cancer off and immediately looks at the lesion under a microscope to make sure they removed all of the cancer, checking to see if they need to go back and remove more,\u201d explains Dr. Hui. \u201cThis tissue-sparing approach is preferable because there is so little redundant tissue in the eyelids. Once the lesion is removed, the area can be repaired within hours or on the following day.\u201d\nRadiation and topical treatments are available but not optimal. \u201cTopical treatments can be very irritating and I don\u2019t feel there is a role for radiation because of the damage it can cause to surrounding tissue,\u201d says Hui. \u201cExcision is by far the treatment of choice.\u201d\nPreventing eyelid cancer is relatively easy but does require self-discipline. Sunscreen is a must. An SPF of 30 is recommended in desert areas like the Coachella Valley. \u201cFind a sunscreen you will wear and reapply it regularly,\u201d says Dr. Hui. \u201cYou always want the sunscreen to be directly in contact with your skin for best protection. When you apply sunscreen, you should see it coating your skin as you massage it in. Also, don\u2019t forget to reapply.\u201d\nSunglasses are also helpful in preventing eyelid cancer. Dr. Hui recommends sunglasses that wrap around the eye and block the sun completely.", "id": "<urn:uuid:28610d13-f682-49ea-b346-ab019ccffa20>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://emc.org/body.cfm?id=855&action=detail&source=511&issue=738&dataRef=3844&geo=", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9448375701904297, "token_count": 611, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Malignant pleural effusion\nMalignant pleural effusion is a condition in which cancer causes an abnormal amount of fluid to collect between the thin layers of tissue (pleura) lining the outside of the lung and the wall of the chest cavity. Lung cancer and breast cancer account for about 50-65% of malignant pleural effusions. Other common causes include pleural mesothelioma and lymphoma.\n|Malignant Pleural Effusion|\n|Classification and external resources|\nInvestigating a malignant pleural effusion \nClinical evaluation \nClinical factors predicting the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusions are symptoms lasting more than 1 month and the absence of fever.\nThis is needed to confirm the presence of a pleural effusion. Chest radiograph is usually performed first and may demonstrate an underlying lung cancer as well as the pleural effusion. Ultrasound has a sensitivity of 73% and specificity of 100% at distinguishing malignant pleural effusions from other causes of pleural effusion, based on the presence of visible pleural metastases, pleural thickening greater than 1 cm, pleural nodularity, diaphragmatic thickening measuring greater than 7mm and an echogenic swirling pattern visible in the pleural fluid.\nBiochemical analysis \nPleural fluid cytology is positive in 60% of cases. However, in the remaining cases, pleural biopsy is required. Image guided biopsy and thoracoscopy have largely replaced blind biopsy due to their greater sensitivity and safety profile. CT guided biopsy has a sensitivity of 87% compared to Abrams' needle biopsy, which has a sensitivity of 47%.\nIdentification of pleural fluid biomarkers to distinguish malignant pleural effusions from other causes of exudative effusions would help diagnosis. Biomarkers that have been shown to be raised in malignant pleural effusions compared to benign disease include vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), endostatin, matrix metalloproteinases and tumour markers such as carcinoembryonic antigen. Pleural fluid mesothelin has a sensitivity of 71%, greater than that of cytology, and a specificity of 89% for the diagnosis of malignant mesothelioma.\nTreatment of malignant pleural effusions \nThe goal of treatment of malignant pleural effusions is relief of breathlessness. Occasionally, treatment of the underlying cancer can cause resolution of the effusion. This may be the case with types of cancer that respond well to chemotherapy, such as small cell carcinoma or lymphoma. Simple aspiration of pleural fluid can relieve breathlessness rapidly but fluid and symptoms will usually recur within a couple of weeks. For this reason, more permanent treatments are usually used to prevent fluid recurrence. Standard treatment involves chest tube insertion and pleurodesis. However, this treatment requires an inpatient stay of approximately 2\u20137 days, can be painful and has a significant failure rate. This has led to the development of tunneled pleural catheters (e.g., Pleurx Catheters), which allow outpatient treatment of effusions.\n- Malignant pleural effusion entry in the public domain NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms\n- Antony VB, Loddenkemper R, Astoul P, et al. (August 2001). \"Management of malignant pleural effusions\". Eur. Respir. J. 18 (2): 402\u201319. PMID 11529302.\n- Ferrer J, Rold\u00e1n J, Teixidor J, Pallisa E, Gich I, Morell F (March 2005). \"Predictors of pleural malignancy in patients with pleural effusion undergoing thoracoscopy\". Chest 127 (3): 1017\u201322. doi:10.1378/chest.127.3.1017. PMID 15764788.\n- Qureshi NR, Rahman NM, Gleeson FV (February 2009). \"Thoracic ultrasound in the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusion\". Thorax 64 (2): 139\u201343. doi:10.1136/thx.2008.100545. PMID 18852159.\n- Chian CF, Su WL, Soh LH, Yan HC, Perng WC, Wu CP (July 2004). \"Echogenic swirling pattern as a predictor of malignant pleural effusions in patients with malignancies\". Chest 126 (1): 129\u201334. doi:10.1378/chest.126.1.129. PMID 15249453.\n- Sahn SA, Good JT (March 1988). \"Pleural fluid pH in malignant effusions. Diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic implications\". Ann. Intern. Med. 108 (3): 345\u20139. PMID 3341671.\n- Rodr\u00edguez-Panadero F, L\u00f3pez Mej\u00edas J (March 1989). \"Low glucose and pH levels in malignant pleural effusions. Diagnostic significance and prognostic value in respect to pleurodesis\". Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 139 (3): 663\u20137. PMID 2923367.\n- Maskell NA, Gleeson FV, Davies RJ (April 2003). \"Standard pleural biopsy versus CT-guided cutting-needle biopsy for diagnosis of malignant disease in pleural effusions: a randomised controlled trial\". Lancet 361 (9366): 1326\u201330. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(03)13079-6. PMID 12711467.\n- Sack U, Hoffmann M, Zhao XJ, et al. (April 2005). \"Vascular endothelial growth factor in pleural effusions of different origin\". Eur. Respir. J. 25 (4): 600\u20134. doi:10.1183/09031936.05.00037004. PMID 15802331.\n- Sumi M, Kagohashi K, Satoh H, Ishikawa H, Funayama Y, Sekizawa K (2003). \"Endostatin levels in exudative pleural effusions\". Lung 181 (6): 329\u201334. doi:10.1007/s00408-003-1035-9. PMID 14749937.\n- Gaspar MJ, De Miguel J, Garc\u00eda D\u00edaz JD, D\u00edez M (2008). \"Clinical utility of a combination of tumour markers in the diagnosis of malignant pleural effusions\". Anticancer Res. 28 (5B): 2947\u201352. PMID 19031938.\n- Vatansever S, Gelisgen R, Uzun H, Yurt S, Kosar F (2009). \"Potential role of matrix metalloproteinase-2,-9 and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1,-2 in exudative pleural effusions\". Clin Invest Med 32 (4): E293\u2013300. PMID 19640333.\n- Davies HE, Sadler RS, Bielsa S, et al. (September 2009). \"Clinical impact and reliability of pleural fluid mesothelin in undiagnosed pleural effusions\". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 180 (5): 437\u201344. doi:10.1164/rccm.200811-1729OC. PMID 19299498.\n- Roberts ME, Neville E, Berrisford RG, Antunes G, Ali NJ (August 2010). \"Management of a malignant pleural effusion: British Thoracic Society Pleural Disease Guideline 2010\". Thorax 65 (Suppl 2): ii32\u201340. doi:10.1136/thx.2010.136994. 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{"text": "||The neutrality of this article is disputed. (January 2013)|\n||This article needs additional citations for verification. (January 2013)|\nSprouting is the practice of germinating seeds to be eaten raw or cooked. Sprouted foods are a convenient way to have fresh vegetables for salads, or otherwise, in any season and can be germinated at home or produced industrially. They are a prominent ingredient of the raw food diet and common in Eastern Asian cuisine. Sprouting is also applied on a large scale to barley as a part of the malting process. A potential downside to consuming raw sprouts is that the process of germinating seeds can also be conducive to harmful bacterial growth.\nSeeds suitable for sprouting \nAll viable seeds can be sprouted, but some sprouts should not be eaten raw. The most common food sprouts include:\n- Pulses (legumes; pea family):\n- Brassica (cabbage family)\n- Other vegetables and herbs:\nAlthough whole oats can be sprouted, oat groats sold in food stores, which are dehulled and require steaming or roasting to prevent rancidity, will not sprout. Whole oats may have an indigestible hull which makes them difficult or even unfit for human consumption.\nAll the sprouts of the solanaceae (tomato, potato, paprika, aubergine or eggplant) and rhubarb cannot be eaten as sprouts, either cooked or raw, as they can be poisonous. Some sprouts can be cooked to remove the toxin, while others cannot.\nWith all seeds, care should be taken that they are intended for sprouting or human consumption rather than sowing. Seeds intended for sowing may be treated with chemical dressings. Several countries, such as New Zealand, also require that some varieties of imported edible seed be heat-treated, thus making them impossible to sprout. Quinoa in its natural state is very easy to sprout but when polished, or pre-cleaned of its saponin coating (becoming whiter), loses its power to germinate.\nThe germination process \nThe germination process takes a few days and can be done at home manually, as a semi-automated process, or industrially on a large scale for commercial use.\nTypically the seeds are first rinsed to remove soil and dirt and the mucilaginous substances produced by some seeds when they come in contact with water. Then they are soaked for 20 minutes to 12 hours, depending on the type and size of seed. The soaking increases the water content in the seeds and brings them out of quiescence. After draining and then rinsing seeds at regular intervals they germinate, or sprout.\nFor home sprouting, the seeds are soaked (big seeds) or moistened (small), then left at room temperature (13 to 21 \u00b0C or 55 to 70 \u00b0F) in a sprouting vessel. Many different types of vessels can be used. One type is a simple glass jar with a piece of cloth or nylon window screen secured over its rim. \"Tiered\" clear plastic sprouters are commercially available, allowing a number of \"crops\" to be grown simultaneously. By staggering sowings, a constant supply of young sprouts can be ensured. Any vessel used for sprouting must allow water to drain from it, because sprouts that sit in water will rot quickly. The seeds swell, may stick to the sides of the jar, and begin germinating within a day or two.\nSprouts are rinsed two to four times a day, depending on the climate and the type of seed, to provide them with moisture and prevent them from souring. Each seed has its own ideal sprouting time. After three to five days the sprouts will have grown to 5 to 8 centimetres (2\u20133 in) in length and will be suitable for consumption. If left longer they will begin to develop leaves, and are then known as baby greens. A popular baby green is sunflower after 7\u201310 days. Refrigeration can be used as needed to slow or halt the growth process of any sprout.\nCommon causes for sprouts to become inedible:\n- Seeds are not rinsed well enough before soaking\n- Seeds are left in standing water after the initial soaking\n- Seeds are allowed to dry out\n- Temperature is too high or too low\n- Insufficient rinsing\n- Dirty equipment\n- Insufficient air flow\n- Contaminated water source\n- Poor germination rate\nMung beans can be sprouted either in light or dark conditions. Those sprouted in the dark will be crisper in texture and whiter, as in the case of commercially available Chinese Bean Sprouts, but these have less nutritional content than those grown in partial sunlight. Growing in full sunlight is not recommended, because it can cause the beans to overheat or dry out. Subjecting the sprouts to pressure, for example, by placing a weight on top of them in their sprouting container, will result in larger, crunchier sprouts similar to those sold in Polish grocery stores.\nA very effective way to sprout beans like lentils or azuki is in colanders. Soak the beans in water for about 8 hours then place in the colander. Wash twice a day. The sprouted beans can be eaten raw or cooked.\nSprouting is also applied on a large scale to barley as a part of the malting process. Malted barley is an important ingredient in beer and is used in huge quantities. Most malted barley is distributed among wide retail sellers in North American regions.\nMany varieties of nuts, such as almonds and peanuts, can also be started in their growth cycle by soaking and sprouting, although because the sprouts are generally still very small when eaten, they are usually called \"soaks\".\nNutritional information \nSprouts are said to be rich in digestible energy, bioavailable vitamins, minerals, amino acids, proteins, and phytochemicals, as these are necessary for a germinating plant to grow. These nutrients are essential for human health. The nutritional changes upon germination & sprouting are summarised below.\nChavan and Kadam (1989) concluded that - \u201cThe desirable nutritional changes that occur during sprouting are mainly due to the breakdown of complex compounds into a more simple form, transformation into essential constituents and breakdown of nutritionally undesirable constituents.\u201d\n\u201cThe metabolic activity of resting seeds increases as soon as they are hydrated during soaking. Complex biochemical changes occur during hydration and subsequent sprouting. The reserve chemical constituents, such as protein, starch and lipids, are broken down by enzymes into simple compounds that are used to make new compounds.\u201d\n\u201cSprouting grains causes increased activities of hydrolytic enzymes, improvements in the contents of total proteins, fat, certain essential amino acids, total sugars, B-group vitamins, and a decrease in dry matter, starch and anti-nutrients. The increased contents of protein, fat, fibre and total ash are only apparent and attributable to the disappearance of starch. However, improvements in amino acid composition, B-group vitamins, sugars, protein and starch digestibilities, and decrease in phytates and protease inhibitors[disambiguation needed] are the metabolic effects of the sprouting process.\u201d\nIncreases in Protein Quality Chavan and Kadam (1989) stated - \u201cVery complex qualitative changes are reported to occur during soaking and sprouting of seeds. The conversion of storage proteins of cereal grains into albumins and globulins during sprouting may improve the quality of cereal proteins. Many studies have shown an increase in the content of the amino acid Lysine with sprouting.\u201d\n\u201cAn increase in proteolytic activity during sprouting is desirable for nutritional improvement of cereals because it leads to hydrolysis of prolamins and the liberated amino acids such as glutamic and proline are converted to limiting amino acids such as lysine.\u201d\nIncreases in Crude Fibre content Cuddeford (1989), based on data obtained by Peer and Leeson (1985), stated - \u201cIn sprouted barley, crude fibre, a major constituent of cell walls, increases both in percentage and real terms, with the synthesis of structural carbohydrates, such as cellulose and hemicellulose\u201d. Chung et al. (1989) found that the fibre content increased from 3.75% in unsprouted barley seed to 6% in 5-day sprouts.\u201d\nCrude Protein and Crude Fibre changes in Barley Sprouted over a 7-day period\n|Crude Protein (% of DM)||Crude Fibre (% of DM)|\nSource: Cuddeford (1989), based on data obtained by Peer and Leeson (1985).\nIncrease of protein is not due to new protein being manufactured by the germination process but by the washing out of starch and conversion to fiber -- increasing the relative proportion of protein.\nIncreases in Essential Fatty Acids\nAn increase in lipase activity has been reported in barley by MacLeod and White (1962), as cited by Chavan and Kadam (1989) . Increased lipolytic activity during germination and sprouting causes hydrolysis of triacylglycerols to glycerol and constituent fatty acids.\nIncreases in Vitamin content According to Chavan and Kadam (1989), most reports agree that sprouting treatment of cereal grains generally improves their vitamin value, especially the B-group vitamins. Certain vitamins such as \u03b1-tocopherol (Vitamin-E) and \u03b2-carotene (Vitamin-A precursor) are produced during the growth process (Cuddeford, 1989) .\nAccording to Shipard (2005) - \u201cSprouts provide a good supply of Vitamins A, E & C plus B complex. Like enzymes, vitamins serve as bioactive catalysts to assist in the digestion and metabolism of feeds and the release of energy. They are also essential for the healing and repair of cells. However, vitamins are very perishable, and in general, the fresher the feeds eaten, the higher the vitamin content. The vitamin content of some seeds can increase by up to 20 times their original value within several days of sprouting. Mung Bean sprouts have B vitamin increases, compared to the dry seeds, of - B1 up 285%, B2 up 515%, B3 up 256%. Even soaking seeds overnight in water yields greatly increased amounts of B vitamins, as well as Vitamin C. Compared with mature plants, sprouts can yield vitamin contents 30 times higher.\u201d\nChelation of Minerals Shipard (2005) claims that - \u201cWhen seeds are sprouted, minerals chelate or merge with protein, in a way that increases their function.\u201d\nIt is important to note that while these changes may sound impressive, the comparisons are between dormant non-sprouted seed to sprouted seed rather than comparisons of sprouts to mature vegetables. Compared to dry seeds there are very large increases in nutrients whereas compared with mature vegetables the increase is less. However, a sprout, just starting out in life, is likely to need and thus have more nutrients (percentage wise) than a mature vegetable.\nHealth concerns \nBacterial infection \nCommercially grown sprouts have been associated with multiple outbreaks of harmful bacteria, including salmonella and toxic forms of Escherichia coli. Such infections, which are so frequent in the United States that investigators call them \"sproutbreaks\", may be a result of contaminated seeds or of unhygienic production with high microbial counts. Sprout seeds can become contaminated in the fields where they are grown, and sanitizing steps may be unable to kill bacteria hidden in damaged seeds. A single surviving bacterium in a kilogram of seed can be enough to contaminate a whole batch of sprouts, according to the FDA.\nTo minimize the impact of the incidents and maintain public health, both the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and Health Canada issued industry guidance on the safe manufacturing of edible sprouts and public education on their safe consumption. There are also publications for hobby farmers on safely growing and consuming sprouts at home. The recommendations include development and implementation of good agricultural practices and good manufacturing practices in the production and handling of seeds and sprouts, seed disinfection treatments, and microbial testing before the product enters the food supply.\nIn June 2011, contaminated bean sprouts in Germany were identified as the source of the 2011 E. coli O104:H4 outbreak. In addition to Germany, where 3,785 cases and 45 deaths had been reported by the end of the outbreak, a handful of cases were reported in several countries including Switzerland, Poland, the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, the UK, Canada and the USA. Virtually all affected people had been in Germany shortly before becoming ill.\nAntinutritional factors \nSome legumes, including sprouts, can contain toxins or antinutritional factors, which can be reduced by soaking, sprouting and cooking (e.g., stir frying). Joy Larkcom advises that to be on the safe side \u201cone shouldn\u2019t eat large quantities of raw legume sprouts on a regular basis, no more than about 550g (20oz) daily\u201d.\nPhytic acid, an antinutritional factor, occurs primarily in the seed coats and germ tissue of plant seeds. It forms insoluble or nearly insoluble compounds with many metal ions, including those of calcium, iron, magnesium and zinc, reducing their dietary availability. Diets high in phytic acid content and poor in these minerals produce mineral deficiency in experimental animals (Gontzea and Sutzescu, 1958, as cited in Chavan and Kadam, 1989). The latter authors state that the sprouting of cereals has been reported to decrease levels of phytic acid. Similarly, Shipard (2005) states that enzymes of germination and sprouting can help eliminate detrimental substances such as phytic acid. However, the amount of phytic acid reduction from soaking is only marginal, and not enough to counteract its antinutrient effects \nSee also \n- Donald G. Barceloux MD. \"Potatoes, Tomatoes, and Solanine Toxicity (Solanum tuberosum L., Solanum lycopersicum L.)\". Retrieved 7 August 2011. Paid subscription required to access article.\n- \"The Vegetarian Society - Information Sheet - pulses\". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2009-11-16.\n- \"Plant-based nutrition\". Spring 2002. Retrieved 2007-11-14.\n- Neuman, William (10 June 2011). \"The Poster Plant of Health Food Can Pack Disease Risks\". New York Times. Retrieved 11 June 2011.\n- Breuer, Thomas et al.. \"A Multistate Outbreak of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Infections Linked to Alfalfa Sprouts Grown from Contaminated Seeds\". Retrieved 19 November 2007.\n- Gabriel, Alonzo A. et al.; Berja, M; Estrada, A; Lopez, M; Nery, J; Villaflor, E (2007). \"Microbiology of retail mung bean sprouts vended in public markets of National Capital Region, Philippines\". Food Control 18 (10): 1307\u20131313. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2006.09.004.\n- Food and Drug Administration (May 17, 2005). \"Transcript of Proceedings of Public Meeting on Sprout Safety\". Retrieved 19 November 2007.\n- Health Canada. \"Sprouted Beans and Seeds\". Retrieved 19 November 2007.\n- Harrison, H. C. \"Growing Edible Sprouts at Home\" (PDF). Retrieved 23 November 2007.\n- Suslow, Trevor V.; Linda J. Harris. \"Growing Seed Sprouts at Home\" (PDF). Retrieved 23 November 2007.\n- Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC): Update on outbreak in the EU, 27 July 2011\n- \"Outbreak of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli in Germany (22 June 2011, 11:00)\". ECDC. 22 June 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2011.\n- \"E. coli cucumber scare: Russia announces import ban\". BBC News Online. 30 May 2011. Archived from the original on 30 May 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2011.\n- \"E. Two in U.S. infected in German E. coli outbreak\". MSNBC Online. 31 May 2011. Retrieved 2 June 2011.\n- Larkcom, Joy \u2018Salads For Small Gardens\u2019, p.98 Hamlyn 1995 ISBN 0-600-58509-3\n- \"The Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Phytase Activity and Phytic Acid Content of Grains and Seeds Potentially Useful for Complementary Feedin\". Food Science.\n- The Raw Truth by Jeremy A Safron, (Celestial Arts, Toronto, 2003) ISBN 1-58761-172-4 (pbk.)\n- \"The Complete Guide to Successful Sprouting for Parrots\" by Leslie Moran, (Critter Connection, US, 2007) ISBN 978-1-4196-8479-1 (110 pgs, pbk.)\n- Title: Hydroponic grass. Source: In Practice. (Cuddeford, D., 1989). (Relates to Animal Nutrition)\n- Title: NUTRITIONAL IMPROVEMENT OF CEREALS BY FERMENTATION. Source: CRITICAL REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND NUTRITION (CHAVAN, JK; KADAM, SS, 1989)\n- Title: How can I grow and use Sprouts as living food. (Shipard 2008) ISBN 978-0-9758252-0-4\n1992.Kavas,A.: EL,S.N.Changes in nutritive value of lentils and mung beans during germination.Chem.Mikrobiol.,Technol.,Lebens.,14:3-9.\n- Sprout Recipes Sprout recipes for every lifestyle and palate\n- Sprout links\n- Sprout People\n- Guidelines on Safe Production of Ready-to-Eat Sprouted Seeds (Sprouts) - Food Safety Authority of Ireland General Fact-sheet Series\n- Annex I - Proposed Draft Annex for Sprout Production - in Appendix II - Proposed Draft Code of Hygienic Practice for the Primary Production, Harvesting and Packing of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (at Step 5 of the Procedure) of Report of the Thirty Third Session of the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene\n- Growing Seed Sprouts at Home - University of California Davis Agricultural and Natural Resources Catalog", "id": "<urn:uuid:65708b37-6458-4eea-9811-2e37cce049cd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprouting", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.916233479976654, "token_count": 3935, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Page:Jardine Naturalist's library Bees.djvu/32\navailed ourselves of the information dispersed throughout a variety of publications, both ancient and modern, with such additions of our own, as have been acquired by the observation of Bees for a period of thirty years. Our prescribed limits have restricted us, in a great degree, to mere matters of fact, and prevented us often from illustrating our subject, as we might have done with advantage, by reference to the habits and instincts of other of the insect tribes. The same cause has operated as a bar to our indulging so frequently as our inclination would have led us, in those reflections which the wonders in animal economy are so well fitted to excite, and which lead so irresistibly to the conclusion that there is a Wise and Designing Cause. We trust, however, that the facts detailed, will, of themselves, lead the mind of the intelligent reader to such reflections, and thus become the source of a purer gratification than would have been derived from the suggestions of others.\n- Some of our readers may be inclined to question the propriety of having placed the Queen-bee upon flowers, on which she is never seen, but it has, throughout our plates, been our endeavour to make them pictorial as Avell as scientifically correct, the more necessary in a volume such as the present, where our materials are rather scanty, a loss, however,\nfully compensated by the extraordinary interest in the subject itself.\n- We have to acknowledge our special obligations to the Treatises of M. Feburier of Paris, and of Dr. Bevan of South Wales, Author of \"The Honey-Bee.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:da09fb97-37dd-4788-a173-28d369833e16>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:Jardine_Naturalist's_library_Bees.djvu/32", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9740580916404724, "token_count": 341, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Life of Captain Matthew Flinders, R.N./Chapter 1\nBIRTH AND ORIGINS\nMatthew Flinders was the third of the triad of great English sailors by whom the principal part of Australia was revealed. A poet of our own time, in a line of singular felicity, has described it as the \"last sea-thing dredged by sailor Time from Space;\" and the piecemeal, partly mysterious, largely accidental dragging from the depths of the unknown of a land so immense and bountiful makes a romantic chapter in geographical history. All the great seafaring peoples contributed something towards the result. The Dutch especially evinced their enterprise in the pursuit of precise information about the southern Terra Incognita, and the nineteenth century was well within its second quarter before the name New Holland, which for over a hundred years had borne testimony to their adventurous pioneering, gave place in general and geographical literature to the more convenient and euphonious designation suggested by Flinders himself, Australia.\nBut, important as was the work of the Dutch, and though the contributions made by French navigators (possibly also by Spanish) are of much consequence, it remains true that the broad outlines of the continent were laid down by Dampier, Cook and Flinders. These are the principal names in the story. A map of Australia which left out the parts discovered by other sailors would be seriously defective in particular features; but a map which left out the parts discovered by these three Englishmen would gape out of all resemblance to the reality.\nDampier died about the year 1712; nobody knows precisely when. Matthew Flinders came into the world in time to hear, as he may well have done as a boy, of the murder of his illustrious predecessor in 1779. The news of Cook's fate did not reach England till 1781. The lad was then seven years of age, having been born on March 16th, 1774.\nHis father, also named Matthew, was a surgeon practising his profession at Donington, Lincolnshire, where the boy was born. The Flinders family had been settled in the same town for several generations. Three in succession had been surgeons. The patronymic indicates a Flemish origin, and the work on English surnames that bids the reader looking for information under \"Flinders\" to \"see Flanders,\" sends him on a reasonable quest, if to no great resulting advantage.The English middle-eastern counties received frequent large migrations of Flemings during several centuries. Sometimes calamities due to the harshness of nature, sometimes persecutions and wars, sometimes adverse economic conditions, impelled companies of people from the Low Countries to cross the North Sea and try to make homes for themselves in a land which, despite intervals of distraction, offered greater security and a better reward than did the place whence they came. England derived much advantage from the infusion of this industrious, solid and dependable Flemish stock; though the temporary difficulty of absorption gave rise to local protests on more than one occasion.\nAs early as 1108, a great part of Flanders \"being drowned by an exudation or breaking in of the sea, a great number of Flemings came into the country, beseeching the King to have some void place assigned them, wherein they might inhabit.\" Again in the reign of Edward I we find Flemish merchants carrying on a very large and important trade in Boston, and representatives of houses from Ypres and Ostend acquired property in the town. In the middle of the sixteenth century, when Flanders was boiling on the fire of the Reformation, Lincolnshire and Norfolk provided an asylum for crowds of harassed refugees. In 1569 two persons were deputed to ride from Boston to Norwich to ascertain what means that city adopted to find employment for them; and in the same year Mr. William Derby was directed to move Mr. Secretary Cecil, Queen Elizabeth's great minister, to \"know his pleasure whether certain strangers may be allowed to dwell within the borough without damage of the Queen's laws.\"\nDuring one of these peaceful and useful Flemish invasions the ancestors of Matthew Flinders entered Lincolnshire. In the later years of his life he devoted some attention to the history of his family, and found record of a Flinders as early as the tenth century. He believed, also, that his people had some connection with two men named Flinders or Flanders, who fled from Holland during the religious persecutions, and settled, in Queen Elizabeth's reign, in Nottinghamshire as silk stocking weavers. It would be very interesting if it were clear that there was a link between the family and the origins of the great Nottingham hosiery trade. A Flinders may in that case have woven silk stockings for the Royal termagant, and Lord Coke's pair, which were darned so often that none of the original fabric remained, may have come from their loom.\nMatthew Flinders himself wrote the note: \"Ruddington near Nottingham (it is four miles south of the town) is the place whence the Flinders came;\" and he ascertained that an ancestor was Robert Flinders, a Nottingham stocking-weaver.\nA family tradition relates that the Lincolnshire Flinders were amongst the people taken over to England by Sir Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutch engineer of celebrity in his day, who undertook in 1621 to drain 360,000 acres of fen in Norfolk, Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire. He was financed by English and Dutch capitalists, and took his reward in large grants of land which he made fit for habitation and cultivation. Vermuyden and his Flemings were not allowed to accomplish their work of reclamation without incurring the enmity of the natives. In a petition to the King in 1637 he stated that he had spent 150,000 pounds, but that 60,000 pounds of damage had been done \"by reason of the opposition of the commoners,\" who cut the banks of his channels in the night and during floods. The peasantry, indeed, resisted the improvements that have proved so beneficent to that part of England, because the draining and cultivation of so many miles of swamp would deprive them of fishing and fowling privileges enjoyed from time immemorial. Hardly any reform or improvement can be effected without some disruption of existing interests; and a people deeply sunk in poverty and toil could hardly be expected to contemplate with philosophical calm projects which, however advantageous to individuals and to posterity, were calculated to diminish their own means of living and their pleasant diversions. The dislike of the \"commoners\" to the work of the \"participants\" led to frequent riots, and many of Vermuyden's Flemings were maltreated. He endeavoured to allay discontent by employing local labour at high wages; and was courageous enough to pursue his task despite loss of money, wanton destruction, and many other discouragements. Ebullitions of discontent on the part of fractious Fenlanders did not cease till the beginning of the eighteenth century.\nA very simple calculation shows that the great-grandfather of the first Matthew Flinders would probably have been contemporary with Sir Cornelius Vermuyden's reclamation works. He may have been one of the \"participants\" who benefited from them. The fact is significant as bearing upon this conjecture, that no person named Flinders made a will in Lincolnshire before 1600.\nIt is, too, an interesting circumstance that there was a Flinders among the early settlers in New England, Richard Flinders of Salem, born 1637. He may have been of the same family as the navigator, for the Lincolnshire element among the fathers of New England was pronounced.\nThe name Flinders survived at Donington certainly for thirty years after the death of the sailor who gave lustre to it; for in a directory published in 1842 occur the names of \"Flinders, Mrs. Eliz., Market Place,\" and \"Flinders, Mrs. Mary, Church Street.\"\nThe Flinders papers, mentioned in the preface, contain material which enables the family and connections of the navigator to be traced with certainty for seven generations. The genealogy is shown by the following table:\u2014\nThere is also an interesting connection between Flinders and the Tennysons, through the Franklin family. The present Lord Tennyson, when Governor of South Australia, in the course of his official duties, in March, 1902, unveiled a memorial to his kinsman on Mount Lofty, and in April of the same year a second one in Encounter Bay. The following table illustrates the relationship between him who wrote of \"the long wash of Australasian seas\" and him who knew them as discoverer:\nThe Flinders papers also contain a note suggesting a distant connection between Matthew Flinders and the man who above all others was his choice friend, George Bass, the companion of his earliest explorations. Positive proof is lacking, but Flinders' daughter, Mrs. Petrie, wrote \"we have reason to think that Bass was a connection of the family,\" and the point is too interesting to be left unstated. The following table shows the possible kinship:\nJohn Flinders of Donington, born 1682, died 1741 (great-grandfather of the navigator) had:\nMary Flinders, third and youngest daughter, born 1734, married as her third husband, Bass, and had:It is clear from the particulars stated above that the tree of which Matthew Flinders was the fruit had its roots deep down in the soil of the little Lincolnshire market town where he was born; and Matthew himself would have continued the family tradition, inheriting the practice built up by his father and grandfather (as it was hoped he would do), had there not been within him an irresistible longing for the sea, and a bent of scientific curiosity directed to maritime exploration, which led him on a path of discovery to achievements that won him honourable rank in the noble roll of British naval pioneers.\nHis father earned an excellent reputation, both professional and personal. The career of a country practitioner rarely affords an opportunity for distinction. It was even less so then than today, when at all events careful records of interesting cases are printed in a score or more of professional publications. But once we find the elder Matthew Flinders in print. The Memoirs of the Medical Society of London contain a paper read before that body on October 30th, 1797: \"Case of a child born with variolar pustules, by Matthew Flinders, surgeon, Donington, Lincolnshire.\" The essay occupies three pages, and is a clear, succinct record of symptoms, treatment and results, for medical readers. The child died; whereupon the surgeon expresses his regret, not on account of infant or parents, but, with true scientific zest, because it deprived him of the opportunity of watching the development of an uncommon case.\nDonington is a small town in the heart of the fen country, lying ten miles south-west of Boston, and about the same distance, as the crow flies, from the black, muddy, western fringe of the Wash. It is a very old town. Formerly it was an important Lincolnshire centre, enjoying its weekly Saturday market, and its four annual fairs for the sale of horses, cattle, flax and hemp. During Flinders' youth and early manhood the district grew large quantities of hemp, principally for the Royal Navy. In the days of its prosperity Donington drew to itself the business of an agricultural neighbourhood which was so far cultivable as it rose above the level of desolate and foggy swamps. But the drainage of the fens and the making of good roads over what had once been an area of amphibious uncertainty, neither wholly land nor wholly water, had the effect of largely diverting business to Boston. Trade that came to Donington when it stood over its own tract of fen, like the elderly and respectable capital of some small island, now went to the thriving and historic port on the Witham. Donington stopped growing, stagnated, declined. On the map of Lincolnshire included in Camden's Britannia (1637) it is marked \"Dunington,\" in letters as large as those given to Boston, Spalding and Lincoln. On modern maps the name is printed in small letters; on some in the smallest, or not at all. That fact is fairly indicative of its change of fortunes. Figures tell the tale with precision. In 1801 it contained 1321 inhabitants; in 1821, 1638; in 1841 it reached its maximum, 2026; by 1891 it had gone down to 1547; in 1901 to 1484; at the census of 1911 it had struggled up to 1564.\nThe fame conferred by a distinguished son is hardly a recompense for faded prosperity, but certain it is that Donington commands a wider interest as the birthplace of Flinders than it ever did in any other respect during its long, uneventful history. The parish church, a fine Gothic building with a lofty, graceful spire, contains a monument to the memory of the navigator, with an inscription in praise of his character and life, and recording that he \"twice circumnavigated the globe.\" Many men have encircled the earth, but few have been so distinguished as discoverers of important portions of it. Apart from this monument, the church contains marble ovals to the memory of Matthew Flinders' father, grandfather, and great-grandfather. They were provided from a sum of \u00a3100 pounds left by the navigator, in his will, for the purpose.It is interesting to notice that three of the early Australian explorers came from Lincolnshire, and were all born at places visible in clear weather from the tower of St. Botolph's Church at Boston. While Flinders sprang from Donington, George Bass, who co-operated with him in his first discoveries, was born at Aswarby, near Sleaford, and Sir John Franklin, who sailed with him in the Investigator, and was subsequently to become an Australian Governor and to achieve a pathetic immortality in another field of exploration, entered the world at Spilsby. Sir Joseph Banks, the botanist of Cook's first voyage, Flinders' steadfast friend, and the earliest potent advocate of Australian colonisation, though not actually born in Lincolnshire, was the son of a squire who at the time of his birth owned Revesby Abbey, which is within a short ride of each of the places just named.\n- Bernard O'Dowd, Dawnward, (1903).\n- Not universally, however, even in official documents. In the Report of the Committee of the Privy Council, dated May 1, 1849, \"New Holland\" is used to designate the continent, but \"Australia\" is employed as including both the continent and Tasmania. See Grey's Colonial Policy I., 424 and 439.)\n- Barker, Family Surnames (1903) page 143.\n- Holinshed's Chronicle (edition of 1807), II 58.)\n- Pishey Thompson Collections for a Topographical and Historical Account of Boston and the Hundred of Skirbeck (1820) p. 31.\n- Boston Corporation manuscripts quoted in Thompson, History and Antiquities of Boston (1856).\n- See Calendar of State Papers, Domestic Series, for 1619, 1623, 1625, 1638, 1639 et seq; and White's Lincolnshire page 542.\n- See C. W. Foster, Calendar of Lincoln Wills 1320-1600`, (1902).\n- Savage, Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England, (Boston, U.S.A. 1860).\n- William White, History, Gazetteer and Directory of the City and Diocese of Lincoln, (1842), p. 193.\n- Vol. IV., p. 330 (1779).\n- Allen, History of Lincolnshire, (1833), 1., 342; Victoria History of Lincolnshire Volume II. 359; Census Returns for 1911.", "id": "<urn:uuid:27f557c2-6d57-41c1-a6ad-1d5b503f3d95>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Life_of_Captain_Matthew_Flinders,_R.N./Chapter_1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9752728343009949, "token_count": 3319, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "One of the things that you have to do at university is read. A lot. Probably you take a look at your reading list which you are given and your heart sinks. How will you ever read everything that you are meant to read? Well, the first things to understand that you don\u2019t have to read everything on your reading list! You need to pick and choose the best from the list. But the other thing to do is to read efficiently and that means quickly. Many people read slowly in the belief that they will understand more that way. However, research shows that reading faster doesn\u2019t interfere with comprehension \u2013 in fact it may even increase it. In order to speed up your reading you need to know that fast readers read in blocks, like this:\nyour eyes see this block then they jump to this block and then this block and you understand the whole block together\nIf you can read quickly in blocks your reading speed can increase a lot. If you want, use a pen to jump across the page as you read, and move the pen quickly to make sure you read at a good speed. Like other habits, it will get easier with time.\nHere\u2019s what Tony Buzan has to say about reading quickly:", "id": "<urn:uuid:e5da909a-498f-47bd-baac-50147587e7cf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://englishforuniversity.com/reading/speed-reading/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9731146693229675, "token_count": 253, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ki Tisa (Mitzvot)\nFor more teachings on this portion, see the archives to this blog, below at March 2006.\nThis week\u2019s parasha is best known for the dramatic and richly meaningful story of the Golden Calf and the Divine anger, of Moses\u2019 pleading on behalf of Israel, and the eventual reconciliation in the mysterious meeting of Moses with God in the Cleft of the Rock\u2014subjects about which I\u2019ve written at length, from various aspects, in previous years. Yet the first third of the reading (Exod 30:11-31:17) is concerned with various practical mitzvot, mostly focused on the ritual worship conducted in the Temple, which tend to be skimmed over in light of the intense interest of the Calf story. As this year we are concerned specifically with the mitzvot in each parasha, I shall focus on this section.\nThese include: the giving by each Israelite [male] of a half-shekel to the Temple; the making of the laver, from which the priests wash their hands and feet before engaging in Divine service; the compounding of the incense and of the anointing oil; and the Shabbat. I shall focus here upon the washing of the hands.\nHand-washing is a familiar Jewish ritual: it is, in fact, the first act performed by pious Jews upon awakening in the morning (some people even keep a cup of water next to their beds, so that they may wash their hands before taking even a single step); one performs a ritual washing of the hands before eating bread; before each of the daily prayers; etc. The section here dealing with the laver in the Temple (Exod 30:17-21) is also one of the four portions from the Torah recited by many each morning, as part of the section of the liturgy known as korbanot, chapters of Written and Oral Torah reminiscent of the ancient sacrificial system, that precede Pesukei de-Zimra.\nSefer ha-Hinukh, at \u00a7106, explains the washing of hands as an offshoot of the honor due to the Temple and its service\u2014one of many laws intended to honor, magnify, and glorify the Temple. Even if the priest was pure and clean, he must wash (literally, \u201csanctify\u201d) his hands before engaging in avodah. This simple gesture of purification served as a kind of separation between the Divine service and everyday life. It added a feeling of solemnity, of seriousness, a sense that one was engaged in something higher, in some way separate from the mundane activities of regular life. (One hand-washing by kohanim, in the morning, was sufficient, unless they left the Temple grounds or otherwise lost the continuity of their sacred activity.) Our own netilat yadaim, whether before prayer or breaking bread, may be seen as a kind of halakhic carryover from the Temple service, albeit on the level of Rabbinic injunction.\nWhat is the symbolism of purifying one\u2019s hands? Water, as a flowing element, as a solvent that washes away many of the things with which it comes in contact, is at once a natural symbol of both purity, and of the renewal of life. Mayim Hayyim\u2014living waters\u2014is an age old association. Torah is compared to water; water, constantly flowing, is constantly returning to its source. At the End of Days, \u201cthe land will be filled with knowledge of the Lord, like waters going down to the sea.\u201d A small part of this is hinted in this simple, everyday gesture.\n\u201cSee that this nation is Your people\u201d\nBut I cannot pass over Ki Tisa without some comment on the incident of the Golden Calf and its ramifications. This week, reading through the words of the parasha in preparation for a shiur (what Ruth Calderon, founder of Alma, a secularist-oriented center for the study of Judaism in Tel Aviv, called \u201cbarefoot reading\u201d\u2014that is, na\u00efve, without preconceptions), I discovered something utterly simple that I had never noticed before in quite the same way.\nAt the beginning of the Calf incident, God tells Moses, who has been up on the mountain with Him, \u201cGo down, for your people have spoiled\u201d (32:7). A few verses later, when God asks leave of Moses (!) to destroy them, Moses begs for mercy on behalf of the people with the words \u201cWhy should Your anger burn so fiercely against Your people\u2026\u201d (v. 11). That is, God calls them Moses\u2019 people, while Moses refers to them as God\u2019s people. Subsequent to this exchange, each of them refers to them repeatedly in the third person, as \u201cthe people\u201d or \u201cthis people\u201d (\u05d4\u05e2\u05dd; \u05d4\u05e2\u05dd \u05d4\u05d6\u05d4). Neither of them refers to them, as God did in the initial revelation to Moses at the burning bush (Exodus 3:7 and passim) as \u201cmy people,\u201d or with the dignified title, \u201cthe children of Israel\u201d\u2014as if both felt a certain alienation, of distance from this tumultuous, capricious bunch. Only towards the end, after God agrees not to destroy them, but still states \u201cI will not go up with them,\u201d but instead promises to send an angel, does Moses says \u201cSee, that this nation is Your people\u201d (\u05d5\u05e8\u05d0\u05d4 \u05db\u05d9 \u05e2\u05de\u05da \u05d4\u05d2\u05d5\u05d9 \u05d4\u05d6\u05d4; 33:13).\nWhat does all this signify? Reading the peshat carefully, there is one inevitable conclusion: that God wished to nullify His covenant with the people Israel. It is in this that there lies the true gravity, and uniqueness, of the Golden Calf incident. We are not speaking here, as we read elsewhere in the Bible\u2014for example, in the two great Imprecations (tokhahot) in Lev 26 and Deut 28, or in the words of the prophets during the First Temple\u2014merely of threats of punishment, however harsh, such as drought, famine, pestilence, enemy attacks, or even exile and slavery. There, the implicit message is that, after a period of punishment, a kind of moral purgation through suffering, things will be restored as they were. Here, the very covenant itself, the very existence of an intimate connection with God, hangs in the balance. God tells Moses, \u201cI shall make of you a people,\u201d i.e., instead of them.\nThis, it seems to me, is the point of the second phase of this story. Moses breaks the tablets; he and his fellow Levites go through the camp killing all those most directly implicated in worshipping the Calf; God recants and agrees not to destroy the people. However, \u201cMy angel will go before them\u201d but \u201cI will not go up in your midst\u201d (33:2, 3). This should have been of some comfort; yet this tiding is called \u201cthis bad thing,\u201d the people mourn, and remove the ornaments they had been wearing until then. Evidently, they understood the absence of God\u2019s presence or \u201cface\u201d as a grave step; His being with them was everything. That is the true importance of the Sanctuary in the desert and the Tent of Meeting, where Moses speaks with God in the pillar of cloud (33:10). God was present with them there in a tangible way, in a certain way continuing the epiphany at Sinai. All that was threatened by this new declaration.\nMoses second round of appeals to God, in Exod 33:12-23, focuses on bringing God, as it were, to a full reconciliation with the people. This is the significance of the Thirteen Qualities of Mercy, of what I have called the Covenant in the Cleft of the Rock, the \u201cfaith of Yom Kippur\u201d as opposed to that of Shavuot (see HY I: Ki Tisa; and note Prof. Jacob Milgrom\u2019s observation that this chapter stands in the exact center, in a literary sense, of the unit known as the Hextateuch\u2014Torah plus the Book of Joshua).\nBut I would add two important points. One, that this is the first place in the Torah where we read about sin followed by reconciliation. After Adam and Eve ate of the fruit of the Garden, they were punished without hope of reprieve; indeed, their \u201cpunishment \u201c reads very much like a description of some basic aspects of the human condition itself. Cain, after murdering Abel, was banished, made to wander the face of the earth. The sin of the brothers in selling Joseph, and their own sense of guilt, is a central factor in their family dynamic from then on, but there is nary a word of God\u2019s response or intervention. It would appear that God\u2019s initial expectation in the covenant at Sinai was one of total loyalty and fidelity. The act of idolatry was an unforgivable breach of the covenant\u2014much as adultery is generally perceived as a fundamental violation of the marital bond.\nMoses, in persuading God to recant of His jealousy and anger, to give the faithless people another chance, is thus introducing a new concept: of a covenant that includes the possibility of even the most serious transgressions being forgiven; of the knowledge that human beings are fallible, and that teshuvah and forgiveness are essential components of any economy of men living before a demanding God.\nThe second, truly astonishing point is the role played by Moses in all this. Moshe Rabbenu, \u201cthe man of God,\u201d is not only the great teacher of Israel, the channel through which they learn the Divine Torah, but also, as it were, one who teaches God Himself. It is God who \u201creveals His Qualities of Mercy\u201d at the Cleft of the Rock; but without Moses cajoling, arguing, persuading (and note the numerous midrashim around this theme), \u201cwere it not for my servant Moses who stood in the breach,\u201d all this would not have happened. It was Moses who elicited this response and who, so to speak, pushed God Himself to this new stage in his relation with Israel\u2014to give up His expectations of perfection from His covenanted people, and to understand that living within a covenant means, not rigid adherence to a set of laws, but a living relationship with real people, taking the bad with the good. (Again, the parallel to human relationships is obvious)", "id": "<urn:uuid:c4c19472-691a-44c6-a55b-21fbb183475b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hitzeiyehonatan.blogspot.com/2008_02_01_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9665941596031189, "token_count": 2269, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "THE HOLY SCRIPTURES, Tanakh 1917 edition\nACCORDING TO THE MASORETIC TEXT (JPS 1917 Edition)\nPlease sign up for our email newsletter (below) to download your free version of THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. Your FREE eBook will be sent to you via email\nIn the early nineteenth century, most American Jews couldnt read the Bible because they were not literate in Hebrew and an adequate English translation didnt exist. Isaac Leesers The Twenty-Four Books of the Holy Scriptures, published in 1854, attempted to fill this need. And it did, more or less, for many years. But Jewish interest in the Bible grew and a more discriminating audience found Leesers translation inadequate; it was antiquated and filled with many errors. At its second biennial convention in 1892, The Jewish Publication Society, just four years old, decided that its highest priority was to produce for American Jews a new and popular English rendition  of the Bible.\nThe Society formed a Bible committee made up of representatives of the three major Jewish institutions of higher learning at the time: Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, the Jewish Theological Seminary in New York, and Dropsie College in Philadelphia. The committee wanted its new Bible to be in the best English possible, and this, they felt, was to be found in the Protestant Revised Version, which was based on the King James Version. Its members agreed to use the Revised Version, and to remove all un-Jewish and anti-Jewish phrases, expressions, renderings, and usages  and introduce traditional Jewish interpretation to reflect Jewish feeling, law, faith and tradition.\nThe committee had good intentions, but it floundered until Max Margolis, one of American Jewrys leading scholars of Bible and Semitics, was hired as editor-in-chief. Though he edited the translation (which had been prepared by 32 contributors) in just 12 months, a remarkable accomplishment, it had to be reviewed by a board of editors so diverse that its members argued for years over minor details. JPS Secretary Henrietta Szold then went over the manuscript 12 times. The project eventually cost about 10 times its original budget.\nBut it was worth it. The Holy Scriptures became the Societys best-selling volume, selling nearly 40,000 copies within its first year of publication. Most Jewish textbooks, as well as the leading Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform prayer books, turned to the Societys translation when quoting Scripture.\nThe back-to-the-Bible movement of the 1950s inspired JPS to make its Bible as widely available as possible. And so it published many editions: a quarto-sized pulpit Bible for Jewish chaplains, a two-volume Hebrew-English edition, and even a large-size illustrated version that was sold door-to-door.\nThis renewed interest in the Bible also inspired Harry Orlinsky, professor of Bible at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute for Religion in New York, to lobby for a brand new JPS translation, a clear departure from the King James Version, one that would truly be considered the authoritative Jewish view of what the words of the Bible meant.\nThe new Bible committee first published The Torah, Prophets, and Writings separately from the rest of the Bible, over a more than 20-year period. Orlinsky headed the committee that prepared The Torah, which was published in the mid-1960s. He was also part of the group that worked on the Prophets. The committee that prepared the Writings was made up of other scholars from North America and Israel. In 1985, all three parts were brought together in one volume, the JPS Tanakh. This translation came to be known as NJPS (New JPS) and the original 1917 translation as the OJPS (Old JPS). To date, the NJPS is the most widely read translation of the Hebrew (Jewish) Bible, and one of the worlds most accessible and readable English Bibles.\nYou will notice that the 1917 translation uses some archaic language, such as shalt, thee, and thou, because it borrowed heavily from the King James Version. Several passages in the 1917 version are much more poetic in tone than those in the 1985 translation (see Psalm 23). Also, the 1985 translation is more gender neutral than the 1917 version (see 2 Kings 25:9).\n Sarna, JPS The Americanization of Jewish Culture 18881988, 97.\n Sarna, JPS The Americanization of Jewish Culture 18881988, 104.\n Greenspoon, A Short History of Bible Translations, JPS Guide The Jewish Bible, 48.\nPlease sign up for our email newsletter to download your free version of THE HOLY SCRIPTURES. You're FREE eBook will be sent to you via email:", "id": "<urn:uuid:5165eafb-5643-4c26-b0b4-ada26b8ce4ef>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://jewishpub.org/category/jps-ebook-store", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9534025192260742, "token_count": 983, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|This review appears in the November 8, 2002 issue of Executive Intelligence Review.\nWhy Hiroshima Was Bombed:\nThe 'Utopians' Duped a Nation\nby William Jones\nRacing for the Bomb: General Leslie Groves, The Indispensable Man, by Robert Norris. South Royalton, Vermont: Steerforth Press, 2002, 700 pages, hardback, $40.00.\nThe Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb, by Gar Alperovitz. New York: Alfred Knopf Books, 1995, 847 pages, paperback, $17.00.\n\"The United States decision to drop the atom bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki saved over one million American lives which would have been sacrificed by an invasion of Japan.\"\nHow often has this claim been restated whenever that horrendous event is mentioned on TV or in newspapers. And yet, it remains to this day a total fiction. Not only the figure of \"one million\"which was gratuituously added in the cover story published later to enhance the much lower figures actually predicted by the War Department had the United States been forced to invade Japanbut even the lower, more accurate estimates, represented a complete fallacy. There would have been no casualties in a land invasion of Japan because there would not have been any land invasion of Japan. By mid-May 1945 it was clear to all who wished to see: Japan was on the brink of surrendering.\nIt is the merit of Gar Alperovitz's work that he documented the facts available as of 1995 by using the then-latest declassified records from the war period. The real purpose of the atomic bomb was not to win the war, but rather to shape the contours of the post-war world. Alperowitz had an entire team working the files on this subject, with excellent results. The \"team\" aspect of the work leads, however, to a good deal of repetition. The recent biography by Robert Norris of one of the key players in that policy decision, Gen. Leslie Groves, helps to fill out the picture of the real scope and purposes of the decision to drop the atomic bomb on Japanese cities.\nThe Open Conspiracy of H.G. Wells\nIn order to understand the real significance of the atom bomb decision, we must, however, go a bit beyond the confines of these two particular worksback to 1928, to the publication of a little-noticed manuscript by science-fiction writer H.G. Wells, entitled The Open Conspiracy. In that work, Wells called for the establishment of a \"world government\" which would supersede the nation-state as the primary form of human social and political existence. Reading Wells today, one gets the eerie feeling of a weird fascist experiment, wrapped in pseudo-scientific rhetoric, in which Big Brother controls one's every move. This \"Utopian\" scheme, as Wells himself dubbed it, probably had little hope of success, except under conditions of raw terror, where a frightened population might come to feel that only in the womb of such a \"world government\" would there be any security.\nWith the dropping of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, such a condition, it was felt by Wells' devotees, had been brought about. Shortly after the dropping of the bomb in 1945, Lord Bertrand Russell, a compatriot of Wells in the \"world commonwealth\" project, wrote a short essay entitled \"The Bomb and Civilisation.\" In this work Russell wrote: \"The prospect for the human race is sombre beyond all precedent.... Either war or civilization must end, and if it is to be war that ends, there must be an international authority with the sole power to make the new bombs. All supplies of uranium must be placed under the control of the international authority, which shall have the right to safeguard the ore by armed forces. As soon as such an authority has been created, all existing atomic bombs, and all plants for their manufacture, must be handed over. And of course the international authority must have sufficient armed forces to protect whatever has been handed over to it. If this system were once established, the international authority would be irresistible, and wars would cease. At worst, there might be occasional brief revolts that would be easily quelled.\n\"The power of the United States in international affairs is, for the time being, immeasurably increased,\" Russell continued. \"If America were more imperialistic there would be another possibility, less Utopian and less desirable, but still preferable to the total obliteration of civilized life. It would be possible for Americans to use their position of temporary superiority to insist upon disarmament, not only in Germany and Japan, but everywhere except in the United States, or at any rate in every country not prepared to enter into a close military alliance with the United States, involving compulsory sharing of military secrets. During the next few years, this policy could be enforced; if one or two wars were necessary, they would be brief, and would soon end in decisive American victory.\"\nRussell's comments were undoubtedly aimed at encouraging the very thing he expressed his skepticism about. While his hatred of the United States as a nation-state was almost visceral, were a U.S. government prepared to become the center of a new Roman Empire, dictating policy to the world, he would stifle his revulsion and sign on to the project in that form.\nIndeed there were in Washington, in late 1945 when Russell was writing this, already people intent on creating just such a solution. The totally unnecessary, and absolutely criminal, dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was their attempt to impose this Wellsian nightmare on an unwitting world.\nJapan Prepares To Surrender\nBy the Spring of 1945, it was clear to all that the end of the war in the Pacific was close at hand. The successful island-hopping strategy of Gen. Douglas MacArthur, moving always for the strategic flank of the Japanese army rather than fighting for every foot of land occupied by its tenacious and fanatical soldiers, had given the greatest victory to U.S. arms with the minimum casualties, a feat perhaps unequaled in the annals of U.S. military history. Now, what terms should be presented to the Japanese to bring the Pacific war to a close?\nThe real discussion hinged on the question of what role, if any, the Japanese Emperor would have in a post-war Japan. Given that the tenacity of the Japanese troops was intimately bound to the role of the Emperor in society and religion, peace terms which would result in his destruction would be disastrous. As a report from MacArthur's staff to the War Department in Washington in the Summer of 1944 notes, \"to dethrone, or hang, the Emperor would cause a tremendous and violent reaction from all Japanese. Hanging of the Emperor to them would be comparable to the crucifixion of Christ to us. All would fight to die like ants. The position of the gangster militarists would be strengthened immeasurably. The war would be unduly prolonged; our losses heavier than otherwise would be necessary.\" For the same reason, it was also clear that, were the Emperor to order his troops to surrender, they would, for the very same reason, do so to the very last solder.\nIn March 1945, MacArthur sent Lt. Gen. George Kenney, the head of his air forces, to Washington to brief the Joint Chiefs on the situation in the Pacific. In a long talk with Chief of Staff Gen. George Marshall, on March 16, Kenney argued that Japan had lost its air power, its navy and merchant marine, and that there was no longer any necessity to wait for an end to the war in Europe or for the Russians to enter the Pacific war, before moving toward a surrender.\nAs Kenney relates in The MacArthur I Know: \"When I was in Washington in March 1945, I repeated MacArthur's ideas, but everyone I talked to in the War Department and even among the Air crowd disagreed. The consensus was that Japan would hold out for possibly another two years.... While the dropping of the two atomic bombs may have hurried the Japanese decision to quit, there is little doubt that MacArthur was right in July when he told me that the projected Operation Olympicto invade Japan on November 1, 1945would never take place.\"\n\"It was quite evident from a study of the context of the messages, that the Japanese realized further resistance was futile, and were willing to grant any concessions to halt the war, providing the Emperor remained as the spiritual head of the country,\" Kenney wrote.\nBy the Spring of 1945 these peace-feelers were coming in fast and furious. On May 7, 1945, the OSS representative in Portugal informed President Truman that the Counsellor of the Japanese Legation in Portugal had told a source that the Japanese were ready to cease hostilities provided they were allowed to retain possession of the home islands and that the terms \"unconditional surrender\" not be employed in the actual peace terms.\nOther OSS sources working with the Vatican's Cardinal Giuseppe Montini (later Pope Paul VI), were also in touch with the Japanese, who were in the process of working out the terms of an eventual Japanese surrenderagain with the proviso that the institution of the Emperor be retained.\nThe stated policy of the United States had been that of \"unconditional surrender.\" This had been stated by President Roosevelt, almost fortuitously, when he met with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill at Casablanca in January 1943. And yet, with Roosevelt, the consummate politician, there was always room for finding a way out of a dilemma if the conditions warranted it. Roosevelt did, in fact, deviate from the \"unconditional surrender\" formula when Italy agreed to surrender in 1944. But by May 1945, Franklin Roosevelt was dead, and his new Vice President, Harry Truman, had been sworn in as President of the United States.\nTruman had replaced Henry Wallace as FDR's Vice President prior to the 1944 elections, through the machinations of the southern Democrats who hated Roosevelt's New Deal as well as his envisioned post-war Grand Design. They knew that Roosevelt would not survive a fourth term. They therefore wanted to replace the strong New Deal Vice President Henry Wallace, with one of their own. Former Missouri tailor Harry Truman, a proud son of the Confederacy (both grandfathers fought for the South during the Civil War), who had come to prominence in Missouri politics as a stooge of the Kansas City-based criminal Pendergast mob, was their man. As his chief foreign policy adviser, Truman chose Sen. James Byrnes from South Carolina, an even more dyed-in-the-wool Confederate sympathizer. In June 1945, Truman made Byrnes Secretary of State.\nThe Russian Factor\nFrom the beginning of the war, the Allied forces had decided that their main thrust would be in Europe. In every aspect of supply and logistics, the Atlantic theater received the primary attention, with MacArthur, the army commander in the Pacific, having to make do with whatever he got.\nThe Russian armies were almost solely deployed on the European front. After initial clashes with the Japanese in Manchuria in 1939, in which the Japanese fared badly, the Russians signed a Neutrality Treaty with Japan. In his discussions with Stalin at Tehran in November 1943 and at Yalta in February 1945, Roosevelt had talked to the Soviet leader about the possibility of redeploying Russian troops to the East at the conclusion of the war with Nazi Germany. Already in the beginning of the Pacific campaign, MacArthur had called for Russian engagement against the Japanese in Manchuria, a measure that would have helped tie up some of their forces that would otherwise be available to be deployed against him. The Russians, hard pressed by the advance of the Nazi armies, were not eager to engage in a two-front war if that could be avoided.\nAnd yet, after the decisive victory of the Red Army at Kursk in July 1943, it was felt in U.S. military circles that the Russians might now consider moving against Japan. In a Joint Chiefs' instruction cited by Alperovitz, in the Fall of 1943 to the head of the American Military Mission in Moscow, Brig. Gen. John Deane, \"the great importance to the United States of Russia's full participation in the war against Japan after the defeat of Germany, as essential to the prompt and crushing defeat of Japan at far less cost to the United States and Great Britain,\" was clearly stated. Again, just before the Big Three meetingRoosevelt, Churchill, and Stalinat Tehran in 1943, the Joint Chiefs stated: \"We are agreed that every effort should be exerted to bring the U.S.S.R. into the war against Japan at the earliest practicable date, and that plans should be prepared in that event.\"\nBy the end of 1944, the war in Europe was approaching a close. Following the Big Three meeting in Yalta in February 1945, representatives were sent to MacArthur to brief him on the results. MacArthur again called for a Russian move on Manchuria in order to tie up as many Japanese divisions as possible, especially if events necessitated an invasion of the Japanese home islands, for which preparations were, in fact, being made.\nThe Japanese were also aware that Russian refusal to renew the Neutrality Pact would mean that they would also have Russia to fight. The signals of a Japanese willingness to surrender then began to multiply.\nIn addition to the OSS contacts in Italy and Portugal, the Japanese were also making their desires known through their representatives in Moscow and in Sweden, with representatives of the Swedish Royal Family. The Swedish reports were forwarded to the United States by Herschel V. Johnson, the U.S. Ambassador in Stockholm. Reporting on April 6, 1945, Johnson wrote that it was \"probable that very far-reaching conditions would be accepted by the Japanese by way of negotiation,\" but that \"there is no doubt that unconditional surrender terms would be unacceptable to the Japanese because it would mean dishonor. Application of such terms would be fatal and lead to desperate action on the part of the people.... The Emperor must not be touched,\" Johnson wrote.\nThe Atom Bomb Project\nOn April 25, 1945, Secretary of War Henry Stimson and Gen. Leslie Groves, the manager of the Manhattan Project, met at the White House to brief the President on the status of the atomic bomb.\nThe bomb project had been initiated by President Roosevelt on the basis of an appeal by Albert Einstein. Einstein, aware of Nazi work on developing such weapons, had been urged by Leo Szilard, a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Bertrand Russell, who played on Einstein's fears, to write a letter to President Roosevelt urging him to begin work on an atomic weapon.\nSzilard, a Hungarian physicist and a devotee of H.G. Wells, had worked his way into Einstein's confidence while still a young physicist in Berlin. In 1928 Szilard had read Wells' Open Conspiracy, and waxed enthusiastic. By 1929 he had travelled to London to meet with Wells and to negotiate the rights to publish Wells' works in Central Europe. Szilard himself worked on a scheme to realize Wells' vision of a \"world government\" controlled by a chosen \"scientific elite.\" In fact, so enamored was he of this idea that he developed his own plan for creating such an \"elite,\" which he called the Bund, \"a closely knit group of people whose inner bond is pervaded by a religious and scientific spirit.\" Although formulating this proto-fascist vision at an early age, Szilard bandied such ideas about in different forms until his death.\nHow the Einstein letter led to the Manhattan Project, under General Groves, is well known. By the time the new President, Harry Truman, was briefed on the Manhattan Project in April 1945, the bomb was almost ready for testing. The growing realization by Truman of the power and capability of the new weapon gave Truman the means to accomplish the task for which he had been chosento dismantle Roosevelt's entire post-war design.\nRoosevelt had dealt with the mercurial Russian leader, Joseph Stalin, in a rather straightforward and open manner. Not that this was without its difficulties, given Stalin's propensities and paranoia. Nevertheless, by 1944 Roosevelt felt that he had created a certain rapport with Stalin and intended to work to bring wartime ally Russia into the concert of European nations after the war. Writing in May 1944 in the Saturday Evening Post, Forrest Davis, a correspondent favored by Roosevelt, wrote: \"Mr. Roosevelt is striving to bring the Soviet Union, which has fallen out with the European tradition, back into the family of nations, as a condition precedent to world organization. Convinced that unless that reunion takes place, there can be no world association, nor assured hope of peace, the President's 'great design' rests on two assumptions. First, he accepts the prevalent view that the Soviet Union will be able to organize effectively its manpower and resources in peace as well as war, thus becoming permanently a great power. He further assumes that the interests of a victorious Russian state can be reconciled to those of the Atlantic powers, China, and the small nations of Europe and America. Mr. Roosevelt, gambling for stakes as enormous as any statesman ever played for, has been betting that the Soviet Union needs peace and is willing to pay for it by collaborating with the West. By no means unaware of the risks, he declines, nevertheless, to acknowledge them even to close associates. The White House is a delicate sounding board, reflecting everything that happens everywhere on the globe. It would be absurd to suppose that the President has not considered the implications of his Russian policy in all angles and facets. The alternativea Russia excluded, aggrieved and driven in on itself to prepare for the inevitable war of continentswas to him so much worse, that he saw himself with little choice. He chose, moreover, to prosecute his policy so sincerely that the Russians, proverbially mistrustful, could have no ground for misgiving.\"\nThe Utopians' plans for establishing their global dictatorship were, on the other hand, precisely geared to play into those Russian misgivings.\nThe Road to Potsdam\nWhile the production of the atomic bomb had been initiated by Roosevelt based on assumptions (later proven false) that the Nazis were progressing rapidly on building a similar device, the \"bomb\" now became, in the hands of the Utopians, the essential tool in imposing their political vision on the post-war world. But, in order to do that, the power of this new weapon had to be demonstrated in a devastating manner, to convince all nations to accept the straitjacket of \"world government.\"\nThe Manhattan Project had been essentially an Anglo-American project from the start, although certain aspects of it were revealed to Churchill only after the fact. The wartime alliance with Russia had not included informing them of the existence of the bomb project. Some people had, however, urged this step on Roosevelt, aware that withholding the information now might create serious misunderstandings after the war.\nDanish physicist Niels Bohr, aware that the Russians certainly knew of the possibility of developing atomic weapons and had perhaps more than an inkling of the Manhattan Project, feared a post-war arms race. He therefore urged President Roosevelt to inform Stalin of the bomb project. He also spoke to the British Prime Minister, who rejected the idea out of hand. \"As for any post-war problems,\" Churchill told Bohr, \"there are none that cannot be amicably settled between me and my friend, President Roosevelt.\" Roosevelt, who saw things quite differently, but who, for reasons of his own was not prepared at that time to reveal the secrets of the bomb to Stalin, didn't overrule the British Prime Minister on this issue.\nBy May 1945, with Roosevelt dead, differences over the post-war fate of Poland were calling for top-level consultations among the Big Three. Churchill wrote to Truman in May 1945 that it was urgent \"that a settlement must be reached on all major issues ... before the armies of democracy melted.\" But Truman was not interested in meeting with Stalin until he had a successful test of the atomic bomb to use as a bargaining chip in such a meeting.\nThe political implications of the bomb were clearly in the forefront of interest for the Utopian faction. Chief among them was Secretary of War Henry Stimson. Speaking on May 14 to Army Chief of Staff Gen. George Marshall and John J. McCloy (one of Stimson's top assistants at the War Department), relating a discussion he had just had with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, Stimson commented: \"It is a case where we have got to regain the lead [over Russia] and perhaps do it in a rough and realistic way.... I told him this was a place where we really held all the cards. I called it a royal straight flush and we mustn't be a fool about the way we play. They can't get along without our help and our industries, and we have coming into action a weapon which will be unique.\"\nTruman was of one mind with Stimson on this point, and, therefore, worked to delay a meeting with Stalin. Truman wrote Churchill that he wanted to put off the Big Three meeting until after June 30 on the flimsy pretext that the U.S. budget was coming up in Congress. Stalin was anxious to meet. Harry Hopkins, just back from a trip to Moscow on May 28, was told the meeting would not be until July. Hopkins objected: \"I think Stalin would like to have the meeting at an earlier date because of the many pressing problems to be decided.\" And yet Truman persisted in delaying, raising suspicions among the Russians as to his motives.\nFor what was Truman waiting? General Groves was pushing his scientists to test the bomb by the beginning of July. Technical considerations caused a delay in the testand another delay in Truman's planned meeting with Stalin. Finally, Grove pushed for a test on July 14. Biographer Norris notes how Groves, in explaining the rush to project director J. Robert Oppenheimer on July 2, stressed \"the importance of trying to arrange for the 14th [of July] ... and to tell his people that it wasn't his fault. But came from higher authority.\" On June 5, Truman then informed Churchill in regard to the forthcoming meeting, \"I find, after full consideration that July 15 is the earliest date that is practicable for me to attend.\" Indeed, if all went well, it was the earliest date at which Truman would would know if the test had been successful.\nThe Decision To Bomb\nThe test in Alamogordo, New Mexico, on July 14, 1945, produced results beyond anyone's imagination. As reports streamed back to Washington, the mood was almost ecstatic among the Utopians. Indeed, Stimson felt that the effect of the bomb was so great that he advised Truman the weapon might enable the United States to force the Soviet Union to abandon or radically alter its entire system of government. A War Department memorandum on June 16 noted that \"the President feels the U.S. is by far the strongest country in the world and he proposes to take the lead at the coming meeting,\" and that in \"this connection he proposes to raise all the controversial questions.\"\nWith the successful test of the bomb, the issue now became whether to use itand, if so, against whom? With the surrender of Nazi Germany already a fact, Japan was really the only candidate. But what if the Japanese also surrendered before the bomb was actually used in war, as all indicators were showing they intended to do? Testing the bomb in a real-time situation required, therefore, delaying such a surrender for as long as possible in order to use the bomb to end the warand demonstrate in an unequivocal and stark, terrifying manner, the raw power now possessed by the United States.\nPlans for the bombing of Japan were already well under way when the Alamogordo test took place. Under the frenetic leadership of Groves, targets were being picked. An Interim Committee had been set up by Stimson's assistant, Harvey Bundy, consisting of Stimson; James Conant, chairman of the National Defense Research Committee; Dr. Vannevar Bush, director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD); Dr. Karl Compton, head of the Office of Field Service (OSRD) and president of MIT; Assistant Secretary of State William Clayton; and the Undersecretary of the Navy, Ralph Bard. At Stimson's suggestion, Truman appointed Jimmy Byrnes to serve as Truman's personal liaison to the committee. The Interim Committee was to advise the President on how the bomb was to be used after the war. Groves, who was a member of the Target Committee, also received a permanent invitation to attend the meetings of the Interim Committee, and, in fact, attended all of their meetings. Two or more bombs were to be prepared.\nTruman became totally euphoric when Groves' more detailed report on the Alamogordo experiment reached him on July 21. \"The President was tremendously pepped up by it and spoke to me of it again and again when I saw him,\" Stimson confided in his diary. Byrnes was also ecstatic, telling Szilard \"that our possessing and demonstrating the bomb would make Russia more manageable in Europe.\"\nIndeed, there was a growing feeling that with the Anglo-Americans retaining sole possession of the bomb, the post-war period would indeed become something of an Anglo-American Century, as Bertrand Russell would call for in his piece later in 1945. Norris' book clearly shows Groves to have been a strong proponent of such a view, though more inclined to make this solely an \"American\" preserve, not to be shared fully with the British. As he would express this later more publicly, in an important quote overlooked by his biographer Norris, but not lost on Alperovitz, Groves was committed to \"an American-administered Pax-Atomicaan atomic league of nations, founded upon the West's supposed technological superiority and the secret, preclusive monopoly of atomic raw materials.\"\nIn the light of this policy shift, the appearance of Japanese peace-feelers now became a threat that might obviate the use of the atomic bomb in war. Anything that would permit the Japanese to surrender before its use against Japan was therefore to be squelched. The envisioned entry of the Russian forces into Manchuria had therefore to be delayed for as long as possible.\nSome people in Washington saw clearly what was in the works. Acting Secretary of State Joseph Grew, a former ambassador to Japan, caught wind of what was happeningand it frightened him. Grew renewed his efforts to quickly get a statement of intent from the United States which would guarantee a retention of the Emperor, and facilitate a rapid Japanese surrenderbefore the bomb could be used. More generally, Grew realized that there was a substantial peace party in Japan, and that the peace-feelers the Allied intelligence forces were picking up, were for real. The position of the United States, he felt, should be supportive of that peace party, and immediately clarifying the role of the Emperor in the peace terms was absolutely essential if peace were to be quickly achieved.\nMany leading Republicans were also calling for such a statement. On July 3, the New York Times reported that the Senate Republican minority leader, Wallace White, \"declared that the Pacific war might end quickly if President Truman would state, specifically, in the upper chamber, just what unconditional surrender means for the Japanese.\" The War Department's Operations Division advised on July 12, 1945 that \"the present stand of the War Department is that Japanese surrender is just possible and is attractive enough to the U.S. to justify us in making any concession which might be attractive to the Japanese, so long as our realistic aims for peace in the Pacific are not adversely affected.\"\nIndeed, by this time the Japanese peace-feelers were becoming a drumbeat. On July 12, as Truman was travelling to Potsdam aboard the Presidential yacht, the Augusta, Emperor Hirohito was declaring in a meeting of the Supreme Council for the Direction of the War, that although war planning had to continue, it was also \"necessary to have a plan to close the war at once.\" A cable intercepted on July 12 from Foreign Minister Togo to Japanese Ambassador Sato in Moscow, and given to Truman aboard the Augusta on his way to Potsdam, stated: \"We are now secretly giving consideration to the termination of the war because of the pressing situation which confronts Japan both at home and abroad.\" Unlike the previous peace-feelers, these were very official and very high-level, even involving the leadership of the Japanese Army, the only real hold-outs for continued fighting. By the time of the Potsdam meeting it was also known that Japan was asking Russia, with which it still had a neutrality treaty, to help it get out of the war.\nUsing the Bomb 'Diplomatically'\nBut Truman, with an entirely different agenda, was not ready for peacenot yet at any rate. Indeed, arriving at Potsdam, the United States was already taking measures to delay Russian entry into the war in the Pacific.\nAt Yalta it had been agreed that Russia would enter the Pacific theater in exchange for several conditions: It would receive the Kurile Islands from Japan, regain control over the Chinese Far Eastern and South Manchurian railroads as well as the ports of Dairen and Port Arthur, and the \"independence of Mongolia would be assured.\" In turn, Stalin agreed to sign a treaty with Nationalist China. Roosevelt had assured Stalin that he would convince Chiang Kai-shek to accept concessions to Russia in Manchuria.\nThe signing of an agreement between China and the Soviet Union would therefore be the immediate prelude to Soviet entry into Manchuria. With Truman's new agenda, and the successful demonstration of the atomic bomb, the brakes had to be put on the signing of such an agreement. On July 6, as he was leaving for Potsdam, Jimmy Byrnes instructed Averell Harriman, the key contact with the Soviets, to \"inform both the Soviet Government and T.V. Soong [the Chinese Foreign Minister then in Moscow for negotiations with the Russians] that as a party to the Yalta Agreement we would expect to be consulted before any arrangement is concluded between the Soviet and Chinese governments.\" Harriman even had to pressure Soong to be tougher with the Russians about these concessions. \"He [Soong] was far less concerned than we had been about such details as whether Chinese or Russian troops would guard the railroad or who would be the Port Master of Dairen,\" Harriman wrote. \"I saw him almost every day and urged him to be more firm.\"\nAt Potsdam, Truman adopted his most belligerent pose. In a letter to his wife Bess on June 20, Truman wrote: \"We had a tough meeting yesterday. I reared up on my hind legs and told 'em where to get off, and they got off. I have to make perfectly plain to them at least once a day that so far as this President is concerned, Santa Claus is dead, and that my first interest is U.S.A., then I want the Jap War won and I want 'em both in it.\"\nAfter the plenary session of July 24, Truman approached Stalin as Stalin was about to leave the conference, and mentioned to him casually \"that we had a new weapon of unusual destructive force.\" The poker-faced Stalin simply commented, according to Truman, that \"he was glad to hear it and hoped we would make 'good use of it against the Japanese.' \" Judging from Stalin's placid reaction, Truman and Churchill thought that Stalin didn't really understand that Truman had been referring to the atomic bomb. The wily Soviet leader, however, knew a lot more than he was letting on. What his Russian science advisers, like the great scientist Vladimir Vernadsky, were not able to tell him about the bomb, well-placed spies in the Manhattan Project were. Marshal Zhukov relates Stalin's comments to his own people following this encounter with Truman. \"Stalin, in my presence, told Molotov about his conversation with Truman,\" Zhukov wrote in his memoirs. \" 'They're raising the price,' said Molotov. Stalin gave a laugh, 'Let them. We'll have to have a talk with Kurchatov today about speeding up our work.' \" Stalin was referring to the Soviet bomb program, headed up by Academician I.V. Kurchatov.\nPotsdam: Preventing Japan's Surrender\nIt was also at Potsdam that Churchill was informed of the successful test. British Chief of Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brookesby wrote that Churchill \"was completely carried away. It was no longer necessary for the Russians to come into the Japanese war; the new explosive alone was sufficient to settle the matter. Furthermore, we now had something in our hands which would redress the balance with the Russians.\"\nBy this time, the Interim Committee had decided that the bomb would be used, without warning, on a Japanese war plant, preferably in the vicinity of an area in which many Japanese workers were living, for maximum psychological effect. Norris relates how Groves wanted to target Kyoto itself, the most important religious center for the Japanese, but Stimson, anxious that the Japanese remain malleable enough after the war in order to serve in the post-war battle against the spread of Communism in Asia, rejected this proposal, assenting only to the targetting of Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Niigata, and Kokura. There was only one true dissenter to this decision of the committeeRalph Bard, Navy Secretary James Forrestal's undersecretary and representative. In a June 27 memorandum, Bard wrote: \"Ever since I have been in touch with this program I have had a feeling that before the bomb is actually used against Japan, that Japan should have some preliminary warning, for say two or three days in advance of use. The position of the United States as a great humanitarian nation and the fair play attitude of our people generally is responsible in the main for this feeling.\" Bard also stressed that some U.S. declaration regarding the status of the Emperor should be given to encourage the Japanese to surrender quickly. But Truman and Byrnes were not prepared to issue such a declaration.\nIn fact, the draft statement for the Potsdam meeting, drawn up by Stimson and John McCloy, had included explicit assurances for the Emperor. William Leahy, the chief of staff of the Army and Navy under Roosevelt, who had been kept on by Truman, wrote on July 18: \"From a strictly military point of view, the Joint Chiefs of Staff consider it inadvisable to make any statement or take any action at the present time that would make it difficult or impossible to utilize the authority of the Emperor to direct a surrender of the Japanese forces, in the outlying areas as well as in Japan proper.\" Although Truman was in agreement with the policy of building up post-war Japan as a counterweight to Soviet influence, he, in collaboration with Byrnes, decided to purge the reference to the Emperor from the Potsdam Proclamation. As far as the Japanese knew, \"unconditional surrender\" was still the policy of the allies. In a further affront to Stalin, the United States issued the Proclamation to the press before even informing him, much less soliciting his approval of the final text.\nThe effect of the Potsdam Declaration was devastating. Navy Captain Ellis Zacharias, a specialist who had been working on psychological-warfare ideas in cooperation with the Overseas Branch of the Office of War Information, had been, like his Navy commanders, keen on encouraging a quick Japanese surrender. Zacharias had been closely following the Japanese intercepts, and knew that the signals to end the war were coming from the highest levels, and that the position of the Emperor was the decisive issue. The Potsdam Declaration smashed these hopes. It \"wrecked everything we had been working for,\" Zacharias would later explain. \"Instead of being a diplomatic instrument, transmitted through regular diplomatic channels and giving the Japanese a chance to answer, it was put on the radio as a propaganda instrument pure and simple. The whole maneuver, in fact, completely disregarded all essential psychological factors [for] dealing with Japan.\"\nAlso at Potsdam, more pressure was put on T.V. Soong to conduct a delaying action. On July 23 Churchill wrote to Sir Anthony Eden, \"Mr. Byrnes told me this morning that he had cabled to T.V. Soong advising him not to give way on any point to the Russians, but to return to Moscow and keep on negotiating pending further developments. It is quite clear that the United States do not at the present time desire Russian participation in the war against Japan.\" Nevertheless, hearing from Truman that the bomb test had been successful, Stalin pushed up the invasion of Manchuria from Aug. 15 to Aug. 8a mere two days, in the event, after the bombing of Hiroshima.\nOpposition to the Decision\nThe decision to bomb was, however, meeting with considerable resistance. The initial reaction came from those who were most in the know on the subjectthe Manhattan Project scientists. A nervous Groves was keenly aware of the growing opposition among the scientists to the use of the bomb without warning. In a poll taken among 150 of the scientists working at the Manhattan Project's Chicago facility, almost half of those polled also recommended \"a military demonstration\" to be followed by renewed opportunity for surrender \"before full use of the weapon is employed.\"\nLeo Szilard was perhaps more upset than anyone. The spiritual \"father\" of the atomic bomb. Szilard, like Bohr, knew something of the Soviet capabilities through his early contact with Russian scientist Peter Kapitsa, and realized that the atomic bomb would not long remain the monopoly of a single power. Indeed, its use in combat, he feared, threatened to set off an arms race which would upset all his plans for using it to establish the \"world government.\" In late May 1945, Szilard and fellow scientists Harold Urey and Walter Bartky met with Jimmy Byrnes. Byrnes told them that General Groves had informed him that Russia had no uranium, and that therefore there was no fear of them developing atomic weapons.\nIn reality, already in 1940, Russian scientist Vladimir Vernadsky had appointed a committee to investigate the uranium resources of the Soviet Union. While they did discover uranium deposits in Central Asia, it would be the countries of Eastern Europe and Soviet-occupied East Germany which would provide the great bulk of the uranium for the Soviet nuclear program. In a memorandum to Byrnes, Szilard underlined that it was the post-war organization of the atomic bomb threat which would be of utmost importance. In accordance with his Wellsian program, he urged that there be established international controls on atomic research, with the direct involvement of the scientists in the decisions as to its use. Byrnes found the idea rather ludicrous. \"He [Szilard] felt that scientists, including himself, should discuss the matter with the Cabinet, which I did not feel desirable. His general demeanor and his desire to participate in policymaking made an unfavorable impression on me.\"\nMore significant opposition came from the military leadership of the country, most of whom were adamantly opposed to the use of the atomic bomb. Alperovitz documents this resistance quite extensively in separate chapters dealing with the reaction from each of the uniformed services; all regarded the bombing as militarily unnecessary. Stimson himself, when in Europe for the Potsdam talks, saw fit to solicit the opinion of Gen. Dwight Eisenhower, Commander-in-Chief of Allied Forces in Europe. \"The incident took place in 1945 when Secretary of War Stimson, visiting my headquarters in Germany, informed me that our government was preparing to drop an atomic bomb on Japan,\" Eisenhower would later write in his autobiography, Mandate for Change. \"I was one of those who felt that there were a number of cogent reasons to question the wisdom of such an act.... The Secretary, upon giving me the news of the successful bomb test in New Mexico, and of the plan for using it, asked for my reaction, apparently expecting a vigorous assent. During the recitation of the relevant facts, I had been conscious of a feeling of depression, and so I voiced to him my grave misgivings, first on the basis of my belief that Japan was already defeated and that dropping the bomb was completely unnecessary, and secondly because I thought that our country should avoid shocking world opinion by the use of a weapon whose employment, I thought no longer mandatory as a measure to save American lives. It was my belief that Japan was, at that very moment, seeking some way to surrender with a minimum loss of 'face.' The Secretary was deeply perturbed by my attitude, almost angrily refuting the reasons I gave for my quick conclusions.\"\nAlthough Gen. Douglas MacArthur, the Pacific theater commander, wasn't informed of the existence of the atomic bomb until five days before it was dropped on Hiroshima, he had already, in the Spring of 1945, sent his air force chief, Maj. Gen. George Kenney, to Washington to explain his view that the Japanese were close to surrender. When Kenney came to Washington and explained this to Gen. George Marshall, Marshall called in his top advisers. Kenney would report to MacArthur later that he had not succeeded in convincing them. MacArthur, until his death, insisted that bombing Hiroshima and Nagasaki had no military value whatsoever.\nTruman's Chief of Staff, Adm. William Leahy, who chaired the meetings of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, continually insisted that the Japanese were on the brink of surrender. As late as July 16, Leahy was urging the British Chief of Staff to have Churchill get Truman to modify the term \"unconditional surrender.\" Leahy would later say, quite accurately, of the decision: \"Truman told me it was agreed they would use it, after military men's statements that it would save many, many American lives, by shortening the war, only to hit military objectives. Of course, then they went ahead and killed as many women and children as they could, which was just what they wanted all the time.\"\nAdm. Ernest King, the Commander in Chief of the U.S. Fleet, was convinced that the successful blockade of Japan was bringing Japan to its knees. There was no need to invade Japan proper, King argued, because Japan was as good as defeated. This analysis would later be fully corroborated by the Strategic Bombing Survey, which in 1946 examined the destruction caused in Japan by a combination of the blockade and the incessant conventional bombing. The Survey concluded that Japan would likely have surrendered in 1945 without atomic bombing, a Soviet declaration of war, or an American invasion.\nThat the Utopians were also aware of these facts is attested by comments made to Truman on June 6 by Stimson. Stimson wrote in his diary. \"I told him I was anxious about this feature of the war [massive conventional bombing] for two reasons: first, because I did not want to have the United States get the reputation of outdoing Hitler in atrocities; and second, I was a little fearful that before we could get ready, the Air Force might have Japan so thoroughly bombed out that the new weapon would not have a fair background to show its strength. He laughed and said he understood.\"\nOn Aug. 6 at 8:16 in the morning the bomber Enola Gay dropped \"Little Boy,\" with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tons of TNT, on the city of Hiroshima, with a population of 290,000 civilians and 43,000 soldiers. When calculations were made at the end of August, the death toll was in the realm of 100,000, but many more would die soon thereafter from the effects of the bombing. By the end of 1950, the toll had reached 200,000, with death rates calculated at 54%! On Aug. 9, \"Fat Man\" was dropped on Nagasaki, with 70,000 dead calculated by the end of 1945 and a total of 140,000 dead within the next five years. On hearing of the successful bombing of Hiroshima, Truman commented, \"This is the greatest thing in history!\" General MacArthur was dumbfounded, as MacArthur's pilot, Weldon E. Rhoades, noted in his diary on the day after the bombing: \"General MacArthur definitely is appalled and depressed by this Frankenstein monster. I had a long talk with him today, necessitated by the impending trip to Okinawa. He wants time to think the thing out, so he has postponed the trip to some future date to be decided later.\"\nThe Reaction and the Cover-Up\nMore significant, perhaps, than the arduous plodding through the files to get a clear step-by-step picture of the events leading up to the decision, are the revelations by the Alperovitz team of the growing U.S. domestic reaction to the bombing and the frantic efforts by the perpetrators to cover their tracksa story which has received very little publicity.\nReports of the terrible facts and consequences of the atomic bombingsmost especially, author John Hersey's \"Hiroshima,\" which filled the August 1946 issue of The New Yorker magazine and sold hundreds of thousands of copieshad a strong impact on the American public. A steady stream of criticism of the bombing came from key religious leaders in the United States. The effect of what James Conant derided as \"this type of sentimentalism\" moved Conantnow president of Harvardto ask his friend Harvey Bundy to get Stimson to counterattack. Conant agreed with Bertrand Russell that the demonstration of the atomic bomb in a war situation had been essential to force the world into a control regime. But the American citizen had to be \"convinced\" by a counter-story on Japan.\nAt the time Stimson was working on his memoirs, being assisted by Harvey Bundy's son, McGeorge Bundy. The two now readily undertook the task of providing the \"cover-up\" for the atom bomb decision. McGeorge Bundy would write a draft for Stimson's perusal and signature. After his discussions with Conant, Harvey Bundy himself had drafted a number of \"pointers\" that he felt should be included in such an article: namely, that the bomb decision was primarily ordered with the thought that it would save American lives; that no major person in authority thought that Japan would surrender on terms acceptable to the Allies; that the Interim Committee had rejected targets \"where the destruction of life and property would be the very greatest\"; that the committee had discussed \"intensively\" whether the bomb should be used at all; and that the committee had also considered the possibility of a demonstration prior to its use in war. In particular he wanted to downplay any inference that the bomb played any role in U.S. relations with the Soviet Union.\nWith \"old Bundy's\" notes in hand, \"young Bundy\"who later, as National Security Adviser to Kennedy and Johnson, would help to maneuver these Presidents into the jungles of Vietnamwent to work on the draft. Various people, including Groves, Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, Secretary of War Robert Patterson, and Bernard Baruch, who would shortly present Truman's first draconian nuclear control plan to the United Nations, had their say in the draft. Groves underlined the basic lie of the piece: that the dropping of the bomb shortened the war by months and saved many human lives which the planned invasion of Japan would have exacted.\nConant himself wanted to make the point that, given the tremendous destruction of the conventional bombing of Japan, the atom bomb was just like any other bomb, only a bit more destructive. Tellingly, Conant urged Bundy to drop all reference to the issue of the Emperor in the paper.\nIn the final draft, Bundy so exaggerated the figures that it stated twice that the dropping of the bomb had saved over a million lives. And yet, the best estimates given to General Marshall of the possible casualty rates of American forces in a full-scale invasion, were always in the range of 40,000 to 46,000. The big lie just kept getting bigger.\nThe essay was published in the February 1947 issue of Harper's magazine. Breaking all precedent as regards copyright, Harper's gave permission for anyone who wanted to reproduce the article to do so. It was therefore quickly reprinted in the Washington Post, the St. Louis Post Dispatch, the Omaha World Herald, Reader's Digest, the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, and many other papers. McGeorge Bundy quipped to Stimson, \"The Harper's article has been read by everyone I meet, and it seems to have covered the subject so well that I find no follow-up work needed.... I think we deserve some sort of medal for reducing these particular chatterers to silence.\"\nNot everyone felt that the effect was sufficient, however. Conant had Karl Compton, the president of MIT, launch a parallel defense of the bombing in the Atlantic Monthly, upping the ante in terms of the outrageous claims of the number of lives saved. \"I believe, with complete conviction, that the use of the atomic bomb saved hundreds of thousandsperhaps several millionsof lives, both American and Japanese,\" Compton wrote. This was, for them, not merely an attempt to justify their actions. \"If the propaganda against the use of the atomic bomb had been allowed to grow unchecked,\" Conant wrote Stimson, \"the strength of our military position by virtue of having the bomb would have been correspondingly weakened, and with the weakening would have come a decrease in the probabilities of an international agreement for the control of atomic energy.\" Indeed this, and not the defeat of Japan, had been the real Wellsian purpose of the bomb project to begin with.\nThe Cold War Begins\nThe effect on Russia of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings was immediate. Visiting Moscow together with Marshal Zhukov a few days after the bombing of Hiroshima, Eisenhower, according to Edgar Snow, answered \"a private question privately,\" with the following remarks: \"I would have said, I was sure we could keep the peace with Russia. Now, I don't know. I had hoped the bomb wouldn't figure in this war. Until now I would have said that we three, Britain with her mighty fleet, America with the strongest air force, and Russia with the strongest land force on the continent, we three could have guaranteed the peace of the world for a long, long time to come. But now, I don't know. People are frightened and disturbed all over. Everyone feels insecure again.\"\nThree policies emerged for dealing with the advent of the nuclear age. Bertrand Russell and his Utopian co-thinkers demanded the United States get ready for preventive nuclear war against the Soviet Union, to enforce a U.S.-British nuclear monopoly.\nThe policy of Truman, and of Wall Street, was the \"Baruch Plan\" for world government enforcement of complete nuclear technological apartheid. Among Truman's circles there was still the illusion that the United States would remain sole proprietor of nuclear weapons for a long time to come. On Oct. 8, 1946, Truman was asked if the United States would keep control of all nuclear technological information. \"Well, I don't think it would do any good to let them in on the know-how,\" Truman said, \"because I don't think they could do it, anyway.\"\nTruman's initial response to this was to attempt to use the forum of the United Nations to impose top-down control on the nations of the world with regard to the research and development and the production of nuclear technology, and the top-down control of the nuclear materials themselvesone of the key elements in the Groves post-war plans for nuclear weapons, as Norris documents. Truman appointed the aging financier Bernard Baruch, formerly head of the War Production Board during World War I, as the head of the U.S. delegation to the UN Atomic Energy Commission, assuring a hard line on the control issue. Baruch's plan demanded \"swift and sure punishment\" of any nation which attempted independently to develop nuclear technology, and insisted that the veto power of the UN Security Council be suspended entirely in matters of atomic control.\nBertrand Russell was also delighted with the Baruch Plan, as the realization of his \"world government\" idea. And the Soviet Union's swift and complete rejection of the Baruch Plan in 1946, provided grist for Russell's \"preventive war\" mill; in 1949 George Eliot published a book entitled If Russia Strikes, in which he called on the United States to present Moscow with an ultimatum: Cease research and production efforts on the atomic bomb and accept the Baruch Plan, or face an American attack that would \"raze the U.S.S.R. with an air atomic offensive.\" The \"preventive war\" scenario also won its adherents among some U.S. military layers, particularly those Air Forces officers who had bought into the supremacy of \"air power\" as the real war-winning capability.\nThe head of the newly founded United States Air Force, Gen. Henry H. (Hap) Arnold, in a report to Secretary of War Stimson, asserted that the \"one defense against the atomic bomb\" was \"to hit it before it starts.\" In a speech at the Boston Navy Yard on Aug. 25, 1950, Navy Secretary Francis Matthews gave a speech which supported the Utopians' thesis. Matthews said that the United States should consider \"instituting a war to compel cooperation for peace.\" Many other leading figures in the Truman Administration supported Matthews' callincluding Stuart Symington, director of the National Security Resources Board and former secretary of the Air Force, and Gen. Albert Wedemeyer, commander of the Sixth Army.\nBy the time of the Matthews' speech, however, the Soviets had eliminated the U.S. atomic monopoly on nuclear weapons, exploding a nuclear device on the steppes of Kazakstan in August 1949. The proposals for \"preventive war\" would continue on and off for several years, but neither Truman, nor much less Eisenhowerwho effectively judoed the Utopian gameplanwere ever prepared to go that far. The world now entered the era of Mutual and Assured Destruction.\nEisenhower's Atoms for Peace\nFrom here on in, preventive war with the Soviets would be viewed as more and more suicidal. The resulting ''balance of terror\" would now be used by the same Utopians as the argument for bringing the world into the era of world government, including Russell's attempt during the Cuban Missile Crisis to bring the Americans and the Soviets into an \"arms control regime.\"\nThe third post-war nuclear policy, however, and the initiative that promised to break through this controlled environment, was the \"Atoms for Peace\" program launched in 1953 by President Eisenhower. Envisioning international cooperation between states as the means of fostering their development by the peaceful uses of nuclear power, rather than the establishment of the institutional straitjacket of a world police regime, Ike succeeded in engaging the Soviet Union in cooperation for development. In the course of that program, between 1956 and 1959, the United States concluded nuclear cooperation agreements with 40 different countries, with the Soviet Union providing nuclear power for the satellite countries of Eastern Europe.\nFrom 1956 to 1962, the Atoms for Peace program provided research reactors, nuclear training, and fissionable material to 26 states. Later, in a similar peace-through-development initiative, President Ronald Reagan adopted Lyndon LaRouche's technology-sharing concept for his Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) proposal. The Utopians in the Reagan Administrationwho included such well-known figures in today's \"Get Saddam\" operation as Richard Perle, Doug Feith, and Paul Wolfowitzsucceeded in sabotaging that program, creating the basis for their \"comeback\" under George Herbert Walker Bush. They are now intent on realizing the nightmare of the Wellsian-Russellite vision by the establishment of a new Roman Empire under Anglo-American direction.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8c671533-e46c-4e90-a13b-028295ee4417>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://larouchepub.com/other/2002/reviews/2943hiroshima.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9787291884422302, "token_count": 11586, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is Acceptance? From the dictionary it\u2019s \u201c The act or process of accepting\u201d. Makes sense.\nI had been raised without a father. He\u2019s not dead, but he seems to be in a difficult place where he can no longer be with us. It\u2019s sad. Very sad.\nPeople may think why I still think of my father, why don\u2019t I hate him for leaving us, why do I care, why? Mainly because he\u2019s my father. A female child needs her father\u2019s comfort in difficult times, as per a male child needs his mother. It\u2019s so hard to contain all the burden of not having someone to run to in times like these.\nOne thing that I am proud of is that I never gave up on myself. I know it\u2019s easy to say all this because I\u2019m still young and all but one thing is certain, The world has placed me in a situation only I could handle and I know I can.\nI\u2019ve dealt with different people, situations, emotions, all that the world could feed me at a very young age. As many people see me as a normal girl, I\u2019m not. Deep down I\u2019m broken and I\u2019m searching for a way to fix myself.\nHow I handle things? there goes the acceptance. You have to accept everything that you cannot change, everything your hands are not capable of fixing, everything the world would be giving you. For a while you would cry, get angry, be furious, be regretful, but then you would find another way to remain with the happiness that you could still get.\n- Learn from the past, this means learn from other people\u2019s as well not just yours. This lead me to a very bright path today.\n- Live in the present, because thinking about the past or the future won\u2019t help.\n- Forget the Future, it\u2019s never going to be a straight path towards your goals.\n- Accept the unacceptable and let them live where you have a joyful life.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ebd050fb-a59b-4154-a9b6-dfb5e3e71664>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://melissaexpress.wordpress.com/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9709354043006897, "token_count": 443, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "You\u2019ve heard that you should lower your cholesterol, but do you know why? Sometimes we tend to ignore advice when we don\u2019t understand the reasons. That\u2019s why it\u2019s important to learn what cholesterol is, what it does in your body and why you need to make sure too much isn\u2019t flowing in your blood.\nCholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance that your body needs to function normally. It\u2019s used in the cell membranes that surround cells throughout your body. You also use cholesterol to make important chemicals, including hormones, vitamin D and the acids that help you digest fat.\n\u201cCholesterol has a variety of uses in the body that are very important,\u201d says Dr. James Cleeman, coordinator of NIH\u2019s National Cholesterol Education Program, \u201cbut the body makes all it needs and we don\u2019t need to get any more from our food.\u201d\nIn fact, when the level of cholesterol in the blood gets too high, it can start to cause trouble. The landmark Framingham Heart Study, funded by NIH, first showed that the higher the cholesterol level in your blood, the greater your risk for heart disease\u2014the number 1 killer\nof Americans, both women and men.\nWhat\u2019s the connection? Well, there are 2 forms of cholesterol in your blood: LDL and HDL. When there\u2019s too much cholesterol in your bloodstream, the cholesterol from LDL can build up in the walls of your arteries. Along with fats like triglycerides and other things in the bloodstream, it forms a growing \u201cplaque\u201d that bulges out of the artery wall and can begin to block blood flow\u2014a process called atherosclerosis. Problems get even worse if a plaque bursts and a blood clot forms on top, which can block an artery.\n\u201cWhere LDL cholesterol does its most harm,\u201d Cleeman says, \u201cis in the walls of the arteries going to the heart\u2014the coronary arteries.\u201d\nThat\u2019s why a high LDL cholesterol level increases your risk for heart disease. Like any muscle, the heart\u2019s own muscle needs a constant supply of oxygen and nutrients, delivered by the blood in the coronary arteries. When these arteries become narrowed or clogged by plaque, the result is coronary heart disease. If the blood supply to a portion of the heart is completely cut off, the result is a heart attack.\nHDL cholesterol seems to have the opposite effect of LDL; higher HDL levels are associated with a lower risk for heart disease.\nSome factors affecting your cholesterol level are out of your control. As you get older, for example, your cholesterol level naturally rises. Before menopause, women have lower total cholesterol levels than men of the same age, but after menopause women\u2019s LDL levels tend to rise. High blood cholesterol can also run in families. Your genes affect how fast you make cholesterol and remove it from the blood.\nHowever, there are things you can control. \u201cThe clinical trial data are absolutely conclusive that lowering LDL cholesterol reduces your risk for heart disease,\u201d Cleeman says. \u201cThis is true both for those with high cholesterol levels and for those with average cholesterol levels.\u201d\nHow do you know whether your cholesterol levels are where they should be? In general, the higher your risk for heart disease, the lower your LDL level should be. Cleeman says, \u201cYour goal is individualized to your risk for a heart attack. The number depends on your own risk factors.\u201d NIH has a heart disease risk calculator online at http://hp2010.nhlbihin.net/atpiii/calculator.asp, but you should also talk to your doctor about your risk factors and what your cholesterol levels should be.\n\u201cA person who has a cholesterol level higher than their goal LDL should follow the TLC program,\u201d Cleeman recommends. TLC stands for Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes. It involves 3 things: changing what you eat, doing more physical activity and controlling your weight.\nFirst, diet. Saturated fat raises your LDL cholesterol level more than anything else in your diet. It\u2019s found mostly in meats and full-fat dairy products like whole milk, cheese and butter. Another type of fat called trans fat raises cholesterol similarly, but makes up far less of the American diet. Cholesterol in foods can also raise blood cholesterol levels, but its effect is not as strong as these fats\u2019. Saturated fat, trans fat and cholesterol are all listed on food labels so that you can choose foods with lower amounts to help lower your LDL cholesterol level.\nFoods with soluble fiber\u2014such as whole grain cereals, fruits and beans \u2014help lower your cholesterol, too. And some products, such as specially labeled margarines, orange juices and yogurts, contain the LDL-lowering compounds \u201cstanols\u201d and \u201csterols.\u201d\nExcess weight can increase your LDL cholesterol level. \u201cFat tissue is not inert,\u201d Cleeman says. \u201cIt\u2019s chemically active and produces all kinds of changes.\u201d One is raising LDL blood cholesterol levels. Losing weight can help lower your LDL and total cholesterol levels, as well as raise your HDL and lower your triglycerides.\nRegular physical activity can help you control your weight, lower your LDL and raise your HDL levels. You should try to be physically active for at least 30 minutes a day.\nIf these lifestyle changes don\u2019t lower your LDL cholesterol enough, medication can help. \u201cMedication should be added to lifestyle changes,\u201d Cleeman advises, \u201cnot substituted for them.\u201d Lifestyle changes can bring benefits medications can\u2019t. While both can lower LDL, lifestyle improvements can lower blood pressure and other risk factors as well.\nNIH\u2019s National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute recommends that everyone older than 20 have their blood cholesterol measured at least once every 5 years. Learn your numbers. Then talk to your doctor about whether you need to take steps to alter your diet, lose weight or get more physically active to lower your blood cholesterol and stay healthy.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4caf3bd8-6ee9-45a6-9cd8-186ae6fbf312>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://newsinhealth.nih.gov/2008/January/docs/01features_01.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9343619346618652, "token_count": 1287, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Draw a square. A second square of the same size slides around the\nfirst always maintaining contact and keeping the same orientation.\nHow far does the dot travel?\nPoints A, B and C are the centres of three circles, each one of\nwhich touches the other two. Prove that the perimeter of the\ntriangle ABC is equal to the diameter of the largest circle.\nAn AP rectangle is one whose area is numerically equal to its perimeter. If you are given the length of a side can you always find an AP rectangle with one side the given length?\nTom and Jerry started with identical rectangular sheets of paper. Each of them cut his sheet into two. Tom obtained two rectangles, each with a perimeter of $40$cm while Jerry obtained two rectangles, each with a perimeter of $50$cm. What was the perimeter of Tom's original sheet of paper?\nIf you liked this problem, here is an NRICH task which challenges you to use similar mathematical ideas.\nThis problem is taken from the UKMT Mathematical Challenges.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cb13c13b-4a27-4c7f-9370-9daf73c47fb4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nrich.maths.org/6751", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9379479289054871, "token_count": 217, "score": 3.515625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Every year, tens of millions of sharks are killed for their fins alone. Shark fins are used to make shark fin soup, a popular and expensive dish that is a symbol of wealth and status primarily in Asian cultures.\nThe demand for fins can lead to cruel and wasteful practices, such as cutting off a shark\u2019s fins at sea and then throwing the rest of the shark, sometimes still alive, back into the water. And shark fin soup can be dangerous to humans. Since sharks are at the top of the food chain, they accumulate toxins like mercury, which is a dangerous neurotoxin.\nSo are there any alternatives to shark fin soup? Shark fins themselves have no taste and are used only for texture. In traditional shark fin soup recipes, chicken or fish stock is added to give the soup flavor which means that there are a lot of ways to enjoy shark fin soup without using shark fins \u2013 like this recipe from the Monterey Bay Aquarium:\nToday, the Maryland state Senate Education, Health, and Environmental Affairs Committee is holding a hearing on numerous bills including a bill that would ban the possession, sale, trade and distribution of shark and ray fins.\nThis bill will help protect global shark populations by reducing the demand for their fins. Each year, tens of million sharks are killed so that their fins can be used in shark fin soup. In the United States, the cruel and wasteful practice of shark finning is illegal. However, many fins are imported from all around the world, contributing to the demand for shark fins and the overfishing of sharks.\nHawaii, Oregon, Washington, and California have already passed similar laws, and bills have also been introduced in New York, Illinois, Florida, and Virginia. Oceana supports Maryland\u2019s initiative and asks that state residents do so as well.\nPlease show your support by telling your legislator to vote for SB 465!\nIn Singapore, we\u2019re seeing more proof that dedicated activists can make a difference in the world. Singapore is one of the shark fin capitals of the world, but thanks to an outcry from local customers, its largest supermarket chain, Fairprice, will be pulling fins from its shelves.\nShark fins are often cut from live sharks, which are then thrown overboard to die. The huge demand for fins, considered a delicacy, puts some shark species at risk of extinction.\nAnd while shark fin is a culturally important food in Singapore, the tide is turning. A campaign by divers against shark fins caused one of Fairprice\u2019s suppliers to launch an online attack ad that said \u201cScrew the divers!\u201d\nLuckily for sharks, the ad backfired. Not all Singaporeans are shark fin fans. Local groups like Project Fin have been fighting to create change from the inside out, and they are finally having an impact. In response to the ad, Singaporeans sent hundreds of complaints to Fairprice and suggested a boycott.\nIn response, Fairprice made the smart\u2014and surprising\u2014decision to stop selling shark fins.\n\"It is encouraging to see FairPrice respond promptly to the public reaction. They can progress further by selling only sustainable food,\" said Jennifer Lee, founder of Project Fin.\nKudos to the Singaporean shark protectors for such a powerful victory in the wake of cultural pressure.\nIt\u2019s not every day that you hear about the Marshall Islands. Scattered across a swath of the Pacific Ocean, these islands are home to only about 68,000 people. But as of this week, the waters around these islands may become home to a whole lot more sharks.\nThat\u2019s because the government has decided to make all of its waters\u2014more than 750,000 square miles, or about the size of Mexico\u2014a shark sanctuary. This move will almost double the area in which sharks are protected globally.\nWithin the Marshall Islands, it will now be illegal to commercially fish sharks, sell any shark products, and use wire leaders (a type of fishing gear often responsible for shark deaths). In addition, all sharks caught accidentally must be released, and fishing boats will be required to bring all their catch directly to port for inspection\u2014an important step in combating seafood fraud. Fines for having shark products will run the equivalent of $25,000 to $200,000.\nGreat news this shark week! We just got word that Oregon Governor John Kitzhaber will sign a bill this afternoon banning the sale, trade, and possession of shark fins in the state. Oceana was instrumental in the passage of this bill, which passed the State House and Senate with bipartisan support.\nThe bill\u2019s passage moves the U.S. West Coast closer to a full ban on the trade of shark fins, thereby helping to protect global populations of at-risk shark species that are being targeted in unsustainable and unregulated fisheries worldwide.\nWhile shark finning is illegal in the U.S., current federal laws banning the practice do not address the shark fin trade. As a result, fins are being imported to the U.S. from countries with few or even no shark protections in place.\nGovernor Chris Gregoire of Washington State signed similar legislation into law on May 12, 2011 and a bill in the California legislature passed the Assembly and is currently under consideration in committee in the Senate.\nWe commend Governor Kitzhaber for his extraordinary leadership to protect the ocean\u2019s top predators, and congratulate our Pacific colleagues for their work in achieving this victory!\nFantastic news! Earlier this afternoon, the Chilean National Congress passed a nationwide ban on shark finning.\nThis groundbreaking decision comes on the heels of a very similar ban passed by the United States Congress last December, and puts both countries at the forefront of shark conservation. Oceana drafted the Chilean bill in January, and we are elated to see it pass into law \u2013 without a single dissenter.\nShark finning is an inhumane practice that often involves throwing the rest of the shark\u2019s body back into the water once the desired fin is obtained. Despite its cruelty, shark finning is incredibly rampant, due to culinary demand from Asian countries such as China, where shark fin soup is popular.\nWith the passage of this bill, Chile joins a growing list of countries leading the way in shark conservation. Because sharks do not respect national boundaries, this legislation will help protect shark populations and ocean health in Chile and beyond.\nStellar news for sharks today: Washington Governor Christine Gregoire signed into law a ban on the trade of shark fins.\n\u201cBy signing this legislation the Governor took a very large west coast leadership role in initiating action to address a global problem,\u201d said Whit Sheard, Senior Advisor and Pacific Counsel for Oceana. \u201cThis bill will do two things, help us move closer to ending the wasteful and unnecessary depletion of our ocean\u2019s top predators and serve as a model for Oregon and California as they have similar pending legislation.\u201d\nWhile shark finning is illegal in the U.S., current federal laws banning shark finning do not address the issue of the shark fin trade. As a result, fins are being imported to the U.S. from countries with limited to zero shark protections in place. Similar legislation passed recently in Hawaii and Guam and is pending in Oregon and California.\nEach year, tens of millions of sharks are killed for their fins, mostly to make shark fin soup. In this wasteful and cruel practice, a shark\u2019s fins are sliced off while at sea and the remainder of the animal is thrown back into the water to die.\nCongrats to Oceana\u2019s Pacific campaigners for helping win this great victory for sharks!\nChinese NBA basketball star Yao Ming hopes so. As center for the Houston Rockets, Ming is spreading the word to \u201cSay no to shark fin soup\u201d with his new ads sponsored by Oceana and WildAid.\nMing\u2019s message is traveling through San Francisco by bus, including those on Chinatown routes to support legislation (AB 376) to ban the possession, sale, trade, and distribution of shark fins in California.\nGreat news from the Evergreen State: Washington State\u2019s legislature has passed a bill banning the illegal trade of shark fins, an extraordinary step toward shark conservation on the U.S. Pacific coast. The legislation now goes to the governor\u2019s desk to be signed into law.\nWhile shark finning is illegal in the U.S., current federal laws banning shark finning do not address the issue of the shark fin trade. As a result, fins are being imported to the U.S. from countries with limited to zero shark protections in place. Similar legislation passed recently in Hawaii and is pending in Oregon and California.\n\u201cThis legislation is an excellent example of a state taking action to address a global problem,\u201d said Whit Sheard, Senior Advisor and Pacific Counsel for Oceana. \u201cThis bill will help us move closer to ending the wasteful and unnecessary depletion of our ocean\u2019s top predators.\u201d\nAs shark week comes to a close, we thought we\u2019d hit you with the good stuff: numbers. Here are some of the most revealing statistics about sharks that we could find:\n400 million: Approximate number of years that sharks have been on planet Earth.\n50: Number of shark species that are listed as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered on the IUCN Red List of threatened species\n138,894: Number of people in the U.S. who suffered ladder-related injuries in 1996.\n13: Number who suffered shark-related injuries in the U.S. in 1996.\n22 million: Amount, in pounds, of shark fins that were imported into Hong Kong in 2008, making it the world\u2019s largest single market for the product.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e54b6c09-1766-4812-8bbd-c9c06d98c2ae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://oceana.org/en/category/blog-free-tags/shark-fins", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9337502121925354, "token_count": 2020, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\u201cA remote Indian village is responding to global warming-induced water shortages by creating large masses of ice, or \u201cartificial glaciers,\u201d to get through the dry spring months. (See a map of the region.)\nLocated on the western edge of the Tibetan plateau, the village of Skara in the Ladakh region of India is not a common tourist destination.\n\u201cIt\u2019s beautiful, but really remote and difficult to get to,\u201d said Amy Higgins, a graduate student at the Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies who worked on the artificial glacier project.\n\u201cA lot of people, when I met them in Delhi and I said I was going to Ladakh, they looked at me like I was going to the moon,\u201d said Higgins, who is also a National Geographic grantee.\nPeople in Skara and surrounding villages survive by growing crops such as barley for their own consumption and for sale in neighboring towns. In the past, water for the crops came from meltwater originating in glaciers high in the Himalaya.\u201d\nRead more: National Geographic", "id": "<urn:uuid:5050ac83-4770-4e9c-9b44-38ba46d2466e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://peakwater.org/2012/02/artificial-glaciers-water-crops-in-indian-highlands/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9733011722564697, "token_count": 226, "score": 3.78125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The list has been arranged, as possible, in reverse chronological order. I should note that the contents have been lightly edited to reduce entry length; almost all of these edits have removed references to recent sources in the outside literature which are not further identified. My apologies for this to the authors, but readers should of course consult the original sources to get the full picture, often extending well beyond Wallace studies per se.\n. . . How is it that the memes of poetry remained a strong presence in the life of Wallace but disappeared from the life of Darwin even though both men were very much involved in scientific research that led both to the same revolutionary paradigm of natural selection? Perhaps the answer to this question may be found in a famous clash between the two scientific titans. For as Himmelfarb (1986) has remarked, 'Wallace not only had the distinction of being the first Darwinist; he was also the first renegade Darwinist'. And the issue on which Wallace became a 'renegade' was hardly trivial. Whereas Darwin believed that the science of evolution could completely account for the human species, Wallace had his doubts. His 'little heresy' as he called it was actually not so little, for he questioned whether the science of natural selection could account for 'the moral and higher intellectual nature of man' . . . --Bryce Christensen, October 2012. Changing English: Studies in Culture and Education 18(4): 400.\n. . . The first author who expected mimicry by light was Wallace (1878) himself, who erroneously supposed click beetles for firefly mimics. Nevertheless, their light is different and they also appeared inedible too (Harvey 1956). Cockroaches are fat and tasty, so the mimic is at the place. One mimicry by light (aggressive, Batesian-Wallacian or Peckhammian) is actually known (Lloyd 1965, 1984): Predaceous fireflies Photuris (and also Bicellychonia) mimic the flash responses of females of other, up to five different (Lloyd 1983) species, attract males, and catch them, often during flight . . . --Peter Vr\u0161ansk\u00fd et al., September 2012. Naturwissenschaften 99(9): 748.\n. . . Background matching prey coloration and its adaptive features have been recognized by biologists for a long time. The related idea that prey animals can decrease their probability of being detected through behavioural features was already discussed by Alfred Russel Wallace. . . . It has been shown experimentally that background matching effectively reduces predation risk imposed by predators, for example, in fishes and birds. Preference for backgrounds that reduce the risk of detection has thus been suggested to be an important and wide spread strategy among prey animals to decrease their predation risk. It is also a common assumption that prey animals have been selected to actively prefer visually matching backgrounds. However, considering the popularity of this idea, surprisingly few experimental studies testing it exist . . . --Karin Kjernsmo & Sami Merilaita, August 2012. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 279(1745): 4192.\n. . . After planting doubts about sexual selection as the unique explanation, Wallace (1868) associated sexual dichromatism with the nesting habits of birds in relation to the risk of nest predation. He considered that, assuming that (i) incubation attendance by either sex promotes cryptic plumage in open nesters, but (ii) not in cavity or domed nesters, (iii) conspicuous sexual monochromatism should be associated with cavity or domed nesting, and (iv) sexual dichromatism with conspicuous males and cryptic females should be related to open nesting (Table 1). Wallace (1868) offered support for the two last predictions by listing 23 phylogenetically related groups of birds (i.e. families or genera) with conspicuous monochromatism nesting in cavities or domed nests and seven families with bright males and dull females with open nesting habits. Wallace (1868, 1889) also predicted that because of the higher phylogenetic lability of plumage colour, changes in nesting habits would come first and be followed by changes in coloration. Darwin (1871) disagreed with this view and forcefully argued that plumage coloration could select for changes in nesting habits while the opposite was less plausible. In nearly a century and a half elapsed since Wallace first presented his theory on avian sexual dichromatism in relation to nesting habits, few attempts have been made to empirically check its validity despite the attention that sexual dichromatism as variable reflecting the strength of sexual selection in different bird species has received during the last decades (see for instance, Amundsen & P\u00e4rn, 2006) and the huge increase in information on avian natural history and phylogeny . . . --J. J. Soler & J. Moreno, May 2012. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 25(8): 1615.\n. . . In this article, we tested some assumptions and predictions of Wallace\u2019s theory by analysing plumage conspicuousness and dichromatism, nesting habits and incubation attendance of European passerines as described in Handbook of Birds of The Western Palearctic (HBWP; Cramp & Perrins, 1988, 1992, 1993, 1994a,b). We have also corrected for phylogenetic relationships in all analyses as nesting habits, and to a lesser degree sexual dichromatism, may show a marked phylogenetic component as already argued by Wallace (1889). According to the fundamental assumption of Wallace that incubation attendance by either sex promotes cryptic plumage in open nesters, but not in cavity nesters, conspicuousness in either sex should be related to incubation attendance, nest type and their interaction (Prediction 1). Moreover, the predictions by Wallace that conspicuous sexual monochromatism should be associated with cavity or domed nesting, and sexual dichromatism with conspicuous males and cryptic females should be related to open nesting, were tested by relating degree of male and female conspicuousness to nest type and sexual dichromatism. . . . --J. J. Soler & J. Moreno, May 2012. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 25(8): 1615-1616.\n. . . The world 's terrestrial zoogeographical regions were originally outlined by Sclater (1858) and Wallace (1876), primarily on the basis of vertebrates, because their distribution records were the most complete at the time. Since then, the completeness of records has improved dramatically for both vertebrates and invertebrates, and although invertebrates represent a far greater proportion of total animal diversity, tetrapod vertebrates remain the best group for comparatively testing biogeographical hypotheses, with a comprehensive data set having become openly available online (WWF 2010). Specifically, where the world's biogeographical regions are concerned, it makes sense to test their accuracy using the same groups of organisms used to delimit them in the first place . . . --\u015eerban Proche\u015f & Syd Ramdhani, March 2012. Bioscience 62(3): 260.\n. . . During his student days, however, Meyer had also encountered the works of the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace. In 1869, when Wallace published The Malay Archipelago, describing his travels and observations in the region from 1854 to 1862, Meyer produced an authorised translation, Der Malayische Archipel, within the same year. In 1870, he added two collections on the origin of species and the theory of natural selection, translated from original essays by Wallace and Darwin. On 6 July of the same year, Meyer embarked for Batavia (Jakarta) and by the end of September was stationed in Menado (Manado, North Sulawesi). Clearly, his admiration for Wallace's work influenced his decision to go abroad; indeed, Chris Ballard counts him as one among a 'wave of naturalist explorers' who travelled to the Malay Archipelago during the 1870s in Wallace\u2019s wake, 'each bearing copies of his book and consciously emulating his earlier feats' . . . --Hilary Howes, March 2012. The Journal of Pacific History 47(1): 25.\n. . . Most species remain undescribed and unknown. Recognizing and describing them is, however, just the beginning of a process. For most of the species already described, we probably know little more than some morphological characteristics and a few, if not a single, locality (as a spot distribution within an unknown range). This shortfall was named by Lomolino (2004) as the \"Wallacean shortfall\". Compiling good distributional data is the first stage of any systematic conservation planning exercise (Margules and Pressey, 2000). Without reasonable information of where species live, it is impossible to know which are endangered and where to concentrate efforts to preserve them . . . --Pedro Cardoso et al., November 2011. Biological Conservation 144(11): 2651.\n. . .Wallace's Line demarcates the most abrupt faunal transition in the world. To a seasoned naturalist like Wallace, this unique juxtaposition of dramatically different faunas, first noted by M\u00fcller (1846), was obvious, was anomalous, and begged explanation; so it is perhaps no accident that biogeographic study effectively began in the IAA. The range limits of many terrestrial taxa are coincident with the eastern edge of the Sunda Shelf, and the taxonomic compositions of communities on either side are distinctly different. Wallace advocated geological explanations for these biological differences. He suggested, for example, that Bali and Lombok were formerly widely separated and had only recently moved to their present positions <40 km apart; he also noted that faunal discontinuities were associated with deep straits (Wallace 1860). Wallace first described the Line in an 1858 letter to H.W. Bates (Marchant 1916, p. 66) before he mapped the Line (Wallace 1863) that was later given his name by Huxley (1868) and expounded upon these observations in books on the IAA and biogeography in general (e.g., Wallace 1869). The veracity of Wallace's observations was debated because the existence of such a stark faunal divide seemed improbable, and this spurred intense study of distribution patterns in the region (e.g., Weber 1902). . .\u2013David J. Lohman et al., August 2011. Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 42: 208.\n. . . The processes governing the evolution of sexual dimorphism provided a foundation for sexual selection theory. Two alternative processes, originally proposed by Darwin and Wallace, differ primarily in the timing of events creating the dimorphism. In the process advocated by Darwin, a novel ornament arises in a single sex, with no temporal separation in the origin and sex-limitation of the novel trait. By contrast, Wallace proposed a process where novel ornaments appear simultaneously in both sexes, but are then converted into sex-limited expression by natural selection acting against showy coloration in one sex. Here, we investigate these alternative modes of sexual dimorphism evolution in a phylogenetic framework and demonstrate that both processes contribute to dimorphic wing patterns in the butterfly genera Bicyclus and Funonia . . . Our analyses support both hypotheses advocated by Darwin and Wallace for the origin of sexual dimorphism: some sexually dimorphic ornaments arise concomitantly with sex-limited expression, while others arise in both sexes but are subsequently lost in one sex. Thus both modes of evolution are applicable to the evolution of sexual dimorphism in butterflies . . . --Jeffrey C. Oliver & Ant\u00f3nia Monteiro, 7 July 2011. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 278(1714): 1981, 1985.\n. . .Wallace (1889) was the first to propose that cuckoo-hawk resemblance was a form of mimicry, which Wyllie (1981) suggested might aid parasitic laying by frightening aggressive hosts away from the nest. In support of this idea, hawk-like plumage, with cryptic upperparts and pale, barred underparts, is more prevalent in parasitic than in nonparasitic cuckoos (Payne 1967) and most likely evolved after the evolution of brood parasitism (Kr\u00fcger et al. 2007) . . . \u2013Justin A. Welbergen & Nicholas B. Davies, May-June 2011. Behavioral Ecology 22(3): 574.\n. . . While there were numerous previous philosophical treatises on the topic, stretching back to speculations about the origin of the universe in ancient times, scientific proposals are more recent. A well known one was biologist Alfred Russell Wallace, who wrote in 1904: \"Such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required . . . in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man\". But that was before modern cosmology was established; the idea of the expanding and evolving universe was yet to come . . . --George Ellis, 13 May 2011. General Relativity and Gravitation 43(11): 3213.\nThis brings us back to the Popp. et al. analysis of Empetrum. Their dating analysis shows quite convincingly that the relevant phylogenetic splits do not date to the Jurassic--not even close. Instead, they probably happened in the Pleistocene less than 1 Mya. We can, therefore, immediately rule out ancient vicariance, but it is not quite as easy to choose between a Darwin or a Wallace migration scenario and the long-distance dispersal favored by Popp et al. As Popp et al. point out, Empetrum is not currently known along the Andes, and its distinctive pollen grains have never been found there. However, as Wallace (1880) argued, this does not entirely rule out that they passed through the Andes and then disappeared as suitable habits shrank . . . --Michael J. Donoghue, 19 April 2011. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 108: 6341-6342.\n. . . Although theories of animal colouration were developed principally in regard to terrestrial species (Wallace 1879; Poulton 1890; Cott 1940; Edmunds 1974), from early on they were applied to aquatic species too (e.g., Wallace 1889; Beddard 1895; Longley 1916, 1917). Nonetheless, colouration of aquatic organisms is subject to different selection pressures than those operating on land because scattering of light in water leads to an unchanging angular distribution of light direction; light only penetrates surface waters, the extent to which additionally depends on turbidity; light may be refracted at the surface; and species that use the water column may be viewed by prey, predators or conspecifics from almost any angle (Lythgoe 1987; Marshall 2000; Hanlon et al. 2009; Zylinski et al. 2009). These properties favour certain mechanisms of crypsis including transparency, counter illumination and countershading (Johnsen 2011; Johnsen et al. 2004; Ruxton et al. 2004) . . . \u2013Tim Caro et al., April 2011. Evolutionary Ecology 25(6): 1232.\n. . . More than 130 years on, the biogeographic scheme of Sclater and Wallace continues to form a basis for continental-scale geographic comparison of mammalian communities. Any observer of modern Africa can quickly recognize the stark ecological boundary delimited by the Sahara Desert, with the vast diversity of African-endemic taxa restricted to regions to its south. With almost no African fossil record to consult, scientists of the 19th and early 20th centuries could only speculate on the age or historical development of this continent's biogeography. In contrast, the last 100 years of paleontological exploration have provided a wealth of information that allows for an investigation into the developmental history of African endemism as a whole, and the Ethiopian biogeography realm in particular. Wallace's proposal of \"long epochs\" of isolating barriers can now be more precisely formulated and addressed . . . --Faysal Bibi, February 2011. PloS One 6(2): 1-10.\n. . . Wallace noted the problem of incipient evolutionary stages. He argued that incipient and intermediate stages might have little selective survival advantage, as with a partially developed wing; yet evolution progressed to new forms and greater complexity as if teleologically guided. Wallace thus predicted the problem of \"irreducible complexity\" (Behe, 2004). A group composed of Paleo-anthropologists and Linguists similarly argued that the physical and cognitive articulations required for human speech are so sophisticated that it is difficult to imagine intermediary systems (Picq et al., 2008). They described as a Neo-Darwinian tautology the argument that if a human feature existed, then it must be adaptive, otherwise it would not have survived. This is a form of Panglossian, overly-optimistic), post-hoc reasoning . . . --Michael M. DelMonte, January 2011. The International Journal of Healing and Caring 11(1).\n. . . the evolution of longer floral tubes forced the evolution of longer insect proboscides, which in turn forced the selection for even longer floral tubes. Wallace (1867) noted that this positive feedback system would continue generating longer and longer traits until it is balanced by an opposing selective pressure. Although he did not elaborate much on opposing selective pressures, Wallace (1867) implied that proboscis and tube lengthening would only be advantageous to a point, after which increased length may become a liability (e.g. Harder 1983; Kunte 2007). Insects with excessively long proboscides may have difficulty maneuvering them and inserting them accurately into the narrow gullets of flowers (e.g. Harder 1983) . . . --Allan G. Ellis & Bruce Anderson, 2011. In S\u00e9bastien Patiny, ed., Evolution of Plant-Pollinator Relationships (Cambridge University Press): 237-262.\n. . . Inspired by evolutionary computation, artificial life, multi-agent systems and social cognition, we develop a more realistic distribution of environments. The basic idea is straightforward: intelligence is the result of evolution through millions of generations interacting with other live beings. Thus we define intelligence in this context, interacting with other agents of similar intelligence. We formalise the so-called Darwin-Wallace distribution for agents and environments. Despite the many options and the many sources of uncomputability, we claim that, conceptually, the notion of Darwin-Wallace distribution is useful to re-visit previous definitions of intelligence. The next step is how this notion can be used for AGI development and evaluation. We present a procedure which approximates a Darwin-Wallace distribution by using intelligence tests over environments such that 'certified' systems are incorporated into the environments, so making them socially more complex . . . --Jos\u00e9 Hern\u00e1ndez-Orallo et al., 2011. 'On more realistic environment distributions for defining, evaluating and developing intelligence' (http://users.dsic.upv.es): 3.\nWallace's approach to cosmology shows how the consideration of the conditions necessary for the evolution of life is not wedded to any particular theory of star formation and development but must be used appropriately in any cosmology we pursue . . . --John D. Barrow, 2011. The Book of Universes: Exploring the Limits of the Cosmos (W. W. Norton).\n. . . The term used to describe this type of speciation is allopatry, as opposed to sympatry, where ancestral and descendant species coexist in the same environment (or parapatry if they exist side by side, with a hybridisation zone in between). If two populations having evolved separately come back in contact later on, the intermediate phenotype of their offspring could make them unfit for either environment, and this would then provide the selective pressure for the selection of additional reproductive barriers, in a process called reinforcement, and often referred to as 'the Wallace effect'. Indeed, the earliest promoter of the view that reinforcement could occur under the pressure of natural selection was undoubtedly Alfred Wallace, who disagreed with Darwin's views that reproductive isolation could not possibly result from natural selection: \"The sterility of first crosses and of their hybrid progeny has not been acquired through natural selection\" (The Origin, Summary of Hybridism chapter). This point was a subject of written exchanges and arguments in private correspondence between the two around 1858 [[sic]], 10 years after their joint communication to the Linnean Society in July 1858, but Wallace formally published his views only in 1889, some twenty year later, in chapter VII of his book called Darwinism. On the subject of allopatry versus sympatry, I do take a very divergent view to that adopted by a majority of evolutionary biologists to this day. Rather, I choose to follow Wallace's path against Darwin's in thinking that natural selection plays a major role in the reproductive isolation that defines species, and I shall actually venture some steps further than Wallace, and will advocate in the following pages that natural selection can act on the very first stages of reproductive isolation, and not just on reinforcement after divergence has taken place . . . --Etienne Joly, 25 November 2010. Nature Precedings: 3.\n. . . By the time he wrote Island life, Wallace (1881) knew of 21 species of Philippine mammals, most of which are either widespread species or Palawan endemics. Thus, he had virtually no knowledge of the highly endemic mammal communities in the oceanic Philippines. At the time, even less was known of amphibian and reptile diversity (Boulenger, 1894). Thus, Wallace's impression of the Philippine fauna, and his biogeographic delineations of it, were taken from a very small, biased sample of the diversity . . . --Jacob A. Esselstyn et al., November 2010. Journal of Biogeography 37(11): 2055.\n. . . With growing knowledge about species distributions, updated summary information on species richness, endemism and faunistic resemblance has been assembled and analysed within the classic Wallace scheme (Chapin, 1923; Smith, 1983; Cole et al., 1994; Newton & Dale, 2001). Furthermore, various refinements have been proposed, many of them addressing delineations of subregions, districts etc. within classic Wallace regions (e.g. Chapin, 1923; Hagmeier & Stults, 1964; Hagmeier, 1966; Hershkovitz, 1969; Crowe & Crowe, 1982) or boundaries and transition zones between regions, e.g. between the Oriental and Australian realm (e.g. Mayr, 1944; Simpson, 1977; Vane-Wright, 1991; Beck et al., 2006b) . . . --Holger Kreft & Walter Jetz, November 2010. Journal of Biogeography 37(11): 2030.\n. . . Few recognize, as Cronin (1991) documents, that the contemporary dominance of adaptive intersexual selection models, which assuming a controlling power of natural selection on mating preferences, represents a triumph of Wallace's view over the arguments of Darwin himself. Most contemporary researchers are the intellectual descendents of Wallace. Like Wallace, they are using the logic of Darwin's Origin to argue against Darwin's Selection in Relation to Sex. For one, Dawkins proudly embraces Cronin's label as a modern Wallacean, describing the theories of Zahavi, Hamilton, and Grafen as a \"neo-Wallacean\" triumph over the incomplete and muddled mate choice mechanism of Darwin and Fisher . . . --Richard O. Prum, November 2010. Evolution 64(11): 3097.\nThe key feedbacks that amplify change in the region are the reflectivity of the ground and the moisture in the air, factors that were discussed more than a 100 years ago by the geologist James Croll and the naturalist Alfred Russell Wallace. Wallace, for example, wrote as follows (1895, p. 157): ... the increased heat of summer could not be in any way stored up, but would be largely prevented from producing any effect, by reflection from the surface of the snow and by the intervention of clouds and fog ... Reflectivity (albedo) is now generally recognized as the dominant feedback factor. The net contributions of clouds and fog, although clearly important, are less obvious and are difficult to quantify . . . --Wolfgang H. Berger, Michael Schulz & Gerold Wefer, October 2010. International Journal of Earth Sciences 99, Supplement 1: 171-189.\nFor Wallace, the two processes of isolation in space and biological differentiation through time were inseparable, because one (isolation) led to the other (speciation). Wallace's view of what constituted natural--the dual criteria of biological and geological uniqueness--has some important implications for how natural biogeographical units are identified. Because Wallace was the first to suggest a geological/historical component to the identification of natural biogeographical areas. I propose to name such entities Wallacean biogeographical units . . . --Bernard Michaux, September 2010. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 101: 193-212.\n. . . In my view there is a further step to take, and that is to confirm that areas of endemism are also Wallacean biogeographical units. These are the fundamental units for further biogeographical analysis because they are natural entities, not human constructs. For example, 'Sulawesi' is an area of endemism, but not a Wallacean biogeographical unit: it is a human geopolitical construct that has no biogeographical reality. Any attempt to use the area 'Sulawesi' in biogeographical analysis is doomed to failure . . . --Bernard Michaux, September 2010. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 101: 193-212.\n. . . Roy Davies has assembled a convincing case that Darwin was much more cavalier with attribution, particularly with regard to Wallace, than commonly thought and in several instances failed to cite or give adequate credit to his antecedents. He concludes that Wallace has a stronger claim to the theory of evolution than commonly realized . . . --David Lloyd, Julian Wimpenny & Alfred Venables, September 2010. Journal of Biosciences 35: 339- 349.\nThat Wallace almost certainly solved the problem of divergence before Darwin did is, perhaps, not surprising. Wallace had much the greater experience in the field of biogeography, which was so fundamental to unravelling the relationships between species. But, even more importantly, he had the advantage that, unlike Darwin, he was looking actively for evidence of evolution while in the field, and could therefore tailor his data collection appropriately. By contrast, Sulloway has recently argued most persuasively that during the voyage on The Beagle Darwin was still a creationist in attitude; this blunted his appreciation of the evolutionary significance of the Galapagos fauna to the extent that he failed to collect a single tortoise specimen and neglected to label his finch specimens with their exact islands of origin . . . --David Lloyd, Julian Wimpenny & Alfred Venables, September 2010. Journal of Biosciences 35: 339-349.\n. . . 'Muir went over to Darwinism with all the rest' (Worster, 2008, p. 204), stating 'Not that I would in any way oppose the discovered truths of evolution for I embrace them cordially' (Worster, 2008, p. 206). And so Worster (p. 207) suggests a 'glowing endorsement' of Darwinism, taking Muir 'far . . . from, the evangelical orthodoxy and towards a more liberal, science-based view of the world'. There is, then, a likely influence of Darwin in Muir's later life and reading. Moreover, books in the Muir collection at Pacific University show that he was also reading the works of Alfred Russel Wallace, whom he met, the two naturalists together visiting the Muir Woods of northern California (Wallace, 1905, p. 158) . . . --R. M. McDowall, September 2010. Journal of Biogeography 37(9): 1634.\n. . .Biological barriers act throughout the lifecycle and are often classified according to the point in the life cycle that they are encountered (e.g. premating vs. postmating). Barriers at each stage can arise as byproducts of within lineage evolution as a result of natural or sexual selection or genetic drift, but natural selection against maladaptive hybridization itself can also drive evolution of reproductive isolation barriers (Wallace, 1889; Fisher, 1930; Dobzhansky, 1937). This process is usually termed reinforcement, and as the name implies, it requires the pre-existence of some degree of reproductive isolation, which is then 'reinforced' by the evolution of additional barriers. Studies of reinforcement have focused overwhelmingly on premating barriers. . . . Nevertheless, selection on postmating barriers is at least theoretically possible (Wallace, 1889; Coyne, 1974). Wallace argued that selection among demes could drive hybrid inviability by reducing the negative impact of low-quality hybrids (Wallace, 1889) . . . --E. Turner, D. J. Jacobson & J. W. Taylor, August 2010. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 23(8): 1642.\n. . . He spent years living on his own in Amazonia and then in the Malay archipelago, making detailed and sympathetic observations about local peoples, practices and cultures. In the latter context his travelling companion and research assistant for many years was a young Malay man, Ali. At their parting, in 1862, Wallace commissioned a photograph of Ali to carry home to England and included it in his 1905 autobiography. Compare this to the erasure of non-white participation and assistance in other European explorers' accounts of the time . . . --Kathleen Bolling Lowrey, August 2010. Anthropology Today 26(4): 18-21.\n. . . one must simply concede that during the 20th-century history of the discipline anthropologists have accumulated a huge wealth of data relating to question 3 for which no plausible explanation, general theory, or provisional hypothesis exists . . . And this is why, under present circumstances, I want to advocate for Wallace--a brilliant and unashamed crank--as an ancestor-figure for contemporary anthropology. In Wallace's articulation of the theory of evolution, he arrived at the same answers to questions 2 and 3, responding as follows: (1) common origin, endless divergence; (2) co-operation; (3) no . . . --Kathleen Bolling Lowrey, August 2010. Anthropology Today 26(4): 18-21.\nWallace quite rightly considered the lush complexity of human thought a serious mystery, one inexplicable within the necessity-driven framework of natural selection. As he put it, the human brain 'furnishes a surplusage of power--of an instrument beyond the needs of its possessor'. This sounds very much like Levi-Strauss's enchanting assertion that 'the universe is never charged with sufficient meaning [...] the mind always has more meanings available than there are objects to which to relate them' . . . --Kathleen Bolling Lowrey, August 2010. Anthropology Today 26(4): 18-21.\nWallace (1890) suggested that the primary function of egg coloration was to provide crypsis to avoid predation, although the experimental evidence supporting this hypothesis has been equivocal. One possible reason for this is that the experimental protocols typically involve painting eggs and comparing predation rates on painted versus natural eggs. With but one exception, all the egg-predation experiments cited in their review use painted eggs . . . --Michael I. Cherry & Andrew G. Gosler, August 2010. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 100: 753-762.\n. . . Beatty et al. (2004) conducted another study, this time assessing the selection for mimicry using human predators and computer-generated prey. They found that when there are only 2 unprofitable prey types, selection for mimicry was weak. One reason for the results, they suggested, was that predators may not be sufficiently confused to generate selection for mimicry when just 2 different forms are involved. In an explanation for the evolution of conspicuous signals, Wallace (1889, p. 255) suggested that \"not only do fewer individuals of each species need to be sacrificed in order that their enemies learn the lesson of their inedibility (in cases of mimicry), but they are more easily recognized at a distance and thus escape even pursuit. There is thus a kind of mimicry between closely allied species as well as between species of distinct genera, all tending to the same beneficial end.\" One explanation for Beatty et al's findings is that mimicry reduces confusion in visually complex environments. It has also been argued, in a theoretical treatment, that the mere coexistence of visually distinctive aposematic species can be mutually beneficial (Turner and Speed 1999). If predators that ingest members of one chemically defended species become risk averse with respect to further toxin ingestion, while their physiology copes with the toxins, it has been suggested that predators may heighten avoidance of species that could contain toxins, even in the absence of signal mimicry . . . \u2013Hannah M. Rowland et al., July-August 2010. Behavioral Ecology 21(4): 851-852.\n. . . Selection fundamentally acts on genes or individuals of distinct species. At the individual level, the success of a collection of interesting genes is mediated through the fitness of an individual phenotype. But what is the phenotype? What is a species? It may be worth remembering what Alfred Russel Wallace, natural selection's co- discoverer, published as species definition: 'A species . . . is a group of living organisms, separated from all other such groups by a set of distinctive character(istic)s, having relations to the environment not identical with those of any other group of organisms, and having the power of continuously reproducing its like'. Thus, it is the relation to the environment which is one of the features defining a species. The crucial role of many microbes in development demonstrates that environmental and genetic information interact . . . --Sebastian Fraune & Thoms C. G. Bosch, July 2010. BioEssays 32(7): 578.\n. . . Darwin (at least, in the first edition of The origin of species) relied on selection as the main cause of evolutionary change, but saw that hybrid sterility could not be directly selected; instead, he argued that it arises as a side-effect of divergence. In contrast, Wallace's (1889) enthusiasm for selection led him to argue that not only could it strengthen prezygotic isolation, by what we now call reinforcement, but that group selection could even cause hybrid sterility. Then, as now, ecological divergence that allows distinct species to live together in sympatry received less attention than reproductive isolation . . . --N. H. Barton, 12 June 2010. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, Biological Sciences 365: 1825-1840.\n. . . In the present study, we use all known non-African Charaxes species to explore the history of diversification in the Oriental and Australian region, especially the 'transitional' Wallacea. Several of these Charaxes species are poorly known and/or represent recently described taxa. Indeed, the highly distinctive C. marki Lane & M\u00fcller is known only from the holotype. This work forms part of a larger study that demonstrates Wallacea is not only a transitional zone, but also comprises a very unique area, with distinct geological and biogeographic histories . . . \u2013Chris J. M\u00fcller, Niklas Wahlberg & Luciano B. Beheregaray, 1 June 2010. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 100(2): 458.\nDespite Southeast Asia's abundance of organisms and islands, however, finding a repeated signal of geological events beyond the encroachment of the Indo-Australian plate has been difficult. A hierarchy of Southeast Asian landmass associations, expressed as a single area cladogram, would be a more intriguing pattern to extrapolate and explore. Just such a hypothesis was suggested by Wallace (1863) and used as a theoretical model by Nelson & Platnick (1981). Unfortunately, a convincing area cladogram for the region has been elusive, notwithstanding proposals for certain taxa . . . --Ronald M. Clouse & Gonzalo Giribet, June 2010. Journal of Biogeography 37: 1114-1130.\n. . . While the distribution of many flora and fauna conforms to Wallace's line, the seafaring capabilities of human settlers to this region undoubtedly overcame this barrier to dispersal. Indeed, Asian ancestry exceeds 50 per cent as far as east as the island of Alor, which is well within Wallacea and approximately 1000 km east of Bali, as well as on the island of Sulawesi, which is located east of Wallace's line in the north. Curiously, Wallace himself noted this difference, positing a second line in eastern Indonesia corresponding to changes in human phenotype (Wallace 1869 . . . ). Wallace's second 'phenotypic' line broadly parallels the rapid decline in Asian admixture identified here . . . --Murray P. Cox et al., 22 May 2010. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series B, Biological Sciences 277: 1589-1596.\n. . . Wallace was scandalized by Darwin's sexual selection theory, considering it Darwin's greatest error, because it appeared to admit a subjective factor into evolutionary theory, because it appeared to admit a subjective factor into elocutionary theory. Indeed, it appeared to elevate aesthetic appreciation to the status of a significant factor in evolution. Wallace's alternative theory to account for exaggerated display traits relied instead on explanations that invoked incidental physiological mechanisms in males and the need to suppress their effects in females, to avoid predation . . . Wallace was of course wrong in his denial of the plausibility of sexual selection, although not completely wrong to doubt that aesthetic appreciation of combative prowess were the primary factors. It took a century to recognize that the theory needed to be based instead on asymmetries of parental investment in offspring care between the sexes. Today, sexual selection theory is again considered an important adjunct to the theory of natural selection; however, its reinstatement has not resuscitated the power of Darwin's account of language origins . . . --Terrence W. Deacon, 11 May 2010. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107, Supplement 2: 9000-9006.\n. . . Few scientists today accept Wallace's creationism, teleology, or spiritualism. Nonetheless it is appropriate to engage the profound puzzle he raised; namely, why do humans have the ability to pursue abstract intellectual feats such as science, mathematics, philosophy, and law, given that opportunities to exercise these talents did not exist in the foraging lifestyle in which humans evolved and would not have parlayed themselves into advantages in survival and reproduction even if they did? I suggest that the puzzle can be resolved with two hypotheses. The first is that humans evolved to fill the \"cognitive niche,\" a mode of survival characterized by manipulating the environment through casual reasoning and social cooperation. The second is that the psychological faculties that evolved to prosper in the cognitive niche can be coopted to abstract domains by processes of metaphorical abstraction and productive combination, both vividly manifested in human language . . . --Steven Pinker, 11 May 2010. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107, Supplement 2: 8993.\n. . . Toward the end of their lives, Darwin and Wallace became estranged. Darwin argued that natural selection was sufficient to explain the origin of the existing biological world. Wallace believed that natural selection alone was insufficient to explain the existence of complex structures such as the human brain. From the bioenergetic perspective, Wallace's reservations were justified, as complexity can be generated only through the information- generating power of energy flow and the cumulative information storage capacity of nucleic acids. It took more than 3.5 billion years for these systems to amass sufficient information to generate the human brain. Thus the missing concept that Wallace sought to explain the ascent of man is the interaction between energetics and information . . . --Douglas C. Wallace, 11 May 2010. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107, Supplement 2: 8952.\nWallace proposed to redefine Darwinism in a way that excluded Darwin's principle of sexual selection. The main result of the Darwin-Wallace controversy was that most Darwinian biologists avoided the subject of sexual selection until at least the 1950's, Ronald Fisher being a major exception. This controversy still deserves attention from modern evolutionary biologists, because the modern approach inherits from both Darwin and Wallace. The modern approach tends to present sexual selection as a special aspect of the theory of natural selection, although it also recognizes the big difficulties resulting from the inevitable interaction between these two natural processes of selection . . . --Jean Gayon, February 2010. Comptes Rendus Biologies 333: 134-144.\n. . . Early evolutionary theories of senescence (Wallace, ca. 1865; Weismann, 1889) were group-selectionist in nature, proposing that individuals senesce and eventually die in order to make space and resources available for future generations composed of younger, more vigorous individuals. However, such arguments are circular because, if ageing is one of the reasons why individuals must be replaced, they presuppose that individuals must deteriorate over time. Moreover, they fail to explain how a population of altruistically senescing individuals would not be subject to invasion by more slowly senescing or even non-senescing invaders. Recent studies have placed group- selectionist arguments on a stronger theoretical foundation by emphasizing instances where senescence appears to be \"selected for its own sake\" as a result of kin- or group-level benefits including payoffs to close relatives, and reduced local extinction risk due to communicable diseases or chaotic population dynamics . . . --Robert A. Laird & Thomas N. Sherratt, February 2010. Biosystems 99(2): 130.\n. . . Other questions, such as whether maternal emotions influence the fetus, have made a remarkable tour. Alfred Russel Wallace was co-originator of the theory of evolution by natural selection written in 1859 by Darwin. When Wallace (1893c) wrote the above quoted sentence in a letter entitled 'Prenatal influences on character' into Nature, the belief that a mother's emotions could affect the child she carries was seen as resting on old wives' tales. Wallace (1893a,b) was also publishing articles about the possibility of being able to study whether 'individually acquired characters are inherited'. Lamarck had incorporated this idea in his theory of directed evolution; it was seriously challenged in 1880 by Weismann's theory, on which the modern understanding of genetic inheritance became based, and since the turn of the 20th century it became widely rejected by the scientific community. However, this old question that had originated in ancient time, with Greek philosophers, recently got renewed interest with the discovery of epi-genetic variation between individuals and the finding that in some cases epigenetic variants can be inherited by the offspring, a biological inheritance that cannot be explained by changes in the DNA- sequence itself . . . --Bea R. H. Van den Bergh, January/February 2010. Infant and Child Development 19(1): 42.\nThe Wallace (1881) and Briggs (1966) lineage age hypothesis suggests that there are low levels of endemism in the Azores biota because the biota is of recent (post-Pleistocene) origin. Avila et al. (2008) challenged this hypothesis to explain at least mollusc diversity patterns by demonstrating that the endemic mollusc fauna of the Azores was largely unaffected by Pleistocene climatic oscillations and that the current endemic fauna is therefore not of post-Pleistocene origin. Evidence from phylogenetic relationships of Azorean plant lineages suggests that the lineage age hypothesis similarly fails to explain the distinctive patterns of Azorean endemic plant diversity . . . --Mark A. Carine & Hanno Schaefer, January 2010. Journal of Biogeography 37: 77-89.\n. . . although it is sometimes argued that aposematic signalling is fundamentally about raised distinctiveness rather than heightened conspicuousness, the two often amount to the same thing (Wallace 1889). If this is generally true, the association between conspicuousness and aposematism in the primary evolution of warning signals, in our view, is not problematic . . . --Thomas J. Lee, Nicola M. Marples & Michael P. Speed, January 2010. Animal Behaviour 79(1): 70.\n. . . Wallace's essay was remarkable for two reasons: First, it conveys a sophisticated understanding of the nature of selection among individuals belonging to a normal distribution of trait values. \"The flowers most completely fertilized by these moths being those which had the longest nectaries, there would in each generation be on the average an increase in the length of the nectaries, and also an average increase in the length of the proboscis of the moths, and this would be a necessary result from the fact that nature ever fluctuates about a mean, or that in every generation there would be flowers with longer and shorter nectaries, and moths with longer and shorter probosces than the average\" (p. 476). Second, Wallace actually mentions Xanthopan (Macrosila) morganii, the species of moth that is now considered the most likely pollinator of A. sesquipedale. Wallace was not aware of the long-tongued Malagasy race of this hawkmoth, but he had measured a specimen of the African mainland form in the British Museum and found that its tongue measured 7.5 inches [18 centimeters]. Wallace (1867) wrote \"That such a moth exists in Madagascar may be safely predicted; and naturalists who visit that island should search for it with as much confidence as astronomers searched for the planet Neptune,--and they will be equally successful!\" . . . --Steven D. Johnson & Bruce Anderson, 2010. Evolution, Education and Outreach 3(1): 34.\n. . . In the 1890s an English linguist, S. H. Ray, pointed out that some of the languages of British New Guinea and the Solomon Islands were not Austronesian. A parallel discovery had already been made in the Moluccas by in the 1850s by the naturalist A. R. Wallace, when he collected vocabularies in these easternmost islands of the Indo- Malaysian archipelago. In a well-known book on his travels in this region Wallace proposed a distinction between 'Malay' and 'Papuan' languages in the Moluccas. Following Wallace's lead, Ray applied the name 'Papuan' to the non-Austronesian languages of Melanesia, as a convenient catch-all. Soon after, Wilhelm Schmidt observed that non-Austronesian languages were present on the north coast of the New Guinea mainland and in New Britain. What was striking about the various small groups of Papuan languages, was that, unlike the Austronesian languages, there was no evidence of common origin. Only in the last 50 years has the full extent of the diversity of the languages of Near Oceania become clear . . . --Jan Lucassen, 2010. In Migration History in World History: Multidisciplinary Approaches (Brill): 87-88.\n. . . any system seeking to utilize all the energy or resources for its own purposes is bound to be challenged by other systems. The consequence of these interactions between self-organizing systems is a continuous stream of new things, or in the case of humans, new thinking. This is diversity. Bateson interpreted self-organizing systems as working together to sustain the existence of an evolving ecosystem. This approach has its roots in Alfred Russell Wallace's work. Wallace saw that the job of evolution was to maintain the constancy of something in his case, the entire ecosystem made up of all species and their environment--a process rather like the cruise control system or constant velocity transmission (CVT) on a motor car. We can also think of it in terms our bodies' ability to adapt to changes in the outside temperature, at least within a limited range. By shivering or perspiring, our body temperature remains more or less constant because we vary internal conditions in response to those changes in outside temperature . . . --Edward Moulding, 2010. In 5s: A Visual Control System for the Workplace (AuthorHouse): 129.\n. . . Indonesia, the world's largest archipelago, is a chain of more than 17,000 islands that stretches between the continents of Asia and Australia . . . Early explorers noticed morphological differences from east to west that were dramatic enough to lead Alfred Russell Wallace to designate a human phenotypic boundary demarcating the transition between Asian and Melanesian features. Relative to his more well-known biogeographic boundary, this line lies slightly east, running between the islands of Sumbawa and Flores (Wallace 1869 . . . ). The languages of the region follow a similar pattern, with the majority belonging to the extensive Austronesian language family but with more distantly related Papuan languages occurring in the Far Eastern provinces, especially in areas where Melanesian features predominate (Wallace 1869). To explain these patterns, the prehistory of this region has often been framed as the story of two major range expansions: the initial Paleolithic colonization of Sahul ~45 ka ago and the much later Neolithic expansion of Austronesian-speaking farmers (4-6 ka ago) out of mainland Asia or Taiwan into Indonesia and the Pacific . . . --Tatiana M. Karafet et al., 2010. Molecular Biology and Evolution 27(8): 1833.\n. . . Even within the technologist's definition of technology as dealing with mechanical artifacts alone, Wallace's insight has major relevance. The subject matter of technology, according to the Preface to History of Technology, is \"how things are done or made\"; and most students of technology, to my knowledge, agree with this. But the Wallace insight leads to a different definition: the subject matter of technology would be \"how man does or makes.\" As to the meaning and end of technology, the same source, again presenting the general view, defines them as \"mastery of his (man's) natural environment.\" Oh no, the Wallace insight would say (and in rather shocked tones): the purpose is to overcome man's own natural, i.e. animal, limitations. Technology enables man, a land- bound biped, without gills, fins, or wings, to be at home in the water or in the air. It enables an animal with very poor body insulation, that is, a subtropical animal, to live in all climate zones. It enables one of the weakest and slowest of the primates to add to his own strength that of elephant or ox, and to his own speed that of the horse. It enables him to push his life span from his \"natural\" twenty years or so to threescore years and ten; it even enables him to forget that natural death is death from predators, disease, starvation, or accident, and to call death from natural causes that which has never been observed in wild animals: death from organic decay in old age . . . --Peter Ferdinand Drucker, 2010. Technology, Management, and Society (Harvard Business Press): 41-42.\n. . . What I have called here the \"Wallace insight,\" that is, the approach from human biology, thus leads to the conclusion that technology is not about things: tools, processes, and products. It is about work: the specifically human activity by means of which man pushes back the limitations of the iron biological law which condemns all other animals to devote all their time and energy to keeping themselves alive for the next day, if not for the next hour. The same conclusion would be reached, by the way, from any approach, for instance, from that of the anthropologist's \"culture,\" that does not mistake technology for a phenomenon of the physical universe. We might define technology as human action on physical objects or as a set of physical objects characterized by serving human purposes. Either way the realm and subject matter of the study of technology would be human work . . . --Peter Ferdinand Drucker, 2010. Technology, Management, and Society (Harvard Business Press): 42-43.\n. . . By contrast, Alfred Russell Wallace, co-discoverer with Darwin of the principle of natural selection, believed that count words were essential for numerical cognition, in particular arithmetic: \"if, now, we descend to those savage tribes who only count to three or five, and who find it impossible to comprehend the addition of two and three without having the objects actually before them, we feel that the chasm between them and the good mathematician is so vast, that a thousand to one will probably not fully express it\" (Wallace, 1871, p. 339). The question of the role of language in arithmetic became the focus of recent experimental psychological studies in cultures with few number words, in particular the Pirah\u00e3 and the Munduruk\u00fa, two cultures from the Amazon forest with an extremely limited number vocabulary . . . --Helen De Cruz, Hansj\u00f6rg Neth & Dirk Schlimm, 2010. In Benedikt L\u00f6we & Thomas M\u00fcller, eds., PhiMSAMP: Philosophy of Mathematics: Sociological Aspects and Mathematical Practice (College Publications): 74.\n. . . Moreover, Alfred Wallace, co-inventor of the theory of the evolution by natural selection, doubted that evolution could produce anything like states of consciousness. This problem was later labelled the \"explanatory gap\". Individuals use different names for what it is that they are opposing to physical phenomena. Huxley and Romanes used \"consciousness\". Some use \"sentience\" . . . many now refer to \"Phenomenal Consciousness\" (PC) in contrast with \"Access Consciousness\" (AC), or, in the terminology of Chalmers, distinguish the so-called \"Hard Problem\" of consciousness from a (relatively) \"Easy Problem\". Such formulations presuppose a dichotomy: a binary divide between things that do and things that do not have the problematic extra feature over and above their physical features . . . \u2013St\u00e9phane Doncieux, 2010, in From Animals to Animats 11: 11th International Conference on Simulation and Adaptive Behavior (Springer).\nOne possibility is that Wallace was deliberately romanticizing his actual observations and experiences there. Nancy Stepan has noted that the popular success of The Malay Archipelago came from its fulfilment of contemporaneous readers' expectations of what an account of the tropics should be, in contrast to his 1853 account of his travels in South America, Travels on the Amazon and Rio Negro, which was not only \"unromantic,\" but \"unheroic,\" and did not sell well . . . However, I would like to put forth another possibility: what if Wallace's portrayal of the archipelago as paradise, and more specifically, his portrayal of interracial relations and \"uncivilized\" society as positively pre-lapsarian, resulted not from the impulse to romanticize, but rather, a stubborn fidelity to scientific accuracy? . . . --Tiffany Tsao, 2010. Australasian Journal of Victorian Studies 15: 28-41.\n. . . I will show how Wallace arrived at his surprisingly favourable and anti-scientific\" assessments of the inhabitant races and communities of the Malay Archipelago by applying the principles of taxonomic classification to the human realm. Given that Wallace's primary employment in the Malay Archipelago was to collect specimens of flora and fauna and classify them according to the principles of the Linnaean taxonomic classification system, his adoption of what I will term a \"taxonomic perspective\" in viewing the humans whom he encountered should hardly be surprising. Using these same principles of taxonomic classification, Wallace was able to achieve a perspective on the Malay Archipelago hitherto unachieved by authoritative accounts of the region, challenging the predominant scientific views of race held at the time and unsettling even his own views of the \"uncivilized\" races . . . --Tiffany Tsao, 2010. Australasian Journal of Victorian Studies 15: 28-41.\n. . . for Wallace, feeling \"that savages were in some respects superior, would not have necessarily made it true. I would argue instead that his positive portrayals of human life in the archipelago had just as much scientific basis as his opening portrayals of the archipelago's natural environment as an otherworldly Eden. If Wallace's construction of a paradisiacal natural environment relied on his utilization of scientific precedent and natural selection theory, it was his application of taxonomic classification that enabled him to see the human individuals and communities of the archipelago as uniquely paradisiacal as well. Wallace's taxonomic perspective enabled him to break away not only from dominant perceptions of the races as different stages on a single, linear scale of sociocultural evolution, but also from the social Darwinist tendency of his day to view interracial relations as an inexorable struggle in which the white races would prevail . . . --Tiffany Tsao, 2010. Australasian Journal of Victorian Studies 15: 28-41.\n. . . Cloete's poetry does not shy away from inter alia \"controversial scientific subjects\" in a number of poems, and he contemplates the origin of creation and the development of life on earth. The reader is led to consider Cloete's views on creation and evolution. In this article the emphasis will be on the role of evolution in Cloete's poetry and how he uses a well-known observation by one of the main exponents of evolution theory in one of his poems, \"toegedig aan Alfred R. Wallace\", to present a text that expresses wonderment at a natural phenomenon . . . --Johann Lodewyk Marais, Desember 2009. Tydskrif vir Geeteswetenskappe 49(4): 548.\n. . . This paper is divided into three parts. In the first part I will outline the development of the reciprocal nature of biology and geology. Surprisingly reciprocality had been proposed more than 50 years before Wegener by the biogeographer Alfred Russel Wallace, co-author of the theory of evolution by means of natural selection (Wallace, 1858). I will briefly outline Wallace's biogeographic ideas as they pertain to reciprocality, before examining Wegener's reconstruction hypothesis of the Cretaceous polar region in more detail . . . --B. Michaux, December 2009. Gondwana Research 16(3-4): 656.\n. . . The female limitation of mimicry is usually explained by a combination of sex-dependent predation pressure and sexual selection: (1) female butterflies carry heavy egg-loads and are therefore aerodynamically constrained in their escape flights. Thus, females are thought to be more vulnerable to predation and presumably gain a greater fitness advantage from Batesian mimicry compared to males (Wallace 1865 . . . ), and (2) wing colour patterns are assumed to be constrained by sexual selection to a much greater extent in males than in females. Thus, male mimicry is selectively disfavoured when its natural selective advantage is overwhelmed by the sexual selective advantage of nonmimetic coloration that may be more successful during inter- or intrasexual encounters. However, these hypotheses do not explain the presence of and natural variation in female-limited mimetic polymorphism . . . --Krushnamegh Kunte, November 2009. Animal Behaviour 78(5): 1029.\n. . . The behavior of females in search of a mate impacts the success of males in mate competition and, hence, the force of sexual selection on male phenotypic characters. The search behavior of females is also subject to selection because the search strategy used by a female determines the likelihood that she encounters a high quality male in the search process. This latter idea is germinal in the views of Alfred R. Wallace who argued that females would, had they evolved the cognitive ability, choose mates who provide them with a fitness benefit (Wallace, 1871, 1889; reviewed by Cronin, 1991). The search strategy favored by selection, in this situation, is the strategy that provides the highest fitness return to searchers. Janetos (1980) stimulated the study of search strategies when, more than one hundred years later, he showed that a fixed sample search strategy provides a higher fitness return to females than several alternative strategies. . . . --Daniel D. Wiegmann, Steven M. Seubert & Gordon A. Wade, October 2009. Journal of Theoretical Biology 262(4): 596.\n. . . More than 150 years ago, Wallace had already recognized a profound connection between geology and the distribution of plants and animals, and many of his insights were based on his observations in Southeast Asia. Our understanding of the Earth has changed considerably since Wallace's time but an understanding of the geology of Southeast Asia remains fundamental to interpreting biotic distributions in the region. However, the links between geological history and life are not simple, and a great deal of work is still required to understand the complex interrelationships and feedbacks between plate tectonics, changing distributions of land and sea, emergence of land and rise of mountains, subsidence below sea level and formation of deep ocean basins, uplift and erosion, changing ocean currents, climatic impacts of all these changes, and their effects on plants and animals and their evolution and distribution . . . --R. Hall, October 2009. Blumea 54(1-3): 148.\n. . . Because most butterflies can fold their wings together, hiding the dorsal surface, a dorsal-ventral partitioning of visual signals may present one solution to accommodating potentially antagonistic selective pressures. The speculation that dorsal wing patterns are important for mate signalling, while the ventral surface may be more subject to selection by natural enemies is, in fact, not new (Darwin 1871; Wallace 1889), although no study has directly tested this hypothesis in a comparative framework. In addition to a dorsal/ventral partition, butterflies may separate signals between forewing and hindwing, given their ability to hide the forewing behind the hindwing when at rest. These two surface axes, dorsal-ventral and forewing/hindwing, offer butterflies two spatial dimensions that may be partitioned to serve different, potentially antagonistic, signal functions . . . --Jeffrey C. Oliver, Kendra A. Robertson & Ant\u00f3nia Monteiro, 7 July 2009. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 276(1666): 2369.\nIsland radiations are thought to undergo evolutionarily short 'taxon cycles' of diversification and rapid demise, before being superseded by different lineages of colonizers. The archipelagos of Wallacea (eastern Indonesia), Melanesia (including New Guinea) and Oceania have long served as a natural laboratory to study the evolutionary dynamics of such colonizations and biological radiations (Wallace 1859 . . . ). Yet, the faunal origins and mechanisms responsible for the region's diversification as well as their contribution to global diversity remain poorly understood . . . --Michael Balke et al., 7 July 2009. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 276: 2359-2367.\nDarwin (1862) and Wallace (1867) provided a possible explanation for such extreme elongation, suggesting that the long nectar spur of the Malagasy star orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale) evolved in a coevolutionary race with a giant hawkmoth. According to this model, selection on the hawkmoth favours longer tongues to better reach the orchid's nectar, while selection on the orchid favours nectar spurs that are longer than hawkmoth tongues because this ensures contact with the orchid's reproductive parts (thus maximizing pollen transfer) . . . Darwin was not proposing a general mechanism for the evolution of corolla tube length, but was specifically interested in the extreme case of A. sesquipedale (Darwin 1862). Furthermore, in expounding on Darwin's idea, Wallace (1867) actually envisioned that initial stages in tube elongation would involve pollinator shifts, and suggested that a coevolutionary race would begin only when the tube length corresponded to the tongue length of the largest hawkmoth in the habitat . . . --Nathan Muchhala & James D. Thomson, 22 June 2009. Proceedings of The Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 276(1665): 2147-2148.\n. . . The classical view of reinforcement is that selection can only strengthen prezygotic isolation, not postzygotic because selection cannot favor a further reduction in the fitness of hybrids (Wallace 1889; Dobzhansky 1940). (Selection can favor a reduced fitness of juveniles where these compete with siblings, but the principle is the same). This argument applies where a single allele strengthens isolation, but not when isolation is strengthened by an association between existing incompatibilities. As we show below, the two different incompatibilities then do not have to be at different stages of the life cycle: each may have the same status, and we cannot say that one evolves \"to\" reinforce the other. The evolution of the association itself can be seen as adaptive, in the sense that (directly or indirectly) it raises the mean fitness of the population. However, it can involve incompatibilities at any stage of hybridization . . . --Nicholas H. Barton & Maria Angeles Rodriguez de Cara, May 2009. Evolution 63(5): 1172.\nTwo additional attributes that make islands lasting focal points for evolutionary studies--their relative youth and geographical isolation--were clearly identified by Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-originator of the theory of evolution by natural selection, in his 1881 book Island Life. First, many islands are either volcanic in origin or have been completely under water at some point in their history. These islands emerge above the ocean surface as blank slates for colonization and subsequent evolutionary diversification, on which the development of ecological and evolutionary systems can be observed from their beginnings. Each island represents a new opportunity for living forms to appear and proliferate. The first colonists, finding untapped resources and lacking the constraints of a resident biota, often diversify in novel directions. This evolutionary idiosyncrasy is enhanced by unbalanced colonization--strong dispersal abilities are not evenly distributed across the ecological spectrum of continental biotas--with the result that some ecological niches on islands are filled by diversification rather than colonization . . . --Jonathan B. Losos & Robert E. Ricklefs, 12 February 2009. Nature 457(7231): 830-831.\nWallace, who promoted Strickland's methods, wrote that every systematic work should include diagrams,\"without which it is often impossible to tell whether two families follow each other because the author thinks them allied, or merely because the exigencies of a consecutive series compels him so to place them\". In essence, Wallace claims that without diagrams the reader cannot know whether information is meaningful or is simply a product of the representational medium's limitations; Darwin capitalizes on this basic ambiguity within his diagram itself . . . --Heather Brink-Roby, Winter 2009. Victorian Studies 51: 247-273.\n. . . Many questions are involved in Wallace's Line, but it represents a line of major faunal break between the Oriental and the Australian regions. According to Sweet & Pianka (2003), varanid species are diversified to the east of Wallace's Line while this side lacks carnivorous placental mammals. The diversity of varanid species and that of carnivorous mammals are virtually inverted to the west of Wallace's Line, a region that harbours nearly 20 mammalian carnivores and that lacks small varanid lizards. These observations suggest that the coexistence of mammalian carnivores and varanid lizards is limited because they are too similar as predators . . . --Marc Aug\u00e9 & Richard Smith, January 2009. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 155: 148-170.\nThe little that we have learned about the likelihood of reciprocal selection operating in this system helps to explain the observation of extreme trait exaggeration. However, directional selection for trait exaggeration does not act in isolation. In addition to escalating reciprocal selection, there are a theoretically infinite number of other selective forces that simultaneously act on proboscis and tube length and some of these must serve to balance the forces that favor trait elongation (Wallace 1867). Understanding some of these forces and how they vary in strength across the landscape will be important in explaining the observation of twofold variability in proboscis and tube length. For example, one of the many costs of longer proboscis might include increased handling time. It was observed that flies feeding on windy days required several attempts before succeeding in inserting their proboscides into flowers. Possibly windier conditions in the South might lead to stronger balancing selection at this latitude . . . --Anton Pauw, Jaco Stofberg & Richard J. Waterman, January 2009. Evolution 63(1): 275.\nFloral trait recognition and pollinator consistency have been extensively studied, i.e., insect pollinators tend to exhaust one floral morph for resources before moving on to other floral morphs. Indeed, A. R. Wallace (1889) may have been the first to suggest that sympatric plant species pollinated by \"flower constant\" pollinators will profit from having different floral recognition traits. Consequently, we would expect statistically significant correlations among the first appearances of critical floral traits and the diversification of the flowering plants and their insect pollinators. As noted, the first appearances of floral traits and the diversification of flowering plant species are significantly correlated. Likewise, the first appearances of key floral traits and insect families in the fossil record are significantly correlated . . . as are angiosperm species number and insect family number . . . --William L. Crepet & Karl J. Niklas, January 2009. American Journal of Botany 96(1): 372.\n. . . Despite of their seemingly large number, aerosol particles are true trace constituents of the atmosphere, their mass fraction typically being below one part per billion and thereby much below that of any important gaseous climate agent. Nevertheless they may have a profound influence on our climate. This perception is not at all new, only 20 years after Aitken discovered the importance of aerosols as condensation nuclei, Alfred R. Wallace noted in 1898: \"But in all densely-populated countries there is an enormous artificial production of dust.. This superabundance of dust . . . must almost certainly produce some effect on our climate; and the particular effect it seems calculated to produce is the increase of cloud and fog, but not necessarily any increase of rain.\" . . . --J. Feichter & T. Leisner, 2009. The European Physical Journal, Special Topics 176(1): 84.\n. . . Non-exclusive hypotheses have traditionally been proposed to account for spectacular woodiness examples in the neo-flora of oceanic islands (Wallace, 1878 . . . ). Selection for successful pollination with large, long-lasting inflorescences, niche competition among initial colonizers, and promotion of the outbreeding ratio to overcome inbreeding depression may be related to Echium longevity and woodiness. Irrespective of the causes generating woodiness, the trait utility of this character is manifested by the large number of woody plant groups that rapidly evolved from herbaceous ancestors not only in Macaronesia (Sonchus, Isoplexis, Aeonium group, Pericallis), but also in the Hawaiian (silversword alliance, Schieda), Gal\u00e1pagos (Scallesia), and Juan Fern\u00e1ndez (Dendroseris) archipelagos . . . --Federico Garc\u00eda-Maroto, 2009. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evoution 52(3): 572.\n. . . The current extinction crisis and the extent of anthropogenic alteration of natural habitats have reached alarming proportions . . . Potential hindrances to global assessment of priority list candidates have been divided into eight categories: (1) the extreme heterogeneity of existing data; (2) the restricted availability of relevant data and lack of information exchange between scientists and conservationists; (3) the uncertainty in species number and taxonomic division of the given taxon (Linnean shortfall); (4) the fragmentary knowledge of distributions (Wallacean shortfall); (5) incomplete or erroneous red-listing across the entire distribution of a given taxon; (6) the lack of homogenous and reliable population trend data; (7) the lack of exhaustive information on observed and potential threats; and finally (8) the incomplete general biological knowledge of a given taxon (e.g., its reproduction biology, genetic diversity, dispersal parameters, etc.). It has been demonstrated that Linnean and Wallacean shortfalls are among the most serious problems in modern conservation biology and biogeography, and that the majority of deficits in knowledge during any global conservation status assessment results from these two shortfalls . . . --Gregor Kozlowski et al., 2009. Biodiversity and Conservation 18(9): 2308.\nIt has long been recognized that Thailand is subdivided into two zoogeographic subregions with the Indochinese subregion to the north and Sundaic subregion to the south with a transition zone in the Isthmus of Kra. Distribution patterns corresponding to this division have been observed in a range of biota including rodents, insects, reptiles and plants. Initially, Wallace (1876) had placed the transition zone at 13-14\u00baN, whereas Wells fixed the avifaunal transition zone at about 10\u00ba30'N, in the Isthmus of Kra. Subsequently, Hughes et al., based on forest birds, found a highly significant transition zone at 11-12\u00baN, in the north of the peninsula. The distribution patterns of the three species [considered here] were of considerable interest since they strongly support the existing concepts of a subregional division . . . --Pipat Soisook et al., December 2008. Acta Chiropterologica 10(2): 238.\nThe powerful effect of clinging on the emotional behavior of infant nonhuman primates had been known for many years. It was mentioned by Van Wagenen in her recommendations and in many other naturalistic accounts of primate infants. One of my favorite quotations is from Alfred Russel Wallace, who describes an \"artificial mother\" of buffalo skin he devised for an orphan orangutan (1869). All of us associated with the nursery project were impressed by the strength of the infants' emotional attachment to their cloths. When I suggested to Harlow that we devise an experiment pitting our monkeys' responses to the feeding station against their attachment to a claspable object, he urged me to proceed. Accordingly, I designed an experiment around two mother surrogates that were the functional counterparts of the diaper and the feeding rack. These prototypes had the bodies of the final versions, although they lacked the famous distinctive faces, which were added later . . . --William A. Mason, December 2008. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science 42(4): 390-391.\n. . . Wallace wrote that \"[i]n the equable equatorial zone there is no . . . struggle against climate. Every form of vegetation has become alike adapted to its genial heat and ample moisture, which has probably changed little even throughout geological periods\". We now know that lowland tropical climates have changed substantially and relentlessly ever since species-rich forests resembling modern ones first occupied the lowland wet tropics in the mid-Tertiary. Although the notion of long-term constancy of tropical climates is now universally dismissed, Wallace's view of tropical climates as benign lingers on, underlying the apparently widespread conviction that \"[m]any tropical species may well be able to withstand higher temperature[s] than those in which they currently exist.\" . . . --Robert K. Colwell et al., 10 October 2008. Science 322(5899): 259.\n. . . we must consider the possibility that hominids in general and humans in particular have partially escaped from classic Darwinian selective control of some aspects of the genome, and that humans have even escaped the final stage of Baldwinian genetic hard-wiring of long-standing species-specific learned behaviors. This might in turn help to explain the unusual degree of exaptation displayed by the human brain, presented as 'Wallace's Conundrum' in Box 6. The advantages of such novel changes are flexibility, plasticity, more rapidly developing population diversity and greater opportunities--but the disadvantages are that genomes cannot recover what has been irrevocably lost, and cultural advantages can be sensitive to the whims of history and fate . . . --Ajit Varki, Daniel H. Geschwind & Evan E. Eichler, October 2008. Nature Reviews Genetics 9(10): 758.\nThe importance of avian egg coloration for crypsis, once accepted as a general principle (Wallace 1890, Cott 1940, von Haartman 1957, Harrison 1968), has recently been questioned because tests of this hypothesis have often failed to support a role for egg coloration in deterring predation. As a result, more recent work has emphasized the importance of nest crypsis as the primary mediator of clutch survival . . . --David Westmoreland, September 2008. Journal of Field Ornithology 79(3): 263.\nEvolved mimicry of hawks by parasitic cuckoos. Wallace (1889) suggested that the resemblance was an example of protective mimicry, which might reduce attacks from hawks, noting that cuckoos were otherwise 'an exceedingly weak and defenceless group of birds'. Prolonged periods of surveillance for host nests, sometimes from exposed perches, might make parasitic cuckoos especially vulnerable to hawk attack. In Asia, drongo-cuckoos (Surniculus lugubris) may likewise gain from protective mimicry of drongos Dicrurus spp., which are extremely aggressive to larger birds, including birds of prey and crows (Wallace 1889). Alternatively, hawk mimicry might influence host behaviour, either by frightening or luring hosts away to facilitate egg laying or by inducing mobbing to help the cuckoo locate host nests, which may be especially advantageous in open country with few secret vantage points . . . --N. B. Davies & J. A. Welbergen, August 2008. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 275(1644): 1818.\n. . . It has been argued that Ostriches lay white eggs because they are powerful enough to defend their nests (Wallace 1889). However, when nests are unattended, such big eggs are quite visible on the ground to both mammalian and avian predators. In our visibility study, a naturally white egg was seen first by the observer, suggesting that the brown eggs are better concealed. Ostriches would therefore have derived a selective advantage in the face of predators by having brown eggs. Our results therefore are consistent with the prediction, and support Bertram and Burger's conclusion, that white Ostrich eggs minimise overheating, but are prone to predation . . . --Flora John Magige et al., July 2008. Journal of Ornithology 149(3): 327.\nWhy there are so many species in tropical rainforests is one of the most complex and debated questions in evolutionary biology. Among the mechanisms that have been proposed to explain diversification in the tropics is the idea that mode of speciation might differ with latitude. A long-standing hypothesis, first proposed by Wallace (1878) and developed by Dobzhansky and Schemske, is that biotic interactions play a greater role in the adaptation of tropical populations than do abiotic factors, whereas the converse holds for temperate-zone populations . . . --G. L\u00e9otard et al., July 2008. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 21(4): 1133.\nWithin each of his major biogeographical regions, Wallace (1876) distinguished between four subregions. For the Palearctic he recognized a Northern European, Southern European, Siberian, and Manchourian subregion. However, it had already been pointed out by contemporary workers that Wallace's separation of the European and Siberian subregions, for example, was based on insufficient data and that the criteria used were more geographic than faunistic. Nevertheless, in later years Wallace's boundary between the European and Siberian subregions, running along the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, has been used to demarcate western subsections of the Palearctic Region . . . --Mansour Aliabadian et al., 2008. Contributions to Zoology 77(2): 101.\n. . . Wallace writes that, among human beings, there is no evident distinction between the mental powers of the most primitive and the most advanced . . . From this manner of observation it follows, Wallace argued, that characteristic human abilities must be latent in primitive man, existing somehow as an unopened gift\u2014the entryway to a world that primitive man himself does not possess and would not recognize. But the idea that a biological species might possess latent powers makes no sense in Darwinian terms. It suggests the forbidden doctrine that evolutionary advantages were frontloaded, far away and long ago. It is in conflict with the Darwinian principle that just as useful genes are selected for cultivation and advancement, useless genes are subject to negative selection pressure and must therefore drain away into the sands of time. Wallace identified a frank conflict between his own theory and what seemed to him to be obvious facts about the solidity and unchangeability of human nature. That conflict persists; it has not been resolved . . . --David Berlinski, April 2008. Commentary 125(4): 35.\n. . . Alfred Russel Wallace (1853) was perhaps the first naturalist to write about the white-water, clear-water, and black-water river types of the Amazon basin and to relate the color of tributaries to the nature of their drainage basins. Wallace astutely linked the sediment load of white-water tributaries to erosion in their steep Andean headwaters, and identified clear-water rivers with the crystalline \"mountains of Brazil\" (the Guyana and Brazilian shields). He knew that black-water rivers emerged from lowland sources, and he correctly attributed their dark coloring to leaching of \"decaying leaves, roots, and other vegetable matter\" (Wallace 1853) . . . --Michael E. McClain & Robert J. Nainan, April 2008. BioScience 58(4): 325.\nWhile he maintained that 'social heredity' was consistent with the theory of evolution by natural selection, Baldwin followed Wallace in claiming that humans had evolved to such a degree of conscious intelligence that they had freed themselves from the pressures of natural selection, and surmounted instinctual constraints on behavior: 'intelligence and the social life which it makes possible so far control the acquisitions of life to limit the action of natural selection as a law of evolution.' In this fashion Baldwin defended human freedom against the hereditarian determinism of Darwin's theory of evolution, by claiming that thought and will had emancipated humans from the constraints of natural selection . . . --John D. Greenwood, February 2008. History of the Human Sciences 21(1): 114.\nLater behaviorists rejected the role of consciousness and purpose in human and animal psychology and behavior--with the notable exception of Edward C. Tolman--but continued to stress the critical role of plasticity and learning in adaptive behavior. They also depreciated the explanatory role of inherited instincts, which became the object of sustained critiques by behaviorist psychologists in the 1920s. Like functional psychologists (and Wallace), behaviorists came to believe that humans had developed (through evolution by natural selection) to such a degree that they could surmount the constraints of their biological inheritance, and exploit their intelligence to create a scientific psychology devoted to the further advancement and improvement of the human condition . . . --John D. Greenwood, February 2008. History of the Human Sciences 21(1): 118.\n. . . In other words, as Wallace so clearly realized, human symbolic reasoning is not simply an extrapolation of this extended history, simply a little bit more of the same. It is, instead, something truly new and unpredicted by what went before\u2014even by the increase in the mass of metabolically expensive brain tissue that seems to have independently characterized several lineages within the genus Homo, though it was clearly dependent on this development. And while Wallace was regrettably unable to profit from our modern perspective, today it is possible to see that the origin of modern human consciousness must have been an emergent event, whereby an entirely unanticipated level of complexity was achieved by a sheer chance coincidence of acquisitions . . . --Ian Tattersall, 2008. Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews 3: 111.\nResearchers of animal coloration have noted the perplexing nature of egg pigmentation in open-nesting birds (i.e., birds whose nests are not in cavities or enclosed by a dome). One of the founders of the theory of natural selection wrote \"the colours of birds' eggs have long been a difficulty on the theory of adaptive coloration, because, in so many cases it has not been easy to see what can be the use of the particular colours, which are often so bright and conspicuous that they seem intended to attract attention rather than to be concealed\" (Wallace 1890). Wallace went on to argue that bird eggs are well camouflaged when viewed from below via light penetrating the nest . . . --David Westmoreland & Richard A. Kiltie, November 2007. Journal of Avian Biology 38(6): 686-687.\nAlfred Wallace, Darwin's contemporary and rival, argued that when species hybridize, natural selection favors individuals who are more fussy about whom they mate with, which therefore increases female discrimination of males from different species. Modern evolutionary genetics has questioned the importance of the \"Wallace effect\" (also known as \"reinforcement\") because genetic recombination between female discrimination and male trait genes would scramble combinations of loci that favor speciation. Several solutions to this have been proposed, including close genetic linkage of such loci. A simpler possibility is sexual imprinting, which causes a female to prefer males that resemble her father . . . --Michael G. Ritchie, 5 October 2007. Science 318: 54.\nWhile Chamupati largely ignored Darwin, whose views of Hindu scriptures were hardly flattering, Chamupati was attracted to the ideas of Alfred Russel Wallace, codiscoverer of evolution. Chamupati noted Wallace's praise of the mind of the Vedic hymn makers who, despite the \"very limited knowledge [of Nature] at this early period, . . . could not have been in any way inferior to those of the best of our religious teachers and poets\u2014to our Miltons and our Tennysons.\" For Chamupati and other followers of Dayananda, Wallace was far more congenial than Darwin, for, despite Wallace's espousal of some of the most theologically challenging aspects of evolutionary theory, namely, random variation and natural selection, Wallace made considerable exceptions. He insisted on some sort of \"spiritual influx\" to account for the origin of life as well as of mind and morality. Accordingly, he was a much safer corroborator of Vedic insights, at least in Chamupati's views . . . --C. Mackenzie Brown, September 2007. Zygon 42(3): 718.\nUsing the theoretical framework of evolution by natural selection, Wallace developed Crawfurd's proposal that the two distinct aboriginal races were the Malays and Papuans. From his observations, Wallace postulated an ethnological line dividing the Malayan and Polynesian races. The position of this line east of the famous line dividing the Indo-Malayan and Austro-Malayan bioregions demonstrated Crawfurd's hypothesis that the civilized Malays were pushing the savage Papuans back from their natural border. Wallace's ethnological line functioned to support his representation of two races as radically different from each other, not only in terms of physical characteristics but also in what Wallace called 'moral characteristics' (1869: 588) . . . --Daniel P. S. Goh, September 2007. International Journal of Cultural Studies 10(3): 328.\nDarwin's originality and priority are, strictly speaking, separate questions. One can be original and yet fail to achieve priority if, for example, someone else comes forward first in print with the same theory without one's knowledge. Such, in fact, is more or less the case with A. R. Wallace. No one, least of all Darwin, doubted that Wallace arrived at his theory independently of Darwin, but Darwin was proven by history to have brought the theory into print\u2014if not exactly publication\u2014first. Nevertheless, Darwin often conflated the two issues in his private correspondence, referring to his originality and priority almost as if they were interchangeable ideas . . . --Curtis N. Johnson, Fall 2007. Journal of the History of Biology 40(3): 533.\nAt a given latitude, the most striking feature of avian seasonality is the consistency with which the successive stages of reproduction, moult and migration take place each year\u2014not only on a populational scale, but also within individuals. Day-length\u2014the most consistent sources of temporal information about the environment\u2014was suggested to play a role in the scheduling of avian annual cycles, in particular of migration, as early as 1876 (e.g. Palm\u00e9n 1876; Wallace 1876) . . . --Timothy Coppack, 23 June 2007. Journal of Ornithology 148, Suppl. 2: S460.\n[concerning the organization of a forest preserve] . . . Although Wallace's proposal is controversial and raises environmental concerns, it is important to recognize that he was focused on key ecological issues. He fought to preserve in an unsullied state the forests that had not been cleared. He also recognized that severe ecological destruction had been wrought on the state of nature. And in this, he contributed to a philosophy of ecological restoration by raising the issue of how we are to address anthropogenic environmental problems. In \"Epping Forest,\" Wallace documented that environmental degradation had taken place, as profiteers and lords of manors had destroyed whole areas of the forest. He provided a reasoned discussion of the different temperate forests in the Northern Hemisphere and an argument that recognized how the species found in a particular location are, in part, influenced by the much longer, geological, and climate history of the earth. In this, Wallace provided important insights and helped open a realm of debate . . . --Brett Clark & Richard York, June 2007. Organization & Environment 20(2): 231.\nWallace found fault with two aspects of domestication as a heuristic for understanding adaptation in nature. He argued first that the analogy was flawed: artificial selection requires an intelligent selector, whereas no such force acts in natural systems. Additionally, he insisted that the selection itself was fundamentally different, leading to intrinsically different kinds of variation. Domesticated species, he wrote, \"are abnormal, irregular, artificial; they are subject to varieties which never occur and never can occur in a state of nature: their very existence depends altogether on human care; so far are many of them removed from that just proportion of faculties, that true balance of organization, by means of which alone as an animal left to its own resources can preserve its existence and continue its race.\" Both Wallace's lines of argument find modern audiences, from those who see a fundamental difference between the conscious selection of humans and natural processes to those who argue that variation in domesticated species differs from that in nature . . . --Jeffrey Ross-Ibarra, Peter L. Morrell & Brandon S. Gaut, 15 May 2007. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, Suppl. 1: 8641-8642.\nThe coloration of this genus of weevils is among the most astonishing visual effects displayed in nature. Many animal species that are distasteful to predators have evolved aposematism (they have a distinctive, conspicuous coloration, which functions as a warning signal, advertising their inedibility to potential predators). Wallace notes in a passage on the genus Pachyrrhynchus that many weevils have excessive hard integuments, which render them inedible to most birds, and our own dissections of this species confirm their extremely tough exoskeleton. It seems likely, therefore, that the stark coloration of this species is a form of aposematism. Further evidence in support of this comes from the finding that a number of edible species, such as the longicorn beetles Doliops curculionides and Doliops geometrica and the cricket Scepastus pachyrhynchoides mimic various Pachyrrhynchus species weevils . . . --Victoria Welch et al., 30 April 2007. Physical Review E 75(4): 7.\nSeveral features of the results give some reassurance because they support plausible notions and other evidence that most nonsynonymous mutations and many nonsynonymous polymorphisms are deleterious. Our analysis implies that some 19 of 20 new amino acid replacements are deleterious with an average fitness reduction on the order of five times the reciprocal of the effective population size. These estimates pertain only to the subset of nonsynonymous mutations whose effect are not so severe as to preclude their becoming polymorphic, but they support other evidence that selection against deleterious mutations plays in key role in shaping patterns of genetic variation in Drosophila. Likewise, we estimate that [about] 7 of 10 amino acid replacements that are polymorphic in samples are deleterious. One feature of our results that might animate some surprise is the high proportion of amino acid fixations between species that show positive selection, [about] 95% in our data. This finding seems to reflect what Wallace called the \"overwhelming odds against the less fit\" . . . --Stanley A. Sawyer et al., 17 April 2007. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104(16): 6509.\nGiven that phenomena strive for reality--that is, to become distinct--then there must by default be a process whereby constitutive elements are demarcated as 'included' and, of course, an opposite process, whereby elements become the 'excluded'. According to [Charles] Fort: \"It is our expression that nothing can attempt to be, except by attempting to exclude something else: that that which is commonly called 'being' is a state that is wrought more or less definitely proportionately to the appearance of positive difference between that which is included and that which is excluded.\" This process leaves a trace, however, in the sense that one cannot subsequently provide a full and comprehensive description of the thing in question. Even Darwin, Fort argued, 'was never able to tell what he meant by a \"species\".' Echoing Wallace's (1875) earlier concerns over the close-mindedness of modern science, Fort argued that this body of knowledge was itself but one instance of localization, wherein an attempt is made to separate out those explanations which are deemed acceptable and proper from those that are not. The raw material of the world becomes organized and interpreted to fit into preconceived notions of how things should work. Slowly but surely, this drive towards explanation causes a plethora of facts and events to emerge from this chaotic landscape, each of which is seen to form part of an overarching pattern. 'A theory feels its way through surrounding ignorance,' he suggested, like 'a wagon train feels its way across a prairie.' And yet, 'Science relates to real knowledge no more than does the growth of a plant, or the organization of a department store, or the development of a nation: that all are assimilative, or organizing, or systematizing processes that represent different attempts to attain the positive state--the state commonly called heaven, I suppose I mean' . . . --Deborah Dixon, April 2007. Cultural Geographies 14(2): 193.\nThe conspicuous displays that warn predators of defenses carried by potential prey have been of interest to evolutionary biologists from the time of Wallace and Darwin to the present day. Although most studies implicitly assume that these \"aposematic\" warning signals simply indicate the presence of some repellent defense such as a toxin, it has been speculated that the intensity of the signal might reliably indicate the strength of defense so that, for example, the nastiest prey might \"shout loudest\" about their unprofitability. Recent phylogenetic and empirical studies of Dendrobatid frogs provide contradictory views, in one instance showing a positive correlation between toxin levels and conspicuousness, in another showing a breakdown of this relationship. In this paper we present an optimization model, which can potentially account for these divergent results . . . --Michael P. Speed & Graeme D. Ruxton, March 2007. Evolution 61(3): 623.\n. . . Kantian philosophers do not have the exclusive right to transcendental arguments, which can be and are used by philosophers and scientists alike. For instance, physicists such as Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose have invoked the anthropic principle, the weak version of which was anticipated by Alfred Russel Wallace (1904, pp 256-257): \"Such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required . . . in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man.\" More recently, the biologists John Bonner and Richard Lewontin have offered transcendental arguments for the modular organization of development as a requirement for evolvability . . . --Werner Callebaut, March 2007. Acta Biotheoretica 55(1): 77-78.\nIn his extensive monograph of the genus, Talbot, building on the earlier work of Wallace (1867), Dixey (1894) and others, originally divided Delias into twenty species-groups, according to differences in form of the androconia, male genitalia and, to a lesser extent, wing pattern. Talbot noted, however, that the Australian endemic D. aganippe, provisionally placed in the belisama group, 'seems somewhat isolated' on structural grounds and is 'placed doubtfully in this group'. Wallace (1867: 349) similarly remarked that, 'It is difficult locate this common Australian species', and placed D. aganippe in the belladonna group . . . --Michael F. Braby & Naomi E. Pierce, January 2007. Systematic Entomology 32(1): 6.\n. . . In his notes, essays and correspondence from the field, Wallace consistently emphasized species and genera, and separated these descriptions from his rarer and briefer discussions of individual organisms. The first passage above, from an 1857 article describing collecting in the Aru Islands, is typical: Wallace provides an enthusiastic litany of species, families and genera. It is easy to miss his distinction at the end of the passage, between families, species and individuals, in terms of \"abundance.\" Yet this too is characteristic of Wallace's writings from the field. At a given locality, families contain more or fewer species, and species contain more or fewer individual organisms. Wallace did not collapse or confuse these levels, but carefully distinguished between different sorts of abundance. In general, his natural history writing emphasized species, with clear distinctions between individual organisms and groups . . . --Melinda B. Fagan, 2007. Journal of the History of Biology [electronic file].\nThe contrast in the two naturalists' writings from the field thus has two aspects. First, Wallace emphasized groups of organisms, while Darwin described many details of individual organisms. Second, Wallace clearly distinguished between groups and individuals, while Darwin was more ambiguous. Both aspects can be explained by differences in natural history practice. Wallace and Darwin's contrasting habits and working routines in the field were shaped in turn by their different circumstances and motivations. The two naturalists went to the field with different training and social connections, different finances and responsibilities, and different theoretical interests . . . --Melinda B. Fagan, 2007. Journal of the History of Biology [electronic file].\nThe use of soil animals as protein source in human nutrition is still widely represented in indigenous populations in most regions of the world and was first reported by Wallace (1853, 1889) more than 100 years ago . . . --T. Deca\u00ebns et al., November 2006. European Journal of Soil Biology 42 (Suppl. 1): S26.\n. . . Knowledge about biodiversity remains inadequate and plagued by the so-called Linnean and Wallacean shortfalls (Lomolino, 2004; Whittaker et al., 2005; see also Brown & Lomolino, 1998). The first refers to the fact that most species living on Earth were still not formally described, whereas the second is defined by the fact that, for the majority of taxa, geographical distributions are also poorly understood and contain many gaps. As recently pointed out by Whittaker et al. (2005), these two shortfalls are scale dependent, both on evolutionary and on ecological dimensions. Although work done since the 18th century allows us to make general predictions of broad-scale diversity gradients based on current climate effects (see Hawkins, 2004 and references therein), we are far from a predictive theory capable of predicting species diversity based on complex environmental and historical factors acting at different scales in time and space . . . --Luis Mauricio Bini et al., September 2006. Diversity and Distributions 12(5): 475.\nHere I present a critical review of the literature which, when combined with the results of some comparative analyses, suggests that just a few selective agents can explain much of the variation in egg appearance. Ancestrally, bird eggs were probably white and immaculate. Ancient diversification in nest location, and hence in the clutch's vulnerability to attack by predators, can explain basic differences between bird families in egg appearance. The ancestral white egg has been retained by species whose nests are safe from attack by predators, while those that have moved to a more vulnerable nest site are now more likely to lay brown eggs, covered in speckles, just as Wallace hypothesized more than a century ago. Even blue eggs might be cryptic in a subset of nests built in vegetation. It is possible that some species have subsequently turned these ancient adaptations to new functions, for example to signal female quality, to protect eggs from damaging solar radiation, or to add structural strength to shells when calcium is in short supply. The threat of predation, together with the use of varying nest sites, appears to have increased the diversity of egg colouring seen among species within families, and among clutches within species. Brood parasites and their hosts have probably secondarily influenced the diversity of egg appearance. Each drives the evolution of the other's egg colour and patterning, as hosts attempt to avoid exploitation by rejecting odd-looking eggs from their nests, and parasites attempt to outwit their hosts by laying eggs that will escape detection . . . --R. M. Kilner, August 2006. Biological Reviews 81(3): 383.\nWallace's hypothesis for egg colouring is intuitively appealing because it can explain why so many bird eggs are white or speckled or some shade of brown in colour, and because it is consistent with observations that more cryptic offspring are less vulnerable to attack by predators. Furthermore, Lack (1958) found that a species' nest site could explain some of the variation in egg patterning and colouring amongst the Turdinae. He found that hole-nesters were more likely to lay white immaculate eggs, whereas about 80% of birds whose nests were placed in exposed sites covered their eggs in red or brown speckling, which he interpreted as an adaptation for concealment. However, experimental evidence in support of Wallace's hypothesis is rather mixed . . . --R. M. Kilner, August 2006, Biological Reviews 81(3): 385.\nWhy do organisms age and die? This question has long vexed biologists. Alfred Russel Wallace first suggested that ageing and death might be adaptive (Weismann 1882, Wallace 1889). In the 1860s Wallace wrote \"Natural selection . . . in many cases favours such races as die almost immediately after they have left successors.\" Despite some early support, this adaptive view of ageing and death was soon dismissed, to such an extent that in the 1920s it was labelled a \"perverse extension of the theory of natural selection\" (Pearl 1922). This has remained the case since with almost all biological gerontologists believing that \"longevity determination is under genetic control only indirectly,\" and that \". . . ageing is a product of evolutionary neglect, not evolutionary intent.\" Today, there are three largely competing theories used to explain ageing; mutation accumulation, antagonistic pleiotropy and disposable soma . . . --Calvin Dytham & Justin M. J. Travis, June 2006. Oikos 113(3): 531.\nWhen you ask beginning students why we age, they usually respond that physical decay culls the old to make way for the young, says evolutionary biologist Oph\u00e9lie Ronce of the University of Montpelier in France. That explanation carries a long pedigree\u2014it dates back to Alfred Russel Wallace the co-discoverer of natural selection\u2014but most modern evolutionists spurn it . . . --Mitch Leslie, 3 May 2006. Science of Aging Knowledge Environment 2006 No. 8: nf12.\nDuring his collecting expedition in the Rio Negro and tributary Rio Uaup\u00e9s basins (1850 to 1852), Wallace collected and sketched a specimen that was most likely Tetranematichthys wallacei. His pencil sketch of the specimen (Wallace, 2002: fig. 122) clearly illustrated the elongate dorsal-fin spine, the ossified, curved maxillary barbels, the elongation of the anterior rays of the anal fin, and the overall form of the head and body characteristic of nuptial males of Tetranematichthys (note: the orientation of the fish in the illustration is such that the mandibular barbels are not apparent). Given that T. wallacei is the only species of the genus known to occur in the Rio Negro and Rio Uaup\u00e9s basins, we identify Wallace's specimen as that species . . . --Richard P. Vari & Carl J. Ferraris, Jr., May 2006. Copeia 2006(2): 176.\n. . . It was not just that science was monoparadigmatic; its monoculturalism extended beyond the surveillance of the gaze to the fact that the creation of the object had to deny the subjective self and its knowledge. In relating to the other, modern western science either eliminated, assimilated, ghettoized or museumized them. Science had no place for defeated knowledges; the idea of an alternative science arose as a charter to challenge the current politics of knowledge. It was that great dissenting scientist Alfred Wallace who formulated the problem long before Thomas Kuhn. In his Wonderful Century (Wallace, 1898), a portrait of the achievements of 19th-century science, Wallace begins with a celebration of western science and then observes that a science at its moment of dominance tends to be coercive and to ignore competing theories and hypotheses. Wallace believed that the success of science made it ethically and cognitively imperative for the scientist to invent and explore alternatives . . . --Shiv Visvanathan, March-May 2006. Theory, Culture & Society 23(2-3): 166.\nWallace's field practices fit best into the survey tradition, which flourished during the shift from the 19th-century armchair to intensive ethnographic fieldwork in the early 20th century . . . Both survey and intensive ethnography were attempts to shift knowledge production into the field. Long before researchers gave field ethnography rather than armchair theorizing the highest prestige, Wallace was developing a greater role for regional survey work . . . --Jeremy Vetter, March 2006. Journal of the History of Biology 39(1): 98.\nFor more than a century, a debate has raged as to whether death constitutes an intentional ontogenetic program, the so-called Wallace-Weismann hypothesis, or the passive result of an inexorable accumulation of defects. By accounting for benefits to kin, the former assertion becomes more plausible. The inability to identify definable discreet mechanistic pathways for programmed death has provided a major source for criticism of this theory. Although evolutionary dynamics and pluralism may both contribute to the Darwinian value of phenoptosis, intuitive appeal persists in the notion of an oligarchy of functional hubs underpinning the many proximate mechanisms of phenoptosis. Indeed, given its processes' central roles in apoptosis, the mitochondrion may represent an ideal candidate to serve as one such hub on the level of the organelle. The induction of cellular damage by reactive oxygen species has been noted to be a mechanism of self-termination that encompasses all scales of biology. However, we believe that identification of hubs that operate on the level of systems as opposed to that of subcellular components may afford greater potential utility for modification and correction. Endocrine pathways, particularly those involving reproduction and circadian rhythms, have already been implicated in this regard . . . --Anthony J. Yun, Patrick Y. Lee & John Doux, 2006. Medical Hypotheses 67(5): 1082.\nWhewell (1853) was the first to propose that the Solar System has a habitable region comparable to the modern conception of the CHZ [Circumstellar Habitable Zone]. He termed it the \"Temperate Zone.\" In an impressive treatise for the period, Wallace (1903) enumerated several planetary habitability factors, including obliquity, mass, distance from the Sun, atmospheric composition, and proportion of water to land . . . --Guillermo Gonzalez, December 2005. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres 35(6): 556.\n. . . In this paper, we describe individual-based evolutionary model of aposematism and defense in spiny and poisonous species. We show that with spines, aposematism is easy to explain by a route in which predator biases are not out of sequence. Thus, aposematism evolves in our simulations if predators: (1) can recognize spines as dangerous (because they are common in prey populations anyway), (2) can use conspicuous markings to better notice and evaluate the significance of spines (resulting in cautious handling), and (3) can use conspicuousness as a cue for distinctiveness such that animals with colourful spines are less easily confused with nonspiny edible prey (as Wallace, , originally suggested for the general function of aposematism). . . --Michael P. Speed & Graeme D. Ruxton, December 2005. Evolution 59(12): 2501.\n. . . In the past, applying the logic of adaptationism to such central and seemingly unique human capacities has often triggered strong resistance. Wallace himself, although the co-creator of natural selection theory, considered self-consciousness as too complex to be one of its outcomes (Wallace, 1889). Note that his main argument was that the sense of self seemed to constitute a radical departure from other forms of phenomenal awareness. But this argument itself relied on the assumption that there is an integral self-system. Given that assumption, it seems indeed difficult to consider the self as the result of a slow, incremental process of natural selection, each step of which is conducive to better reproductive potential. It is by contrast more tractable to evaluate the potential evolutionary background of separate self-relevant systems . . . --Pascal Boyer, Philip Robbins & Anthony I. Jack, December 2005. Consciousness and Cognition 14(4): 653.\nAs is often the case in evolutionary ecology, mathematical models have outpaced empirical data and the theoretical basis of the Wallace Effect has been established in more than 100 mathematical models. Supporting field data are less common, however, and are rarely unambiguous. Part of the problem is in not knowing the origin of the supposedly split populations: the only way properly to test the basis for sympatric speciation would be to experimentally manipulate a population, but the timescales of speciation are too long for such a study to observe incipient speciation within the lifespan of a single research project . . . --Jeff Ollerton, 3 August 2005. Heredity 95: 181.\nIn between Mill and Edgeworth, the classical economists' notion of sympathy was attacked, and was largely overcome. The co-discover of the Law of Natural Selection, A. R. Wallace, had argued in 1864 that the doctrine of natural selection did not apply to humans because of ethical concerns generated by human sympathy. Our morals do not allow us to let the infirm perish (Wallace, 1864, clxii). In response, the co-founder (with Francis Galton) of eugenics, W. R. Greg, insisted that if sympathy blocked the 'salutary' effects of the survival of the fittest, such sentiments should be suppressed. So, when the 'law' of 'natural selection' failed for humans--because of sympathy and ethics--the eugenic thinkers who so influence post-classical economics proposed to rid humanity of sympathy. --Sandra J. Peart & David M. Levy, August 2005. Canadian Journal of Economics 38(3): 950.\nAnother English socialist of a very different temper, Alfred Russel Wallace, co-founder of the theory of natural selection, took a different tack. The humane Wallace was a reformer but also a stout defender of Darwinian inheritance. So, although he believed that English society was increasingly dysgenic, Wallace rejected compulsory eugenics as elitist and barbarous. Wallace proposed that eugenic ends could be realized by an expansion of women's education and their political and economic freedom. Like Mill, he believed that the law could reduce women's economic dependency, which, he argued, would work to reduce the incentive for women to make dysgenic marriages. \"Progress is still possible, nay, is certain,\" said Wallace, \"by . . . that mode of selection which will inevitably come into action through the ever-increasing freedom, joined with the higher education of women\" (1892). He envisioned selection as \"effected through the agency of female choice in marriage\" (1890). In leaving \"the improvement of the race to the cultivated minds and pure instincts of the Women of the Future\" (1890), the idealistic Wallace partly anticipates the eugenic feminism of Charlotte Perkins Gilman . . . --Thomas C. Leonard, July 2005. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 64(3): 782.\n. . . At present, this genus of tropical and subtropical America, distributed from the central part of Mexico to the north of Argentina, including the West Indies, consists of ca. 350 species and is confined mainly to humid forests or grows along the edges of rivers. Its accumulated species diversity may be explained by gradual addition through geological time. This process was proposed by Wallace (1878) and turned out to result in greater accrual of species in tropical zones than in temperate regions. This, as explained by the \"museum model,\" suggests that a stable tropical climate permitted the buildup of species through time . . . --L. Calvillo-Canadell & S. R. S. Cevallos-Ferriz, July 2005. International Journal of Plant Sciences 166(4): 688.\nWallace (1878) was among the first to argue that the low diversity of the polar regions is largely a reflection of past episodes of glaciations and climatic change that repeatedly drove many high-latitude taxa to extinction, leaving little opportunity for diversity to recover, and this idea has had subsequent proponents . . . --Emma E. Goldberg et al., June 2005. American Naturalist 165(6): 628.\nThe conditions under which aposematism, the conspicuous coloration of unpalatable or otherwise defended prey, could evolve have long been a topic of speculation (Wallace 1867; Poulton 1890). A perceived roadblock to the initial establishment of rare, aposematic mutants is the intense predation to which they would be subjected by naive predators. Conspicuous prey, albeit defended, are much more likely to be seen by predators, and if predators are unaware of their defence (and do not show neophobia), then such prey are more likely to be attacked on encounter. This means that rare conspicuous mutants of defended prey should, on average, be attacked more frequently than their cryptic conspecifics. A possible solution to this problem, first suggested by Fisher (1930), is that gregariousness could facilitate the evolution of distastefulness (and hence aposematism). Thus, if prey are warningly coloured and aggregated, then an attack on one individual by a naive predator could lead to subsequent avoidance of others in the group, often relatives, that share the same trait (this proposal was the initial inspiration for Hamilton's (1963) theory of kin selection) . . . --Christopher D. Beatty, Roderick S. Bain & Thomas N. Sherratt, 23 May 2005. Animal Behaviour 70: 199.\nThe Darwinian theory and Wallace's original theory can be formalized in terms of what is called today the carrying capacity of the environment, usually denoted by K; in Wallace's words, this is the level at which \"the population must have reached its limits, and have become stationary.\" Suppose that the carrying capacity of the parental form on its own is K, and that the carrying capacities of the parental form and the advantageous variation when they coexist are K1 and K2 respectively. Under Darwin's theory K1Z0, whereas K2 is equal to or perhaps slightly greater than K, so that the parental form eventually becomes extinct even in a constant environment. Under Wallace's theory both carrying capacities are greater than zero, with K1!K2, so that both forms can coexist; if the environment deteriorates, both carrying capacities decrease, and if the deterioration is severe K1 becomes 0, so that the parental form becomes extinct. When the environment recovers, the carrying capacities return to their original values so that both types can again coexist . . . --Michael Bulmer, 22 May 2005. Notes & Records of the Royal Society 59(2): 130.\nIt was Wallace (1855) who was the first to recognize the correlation between geographic distribution and evolutionary relationship. Wallace (1855) in fact described how a process akin to what is now called vicariance might have produced modern faunal differences in the Galapagos Islands if these now distinct islands were once joined. In effect, Wallace (1855) was arguing that one way the geological world impinges on the biological world is through the mechanism we now refer to as allopatric speciation. If speciation is allopatric, species can disperse over geographic barriers (that have geological or climatic causes) and become isolated, or geological or climatic changes can cause populations of species to become isolated from one another by creating barriers within formerly continuous ranges; the latter is termed vicariance. In either case, the isolated populations diverge and eventually speciate . . . --Bruce S. Lieberman, 11 April 2005. Palaeogeography, Palaeocimatology, Palaeoecology 219: 25.\nAlthough these definitions vary, the common emphasis is on the provision of a more stimulating environment. Historically Alfred Russel Wallace may have been one of the first individuals to provide enrichment to captive animals (Wallace 1869). Upon receipt of an orphan orangutan in his camp, he fashioned an artificial mother from a buffalo skin that appeared to comfort the animal, served as a surrogate mother, and thereby enriched the animal's environment. Shortly afterward, Wallace received another animal in camp, a cynomolgus monkey, and the two animals were successfully paired. Thus Wallace's earliest attempts at enriching the animal's environment included the provision of both inanimate and animate exemplars of enrichment . . . --James L. Weed & James M. Raber, March 2005. ILAR Journal 46(2): 118.\nA. R. Wallace originally invented the concept now known as aposematism to describe prey that combine warning displays with secondary defences (Wallace 1867, 1889). More than a century later, the evolution of aposematism remains a remarkably fertile and controversial area of research. Warning displays are still of interest to researchers, in part, because the proximate mechanisms by which they operate tell us much about predator behaviour and predator-prey coevolution. As originally envisaged by Wallace (1867) and Poulton (1890), warning displays function to enhance discrimination, to accelerate learning and perhaps slow down forgetting . . . --Michael P. Speed & Graeme D. Ruxton, 21 February 2005. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 272: 431.\n. . . aposematic displays remain the focus of considerable attention because, for many researchers, their initial origins contain at least two important evolutionary paradoxes. First, it is generally assumed that before the first aposematic traits evolved, prey were both highly cryptic and had effective secondary defences. If secondary defences are costly (and they often are), then their presence in prey already highly protected by crypsis is paradoxical: why pay for repellent secondary defences if your enemy rarely finds you? Second, there is a better-known paradox of warning signals, which also emerges from commonly held assumptions about initial conditions. Ever since the seminal theoretical model of Harvey et al. (1982), it is widely taken that aposematic mutants must emerge from defended cryptic species. When this is the case, new aposematic forms suffer combined and highly effective barriers to survival because of their rarity and their conspicuousness . . . --Michael P. Speed & Graeme D. Ruxton, 21 February 2005. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 272: 431.\n. . . as Wallace originally envisaged, warning displays might be conspicuous so as to be \"very distinct from the protective tints of the defenceless animals allied to them\" (Wallace 1889, p. 232). Hence a good reason that aposematism may evolve initially is to prevent confusion with undefended prey. On its own, behavioural conspicuousness itself may not be a sufficiently reliable signal of non-profitability to function as an aposematic display. As we found . . . prey can evolve some heightened levels of behavioural conspicuousness even when they do not evolve adaptive secondary defences. Hence, some additional discriminative cue may be necessary for defended prey to minimize erroneous attacks by educated predators . . . --Michael P. Speed & Graeme D. Ruxton, 21 February 2005. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, Biological Sciences 272: 436.\nThe language faculty is one component of what the co-founder of modern evolutionary theory, Alfred Russel Wallace, called \"man's intellectual and moral nature\": the human capacities for creative imagination, language and symbolism generally, mathematics, interpretation and recording of natural phenomena, intricate social practices, and the like, a complex of capacities that seem to have crystallized fairly recently, perhaps a little over 50,000 years ago, among a small breeding group of which we are all descendants--a complex that sets humans apart rather sharply from other animals, including other hominids, judging by traces they have left in the archaeological record. The nature of the \"human capacity,\" as some researchers now call it, remains a considerable mystery. It was one element of a famous disagreement between the two founders of the theory of evolution, with Wallace holding, contrary to Darwin, that evolution of these faculties cannot be accounted for in terms of variation and natural selection alone, but requires \"some other influence, law, or agency,\" some principle of nature alongside gravitation, cohesion, and other forces without which the material universe could not exist. Although the issues are framed differently today within the core biological sciences, they have not disappeared . . . --Noam Chomsky, Winter 2005. Linguistic Inquiry 36(1): 3.\n. . . Rohde (1978, 1992) expanded earlier suggestions that high-energy levels may increase speciation rates (Wallace, 1878). Relationships between speciation/extinction rates and energy may arise directly through the influence of solar energy on mutation rates, and most literature on the diversification rate mechanism focuses on this relationship. Alternatively, both solar and productive energy availability may influence speciation/extinction rates indirectly through variables such as body size and reproductive rates . . . --Karl L. Evans, Philip H. Warren & Kevin J. Gaston, February 2005. Biological Reviews 80(1): 14.\n. . . adaptationism is usually traced back to Alfred R. Wallace, one of the two great biological revolutionaries, who was also one of the forefathers of modern astrobiology with his intriguing and remarkably prescient 1903 book Man's Place in the Universe. This view is the scientific foundation of Schroeder's solution to Fermi's paradox. Intelligence is an adaptive trait, like any other. Adaptive traits are bound to disappear once the environment changes sufficiently for any selective advantage which existed previously to disappear. In the long run, the intelligence is bound to disappear, as its selective advantage is temporally limited by ever-changing physical and ecological conditions . . . --Milan M. Cirkovic, January-February 2005. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (JBIS) 58(1-2): 65.\nThe first report of a tool-using parrot in the wild was in 1869, by Wallace (2000). He described a black palm cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus) in New Guinea using a piece of leaf as a wedge while feeding from kanary nuts (Canarium commune). According to the author, after starting to groove the nut with its lower mandible, the bird held it in its foot and bit off a piece of leaf. This was retained in the deep notch of the upper mandible while the bird started to seize the nut once again, fixing the edge of the lower mandible in the notch and braking off a piece of shell by a powerful nip. Wallace suggested that the nut was prevented from slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf (Wallace 2000) . . . --Andressa Borsari & Eduardo B. Ottoni, January 2005. Animal Cognition 8(1): 48.\n. . . the Wakatobi Marine National Park includes all coral reefs, islands, and communities within its boundaries and is centered around the main islands in the Wakatobi archipelago. The area is considered \"a geological and biological anomaly\" and is located at a zone of transition between the two distinct faunas associated with the Asian and Australian continents. Wallace (1869) postulated that the islands of Sulawesi had been isolated far longer than the surrounding islands, giving evolution a much greater opportunity to shape a unique fauna . . . --Benjamin P. Horton et al., January 2005. Journal of Foraminiferal Research 35(1): 4.\nWallace's rhetorical world was as remote from Darwin's as their social worlds--they wrote up their theories differently. Although a colonial infrastructure made much of Wallace's fieldwork possible, the solitary English collector, living alongside natives and dependent on their knowledge and skills, eschewed the rich imperial language in which Darwin depicted evolving life. Wallace thought spatially and described his theories in ways appropriate to the Welsh mapmaking enterprise from which he first learned about native habitats. He wrote with artless clarity. One searches in vain for conquering colonial imagery in his major theoretical essays between 1855 and 1864. Here \"organic beings\" are continually \"peopling\" the earth and making it a \"theatre of life.\" New species evolve under changed \"physical conditions\" in \"an unbroken and harmonious system.\" The faunas of \"neighboring countries\" testify to their geological past, showing that new species were \"gradually introduced\" as the regions became isolated. The arrival of \"chance immigrants\" is often followed by \"natural extinction and renewal of species,\" and those organisms with \"greater powers of dispersion\" and \"a greater plasticity of organization\" have \"extended themselves\" over continents. The \"regular and unceasing extinction of species, and their replacement by allied forms\" is an \"established fact,\" contingent in every case on the quantity and quality of available food . . . --James Moore, 2005. In David N. Livingstone & Charles W. J. Withers, eds., Geography and Revolution (University of Chicago Press): 121-122.\nIn The Malay Archipelago, Wallace's most popular and widely read book, the only \"empire\" is Austrian, \"imperial\" is a common species name, and only the Dutch, the Portuguese, and ants have \"colonies.\" \"Aborigines\" are always human, \"natives\" are established residents (also marsupials in the Moluccas and flowers in the Himalayas), and people wage \"war,\" \"conquer,\" and \"exterminate\" one another (also the flying opossum). \"Competition\" too is a human prerogative, but no \"invasion\" crops up, nor any of its cognates. Districts may be \"overrun\" and indigenous populations \"supplanted\"; \"inhabitants\" and \"enemies\" of different species may \"struggle\" and \"migrate.\" Yet Wallace is remarkably consistent--startlingly so compared to Darwin in the Origin of Species--in omitting to cast living organisms in imperial Britain's image. . . . James Moore, 2005. In David N. Livingstone & Charles W. J. Withers, eds., Geography and Revolution (University of Chicago Press): 124.\nWhat role, if any, natural selection itself plays in reproductive isolation in the earliest stages of speciation when populations first begin to diverge has been a contentious issue since the late 19th century when Alfred Russel Wallace (1889) advocated the idea that the low fitness of hybrids should select for reproductive isolation between diverging populations. This selective mechanism has been called the Wallace effect or (more frequently) reinforcement. Support for reinforcement waxed and waned throughout the 20th century, enjoying increasing popularity after Dobzhansky elaborated the theory in the 1940s, going out of favor in the 1980s when theory discounted it, only to recover more recently when new theoretical models turned in its favour. Prezygotic isolating mechanisms have now been investigated in over 100 mathematical models, firmly establishing a theoretical basis for the evolution of reinforcement under the right conditions . . . --J. Silvertown et al., 2005. Heredity 95: 198.\nAccordingly, we summarize four macroevolutionary patterns exhibited by venomous snake mimicry as the Savage-Wallace Effects: First, mimicry is more likely among closely related organisms that share a common body plan (e.g., among lepidopterans, among fishes, and thus their specific similarities (e.g., wing color patterns in butterflies) are representative of evolutionary parallelism . . . Second, mimicry spanning distantly related organisms, representative of evolutionary convergence, is more likely to involve planarians, myriapods, fishes, snakes, and other groups with relatively simple body forms . . . Third, among vertebrates, snake mimicry is unusually widespread because of (1) and (2), and because venomous species can severely injure or kill predators . . . Fourth, the origin of noxious attributes can markedly increase diversity within a clade beyond that encompassed by unpalatable species; dangerous models thereby make otherwise \"unprotected niches\" possible for harmless relatives, and even for lifestyles not used by the models themselves . . . --Harry W. Greene & Roy McDiarmid, 2005. In Maureen Donnelly et al., eds., Ecology and Evolution in the Tropics: A Herpetological Perspective (University of Chicago Press): 205-206.\nProposed originally by A. R. Wallace in the mid 19th century (Wallace 1852), the riverine barrier hypothesis states that major Amazonian rivers significantly reduce or prevent gene flow between populations inhabiting opposite river banks, hence promoting speciation. In a phylogeographic framework, the main prediction of the riverine barrier hypothesis is that sister intraspecific clades and species will exist across major rivers rather than within major Amazonian interfluves; furthermore, phylogeographic and population genetics data can distinguish between primary divergence across rivers (predicted by the riverine barrier hypothesis) versus secondary contact along rivers between nonsister taxa that diversified elsewhere. A second prediction of the riverine barrier hypothesis comes from the observation that the upper reaches of all major Amazonian rivers are narrower than the lower reaches; therefore, a gradual reduction of the \"river-barrier effect\" is expected to take place from the lower to the upper part of the river's course . . . --Alexandre Aleixo, June 2004. Evolution 58(6): 1303.\n. . . the possibility that at least some instances of similarity among distasteful species may have evolved through selection to deceive predators has been frequently raised. Even before the publication of the theory of Mullerian mimicry, Wallace (1871) proposed that \"distasteful secretion is not produced alike by all members of the family and that where it is deficient, protective imitation comes into play\" . . . -- Thomas N. Sherratt, Michael P. Speed & Graeme D. Ruxton, May 2004. Journal of Theoretical Biology 228: 217-218.\nAlfred Russel Wallace was the first to suggest that aging and death might be evolved traits. In the 1860s, he suggested that individuals are programmed to die so that they do not compete with their offspring. His idea had some early support, notably from the influential German biologist August Weismann, but by the 1920s it had been dismissed as a \"perverse extension of the theory of natural selection\". By the middle of the last century, the focus of evolutionary theory on senescence had shifted to other theories such as mutation accumulation and antagonistic prejotropy . . . Recent discoveries in nematodes, insects, and mammals of genes that, when mutated, increase life span, have increased interest in the evolution of aging. In this article, I show that within a spatially structured population, programmed death does evolve and suggest that it is time to reconsider the \"perverse\" theories of Wallace and Weismann . . . --Justin Travis, April 2004. Journal of Gerontology A: Biological Sciences 59(4): 301.\nConspicuous and simple color patterns (often red, yellow, or white in combination with black) are common among animals that are distasteful, noxious, or otherwise potentially dangerous to their predators ( . . . Wallace, 1867). The common view is that conspicuousness has evolved because it constitutes a strong visual signal that is easy for receiving predators to detect, learn, and associate with unpalatability. However, conspicuous coloration may provide protection against predators even if the prey lacks chemical or structural defense mechanisms, because coloration may elicit spontaneous avoidance behaviors in naive predators. It has been suggested that bilateral asymmetry also may play a role in communication, but this has been studied primarily within the context of mate choice . . . --Anders Forsman & Joakim Herrstr\u00f6m, January-February 2004. Behavioral Ecology 15(1): 141.\nAlthough we have many species from most of the major species groups and subgroups related to D. melanogaster in our analysis, speciation patterns for independent species groups and subgroups need to be examined with a number of genes to generalize these inferences. Nevertheless, if the observed correspondence between the time of species divergences and paleoclimate changes is true, it supports Wallace's hypothesis for a rapid species change resulting from climatic change (Wallace 1870a, b). In the present case, the factor is postulated to be climatic cooling in the Cenozoic. A major consequence of this cooling was an extensive increase in aridification in the middle to low latitude regions, which lead to expansions of savannas and grasslands as well as the fragmentation of forests that were primary habitats of ancestral fruit fly species and populations. The adaptation to the newly arisen dry environment and the allopatry caused by the forest fragmentation are potential causes for stimulating fruit fly speciation. The former adaptation is supported by the distribution patterns of D. teissieri and D. yakuba, which are adapted to forests and savannas, respectively . . . --Koichiro Tamura, Sankar Subranmanian & Sudhir Sumar, January 2004. Molecular Biology and Evolution 21(1): 42.\nFor Wallace, the mind overarched natural selection. He believed there was a more daring, vertical movement that boosts life toward higher levels of complexity and consciousness. After all, if evolution were merely a matter of survival by adaptation, we might still be a planet of hearty bacteria. Those bacteria would have their history, an eons-long series of variations and adaptations, all responsive to selection, but without movement toward greater complexity. For that matter, if complexity beyond the unicellular level were rare and episodic, coming and going over the eons, we would still have evolution as Darwin explained it. But in the only example we have of evolving life--our own Earth--we see something more dramatic. We see a steady undeterred thrust toward a net gain in complexity. The microbes continue, but life has branched out into an amazing array of new species. It has been building itself up into ever more delicate, sentient forms. To ignore that fact would be to ignore the defining feature of evolution. . . . --Theodore Roszak, 2004. In David Rothenburg & Wandee J. Pryor, eds., Writing the Future: Progress and Evolution (MIT Press): 3-4.\nSteven Pinker (How the Mind Works) and Daniel Dennett (Darwin's Dangerous Idea) speak for mainstream evolutionary theory when they insist that the mind was built up incrementally by way of small, selective advantages in the same way as a bird's wing. They see the growth of intelligence as wholly a matter of problem solving and toolmaking--practical talents to which natural selection easily applies. They simply ignore Wallace's dilemma, offering no reason why the mind should ever have developed beyond simple counting, toolmaking, and enough verbal ability to coordinate a hunting expedition . . . --Theodore Roszak, 2004. In David Rothenburg & Wandee J. Pryor, eds., Writing the Future: Progress and Evolution (MIT Press): 5.\nOne could argue that males can survive better by being smaller and more cryptic than females. The importance of predation to the evolution of sexual dimorphism was first stressed by Wallace (1889), who suggested that crypsis in females is favoured because bright colours potentially attract nest predators. Recent comparative studies, such as that undertaken by Martin & Badyaev (1996), seem to confirm this point. In tinamous, reversed sexual roles and predation risks incurred by incubating males may explain why they are less colourful than their conspecific females. Small size and cryptic coloration are probably complementary strategies to avoid predators . . . --P. L. Tubaro & S. Bertelli, November 2003. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 80(3): 526.\nTo understand why small monitor species have radiated so dramatically through Australia, New Guinea, and their adjacent islands, but not elsewhere, we examined the possible role of Wallace's Line . . . In contrast to its influence on the mammals, Wallace's Line is not a barrier to monitors--or is it? That depends on the adult size of the species . . . Large monitor species (in which adults are greater than four feet long) are just as diverse on lands east of Wallace's Line as they are to the west, or for that matter in mainland Asia and Africa. Small monitor species, however, occur only to the east of the line . . . --Samuel S. Sweet & Eric R. Pianka, November 2003. Natural History 112(9): 44.\nIt has long been recognized that prey that possess significant defenses against predators tend to be conspicuous in some way (Wallace 1867; Darwin 1871; Poulton 1890). The contemporary explanation for this phenomenon, termed \"aposematism\" (Poulton 1890), is that there is \"something special\" about the educational properties of conspicuous traits as a signal of defense. For example, it has been repeatedly shown that predators learn to avoid unpalatable prey more quickly when they are conspicuous than when they are cryptic. This theory for the evolution of aposematism is plausible, but there is an important caveat. Whatever the underlying cause of aposematism, it is likely that predators would evolve an enhanced psychological predisposition to learn to avoid conspicuous prey precisely because such prey tend to be defended . . . --Thomas N. Sherratt & Christopher D. Beatty, October 2003. The American Naturalist 162(4): 377.\n'The Darwinian theory is wrong because random variations tend to worsen performance'. Thus wrote Fred Hoyle in his famous book 'The intelligent universe'. Hoyle pointed out three important things in this book. First, that the idea of natural selection had been around for several decades before Darwin wrote The Origin. Secondly, that it was Wallace's clear letter of 1858 that really clarified Darwin's mind on the matter. Thirdly, and more important, natural selection as conceived by Darwin and Wallace just won't work mathematically. The odds are stacked hugely against random change producing even one new protein . . . --Anthony K. Campbell, July 2003. Astrophysics and Space Science 285(2): 571.\nWith respect to the theory of sexual selection, Darwin (1859, 1872) developed this novel concept but did not describe the function of this behaviour (for instance, the role of the male peacock's tale). As Dawkins has pointed out, it was Wallace who speculated that a male with brightly coloured tail feathers is showing that he is a high-quality individual. Subsequent studies have shown that this idea is supported by experimental evidence. Hence, with respect to the second mode of selection in nature, Wallace developed the concept originally proposed by Darwin (1859, 1872) and did draw the correct conclusions . . . --U. Kutschera, 1 May 2003. Theory in Biosciences 122(4): 357-358.\nWhy do we believe Wallace when he writes about evolution yet ignore him when he turns to spiritualism? Part of the reason is the context in which we receive his writings today. Spiritualism is now out of fashion, hoaxes have been exposed, and there is no longer a social context for the idea of spiritualism. The experiments, while repeatable in Wallace's day, are no longer repeatable, and thus they fail one of the hallmarks of the scientific method. But they were repeatable then! When one reads Wallace's works, one is struck by how he acted with complete warrant in exploring spiritualism scientifically. As Kuhn has demonstrated, Wallace was operating under the social constructs of his day . . . --Steven L. Peck, March 2003. Zygon 38(1): 11.\nAs we shall show, the concept of the diorama emerged from the construction of biogeographical zones. Moreover, the concept of biogeographical zones not only triggered the vision of the diorama as its \"musee imaginaire\" but, from the very beginning, theorizing on biogeographical zones was captured by visual means such as maps and illustrations. These images had a strong impact on the emergence of dioramic displays by providing two-dimensional forerunners for what were later implemented as three-dimensional museum installations. As we show in this paper, the new mode of illustration introduced by Wallace in 1876 formed a crucial influence. In The Geographical Distribution of Animals Wallace elected to illustrate different biogeographical zones by the simultaneous display of animals from different taxa against an ecologically appropriate background. By and large, each animal was itself in some way unique to its zone and could potentially have been used as a surrogate for the zone . . . --Julia Voss & Sahotra Sarkar, February 2003. Philosophy & Geography 6(1): 61.\nWallace insisted that none of these suggestions went to the heart of the problem. None of these people had suggested anything more than some 'force'--but force is a cause of motion, not a cause of organization. There must be something more than merely a force. There must be some agency that guides and coordinates the process which builds up that infinitely complex machine, the living organism. Wallace thought of the cell as being not only self-repairing, but also self-renewing, self-multiplying, self-adapting to its ever-changing environment, so as to be, potentially, everlasting . . . --Roger Steer, 2003. In his Letter to an Influential Atheist (Authentic Lifestyle): 27.\nThe co-inventor of evolutionary theory, Alfred Russel Wallace, was aware of the significance of Darwin's views. In his book, Darwinism, (originally published in 1890) Wallace took pains to distance himself from Darwin on the question of human capacities. He pointed to the mistake that someone might make by conjecturing that all geological changes are due to factors such as flooding, volcanic activity, the action of the wind and the sun, and so on while overlooking the special contribution made by glaciation. Glaciation is an important cause of change, but is radically different from the other causes of geological change. By analogy, Wallace argues, \"Because man's physical structure has been developed from an animal form by natural selection, it does not necessarily follow that his mental nature . . . has been developed by the same causes only (Wallace 1897: xx).\" Our mental capacities and our morality, Wallace suggests, may be due to something quite different from natural selection . . . --Andrew Brennan, 2003. Worldviews 7(3): 276-277.\nIn the second edition of Primitive Culture, Tylor's doubts about psychic phenomena were suppressed and Spiritualism roundly denounced as a survival of animistic beliefs (Tylor 1873). Yet, even the formulations used in Primitive Culture betray an ambivalence within its scheme of mental evolution that seems fundamental to contemporary scientific politics. Tylor felt forced to class modern Spiritualism with \"primitive\" animism--the kind of arbitrary classification that Wallace was up against in his critique of Primitive Culture and in his earliest writings on botany. But Tylor also had to acknowledge that Spiritualism was not just a survival but an extraordinary revival of animism. He even went as far as to recognize the anomalous status of Spiritualism within his progressionist scheme, because the former \"is a truly remarkable case of degeneration\" (1873), the possibility of which Primitive Culture was originally intended to argue out of existence . . . --Peter Pels, 2003. In Birgit Meyer & Peter Pels, eds., Magic and Modernity: Interfaces of Revolution and Concealment (Stanford Univ. Press): 258.\n. . . In Miracles and Modern Spiritualism, the argument about perception was developed after Wallace denounced the theoretical fallacy of assuming that because Spiritualist phenomena ran counter to our knowledge of the laws of nature, they cannot exist. He argued that the physical phenomena that occur during a seance, can only be explained by presuming invisible intelligences, which was only \"another and more striking illustration than any we have yet received of how small a portion of the great cosmos our senses give us cognisance\" (1874). He compared the force exerted by these intelligences with light, heat, electricity, and magnetism (ala \"modes of motion\" of a space-filling \"ether\") to show how these \"diffuse and subtle\" forms of matter can act upon \"ponderable bodies\" and become known to us only by their effects. The fact that we do not know this higher sense is no argument, Wallace wrote, because likewise the \"faculty of vision\" would be \"inconceivable\" to a race of blind men. \"It is possible and even probably that there may be modes of sensation as superior to all ours as is sight to that of touch and hearing\" (1874). The subject of divination, in particular, allowed Wallace to elaborate on this? The clairvoyance that is at the basis of divination led him to suppose a \"new sense\" that amounts to \"a kind of rudimentary perception, which can only get at the truth by degrees.\" . . . --Peter Pels, 2003. In Birgit Meyer & Peter Pels, eds., Magic and Modernity: Interfaces of Revolution and Concealment (Stanford Univ. Press): 262.\n. . . The lesson seems to be: if you think hard about species origins, then it does not matter how you travel, you will reach the theory of natural selection in the end. On closer inspection, however, the Wallace case offers at least a few openings to those sceptical about the independence of the theory from its history. One move would be to deny that Wallace did, in fact, 'co-discover' the theory of natural selection. Rather, he came up with a theory quite different from Darwin's, and Darwin's overreaction in 1858 has misled historians ever since . . . --Gregory Radick, 2003. In Jonathan Hodge & Gregory Radick, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Darwin (Cambridge Univ. Press): 150.\nThree features of Wallace's account of the evolution of human mind and morals stand out. First, he conceived the selective environment to be other proto-human groups--which would have an accelerating effect on the evolutionary process, since social environments would rapidly change through responsive competition. Second, he proposed that selection worked on the group, rather than the individual--which allowed him to explain the rise of altruistic behaviour, that is, behaviour perhaps harmful to the individual but beneficial to the group. In his original essay on the transmutation of species (1858), Wallace conceived of the struggle for existence as occurring among varieties instead of individuals. He continued to think in such group terms when considering the evolution of moral behaviour. Finally, in a note to the published version of his talk to the Anthropological Society, he mentioned that he was inspired to develop his thesis by reading Herbert Spencer's Social Statics. Spencer's own early brand of socialism had pulled Wallace to his side. In Social Statics, (1851), Spencer had envisioned a gradual and continual adjustment of human beings to the requirements of civil society, with individuals accommodating themselves to the needs of their fellows, so that eventually a classless society would emerge in which the greatest happiness for the greatest number would be realised. Spencer assumed that the inheritance of useful habits would be the means by which such evolutionary progress would occur, while Wallace believed natural selection to be the agent of that progress . . . --Robert J. Richards, 2003. In Jonathan Hodge & Gregory Radick, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Darwin (Cambridge Univ. Press): 102-103.\nOn the basis of personal experiments and reliable reports from other scientists, Wallace concluded that the universe is populated with a hierarchy of spirit beings, some of whom are in contact with the human population on earth, usually through mediums. According to Wallace, the spirit beings lower in the hierarchy, acting through mediums, were responsible for a variety of paranormal phenomena, including clairvoyance, miraculous healings, communications from the dead, apparitions, materializations of physical objects, levitations, etc. More powerful spirit beings may have played a role in the process of evolution, guiding it in certain directions . . . --Michael A. Cremo, 2003. In his Human Devolution: A Vedic Alternative to Darwin's Theory. (Bhaktivedanta Book Publishing Inc.): 102.\n. . . Hume appealed to uniform human experience in his refutation of miracles. For example, Hume observed \"it is a miracle that a dead man should come to life; because that has never been observed in any age of any country\" Wallace noted two flaws in this argument. First, the appeal to uniform human experience, granting the truly uniform nature of the experience, insures that no really new fact could ever be established. Second, Wallace questioned the veracity of Hume's version of uniform human experience. \"Reputed miracles abound in all periods of history,\" wrote Wallace (1896, p. 8). And they continued up to the present, thus nullifying Hume's assumption. . . --Michael A. Cremo, 2003. In his Human Devolution: A Vedic Alternative to Darwin's Theory. (Bhaktivedanta Book Publishing Inc.): 116.\n. . . The space-filling ether of nineteenth century physics is no longer with us. But there are modern scientific concepts that would allow Wallace's basic system to operate. According to deterministic chaos theorists, immeasurably small random perturbances of matter can rapidly propagate into large-scale effects that are not easily predictable. Scientists sometimes give the example of a Caribbean butterfly that by its wings sets off motions of air molecules. These movements might eventually amplify to steer a hurricane from open sea into the American coast. If the butterfly had flapped its wings slightly differently, the hurricane might not have hit land. According to this idea, Wallace's spirit beings might make infinitesimal adjustments on the subatomic level that would quickly propagate into observable spiritualist effects. One might also propose that they are somehow capable of manipulating the curvature of Einstein's space-time continuum. They could thus produce gravitational effects, for gravity is said to be the result of curvature in the continuum. Or one might propose that the spirit beings induce slight changes in the quantum mechanical vacuum, which in some ways resembles an ether. Of course, this approach is limiting, and rather than straining to find ways to explain spiritualist phenomena in conformity with currently accepted physical laws, it may make more sense to come up with a new theoretical system that more naturally incorporates both the normal and paranormal phenomena . . . --Michael A. Cremo, 2003. In his Human Devolution: A Vedic Alternative to Darwin's Theory. (Bhaktivedanta Book Publishing Inc.): 128.\n. . . Wallace favored the latter course, but his system has certain puzzling features. Although a dualist, he does not appear to accept the existence of individual conscious entities before their earthly embodiment. According to Wallace, there is an original spiritual mind from which matter is generated. Individual spiritual minds, associated with spiritual bodies (souls), are only developed from and in material bodies, as they come into existence (Wallace 1885; in Smith 1991, p. 100). After death, the individual minds, as above stated, go to \"the first grade of spirit life,\" where they experience progress or the lack of it based on their earthly habits. But if individual spirit souls can exist after earthly embodiment, why not before? And why is there any need at all for earthly embodiment, which is not an altogether pleasant experience? Why not skip that and go directly to the highest grade of spiritual life? . . . --Michael A. Cremo, 2003. In his Human Devolution: A Vedic Alternative to Darwin's Theory. (Bhaktivedanta Book Publishing Inc.): 129.\n. . . Here is another problem with Wallace's system. In his works, Wallace details reports of varied spiritualistic phenomena, such as levitation, apparitions, and clairvoyance, from his own time and throughout history. But he ignores reports of transmigration of souls, which occur widely in almost all times and places. The reports of transmigration are just as credible as any other category of evidence he considers. The existence of this phenomena requires, however, certain modifications in Wallace's system. At death, souls would pass not necessarily into the first phase of spiritual existence but perhaps into new material bodies. According to religious systems that incorporate transmigration, such as the Vedic system, some souls, because of their strong attachment to their last embodiment, do not attain new material bodies, but remain for some time as ghosts. This actually fits in quite well with the observations of Wallace and other spiritualists, who found that the spirits they contacted often desired to communicate with living friends and relatives . . . --Michael A. Cremo, 2003. In his Human Devolution: A Vedic Alternative to Darwin's Theory. (Bhaktivedanta Book Publishing Inc.): 129.\nInstead of unthinkingly placing English society at the top of the evolutionary tree, he argued that the evolutionary process had gone awry. In Wallace's hands evolutionary theory ceased to act as a rationalization of what was and became a promise of what could be. The key here was to hold up so-called savage societies as occasionally more civilized and more advanced than the West. Thus towards the end of his popular travel book The Malay Archipelago (1869), Wallace favourably contrasted primitive morality with the 'social barbarism' of Victorian England. If a savage society could attain a higher level of morality, then something must have disturbed England's evolutionary progression. The villain was laissez-faire individualism. Human evolution--the development of man's moral and intellectual faculties--depended upon the extent to which man was exempted from an individualist, physical struggle. Yet Victorian society celebrated individualism . . . --David A. Stack, 2003. In his The First Darwinian Left: Socialism and Darwinism 1859-1914 (New Clarion Press): 28.\nHistorians of science have raised the suggestion that Wallace's version of natural selection was not quite so Darwinian as Darwin himself believed. Wallace persistently used the word 'variety' as the level of entity at which natural selection acts. You heard an example in the long passage I have just read out. And some have suggested that Wallace, unlike Darwin who clearly saw selection as choosing among individuals, was proposing what modern theorists rightly denigrate as 'group selection'. This would be true if, by 'varieties', Wallace meant geographically separated groups or races of individuals. At first I wondered about this myself. But I believe a careful reading of Wallace's paper rules it out. I think that by 'variety' Wallace meant what we would nowadays call 'genetic type', even what a modern writer might mean by a gene. I think that, to Wallace in this paper, variety meant not local race of eagles, for example, but 'that set of individual eagles whose talons were hereditarily sharper than usual.' . . . --Richard Dawkins, October 2002. The Linnean 18(4): 20.\n. . . Modern Wallaceans accept that peacocks' tails and similar bright organs are advertisements to females. But they want the males to be advertising genuine quality. A male with bright coloured tail feathers is showing that he is a high quality male . . . The late W. D. Hamilton, of Oxford University, was a prime example of a Wallacean in this sense. He believed that sexually selected ornaments were badges of good health, selected for their capacity to advertise the health of a male--bad health as well as good. One way to express Hamilton's Wallacean idea is to say that selection favours females who become skilled veterinary diagnosticians. At the same time, selection favours males who make it easy for them by, in effect, growing the equivalent of conspicuous thermometers and blood-pressure metres. The long tail of a Bird of Paradise, for Hamilton, is an adaptation to make it easy for females to diagnose the male's health, good or bad. An example of a good general diagnostic is a susceptibility to diarrhoea. A long dirty tail is a give-away of ill-health. A long clean tail is the opposite. The longer the tail, the more unmistakeable the badge of health, whether good health or poor . . . --Richard Dawkins, October 2002. The Linnean 18(4): 22-23.\n. . . A significant positive correlation between the proportion of range area above 100 m and total range size for each species is used to suggest that past sea-level rises may explain smaller range sizes in low-lying regions and that riverine barriers have been important in shaping the current distribution of C. cleonus group species . . . Unfortunately, it is not clear exactly how important rivers have been or continue to be in the current distribution of C. cleonus group species because some of the central and lower Amazonian material is historical and the label data probably generalized; in such cases, uncertainty remains as to which bank specimens were really collected from, especially with the possibility of subsequent shifts in river course. Having said this, several lines of evidence do suggest that rivers have been influential in shaping the current distributions of C. cleonus group species . . . --Jason P. W. Hall & Donald J. Harvey, July 2002. Evolution 56(7): 1489, 1493-1494.\nSome cosmologists, including Alfred Russel Wallace, Freeman Dyson and Paul Davies, have formed the opinion that, in the words of Fred Hoyle, \"the universe is a put-up job\". They are expressing their marvel that the values of its constants and the forms of its laws are just those which allow such phenomena as the formation of planets, complex chemistry, life and intelligence. Some of them--including Paul Davies--go further than this. They argue that the laws of the universe were somehow legislated with purpose so that planets, chemistry and life could develop . . . Wallace, Hoyle, Dyson and others have made the point that even slight changes in some values of fundamental or cosmological constants, or even in the laws of physics themselves, would imply a universe in which life as we know it would not exist. Here are a few examples: If the Universe were much less dense, then stars and planets might not form. If the universe were much more dense, then it would have stopped expanding and contracted back into a hot big crunch long ago, possibly before any supernovae had had time to generate the elements needed for life. What if the laws of physics were different? If the strong nuclear force were much weaker than it is, then the electrostatic repulsion between protons would prevent the formation of large nuclei--hydrogen might be the only element. If gravity were different, or if the geometry of space-time were different, then stars might not form or planets might not have stable orbits . . . --Joe Wolfe, http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/danish.html (accessed 3 March 2002).\nThe check that 'human nature' placed upon hopes of social improvement is illustrated by Malthusianism. This was popularly conceived of as an argument about the limits human nature--in particular the impulse to procreation--placed upon progress. Thus the transformation sought by Owen in social relations was predicated upon the malleability and educability of the individual. Human nature can be improved beyond the limits set by present-day social relations, and education and environmental reform both play a role in this. Did these ideas influence Wallace's views on nature? In one important respect they did. Wallace's views on instinct and its role in animal and human behaviour are different from those of Darwin and contradict much of what passed for Darwinian psychology after the publication of the Origin. When Wallace talks about instinct in nature, whilst not denying its existence, he tends to discount the role of preformed, inherited behaviour and to talk up the notion of learning. Moreover, he returns throughout his life to the same proposition: the role of instinctive behaviour is small, that of learning relatively greater . . . --Greta Jones, March 2002. British Journal for the History of Science 35(1): 81.\n. . . Wallace saw many instances of mismatch between existing faculties and the environment. The natural world, like the social, was a site of dissonance between wants and the environment. The wants were relatively fixed points--the need for food and so on--but the behavioural responses to these were malleable. He noted a species of bird which in Africa and India 'eat only insects' whilst those in South America 'in great measure live upon fruits which they capture on the wing as they do insects. There is no difference in their structure but being in different countries surrounded by different circumstances they are led to adopt different habits'. In downgrading instinct Wallace introduced the idea there was always space for change, a potential for specialization or variability in behaviour even among individuals from the same species. Nature was not filled up with all that was possible for its full exploitation. The potential spaces in it were not necessarily occupied nor all the forms of behaviour found in natural organisms perfectly matched to their environment. Wallace constantly repeated this. In the case of the anatomy of birds wants and habits were limited by their structure, not structure by wants and habits, but even with the same structure behaviour differed. There is always room for modification and change. This contributes to the unsettled and evolving natural world . . . --Greta Jones, March 2002. British Journal for the History of Science 35(1): 83.\n. . .The difference in approach between Darwin's and Wallace's views on population is discernible in their respective contributions to the Linnean Society in 1858. Darwin introduces Malthus almost immediately and proceeds to litter his text with phrases and analogies from the Essay on Population. For Darwin, nature at war is 'the doctrine of Malthus applied in most cases with tenfold force'. Along with the struggle for mates introduced in his closing paragraphs, death is a major selective factor and death is the consequence of this 'enormous multiplying power'. In contrast Wallace begins with the question of varieties and the instability of species. He does not mention Malthus in his paper but he does quickly turn to the 'struggle for existence' and to population. However, in Wallace's hands the force of population increase loses that all-encompassing ontological character it displays in Darwin's first public exegesis of his theory. Malthus is certainly present in Wallace's paper but it is Malthus read by an Owenite . . . --Greta Jones, March 2002. British Journal for the History of Science 35(1): 93.\nSelection in favour of individuals that resemble the background has been invoked as the probable cause of cryptic coloration in prey species for over a century and there have been numerous demonstrations that predators preferentially feed on more conspicuous prey items. Our study is, however, the only work other than Endler's research on colour-pattern selection in guppies that has shown significant directional selection by predators over multiple successive prey generations when compared with a non-select control . . . --Alan B. Bond & Alan C. Kamil, February 2002. Nature 415(6872): 612.\nThe evolutionism of Darwin (1859) and Wallace (1875) is radically different from all previous lines of thought in that it uses the notion of contingency applied to living beings. Francois Jacob writing about this issue stated: \"with the theory of evolution, as with statistical thermodynamics, the notion of contingency became established in the very heart of nature. Since Newton (1934), physics had been based on a rigid determinism, which extended to all sciences. Evolutionary theory and statistical thermodynamics completely transformed the way of looking at nature, mainly because they brought together and gave the same status of related and measurable quantities to order and chance--two concepts which until then had been incompatible.\" . . . --Bernardo Dubvrovsky, January 2002. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 26(1): 2.\nThe theories he worked out during and after his travels in the East Indies dwelled essentially on spatial relationships, the reason to consider Wallace as being, fundamentally, a geographer. Consequently, geographical information was instrumental for Wallace both for his biogeographical as well as evolutionary contributions to biology. In several seminal papers and books he developed innovations in the historical reconstructions of faunas and, thus, implemented zoological geography as a biological discipline within the framework of evolutionary theory. It is, as Smith correctly stated, usually little appreciated how strongly natural processes are constrained by the necessity of having to take place in a three-dimensional space, and Wallace's skill at spatial analysis is best illustrated by his contribution to the biogeography of the Australasian region . . . --Matthias Glaubrecht, 2002. Verhandlungen zur Geschichte und Theorie der Biologie 9(2): 265.\nFrom Darwin's publication of Origin of Species until Wallace's publication of his autobiography in 1905, Wallace was perhaps the most influential critic of the idea that the bright coloration of animals could be the outcome of female mate choice. Wallace saw no reason to invoke what to him was an unsubstantiated assumption that females of non-human animals were capable of and inclined to discriminate among males based on the quality of their ornaments (Wallace 1878, 1889). Instead, Wallace searched for explanations of colorful plumage that would allow such traits to be understood as utilitarian, not ornamental and extravagant. In his studies of bird coloration, Wallace did not focus exclusively or even primarily on gaudy plumages. Rather Wallace focused much of his research on the subtle differences among species and individuals in explicitly non-ornamental traits like the buff, brown, gray, and green plumage of birds (Wallace 1878, 1889) . . . --Geoffrey E. Hill, 2002. In his A Red Bird in a Brown Bag: The Function and Evolution of Colorful Plumage in the House Finch (Oxford University Press): 7.\n. . . Far more convincingly than Darwin, Wallace showed how most plumage coloration supported the theory of evolution by natural selection. Most species, most of the time, are colored in ways that appear to enhance their survival and fecundity. Wallace provided an explanation for sexual dichromatism and drab female plumage that stands today as a triumph of the power of the comparative method in addressing evolutionary questions. Through his knowledge of the nesting biology of birds, Wallace showed that species with exposed nests in which the female alone incubates almost invariably have drab female plumage whether the male is colorful or not. Retesting and confirmation of this idea have only lately occurred. Wallace also was the first to set forth the idea that colorful plumage functions as a signal of species recognition. This became the most widespread explanation for colorful plumage for over seventy years, and it remains a too-often-ignored hypothesis in modern treatments of plumage coloration. Wallace also foreshadowed the now popular and well-supported idea that ornamental plumage could serve as a reliable signal of condition in his discussions of vital energy (Wallace 1878, 1889) . . . --Geoffrey E. Hill, 2002. In his A Red Bird in a Brown Bag: The Function and Evolution of Colorful Plumage in the House Finch (Oxford University Press): 10.\nWallace never seems to have suffered from the abstract doctrine of Philosophical Necessity. Charting his intellectual progress toward science, he notes that Robert Owen provided his introduction to \"advanced views.\" Owen's \"fundamental principle, on which all his teaching and all his practice were founded, was that the character of every individual is formed for and not by himself, first by heredity . . . and second by environment.\" Here, as with Martineau, Mill, Galton, and Darwin, philosophy intersects moral vocation, for this view requires restructuring the moral and legal system, which is based on the view that \"all men could be good if they liked.\" In a determinist system, people cannot be \"deterred from future aggression\" unless the conditions in which they develop are changed. Hence Owen's \"successful\" New Lanark. For Wallace, implicitly, the vocation of science and, one might hazard, the nature of his theory, grow from this insight into hereditary and environmental determinism . . . --George Levine, 2002. In his Dying to Know: Scientific Epistemology and Narrative in Victorian England (University of Chicago Press): 110.\n. . . While Wallace defers to chance in amusing ways and exhibits a Darwinian modesty in relation to his career, he sees a pattern of happy accident that implies something other than mere material causation. For himself, he can argue that: \"many of the conditions and circumstances that constitute our environment, though at the time they may seem unfortunate or even unjust, yet are often more truly beneficial than those which we should consider more favourable. Sometimes they only aid in the formation of character; sometimes they also lead to action which gives scope for the use of what might have been dormant or unused faculties (as, I think has occurred in my own case).\" But often, he says, those circumstances are not favorable, and if they consistently lead to bad consequences, \"the system of society\" is at fault. Wallace's willingness to accept inconsistency, to refuse the totalizations of a system making, marks his autobiography and his scientific life, and surely was consistent with--either as cause or effect--his own strong leanings toward socialism . . . --George Levine, 2002. In his Dying to Know: Scientific Epistemology and Narrative in Victorian England (University of Chicago Press): 111.\nAbstract: An annotated facsimile of those pages of Alfred Russel Wallace's notebook recording his consignments from the Malay Archipelago to his London agent, Samuel Stevens, is provided. Records of individual consignments are linked with the stages of Wallace's and Charles Allen's itineraries to which they relate and are amplified from data provided by Wallace elsewhere; wherever possible, dates and places of the despatch of consignments and of the dates of their receipt in London are noted; and the dates of material becoming available for study are established, chiefly from British Museum accessions registers. It is intended that this should provide readier access to scattered collection data and should in particular assist in determining what specimens may properly be regarded as types or syntypes of the many taxa described by numerous contemporary authors from Wallace's material . . . --Daniel B. Baker, December 2001. Zoologische Mededelingen 75(16-25): 251.\nIt was precisely this latter characteristic, and the way in which Wallace's radical positions intertwined--his faith that some kind of willpower or spirit, lying outside or beyond natural selection, was responsible for moral evolution in the human species; his rejection of the more crude, social Darwinian deductions from biological theory; and his attack on the wastage of nature caused by rampant industrialism--that make him a valuable exponent of both the potentialities and the limitations of evolutionism as a philosophy. I am particularly interested here, of course, in Wallace as a tropicalist, especially the concern he articulated for the despoliation of tropical nature, a theme that emerged in his mature consideration of his tropical experiences and which, though connected to the new evolutionary outlook, was not a necessary outcome of it (Darwin, for example, did not share Wallace's concerns about the consequences of tropical destruction). This is perhaps the most overlooked aspect of Wallace's multifaceted contributions (most histories of environmentalism make no mention of him). In this chapter, then, I approach Wallace as arguably the most interesting student of tropical nature in the second half of the nineteenth century, a writer of popular natural-history books who was also a philosopher of nature, someone whose evolving representations of tropical nature take us into the post-Humboldtian, evolutionary era, and into the beginnings of the ecological era properly speaking . . . --Nancy Leys Stepan, 2001. In her Picturing Tropical Nature (Cornell University Press): 59.\n. . . It was in the tropics, especially the islands of the East Indies, that Wallace first became aware of the ambiguities of the human presence in nature, the fragility of the evolutionary balance and the threat posed to it by overweening domination for purposes of commerce and gain. In his mature writings, he expressed the ideas that nature had not, in fact, been created just for human appreciation or consumption; that plants, animals and human beings formed a network of mutual interdependence; and that it was Europeans' actions that had the most profoundly negative effects on nature and culture, effects which could not be repaired easily . . . --Nancy Leys Stepan, 2001. In her Picturing Tropical Nature (Cornell University Press): 80.\nWallace's Line, essentially based on information about birds and larger mammals, with later attempts to delimit the Oriental from the Australian realm, has had enormous heuristic value and may even have triggered much of the biogeographic research which has been carried out in the region. Even today, as exemplified by the conference from which this volume arose, interest in the Wallacean region persists and may even have increased. With the availability of new data in geology and new methods, in particular for phylogeny reconstruction and for the measurement of genetic distinctiveness, the area has become even more interesting for biogeographers . . . --W. R. Erdelen, 2001. In Ian Metcalfe et al., eds., Faunal and Floral Migrations and Evolution in SE Asia-Australia (A. A. Balkema Publishers): 129.\n. . . there was undeniably an 'individualist' accent to Wallace's program of interventionist egalitarianism. Wallace was not a collectivist. His socialism was never an attraction to a great and organising state. \"Socialism\" was to Wallace 'the use by everyone of his faculties for the common good, and the voluntary organisation of labour for the equal benefit of all' (Wallace, 1905). The use of the word 'voluntary' in his definition of socialism is surely significant. Under Wallace's socialism industry would be run by enterprises composed of capital-owning workers. Land nationalisation would not amount to a system of state farms or agricultural collectives. Rather, the state would be the sole owner of land, and would rent out its land to a throng of individual tenants . . . --William Coleman, 2001. In John Laurent & John Nightingale, eds., Darwinism and Evolutionary Economics (Edward Elgar): 42.\n. . . The previous sections have used the case of Alfred Russel Wallace to scrutinise the proposition that natural selection was a projection onto nature of a political economy apologetic for a dominant class interest. This proposition is just one manifestation of a general and familiar vision of science . . . Alfred Wallace's scientific achievement, we have argued, makes for a jarring disconfirmation of this theory. Rather than seeking to inscribe norms justifying the dominance of one class, one race, one genera, Wallace sought to overturn such conventional dominance: of the wealthy, of the white race and (we may add here) of men. And, rather than being 'organically connected' to science's ruling elite, few could be less connected than Wallace to the elite and its social formations . . . --William Coleman, 2001. In John Laurent & John Nightingale, eds., Darwinism and Evolutionary Economics (Edward Elgar): 44.\nOur results find that Wallace's Line is supported by the data he collected in the field and suggest that Wallace's Line does indeed demarcate a major faunal break. These results are in keeping with modern geological evidence on the origins of the region, and hence with Wallace's original contention. Wallace's data conform with his suggestion that the modern distribution of species reflects the geological history of the land masses. Modern geological knowledge indicates that the islands west of Wallace's Line comprised the single land mass of Sundaland connected to mainland Asia until the Eocene. Similarly, many islands on the Sahul shelf were also connected to New Guinea/Australia. The central islands, however, have a far more complex and isolated history. Sulawesi, for example, seems to be an amalgam of a number of different islands with different biogeographic origins. Similarly, the northern Moluccan islands seem to have been very recent arrivals for the eastern Pacific Arc which may have had closer contact with Australia and New Guinea than their present location suggests . . . --D. Clode & R. O'Brien, 2001. In Ian Metcalfe et al., eds., Faunal and Floral Migrations and Evolution in SE Asia-Australia (A. A. Balkema Publishers): 118.\n. . . With the complex geological history of this region increasingly being understood, we now stand a far better chance of assessing Wallace's real legacy--the extent to which species distributions are limited by underlying geological history. This is a far more interesting question than arguing over the placement of arbitrary and illustrative lines. Different taxonomic groups (with different histories and different dispersal abilities) will undoubtedly differ in the extent to which they adhere to different biogeographic boundaries (as foreshadowed in Wallace, 1877) including Wallace's Line. Such variations merely reflect our expanding knowledge of both the species and the effect their geographical history has had on them . . . --D. Clode & R. O'Brien, 2001. In Ian Metcalfe et al., eds., Faunal and Floral Migrations and Evolution in SE Asia-Australia (A. A. Balkema Publishers): 119.\nThe Amazonian tropical rainforest harbors a species diversity that is vastly disproportionate to its geographic area. Numerous hypotheses have been proposed to account for this, tending to emphasize aspects of the maintenance or origins of the megadiversity. The oldest such hypothesis has its roots in the works of Alfred Russel Wallace, who observed that the ranges of some closely related neotropical vertebrate species (primates, birds) abut at major rivers. Indeed, Wallace defined distinct areas within South America, bounded by major Amazonian rivers like the Negro, Madeira, and Amazon, which differed in species composition of communities. These and similar observations have prompted the suggestion that lowland Amazonian rivers, of which there are many, may function as effective barriers to the dispersal of organisms. This may have a variety of consequences for patterns of species diversity on the Amazonian landscape. First, major Amazonian rivers may have played a significant role in species generation by impeding gene flow between populations with the eventual evolution of sister species on opposite banks. Second the expansion of species from their centers of origin may be halted by the presence of large watercourses; therefore, they may be restricted to only one bank. Finally, compared with a species distributed across landscapes without barriers, the probability of subsequent recolonization of a species that has gone locally extinct on one bank will be lower because immigration from the opposite bank is less likely . . . All of these factors might be expected to accentuate differences in species composition of opposite-bank communities . . . --Claude Gascon et al., 5 December 2000. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97(25): 13672.\nWhether the great rivers of Amazonia have something to do with species origins or are simply biogeographic sutures, the biotas of opposite banks ought to differ if the riverine barrier hypothesis is correct. Characteristically, in Wallace's monkey paper, he not only presented his data on primate distributions in relation to major rivers in the Amazon basin, but also suggested a testable, quantitative hypothesis: that the composition of species assemblages would differ in relation to the width of the river, the difference thus increasing from headwaters toward the mouth . . . --Robert K. Colwell, 5 December 2000. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97(25): 13470.\nThe part that natural selection plays in the origin of species has long been debated. It is easy to see that if two populations are kept separate--by mountains or ocean, for example--they will eventually become so different that they can no longer interbreed successfully. Their differences may have evolved by natural selection, but their reproductive isolation is merely a side effect of changes that emerged for other reasons. This view seems unsatisfactory to those who emphasize the positive aspect of selection in evolution. Both Alfred Russel Wallace and Theodosius Dobzhansky argued that natural selection would reinforce reproductive barriers between diverging populations. There has been little evidence, however, that selection has in fact contributed directly to the formation of new species (speciation) in this way. Reports by Higgie et al. and Hendry et al., on pages 519 and 516 of this issue, provide examples from fruit fly and sockeye salmon populations showing that selection can produce the kind of isolation that separates species in the wild, and moreover, that it can do so within a very short time (a dozen or so generations) . . . --Nick Barton, 20 October 2000. Science 290(5491): 462.\nWhat is less explicable is why the differences between Wallace and Darwin over the origin of distributional patterns have been confounded. Apart from a single chapter in The Origin of Species, Darwin wrote little on biogeography, yet his views on the efficacy of dispersal dominated biogeographical theory until relatively recently. I think the answer lies in Wallace being too far ahead of his time. I have often wondered what Wallace would have thought about modern geological evidence concerning the origin of Indonesia, and I am convinced it would have given him the key to understanding the distributional patterns he described in Malay Archipelago. The problem, of course, was that this evidence was not available until a century later. Given the lack of credible alternative explanations and the pressure from Darwin to conform to accepted ideas, Wallace was unable to develop his own theory fully. Over time his original thoughts were lost and his name became associated with Darwin's idea of dispersal. A reappraisal of Wallace's work on its own terms seems long overdue and would be a fitting millennial tribute to an outstanding scientist . . . --B. Michaux, January 2000. Journal of Biogeography 27(1): 221-222.\n. . . Florence Clemens was the first to show how Conrad made use of Wallace's work in his fiction. She demonstrated how, in Lord Jim, Conrad used Wallace's account of his visit to the Rajah of Goa as the basis of his description of Doramin's household; how he used Wallace's account of his friend, Mr. Mesman, in describing Stein; how he drew on Wallace's own experiences for his presentation of Stein's activities as a naturalist. She argued that Conrad used The Malay Archipelago, in particular, 'for backgrounds with which he was unfamiliar'. Conrad, for example, had never visited Bali or Timor: 'all the information which Dain Maroola of Almayer's Folly gave Nina Almayer about his country on Bali could have been gleaned' from Wallace; similarly, 'all that is told in Victory of the Timor scene and government' in the account of Morrison's experiences in Delli derives from Wallace also. The Malay Archipelago was acknowledged by Conrad as one of the sources for his Malay fiction . . . --Robert Hampson, 2000. In his Cross-Cultural Encounters in Joseph Conrad's Malay Fiction (Palgrave): 73.\nThe lowland forests of the Amazon Basin contain a disproportionately large fraction of global species diversity. A number of vicariant speciation mechanisms have been presented to explain this high diversity. These hypotheses share the idea that historical and geographically pervasive barriers to gene flow have facilitated speciation in allopatry across much of Amazonia, but obviously differ with respect to the identity, location and duration of these barriers. The oldest of these, the riverine barrier hypothesis, derives from observations of animal distributions made by Wallace (1849, 1876). It posits a role for major Amazonian water courses in impeding gene flow between populations on opposite banks. The predictions for this hypothesis include that (i) many recently evolved sister taxa occupy opposite banks of large rivers, (ii) levels of genetic differentiation between populations on opposite river banks increases with increasing river width and flow rate and (iii) taxa of the upland terra firme forest show higher levels of differentiation across rivers than taxa of the seasonally flooded varzea forests found adjacent to the river. This last prediction assumes that the strength of the barrier to gene flow is greater for exclusively terra firme species because it consists of both the river itself plus the varzea forests of both river banks . . . --S. C. Lougheed et al., September 1999. Proceedings of The Royal Society of London B 266: 1829.\n. . .the \"pan-selectionist\" view that variation is potentially available in all directions from any given phyletic starting-point, and that selection determines which subset of variants prevails. The alternative is the \"developmental constraint\" view that many of the gaps we observe between different morphologies do not arise from the non-adaptiveness of the absent forms but rather from the difficulty of making them through an ontogenetic process. The pan-selectionist view can be traced back to Wallace (1870), who considered variation to be omnipresent and available in all phenotypic directions imaginable, apparently without even a quantitative bias in any direction. He refers to \"Universal variability--small in amount but in every direction\", and Mayo (1983) boldly states that \"The major constraint on natural selection as an agent of change is natural selection as a stabilizing force\", apparently relegating any kind of developmental constraint to a minor role at best . . . --Wallace Arthur & Malcolm Farrow, June 1999. Journal of Theoretical Biology 200: 183-184.\nUnder Wallace's scheme, the event that concerns Romanes--the initiation of the speciation process--already has taken place. Wallace deals with events subsequent to the process of reproductive isolation. The idea that the infertility he notes might relate to what Romanes proposed does not occur to Wallace. In a separate section of his book he describes physiological selection as \"another form of infertility,\" and then proceeds to attack the theory . . . --Donald R. Forsdyke, Spring 1999. Queen's Quarterly 106(1): 121.\nWallace's first essay on the origin of the colour sense was published simultaneously with, but independently of, Gladstone's paper. He had presented a possible evolutionary route for animal colour vision, starting with perception of degrees of brightness, ending with perception of colours according to wave length. In his view, green and blue would have been the first colours to which the eye became specially adapted, in accord with their universal presence in foliage and sky, as well as their soothing influence. Reds, yellows and violets would follow, as present in small amounts, offering great contrast, and useful to animals hunting for food and mates. This essay was revised and republished a year later, with specific response to Gladstone (and through him, to Magnus and Geiger). 'These curious facts' wrote Wallace, with regard to Gladstone's Homeric data, 'can not, however, be held to prove so recent an origin for colour-sensations as they would at first sight appear to do'. He pictured brightly coloured structures as having evolved in response to an already present and well-developed ability of animals, especially birds, to see colour, long before the arrival of man. Wallace concluded that 'Man's perception of colour in the time of Homer was little if any inferior to what it is now . . . owing to a variety of causes, no precise nomenclature of colours had become established . . . --Elizabeth Henry Bellmer, 1 January 1999. Annals of Science 56(1): 38.\nAs the new century ripened and imperialist rivalries increased, Wallace became convinced that a vast civilizational crisis was at hand and that the very survival of the human species demanded the rapid overthrow of capitalism. A few months before his death in 1913, he wrote (The Revolt of Democracy), \"There must be no further compromise, no mere talking. To allow the present state of things to continue is a crime against humanity.\" How ironic to recall his warnings today when billionaire arsonists have set almost the entirety of Wallace's Malay Archipelago ablaze with their greed . . . --Mike Davis, March 1998. Capitalism, Nature, Socialism 9(1): 77.\nWallace's major contribution to the literature of reform is his corrosive criticism of nineteenth-century society, through which he offered a human vision of social reformation. He advocated recognizing racial equality, nationalizing land, giving women equal opportunity for education and employment, decreasing military expenditure, and saving the environment. His friend James Marchant wrote in Alfred Russel Wallace: Letters and Reminiscences (1916) that \"his greatest ambition was to improve the cruel conditions under which thousands of his fellow-creatures suffered and died, and to make their lives sweeter and happier.\" . . . --Charles Blinderman, 1998. Alfred Russel Wallace. In Gary Kelly & Edd Applegate, eds., British Reform Writers, 1832-1914 (Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 190; Gale Research): 326-327.\n. . . With other socialists Wallace believed that neither genetic endowment nor divine prescription was responsible for the behavior of men and women, that instead the prime agent of social discord was bad government. He argued that the state ought to provide equality of opportunity and that no one should get a head start through inheritance: \"To secure equality of opportunity there must be no inequality of initial wealth. To allow one child to be born a millionaire and another a pauper is a crime against humanity.\" Andrew Carnegie would later share this view on the inheritance of wealth. Wallace further argued that the state ought to own and manage railways and pay the doctors. He envisioned a Ministry of Public Health, its doctors acting as servants of the state, that is, of people--and he added, perhaps mischievously, \"they should be paid according as they keep people well and not ill.\" . . . --Charles Blinderman, 1998. Alfred Russel Wallace. In Gary Kelly & Edd Applegate, eds., British Reform Writers, 1832-1914 (Dictionary of Literary Biography Vol. 190; Gale Research): 330.\nIt is possible that the initial condition in the pheasant was plumage monomorphism, with the cryptic female-type plumage subsequently having evolved under natural selection from predators. In fact, this hypothesis, formerly defended by Wallace (1889), is generally applicable to those birds, like pheasants, with a polygynous mating system without male parental care, that nest on the ground in open habitats, and are sexually dimorphic in plumage throughout the year. Also, it has not yet been proven that maintaining a colourful and bright plumage is costly, nor that it is a handicap for survival . . . --Concha Mateos & Juan Carranza, November 1997. Animal Behaviour 54(5): 1211.\nThe approach taken by Gregorius for modelling and analyzing the population genetic basis of Wallace's theory of speciation will be extended to allow analysis of the opposite case, where speciation is prevented by the reinforcement of genetic coherence. In this approach, a mutant gene modifies the current mating preferences without implying any advantage or disadvantage in fitness (including mating success). The latter assumption is indispensable in order to avoid confusion of the secondary effects of mating systems on fitness with their primary recombinational effects. It also reduces the analytical problems resulting from having to disentangle effects of fitness and mating preference on the evolution of mating behaviour . . . --Wilfried Steiner & Hans-Rolf Gregorius, November 1997. BioSystems 43(2): 139.\nIn 1881 Wallace took the lead. He formed The Land Nationalization Society on his own lines, with himself as President. In Land Nationalization (1882) he laid out his program. The state was to assume title to all land. To meet a conservative debating ploy, he would compensate present landowners. However, he ingeniously minimized the amount in a manner that tells us he knew the nuts and bolts of his subject. Compensation was to be an annuity limited to the duration of lives in being. It was to be based only on the net income actually being derived from the land before nationalization--i.e. not from the highest and best use, and not from future higher uses. All men and women (Wallace, like Mill, was also a feminist) could bid to lease parcels from the state for actual use. In the socio-biological terms in which he thought, this would consummate the natural relation of man to nature. It would also let men alternate between industry and agriculture as Wallace, a loving gardener, himself did. Wallace's Land Nationalization was individualist, not collectivist. Individual lessees were to have secure tenure, and tenant-rights to improvements. Rents to the state would be used, not to engross the state, but to obviate taxes. These rents would be based on the assessed \"inherent value\" of land, dependent only on natural and social conditions. As a surveyor and a biogeographer, Wallace readily distinguished \"inherent value\" from man's improvements to land, which he saw as transitory. Tax assessors in most American states and other former English colonies distinguish land and improvements routinely today, and many did then, too, although in England itself the concept was somewhat novel . . . --Mason Gaffney, October 1997. American Journal of Economics & Sociology 56(4:): 613.\nWallace, on the other hand, explained evolution not in terms of competitive struggles between species and the environment, but in terms of the governor that regulates the speed of a steam engine by maintaining constancy in the angular velocity of a flywheel. As Bateson puts it, building on Wallace's idea, the job of evolution is to maintain the constancy of something--specifically, the survival of the entire system comprised of all species and the environment. Darwin, according to Bateson, focused on the wrong subject--the individual species--when in fact the real subject of evolution is the species plus environment. In fact, the species and the environment co-evolve, to use a term that is popular among management writers today. Moreover, if you add the remarkable findings reached in the past thirty years by biologist Lynn Margulis, this process of co-evolution sustains the total system through cooperative symbiotic relationships, not competitive knock-outs . . . --H. Thomas Johnson, 11 October 1997. Keynote Presentation, The Deming Institute Fall 1997 Meeting, Washington, D.C.\nPerhaps the effect of Wallace's line most relevant to us is its possible role in a decisive step of human evolution. Paleontologists tend to stress Africa as the cradle of humanity, to view Cro-Magnon Europe as the site where late ice age human culture flowered, and to neglect Australia as a remote outpost occupied by supposedly primitive Aborigines. Human behavior took a Great Leap Forward sometime between 100,000 years ago, where there were still no signs of art or complex tools anywhere in the world, and the period around 40,000 to 30,000 years ago, when great art and complex tools began to abound in Europe. Paleontologists usually assume that this development began among humans in Africa or the Mideast, then spread to Europe and finally (in diluted form) to our poorer cousins in aboriginal Australia. But anatomically modern humans appeared in Australia before they did in Europe--probably by 60,000 years ago and possibly even earlier. To reach Australia, the protohumans who had reached Asia from Africa around one million years ago (as attested by the famous Java Man fossils) had to cross a dozen straits separating Australia from Asia. . . .Each next strait would have been a stimulus to improve our nascent watercraft technology; each new island, a stimulus to adapt to a new environment and to invent new technologies; each island's untapped rich resources, the basis for a new human population explosion . . . --Jared M. Diamond, August 1997. Discover 18(8): 83.\nWallace's writings of this period make free use of the contrast between 'savage' and 'civilized', he talks often of 'higher' and 'lower' races, and was clearly committed to a notion of long-run progressive change in organic evolution and in human history. Yet there is no easy or simple mapping of the higher and lower, civilized and savage onto the progressive evolutionary narrative. Social, moral and intellectual progress are differentiated from one another, and lack of harmony between them can be catastrophic in its consequences. The hierarchical ordering 'higher' and 'lower' is sometimes used by Wallace to refer to inherited differences between peoples, but is also sometimes used to denote levels of civilization, and to do so in ways which do not carry any obvious value connotation. The word 'civilization' carries a negative as often as a positive valuation in Wallace's writing. Whilst the civilized nations remain in a state of social and moral 'barbarism', uncivilized savages approach a 'perfect social state'. . . --Ted Benton, Spring 1997. Studies in Travel Writing No. 1: 109-110.\n. . . It is here that we encounter the central intellectual and moral tension in Wallace's thought, a tension which was to bring about a growing gulf between his and Darwin's views on human origins and nature and which may, indeed, go some way towards explaining Wallace's later involvement in spiritualist activities. Wallace's radical political philosophy and his capacity to admire and respect the achievements, customs and social solidarity of the indigenous peoples of the Amazon and the Malay Archipelago were increasingly at odds with his version of evolutionary naturalism . . . --Ted Benton, Spring 1997. Studies in Travel Writing No. 1: 110.\nIt is not just Darwin's opponents who regard the analogy as evidence against the causal efficacy of selection. A. R. Wallace, the co-discoverer of natural selection, addresses the analogy in his opening comments of the Darwin-Wallace paper of 1858. \"One of the strongest arguments which have been adduced to prove the original and permanent distinctness of species is, that varieties produced in a state of domesticity are more or less unstable, and often have a tendency, if left to themselves, to return to the normal form of the parent species; and this instability is considered to be a distinctive peculiarity of all varieties.\" For Wallace, modification by artificial selection is limited and temporary, and therefore causally inefficacious in the production of new species. If natural and artificial selection were truly similar, then the analogy suggests that natural selection is incapable of forming new species. Consequently, Wallace argues against the analogy by emphasizing the differences between domestic breeding and nature. \"It will be observed that this argument rests entirely on the assumption, that varieties occurring in a state of nature are in all respects analogous to or even identical with those of domestic animals . . . But it is the object of the present paper to show that this assumption is altogether false\" (emphasis added). Wallace's vow to argue against the analogy is inexplicable unless he has embraced the view that artificial selection is inefficacious in the formation of new species. Surely Darwin was aware of Wallace's views, expressed so forcefully in the Darwin-Wallace paper, as he wrote the Origin . . . --Richard A. Richards, March 1997. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 28(1): 76-77.\n. . . Darwin recognized some important distinction between domestic and natural varieties, and happily agrees with Wallace on the distinction. Wallace, in the preface to his Darwinism, likewise emphasizes his agreement with Darwin, describing his views as complementary. \"I have endeavoured, by means of a series of diagrams, to exhibit to the eye the actual variations as they are found to exist in a sufficient number of species . . . It will be found that, throughout the work, I have frequently to appeal to these diagrams and the facts they illustrate, just as Darwin was accustomed to appeal to the facts of variation among dogs and pigeons\" (emphasis added). Wallace certainly seems to regard himself as doing something very similar to what Darwin is doing. That would be surprising if he had thought Darwin to be making an analogical argument--given his earlier rejection of the argument. Wallace argues against the analogical argument by emphasizing the negative analogy between domestic breeding and nature. Unlike natural selection, artificial selection does not maintain fitness. Consequently, domestic varieties are unfit. Wallace makes this point in the 1858 Darwin-Wallace paper . . . --Richard A. Richards, March 1997. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 28(1): 81.\nOne reference point, however, must be marked if Wallace's future path--to the Malthusian moment and beyond--is to be mapped. He embarked on a scientific career less a naturalist than a surveyor, less a biologist than a biogeographer, less an evolutionist than an ethnographer. For seven formative years his job had been prescriptive economic geography. Parish upon parish, field upon field, he had set limits to human livelihoods, marking boundaries, drawing lines. In later years he would become an exemplary naturalist, but always boundaries and borders, habits and habitats, concerned him. Once he even likened the \"System of Nature\" to a \"dissected map,\" the pieces of which could be assembled in a \"mosaic.\" The picture is of a crowded tithe map, where field presses on field, niche upon niche, until \"all gaps have been filled\". Such was a surveyor's view of evolution . . . --James Moore, 1997. In Bernard Lightman, ed., Victorian Science in Context (University of Chicago Press): 304.\nTo validate his inclusion of plants formerly excluded from bedded-out gardens, Robinson turned to the writings of the late nineteenth-century naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace collaborated with Darwin on his theory of evolution and published his own Contribution to the Theory of Natural Selection in 1870. Robinson was intrigued by Wallace's 1869 account of his extensive travels in the Amazon region and the Malay Archipelago, especially Wallace's statement that \"during the twelve years spent amidst tropical vegetation, I have nothing comparable to the effect produced on our landscapes by Gorse, Broom, Heather, Wild Hyacinths, Hawthorn, and Buttercups.\" Wallace's nationalistic preference for English scenery reportedly led Robinson to plant such flowers as asters and heather, formerly considered too coarse for fashionable gardens . . . --Anne L. Helmreich, 1997, in Nature and Ideology; Natural Garden Design in the Twentieth Century (Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection).\nThe principles regarding relations between organisms and their environment set forth by Wallace clearly informed Robinson's gardening practices. In an early essay, \"On the Law which has regulated the introduction of new species,\" Wallace first developed his theory governing the distribution of organisms. His fourth stipulation--that \"in countries of a similar climate, but separated by a wide sea of lofty mountains, the families, genera, and species of the one are often represented by closely allied families, genera and species peculiar to the other\"--underlies Robinson's theory that plants from climates similar to England's could be naturalized in the wild garden . . . --Anne L. Helmreich, 1997, in Nature and Ideology; Natural Garden Design in the Twentieth Century (Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection).\nIt is evident that Conrad read and assimilated Wallace's observations of the Malay natural environment. Wallace as anthropologist seems to have had an equivalent influence. In terms of religious practices, Wallace describes how 'the old juragan repeated some prayers' just before one of his more successful voyages; on the Patna voyage, the leading Arab recites a prayer in similar fashion as they cast off. In The Rescue, Lingard's dead lacar is 'wrapped up decently in a white sheet, according to Mohammedan usage', in a way highly reminiscent of Wallace's response to the death of one of his Malay men: 'As my men were all Mohammedans, I let them bury him in their own fashion, giving them some new cotton cloth for a shroud\" . . . --Amy Houston, 1997. In Gene M. Moore et al., eds., Conrad: Intertexts and Appropriations: Essays in Memory of Yves Hervouet (Rodopi): 37.\nBates, Wallace and Spruce belonged to a new breed of scientist. They were not sponsored directly by the government, like Huxley or Darwin, attached to Royal Naval survey ships; they were not salaried, like the plant-hunters employed by the nurserymen, or even promised a reward on their safe return, like Richard Lander. They were scientific entrepreneurs, trading in beetles and birds and monkeys and dried plants, who needed to collect extensively even to pay their expenses, let alone secure a possible income for the future, when they might hope to work up their private collections and live off a store of knowledge and fieldwork rich enough to last the rest of their lives. The British Museum assured them there would be a good market for their collections. They made arrangements with a London agent and dealer, Samuel Stevens, who had premises in Bedford Street, just round the corner from the British Museum--an excellent choice, as it turned out . . . --Peter Raby, 1997. In his Bright Paradise: Victorian Scientific Travellers (Princeton University Press): 79.\nWallace's earlier suggestion that a connection may exist between the perennial woody habit of island species and reproductive strategy deserves closer inspection. He argued that the perennial insular woody growth form primarily reflects selection for longevity (rather than for woodiness per se) of insect-pollinated species in an environment where insects initially should be expected to be rare, noting that the resulting increase in size may have provided additional advantage in niche competition among initial colonizers. Bramwell's studies of breeding behavior are generally compatible with that view, since in Echium species studied, the woody island forms were found to be outbreeding, setting only 0-11% fertile seed in selfings, whereas their continental sisters as well as the herbaceous island inhabitant E. bonnetii were preferentially inbreeding . . . --Uta-Regina B\u00f6hle, Hartmut H. Hilger & William F. Martin, October 1996. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93(21): 11744.\n. . . If outbreeding is the primary selective factor in island colonization, pollination pressure will subsequently favor rare, large, conspicuous inflorescences among outbreeders and, as a consequence, select perennial (and therefore woody) habits capable of producing them, in agreement with Wallace's salient arguments. Under this view, diversity of contemporary woody Echium forms reflects a multiplicity of selectable developmental pathways toward longevity, rather than selection for specifically environment-adapted variants of such woody perennial habits as schematically depicted in Fig. 3. In other words, insular woodiness in Echium might simply betray \"survival of the founders,\" and many differences between perennial woody habits could be nonadaptive . . . --Uta-Regina B\u00f6hle, Hartmut H. Hilger & William F. Martin, October 1996. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93(21): 11744-11745.\nAlfred Russel Wallace foreshadowed much of the current thinking on adaptive mate choice. To Wallace colour was merely a correlate of 'vigour', by which he implied health. A female should choose a mate adaptively by picking the most vigorous male, and it would just so happen that he would also be the most colourful. We too found colour to correlate with a variable, plasma proteins, that may be indicative of vigour. In addition, female kestrels in our colony in mate choice experiments have consistently preferred males with high display rates (vigour?), irrespective of the degree of genetic relatedness or experimentally induced parasite infection . . . --Gary R. Bortolotti et al., September 1996. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263: 1175.\n. . . The hypothesis that sexual dichromatism was nonfunctional and incidental to inherent 'physiological' differences between the sexes was proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace (1895) recognized that whereas males of many birds are more brightly coloured than their mates, the degree of dimorphism varied greatly, with the most common case being for males 'to have the same general hue as the females, but deeper and more intensified'. Although it may be difficult to discount the role of sexual selection for extreme cases, such as house finches, the common, subtle patterns of colour variation between the sexes may be more difficult to explain except as non-functional consequences of other biochemical processes. If such processes are fundamental to avian physiology, it may explain why sexual dichromatism is so common in birds, and why reds, yellows and oranges are so pervasive . . . --Gary R. Bortolotti et al., September 1996. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263: 1175.\nA final argument, \"An Additional Argument Dependent on the Theory of Evolution,\" was added to the 1904 edition of Wallace's book. Especially interesting because Wallace was so closely involved with the evolution arguments of his day, it is independent of the three connected scientific arguments and may be seen as another aspect leading to the same conclusion. Wallace argued that since humanity is the result of a long chain of modifications in organic life, since these modifications occur only under certain circumstances, and since the chances of the same conditions and modifications occurring elsewhere in the universe were very small, the chances of beings in human form existing on other planets was very small. Moreover, since no other animal on Earth, despite the great variety of diversity of forms, approaches the intelligent or moral nature of humanity, Wallace concluded that intelligence in any other form was also highly improbable . . . --Steven J. Dick, 1996. In his The Biological Universe: The Twentieth-century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of Science (Cambridge University Press): 48-49.\n. . . In conjunction with Barrow and Tipler's use of the Anthropic Principle, at the end of the century one could therefore choose from the full spectrum of possibilities in the context of the extra-terrestrial life debate: a positive argument, a negative argument, and the extraterrestrially neutral argument from design. But it is remarkable that just when anthropocentrism seemed irretrievably banished from the repertoire of reputable worldviews, it returned in a more sophisticated but remarkably similar form to that of A. R. Wallace, who in arguing against the plurality of worlds at the beginning of the century concluded that \"the supreme end and purpose of this vast universe was the production and development of the living soul in the perishable body of man.\" . . . --Steven J. Dick, 1996. In his The Biological Universe: The Twentieth-century Extraterrestrial Life Debate and the Limits of Science (Cambridge University Press): 535.\n. . . male-male competition was obvious to those who watched animals behaving in the field, and it coincided with the Victorian notion of how animals should behave, thus never becoming controversial. Female choice, on the other hand, was far from obvious in the field, and Darwin's contemporary, A. R. Wallace (1891), in particular, was unconvinced by it. He felt that the power of discrimination by females was too weak to distinguish subtle differences between males, and he also doubted whether female choice could be sufficiently constant over time to select for male attributes. As Geddes and Thompson (1889) put it, consistency of female taste was \"scarcely verifiable in human experience.\" Female choice continued to be contentious until relatively recently, and although there is now abundant evidence that females often choose their partners, the way that female choice has evolved still remains a controversial area of sexual selection theory . . . --T. R. Birkhead, 1996. Current Topics in Developmental Biology 33: 104.\nThe colors of the Amazon brought Wallace to investigate the sediment and substrata. He found the \"almost perfect flatness\" of the Amazon Valley its single most striking geological fact. No mountains or even slightly elevated plateaus rise from the plain until you reach the abrupt peaks of the Andes. Wallace's impression was that \"here we see the last stage of a process that has been going on, during the whole period of the elevation of the Andes\"--the gradual filling in of what was once the granite bottom of the sea with sediment brought down by rivers from the Andes Mountains . . . --Jonathan Maslow, 1996. In his Footsteps in the Jungle: Adventures in the Scientific Exploration of the American Tropics (Ivan R. Dee): 99-100.\nIn 1873, Alfred Russel Wallace posed a fundamental, and as yet unresolved, biogeographic puzzle: why should the tropics contain a disproportionately large amount of the Earth's biodiversity? Wallace (1873) suggested that the explanation for latitudinal variation of the diversity of plant species was directly related to climate. Wallace (1873) wrote \"As we approach towards regions of polar cold and desert aridity the variety of groups and species [of plants] regularly diminishes; more and more are unable to sustain the extreme climatical conditions\". However, in the case of animal distributions, Wallace (1873) believed that climatic change associated with glaciation was responsible for the impoverishment of the temperate faunas. In modern terms, Wallace proposed an 'equilibrium' hypothesis for vegetation, and an 'historical' hypothesis for faunal patterns. In the latter half of this century, these two schools of thought have diverged and undergone substantial specialisation, although no consensus has emerged . . . --D. M. J. S. Bowman, 1996. Australian Journal of Botany 44(5): 571.\nBorrowing a line from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's \"Rime of the Ancient Mariner,\" there is \"nor any drop to drink\" anywhere today on the surface of Mars. Not so clear is whether there has ever been water, water everywhere. As was first demonstrated by Alfred Wallace (who concurrently with, but independently of, Charles Darwin proposed the idea of evolution by natural selection), the lifetime for liquid water under present Martian atmospheric conditions is measured in minutes. The former existence of Martian rivers or seas would then imply that the planet had a warmer, more Earth-like climate in its geologic past. Interest in Martian water also stems from the fact that we, like that famous canal enthusiast Percival Lowell, cannot envision any form of life existing without it. The red planet appears lifeless now, but evidence for a warmer, wetter planet in the past might make a search for Martian fossils plausible . . . --Harry Y. McSween Jr., December 1995. Sky & Telescope 90(6): 18.\n. . . the nature of information conveyed by secondary sexual traits in mate selection has been hotly debated. Darwin (1871) believed that mate choice was solely based on arbitrarily chosen features that were aesthetically appealing to the members of opposite sex, although such chosen features did not confer any survival advantage to the animal. Wallace (1889), on the other hand, argued that natural selection would not allow the selection of merely ornamental features \"unless the most ornamental always coincide with the 'fittest' in every other respect\". The modern interpretation of the utilitarian view of Wallace, or the so-called good gene hypothesis, has commonly been invoked to explain human mate selection. Briefly, it is proposed that women, as a rule, can assess the \"mate quality\" of a man by attending to his resources or high status because these are usually achieved through competition with other members of the social and economical hierarchy . . . --Devendra Singh & Robert K. Young, November 1995. Ethology and Sociobiology 16(6): 483-484.\nThe theory of sexual selection by female choice, on the other hand, was greeted with interest mixed with skepticism (Wallace 1889; Huxley 1938). Wallace fully accepted intermale sexual selection but had serious doubts about the efficacy of female-choice sexual selection. His doubt concerned the adequacy of the proposed mechanism. Can female choice exert a selective pressure that is consistent and strong enough to produce secondary sexual characters of adornment and display in males? The status of sexual selection by female choice is still unsettled. Modern studies have confirmed the process for some types of male characters, but legitimate questions remain as regards other types of male characters . . . --Verne Grant, October-November-December 1995. Biologisches Zentralblatt 114(4): 320.\nWallace presented a very clear interbreeding species definition, then immediately dismissed it in his treatise on speciation of the Papilionidae of Indonesia. 'Species are merely those strongly marked races or local forms which, when in contact, do not intermix, and when inhabiting distinct areas are incapable of producing a fertile hybrid offspring. But as the test of hybridity cannot be applied in one case in ten thousand, and even if it could be applied, would prove nothing, since it is founded on an assumption of the very question to be decided . . . it will be evident that we have no means whatever of distinguishing so-called \"true species\" from the several modes of [subspecies] variation here pointed out, and into which they so often pass by an insensible gradation'. Wallace is first saying that it is practically impossible to make all the necessary crosses to test genetic compatibility. Second, since theories of speciation involve a reduction in ability or tendency to interbreed, species cannot themselves be defined by interbreeding without confusing cause and effect . . . --James Mallet, July 1995. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10(7): 295.\nThe adaptive significance of cryptic female coloration in birds is an old and hotly debated issue in animal behavior, being a source of great disagreement between A. R. Wallace and C. Darwin, the co-founders of Natural Selection Theory . . . Darwin (1871) believed that dull female coloration was a non-adaptive consequence of sex-limited inheritance. Wallace (1889) proposed the hypothesis that cryptic female coloration functions to reduce predation risk at the nest. Wallace's evidence included the observation that in many cavity-nesting species females are brightly colored, and males are more cryptic than females in species with sex role reversal. However, these results are also consistent with sexual selection theory. Field tests of the nest predation hypothesis are rare, perhaps because extensive color variation among females within a sexually dimorphic species is uncommon . . . --Bridget J. Stutchbury & Joan S. Howlett, May 1995. The Condor 97(2): 559.\nAging is notoriously hard to explain in evolutionary terms. An early insight is due to Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-founder of evolutionary theory. The gist of his argument is contained in the following quotation (Wallace, 1865): \"When one or more individuals have provided a sufficient number of successors, they themselves--as consumers of nourishment in a constantly increasing degree--are an injury to those successors. Natural selection therefore weeds them out.\" In the following it will be shown that this basic idea allows one to arrive at a quantitative prediction of species-specific aging. It also enables a qualitatively correct prediction of sex-specific differential aging in two species. The slower aging of human females becomes understandable in evolutionary terms . . . --Reimara Rossler, Peter E. Kloeden & Otto E. Rossler, May 1995. BioSystems 36(3): 179.\nIn Frank Tipler's newly published book (1994), The Physics of Immortality: Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection of the Dead, for example, the author claims \"modern physics requires the God principle.\" By this Tipler means that the universe is structured in such a way that the laws of nature must give rise to intelligent life; and once formed, the resurrection of all intelligence--immortality--is inevitable. \"Science now tells us,\" Tipler concludes, \"how to go to heaven.\" While Tipler's science is modern, his argument is not. It is Wallace's argument for the necessity of a higher intelligence clothed in modern physics . . . --Michael Shermer, December 1994. Skeptic 3(1): 70.\n. . . With the primary evidence missing in this historical mystery, we can only speculate on what really happened at Down. The extreme interpretation of a conspiratorial cover-up is not supported by the evidence. If Darwin were going to rig (or allow to be rigged) the editorial presentation of the papers to award him priority; or worse, plagiarize from Wallace certain needed ideas (such as the divergence of species, as Brooks suggests), why announce the arrival of Wallace's essay and submit it for publication in the first place? Why not either just take what was needed, or, if Wallace's essay added nothing new to the theory, just destroy the essay and letter and blame the loss on an inefficient postal service, or the mishandling of his mail at Down, or whatever? If one is going to accuse Darwin of such devious finagling as delicate arrangements or plagiarization, then would not the same guileful and scheming personality think of complete elimination of Wallace's essay as a successful strategy? . . . --Michael Shermer, March 1995. Skeptic 3(2): 83-84.\nSeveral alternative explanations exist for the occurrence of symmetrical signals and symmetry preferences in nature. It has been suggested that some morphological symmetries arise inevitably from developmental processes. However, as Wallace (1889) observed, the symmetrical body markings of wild animals are often lost or degraded in their domesticated descendants. This suggests that certain symmetries are not inescapable consequences of development, but are maintained by other selection pressures in nature . . . --Magnus Enquist & Anthony Arak, 10 November 1994. Nature 372: 172.\nThe naturalists' concept of species as distinct reproductive units was carried over into the post-Darwin period. It was stated by Wallace (1889), Eimer (1889), and others. I will present Wallace's characterization of species in a paraphrased form. A species is an assemblage of individuals which: (1) are modified in structure, form, and constitution so as to be adapted to their particular conditions of life; (2) are differentiated from other allied assemblages; (3) reproduce their like: and (4) usually breed together (Wallace, 1889). Some students of species in the early post-Darwin period began to characterize species, not only as reproductive units, but as units of interbreeding. We see this in Wallace's fourth point above: species are individuals \"which usually breed together\" (Wallace, 1889). According to Poulton (1903) a species is \"an interbreeding community\". Karl Jordan (1905) stated that the individuals of a species occur together in an area and form an interbreeding community (\"eine Paarungsgemeinschaft\"). Wallace's first point listed above puts adaptation into the set of characteristics of species. This was an innovation at the time and one which did not become generally accepted until much later . . . --Verne Grant, October-November-December 1994. Biologisches Zentralblatt 113(4): 406.\nIn their recent TREE article, Polak and Trivers say that the study of symmetry and its fluctuations in biology was largely restricted to morphology and systematics until 1953. However, in 1889 A.R. Wallace remarked that coloration patterns of wild animals are more symmetrical than those of their domesticated descendants; he thought that symmetry would help specific recognition. In one respect Wallace's observation seems paradoxical. Domestic animals have less need to be cryptic than their wild counterparts, but, at least for humans, the presence of symmetry is a major failing of camouflage. Symmetrical patterning gives away animals that are otherwise superbly concealed. The few cryptic animals that are asymmetrically patterned maybe the exceptions that prove this rule, one example is the wryneck (Jynx torquilla), an unusual woodpecker . . . --D. Osorio, September 1994. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9(9): 346.\n. . . the Riverine Barrier Hypothesis was first advanced by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1849, when he argued that primate distributions were affected by river barriers and showed that the Basin was divisible into four major geographic areas bounded by the Amazon, Negro, and Madeira rivers. This hypothesis, although not mutually exclusive from others, has received recent attention and support. Ayres (1986) and Ayres and Clutton-Brock (1992) have confirmed Wallace's original observation by documenting the correlation between the degree of private community similarity on opposite banks of Amazonian rivers and river width, or flow rate. Additionally, Capparella has shown that the degree of genetic divergence among samples of understory bird species is related to river width. One explicit expectation of the Riverine Barrier Hypothesis is that increasing divergence should relate positively to river size (width, flow rate, etc.). Hence, differentiation should increase along both sides of a green river, from its headwaters to the mouth, as the barrier widens and the potential for cross-river gene flow diminishes. However, the expectation for any given taxon is likely to be complicated by the dynamic nature of floodplain rivers, because populations have the potential for passive transfer from one side to the other by river-bend cutoffs, or oxbow lake formation, through time . . . Consequently expectations of the potential force of riverine barriers are likely to vary among taxa that occur in the river floodplain (the seasonal flooded forest, or \"v\u00e1rzea\" of the Amazon Basin) as opposed to those that are limited to upland, nonflooded forest, or terra firme. The pattern and degree of divergence may also depend on other ecological characteristics . . . --James L. Patton et al., August 1994. Evolution 48(4): 1314.\n. . . the argument has been made that aesthetic criteria in general are secondary and essentially in the service of a more fundamental process. Thus, Wallace has disputed Darwin's claim that female choices of maters reflect strictly aesthetic tastes, that is, beauty for beauty's sake (Wallace, 1889, 1892). Rather, Wallace insisted that beauty is likely to be associated with good health and vigor, which are deemed the primary bases for choice. The theoretical advantage that accrues to Wallace's position is that sexual and natural selection are parsimoniously working in unison. Within the classical Darwinian perspective, female choice of the most flamboyantly adorned or colored male can imply choice of a mate vulnerable to predators and likely to produce offspring with similar vulnerabilities. None of this is intended to imply that either Darwin or Wallace is right or wrong. After the passage of more than a century, the issue is still under debate, although new experimental studies testing predictions from the two theories offer hope of an eventual resolution of the issue . . . --Nathan Kogan, Spring 1994. Social Research 61(1): 143.\n. . . in short, there are on every hand the most striking and conclusive evidences that the production and consumption of wealth have increased with even greater rapidity than the increase of population, and that, if any class obtains less, it is solely because of the greater inequality of distribution. What [Henry] George had done with this argument, Helfand argues, was to establish an economic equivalent of Wallace's theory that the human brain changed the nature of the evolutionary process by its ability to create tools and alter the environment. George had argued that labor is the source of wealth, on grounds that \"the richest countries are not those where nature is the most prolific; but those where labor is the most efficient.\" . . . --Lamar B. Jones, April 1994. American Journal of Economics and Sociology 53(2): 252.\nThe earliest discovery of avian visual mimicry was Wallace's account of another case involving large aggressive models and smaller mimics that would otherwise have been expected to be among the models' victims. The models are friarbirds of the Philemon [moluccensis] superspecies which are among the largest members of a family (Meliphagidae or honey-eaters) notorious for pugnacious behavior; the models are orioles of the Oriolus [bouroensis] superspecies (family Oriolidae). Wallace was struck by parallel geographical variation in plumage between friarbirds and orioles on two Indonesian islands. Subsequent study expanded Wallace's observations in three respects . . . --Jared M. Diamond, 24 February 1994. Nature 367: 684.\nThe common idea that Darwin behaved like a perfect gentleman throughout the Wallace episode rests partly on the myth that he had some option other than those outlined above--that he could have rushed his theory to press without so much as mentioning Wallace. But unless Wallace was even more saintly than he seems to have been, this would have brought a scandal that left Darwin's name tainted, even to the point of endangering its connection to his theory. In other words: this option was not an option. The biographer who admiringly observes that Darwin \"hated losing his priority, but he hated even more the chance of being suspected of ungentlemanly or nonsporting conduct\" is creating a distinction where none existed; to have been thought unsporting would have threatened his priority . . . --Robert Wright, 1994. In his The Moral Animal (Pantheon Books): 306.\nA major stumbling block for Darwinians was the absence of any fossil remains of humans in Europe during the Tertiary period. From this Wallace had argued a priori that the human species had not spread widely upon the earth and was of recent origin. Since fossil remains had been located only in the tropics, Wallace concluded that these warm climes had been the cradle of human evolution . . . --Nancy J. Christie, 1994. In Roy MacLeod & Philip J. Rehbock, eds., Darwin's Laboratory: Evolutionary Theory and Natural History in the Pacific (University of Hawai'i Press): 445.\nWallace is less well known for his lifelong insistence on the necessity for precise species distribution maps than he is for his much-disputed line. Detailed knowledge of species distribution was the basis for Wallace's efforts to formulate a general scheme of faunal regions. In one image, Wallace's map redefined and unified the various notions of biological regions current in the first half of the nineteenth century, embodied the evolutionary history of the diverse biota of the East Indian Archipelago, and participated in a genre of visual representation extending into the contemporary culture . . . Jane R. Camerini, December 1993. Isis 84(4): 727.\nFisher (1920) explains that the \"essential difference\" between plans such as those of Wallace and his own \"is that between redeemability and irredeemability.\" But is there really an essential difference between always being able to \"redeem\" a gold certificate for a possibly varying quantity of gold, on the one hand, and always being able to purchase with irredeemable money a given quantity of gold at a possibly varying market price, on the other? So as an outsider to economics, Wallace was free from the attachment to gold and thus advocated a stabilization policy that was more in the spirit of the quantity theory. He was also explicit about what Fisher (in his definite-reserve system) left unspecified; namely, the role of the Treasury in injecting or withdrawing quantities of money from circulation. Here was a true anticipator of the Chicago School of the 1930s . . . --Don Patinkin, Summer 1993. Economic Quarterly 79(3): 18.\nThe second story is that the thin Martian atmosphere is but a remnant of a once much thicker atmosphere, most of which long ago escaped to space [cf., Wallace, 1907]. Other things being equal, because it is smaller, escape is easier from Mars than from Earth or Venus. Several escape mechanisms have been suggested, including some that could be operative today. A possibly important example of the latter is the nonthermal escape of nitrogen. Hydrodynamic escape and impact erosion of the atmosphere (a.k.a. atmospheric cratering) are two potentially much more effective escape mechanisms that should have been operative early . . . --Kevin J. Zahnle, 25 June 1993. Journal of Geophysical Research E 98(6): 10,889.\n. . . the value of living organisms as an intellectual resource is another compelling reason for preserving biotic diversity. It provides the materials that allow us to understand the living world, whatever our reasons for doing so. Extinction is depriving us of much of the crucial evidence. Among the measures that Wallace advocated was the establishment of a system of strategically located forest reserves where a representative sample of the biota could be preserved and studied by naturalists . . . --Michael T. Ghiselin, Spring 1993. Pacific Discovery 46(2): 23.\nSelection for genetic isolation has been called the Wallace Effect by Grant, in honor of A. R. Wallace who first suggested it (Wallace 1889). Control of a species' altitudinal boundary by a pathogen-environment interaction may provide an appropriate arena for the Wallace Effect. The scenario for speciation suggested above begins with a very unlikely event: establishment of a new disease-resistant population outside the normal habitat of the parent species. Though unlikely, such speciation across a \"pathological barrier\" requires no changes of climate, elevation of mountain chains, or other large scale phenomena. It suggests that the potential for the establishment of peripheral isolates in new ecological settings may exist at the margin of a great many species. This scenario is similar to the concept of the \"upstart species\" of Harper or of new species \"budding off' from older species . . . --William Burger, December 1992. Biotropica 24(4): 569.\nFor both monochromatic and polychromatic species, pelage pigmentation would be helpful for identifying conspecifics, especially at distances where odor and vocalizations would be unreliable cues. In polychromatic species it would also narrow the range of choices within a herd when looking for the mother, particularly when her head cannot be seen clearly. Alfred Russel Wallace recognized the significance of body pigmentation when he wrote in 1889, under the subject of \"Colour as a means of recognition\": \"If we consider the habits and life-histories of those animals which are more or less gregarious, comprising a large proportion of the herbivora, . . . we shall see that a means of ready recognition of its own kind, at a distance or during rapid motion, in dusk of twilight or in partial cover, must be of the greatest advantage and often lead to the preservation of life.\" Within a colour category, the young would have to rely on other cues, be they visual, auditory, or olfactory. For example, the length of pelage was one of the cues eliminated in this study by cutting the does' hair, because in a previous study I noticed that the offspring of long-haired females tended to solicit females with long hair like that of their mothers. Although cues present in the head are probably important for individual recognition, at a distance the fine detail of facial characteristics might not be as discernable as markings on parts of the body with more surface area. The specific visual cues used for recognition should depend on the characteristics of the group or species, the habitat in which the species is found, and the perceptual capabilities of the developing individuals . . . --Carlos R. Ruiz-Miranda, November 1992. Behaviour 123(1-2): 136-137.\nFor Paley, the epiglottis could not evolve in this manner; hence, some form of causality other than change origin is called for. Paley's answer was \"an intelligent and designing Creator.\" Soon other thinkers followed Paley's lead concerning the impact of the argument from perfection. In one of the most amazing shifts in the history of ideas, Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913) employed what may be considered an indirect use of the argument from perfection on an a fortiori basis against the very theory of natural selection that he had founded with Charles Darwin . . . --John T. Baldwin, April 1992. Harvard Theological Review 85(1): 112.\n. . . On the one hand, motivated by the biological evidence discussed, but restricting themselves to a one-dimensional model of world reality, Goldschmidt and Gould (themselves standing outside the argument from perfection tradition) of necessity turn for an alternative model of origins to a refined concept of the \"hopeful monster\" theory wholly explainable by empirical principles within a materialistic framework. On the other hand, Paley, Wallace, Mivart, Bergson, Taylor, Kenny, Plantinga, and Polkinghorne, prompted by similar biological evidence but remaining open to a wider model of reality (one that can include a trans-empirical dimension) and to a dynamic relationship between God and the world, conclude that the evidence points more convincingly to some kind of originating causality that in the final analysis lies beyond the reach of \"methodological naturalism.\" . . . --John T. Baldwin, April 1992. Harvard Theological Review 85(1): 119.\nAlfred Russel Wallace developed a theory of evolution by natural selection at the same time that Charles Darwin did. He applied his theory to one of the earliest scenarios of human evolution. He related the split between the first human beings and the apes to the habitats in which they lived. Wallace proposed that hominids, our bipedally walking ancestors, arose on the great plains and high plateaus of Eurasia, isolated there by shrinking forests. His deduction was based on the fact that apes today live in dense forested areas. Wallace thought, therefore, that bipedally striding humans must have evolved in open, flat areas. Darwin disagreed on the geography, believing that a tropical environment with abundant fruit was our ancestral hominids' environment. He preferred an African origin for the human lineage. The chimpanzee and gorilla, he pointed out, were both African and the closest living primate relatives to humans . . . --Noel T. Boaz, March 1992. Earth 1(2): 37.\nThese findings show that Wallace's hypothesis can be verified for a broad category of population genetic models and that, therefore, the Wallace effect indeed deserves a central position in speciation theory. By outlining the effects of gametic phase imbalance, the findings also point at the forces which could possibly set up barriers to speciation: asymmetric gene flow between parapatric populations, and asymmetric cross-incompatibility in both parapatric and sympatric (sub-)populations. Asymmetry in cross-incompatibility describes the situation where in one population the rejection of cross-matings is markedly stronger than in the other population. However, whether these conditions actually suffice to inhibit speciation must be proven in each special case . . . --Hans-Rolf Gregorius, February 1992. Journal of Theoretical Biology 154(3): 397.\n. . . Wallace's narrative eye, like Darwin's, allows him to transcend time through visual analogy, but it is the European model of cultural progress rather than biological history that flashes before the reader. The narrative motion of the European mind searching backward through its own memory is obscured, and the narrative motion of the tropical landscape advancing into the European landscape is foregrounded. Wallace's representation suggests than in looking at the trees he is not simply experiencing perceptual confusion; he is perceiving future forms in present ones. The link between trees and pillars, between tropical and European, is thus seen as a historical inevitability rather than an optical illusion or perceptual accident. Where Darwin's illusions increase formal variety, however, Wallace's limit it. Rather than a single form blossoming into multiple analogous forms, Wallace's eye perceives several different species in terms of a single European form. The distinction between Darwin's and Wallace's representational strategies roughly correlates to the differences in their evolutionary theories. Darwin believed in random competitive evolution while Wallace believed in adaptive, environmental evolution . . . --James Krasner, 1992. In his The Entangled Eye: Visual Perception and the Representation of Nature in Post-Darwinian Narrative (Oxford University Press): 114.\n. . . In Wallace's nature all selection is purposeful and relatively precise; nature tends toward utility, and clears way all forms that are not useful. James's theory of vision can be seen as the perceptual corollary to Wallace's evolutionary theory. The Jamesian mind, like Wallace's evolutionary nature, establishes a formal standard that must be met, and all those forms that fail to meet that standard are eliminated; in Wallace's nature they die off, in James's vision they go unperceived. It is therefore appropriate that Wallace should use a Jamesian representational model. Where Darwin portrays visual forms mutating and multiplying as they compete for space in the reader's perceptual field, Wallace portrays the selection of forms according to an imageable standard of reference. Moreover, because this formal standard is European, the forms of nature are selected according to the standard of reference of European experience--the viewer perceives trees as pillars, and those trees that look less like pillars are ignored. Wallace's representation of evolution thus involves the reader in a more and more familiar world . . . --James Krasner, 1992. In his The Entangled Eye: Visual Perception and the Representation of Nature in Post-Darwinian Narrative (Oxford University Press): 115.\nUntil just before 1880 Wallace had firmly believed \"that vaccination was a scientific procedure, and that Jenner was one of the great benefactors of mankind.\" As a young man he had voluntarily undergone vaccination and subsequent revaccination, just before leaving for South America on a naturalistic trip. He had never questioned the effectiveness of the operation until reading several anti-vaccination texts and meeting William Tebb, the 1870 successor of John and Richard Gibbs as leader of the Anti-vaccination League and founder of the Anti-vaccination Society of America. Convinced by Tebb's arguments, Wallace joined him in the battle for the new cause. Aware of his ignorance on medical matters, Wallace always based his arguments on statistic figures rather than on strictly sanitary aspects. Harry Clements, his biographer, writes: \"no one was apparently able seriously to challenge him on the figures.\" . . . --Giacomo Scarpelli, 1992. Nuncius (Italy) 7(1): 115-116.\n. . . These moral principles were also applied to another field of study, that of the so-called \"Psychical Research\" which caught Wallace's interest very early, in fact earlier than we might possibly think. Spiritism, in Wallace's mind, had a eudaemonist socratic meaning: ghosts were seen as moral and spiritual guides to man. Wallace then developed the idea of man as center of a pre-ordained universe, in which the pain which man is subject to being the most sensitive creature, and the evil which he must fight since he is capable of discerning, are seen as necessary steps towards the completion of moral rather than organic developments, necessary to enter into a superior spiritual sphere. We can now truly understand this sentence: \"the whole purpose, the only raison d'\u00eatre of the world [ . . . ] was the development of human spirit in association with the human body\" . . . This conception of a pre-existing order and a synchronicity can explain the logic which backed Wallace's opinions and attitudes . . . --Giacomo Scarpelli, 1992. Nuncius (Italy) 7(1): 120-121.\n. . . Wallace . . . brought forth an alternative explanation which involved totally different powers. Man has the faculty of artificially selecting vegetable and animal species; similarly a Higher Intelligence could have controlled and directed Natural Selection in the human development process, in a particular and highly ethical aim . . . Effectively, Wallace, induced by the moral ideal earlier mentioned, was trying to find a solution that would not clash with his vision of harmonia naturae and undermine the theory of Natural Selection with whatsoever extension or correction. His was not a denial of the theory but, paradoxically, the result of his excessively rigourous attitude. Wallace, the hyperselectivist, preferred to involve a Superior Intellect, in other words a deus ex machina, rather than admit that his primary theory might possibly have been less absolute . . . --Giacomo Scarpelli, 1992. Nuncius (Italy) 7(1): 126.\n. . . Wallace was driven in his crusade by ethical and social issues, as well as the intention of preventing the disruption of the biological balance. This was altogether a kind of civil protest aimed towards a general reform of society, freed from imposition. Wallace believed that an improvement of the population's economic conditions would have resulted in higher hygienic standards and a richer diet, and consequently, in a decreased spread of diseases, smallpox included. He also envisaged the creation of a Ministry of Health employing teams of Doctors. These purposes, which seem so obvious today, were in his time little less than revolutionary. It can be said that Wallace foresaw the creation of National Health Service . . . --Giacomo Scarpelli, 1992. Nuncius (Italy) 7(1): 128.\nMan's Place in the Universe. A. R. Wallace (McClure, Phillips, New York, 1903). A famous coauthor of Darwin's discovery anticipated in the last chapter of his book almost all versions of modern AP [the Anthropic Principle] . . . --Yuri V. Balashov, December 1991. American Journal of Physics 59(12): 1072.\nWallace did not try to explain distribution patterns by invoking the occurrence of unique events but rather by recourse to general principles. For Wallace that general principle was geological change. There are numerous passages in Wallace (1880) that confirm his appreciation of the importance of geological change in understanding distribution patterns in Indonesia. His discussion of the faunal relationship between the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Borneo, Sumatra, and Java is detailed and provides a clear statement of his position. Having noted the overall similarity of this area's flora and fauna to that of India, he continued on the greater similarity of the mammals and birds of Borneo and Sumatra than those of Borneo and Java, and on the high degree of endemism of the Javan fauna . . . --B. Michaux, September 1991. Australian Systematic Botany 4(1): 26.\n. . . Although this is a rather brief summary of the distribution patterns that Wallace recognised in Indonesia, it does, I believe, accurately reflect the major patterns he observed. His interpretations of these patterns, based as they were on an incomplete understanding of the dynamic nature of the earth's surface, are only really of historical interest. Wallace's attempt to understand distributional patterns in terms of geological change was doomed from the start because neither he nor anyone else at the time realised that land could move laterally as well as vertically . . . --B. Michaux, September 1991. Australian Systematic Botany 4(1): 27.\nDiscrimination involves recognition in the signal receiver that a stimulus, or configuration of stimuli, belongs to some discrete category. The importance of design for discriminability has been recognized since Wallace (1867) suggested that distasteful insect larvae '. . . required some distinctive mark, something by which they may be contrasted with and separated from the agreeable larvae, in order that they might be freed from the attacks of birds' and that 'Brilliant colouration would be such a distinction as was required'. Warning colours and patterns should therefore look different from those of the prey for which predators normally hunt . . . --Tim Guilford & Marian Stamp Dawkins, July 1991. Animal Behaviour 42(1): 5.\nSuccessive generations of evolutionary biologists, beginning with August Weismann and Alfred R. Wallace, have refined our understanding of the evolution of senescence to the point where we now have pretty good reason to believe that in a species like our own aging occurs because natural selection places higher priority on turning out progeny to carry our genes forward than on keeping individuals going; in effect, late survival is sacrificed for reproduction. Extending through a more diverse range of reproductive patterns, the burgeoning discipline of evolutionary life-history theory provides us with the intellectual framework to approach questions like why some species get only a single shot at reproduction (semelparity) while other get more (iteroparity) and why species differ in their longevities . . . --Caleb E. Finch, 28 June 1991. Science 252(5014): 1864.\n. . . In Wallace there was support for the nationalization of land and for the economic emancipation of women. The latter reform he actually justified in evolutionary terms, thereby giving rise to a form of social Wallaceism. His point was that women were currently prevented, by their social and economic disadvantages, from fully exercising their selective role in the choice of mate. Although he sometimes felt that Darwin attached too great an importance to sexual selection in the mechanics of evolution, Wallace was nevertheless convinced that female emancipation could only benefit posterity . . . --John Hedley Brooke, 1991. In his Science and Religion; Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge University Press): 294-295.\n. . . The sheer improbability of the emergence of man deeply impressed Alfred Russel Wallace. Contingency had piled upon contingency with each critical stage in evolutionary divergence. In a book written late in life, Man's Place in the Universe (1903), he turned the argument against physicists and astronomers who were scouring the heavens for planets having a physical environment comparable with that of the earth and on which intelligent life might be presumed to have evolved. Properly understood, Wallace argued, the theory of evolution told against such a possibility--certainly against the emergence of intelligence akin to human. However close the physico-chemical environment to that on earth, it was inconceivable that the evolutionary process on other worlds could have followed the same nuanced path as on earth. One minor deviation at an early stage and the whole process would take an entirely different course . . . --John Hedley Brooke, 1991. In his Science and Religion; Some Historical Perspectives (Cambridge University Press): 315.\nWallace's scientific case rested on his conclusion that the human brain, including that of the most primitive peoples, was more powerful than was necessary for survival. For a large part of his early life Wallace had lived among primitive peoples in South America and Southeast Asia, an experience that convinced him that these people, simple as they have appeared in mind and action, were equal in intelligence to Europeans. As the modern anthropologist Loren Eiseley remarked, Wallace displayed \"scarcely a trace of the racial superiority so frequently manifested in nineteenth-century scientific circles,\" in which were included Darwin and Thomas Huxley. If human beings possessed brain capacities beyond what was needed for survival, Wallace reasoned, then how could natural selection bring about its evolution? Where was the \"survival value\" of that capacity if that capacity was not fully used? After all, natural selection improved an organ only through its adaptation to the pressure of environment. In the case of the human brain, however, the capacity was greater than human beings really required or that the pressure of environment could account for. Wallace logically concluded on those grounds that \"some higher intelligence directed the process by which the human race was developed.\" . . . --Carl N. Degler, 1991. In his In Search of Human Nature; The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (Oxford University Press): 60.\n. . . It will be recalled that Darwin could find no useful value in the physical (racial) differences among human groups. Thus he could not account for those differences through the operation of natural selection. He did, however, accept the common anthropological view of the time that the differences in levels of culture or civilization which occurred among the diverse peoples of the world derived from differences in their biological capacities. Some cultures were higher than others because the people in those societies were biologically superior. That was the opening in his theory of human evolution through which racism entered. It was that opening which Wallace closed with his conception of the intellectual equality and therefore the equal cultural capacity of all peoples. As things turned out, Wallace looked to other ways and matters in his effort to make evolution less competitive and threatening. He did not develop any further his assertion of the mental equality of all peoples, or at least few took notice of its relevance. Yet that was the precise argument, elaborated and tirelessly defended, that undermined in time the concept of racism in America. Its elaboration and defense underpinned the concept of culture, an idea that in the twentieth century became not only an alternative to a racial explanation for human behavioral differences but also a central concept in social science . . . --Carl N. Degler, 1991. In his In Search of Human Nature; The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (Oxford University Press): 61.\n. . . Wallace's supernatural explanation gained few followers among social scientists in the second half of the twentieth century, but his assertion of the special, indeed unique, nature of man, because of his brain, continued to influence many, directly or indirectly. The eminent modern American anthropologist Loren Eiseley, for example was among them. His sympathetic response to Wallace reflects the views of many other American social scientists today. Eiseley did not doubt that Wallace has a better understanding of the roots of human nature than Darwin. In his book Darwin's Century, Eiseley contrasted Darwin's conception with that of Wallace. \"The mind of man, by indetermination, by the power of choice and cultural communication,\" he wrote, \"is on the verge of escape from the blind control of that deterministic world with which the Darwinists had unconsciously shackled man. The inborn characteristics laid upon him by the biological extremists have crumbled away,\" he was relieved to report. In Eiseley's judgement, Wallace stood out among evolutionists of his own time because he recognized even then that human beings had escaped from biological evolution. \"Wallace saw and saw correctly, that with the rise of man the evolution of parts was to a marked degree outmoded, that mind was now the arbiter of human destiny.\" . . . --Carl N. Degler, 1991. In his In Search of Human Nature; The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (Oxford University Press): 330.\nWallace (1865) hypothesized that sex-limited mimicry, in which palatable females are the only sex to mimic unpalatable butterflies, arises because females fly more slowly than males and hence are more vulnerable to predation. Our results from the within-lineage analyses are in agreement with Wallace's hypothesis. Evolutionarily, palatable males have larger thoraces, maximizing flight muscle, and smaller abdomens, minimizing load on the wings, probably to maximize flight speed; whereas females have retained large abdomens, probably to maximize egg load. Counter-selection for fecundity may operate against faster flight speeds, and females may be reproductively constrained to evolve alternative means of avoiding predation, such as mimicry. If females fly more slowly, they may be predisposed to fly like an unpalatable model . . . --Robert Srygley & Peng Chai, 11 October 1990. Oecologia 84(4): 498.\n. . . there simply weren't any lists of Darwinian tenets that would have been accepted by all the leading Darwinians and rejected by all the main non-Darwinians in the first decade or so following the publication of the Origin. Both the Darwinians Charles Lyell and Asa Gray and the non-Darwinians the Duke of Argyll and St. George Mivart, for example, thought that natural selection must be supplemented by some sort of \"directing force\" in order to account for the relevant phenomena, while Darwin consistently denied the need for such an additional mechanism (Argyll 1877; Gray 1884; Mivart 1871). Conversely, neither the Darwinians Alfred Russel Wallace and Charles Lyell nor the non-Darwinians St. George Mivart and William Whewell thought that human beings could be included under the same explanatory scheme (whatever this might be) that was used to account for the history and behavior of \"lower\" animals, while Darwin maintained that they could . . . --Doren Recker, September 1990. Philosophy of Science 57(3): 463.\nThe efforts to denigrate Darwin serve only to conceal the real differences between the two naturalists' approach to transmutation. Careful reading of Wallace's paper reveals that in several important respects his theory failed to duplicate the essence of Darwin's thinking. Wallace had no interest in artificial selection and refused to treat it as analogous to the natural process even in later years. His mechanism did not even address the basic question of how selection acts on individual differences to change a population, because he was interested in how one well-marked variety (what we now call a subspecies) could replace others. Once it is recognized that in writing of natural selection acting on varieties Wallace was thinking of subspecies rather than individual variations, it can be seen that his paper does not contain a description of what Darwin saw as the basic mechanism of change. Wallace simply assumed that species split into varieties--he did not seek to explain how this all-important first step occurs. It has also been suggested that Wallace failed to appreciate the full power of selection because he treated the varieties as struggling against nature, not struggling against each other . . . --Peter J. Bowler, 1990. In his Charles Darwin; The Man and His Influence (Basil Blackwell): 113.\n. . . Wallace's Darwinism of 1889 provided a clear and comprehensive survey of the theory and of the relevant areas of biology. Except in the case of the origin of the human mind, Wallace was an extreme selectionist; unlike Darwin, he would have nothing to do with any other mechanism of evolution. This position soon became known as 'neo-Darwinism' to distinguish it from the more flexible form of the theory which Darwin himself had advocated and which had gained support precisely because it allowed selection to be relegated to the status of a secondary mechanism . . . --Peter J. Bowler, 1990. In his Charles Darwin; The Man and His Influence (Basil Blackwell): 210.\nThe good parent process is a mechanism for the evolution of epigamic traits that is distinct from the Fisherian process and the good genes process. In the good parent process, direct selection on females to discriminate among males on the basis of male parental quality leads to the evolution of a trait that provides female with honest (accurate and precise) information regarding the non-heritable component of parental quality in a potential mate. Wallace (1891, 1901) recognized the potential of such a mechanism, but he had no way to consider rigorously the effects of inheritance. The good parent process is also different from Darwinian sexual selection (Darwin 1871), because females are not necessarily attracted by a good parent trait. A trait that evolves via the good parent process only enhances the attractiveness of high-quality males . . . --Guy A. Hoelzer, December 1989. Animal Behaviour 38(6): 1075.\nSince Wallace (1889), a number of authors have argued that isolating barriers could be positively selected for their isolating property to prevent the formation of hybrids and to actively promote divergence and speciation. However, being a second order effect, the selective forces are likely to be weak, and, as Levin points out, in practice it is going to be very difficult to distinguish this effect from other forms of competition and selection . . . --Mark R. Macnair, February 1989. Genome 31(1): 204-205.\nWallace, on the other hand, insisted on the validity of the \"uniform and consistent testimony of our senses\". It is complete fallacy, so he argued, that only propositions could be demonstrated and phenomena could not be. \"The direct testimony of the educated senses guided by reason was of higher validity than any complex results of reason alone.\" According to Wallace, testimony was trustworthy if the witness was in full possession of the senses and in agreement with the reports of other witnesses. Was it really true, asked Wallace rhetorically, that a member of the House of Peers like Lord Lyndsay--who had recently converted to spiritualism--\"can not be trusted as a faithful witness?\" If the witness were insane or deluded, Wallace argued, they would also be unable to use Carpenter's mathematical reasoning . . . --Roy J. DeCarvalho, January 1989. Journal of Religion and Psychical Research 12(1): 22.\nThe modern Darwinian theory of evolution is defective in that it does not even recognize the extraordinary problem that is presented by living organisms acquiring mental experiences of a non-material kind that are in another world from the world of matter-energy, which formerly was globally comprehensive. The Cartesian solution is not generally acceptable, namely, that human beings have conscious experiences that are attributable to the Divine creation of souls, and that higher animals are merely machine-like automata devoid of mental experiences. Likewise the panpsychist evasion of the problem is not acceptable. It is disturbing that evolutionists have largely ignored the tremendous enigma that is presented to their materialistic theory by the emergence of mentality in the animal evolution . . . I believe that the emergence of consciousness is a skeleton in the cupboard of orthodox evolutionism. At the same time it is recognized that, although the holistic concept gives meaning to the emergence of consciousness, it provides no explanation of this emergence. It remains just as enigmatic as it is to an orthodox evolutionist as long as it is regarded as an exclusively natural process in an exclusively materialist world . . . --John C. Eccles, 1989. In his Evolution of the Brain: Creation of the Self (Routledge): 176.\n. . . Nature still presented a gory spectacle; and people of faith still had to wonder at the divine power that would use such means. Hence, Wallace comes to repeat the position Darwin flirted with above: denial of pain and suffering as a means of vindicating the goodness of nature. In his 1911 chapter \"Is Nature Cruel?\" he offers again the answer that nature is not cruel because most animals simply do not suffer. Wallace cautions that one must not read one's own sensations into the animal world: that \"anything approaching to what we term 'pain' was unknown\" to most animals. They \"probably suffer nothing at all when being devoured.\" He goes further to assert (very strongly) that \"birds, mice, squirrels, and the like, do not get limbs broken by falls, as we do,\" and that, in sum, \"whatever pain exists is not long-continued\" (Wallace 1911, 404-405) . . . --David Oates, December 1988. Zygon 23(4): 445.\nDarwin's response is, on the face of it, rather puzzling. Why did he not protest Wallace's assertion that selection works principally through the elimination of unfavorable variants? Historians generally agree that the acknowledgment of selection as a negative force--removing inferior variants and thus maintaining the \"type\"--long predated Darwin. In this perspective, Darwin's achievement lay in his recognition that selection was \"a creative process and not merely a sieve.\" But there is no evidence that his dissents from Wallace's essentially negative view. Perhaps historians' radical distinction between natural selection as a creative force and as executioner of the unfit--that is, as \"nature's broom\"--was not recognized by Darwin . . . --Diane B. Paul, Fall 1988. Journal of the History of Biology 21(3): 417-418.\nThe Great American Interchange was first recognized by Wallace (1876), but it has taken another hundred years of intense paleontological study by Ameghino, Matthew, Scott, Patterson, Simpson, Webb, and others to clarify patterns of dispersal. It is only during the last decade, moreover, that greater precision in dating the sediments containing interchange taxa has provided a firm time frame for various aspects of the event. It is now possible to assess the interchange in detail, and to analyze the tempo and mode of dispersal and the rates of extinction and origination in successive faunas through time. As a result, the Great American Interchange represents the best-documented example in the fossil record of the intermingling of two long-separated continental faunas . . . --Larry G. Marshall, July-August 1988. American Scientist 76(4): 380.\n. . . \"I should be extremely glad now to publish a sketch of general views in about a dozen pages or so; but I cannot persuade myself that I can do so honourably. Wallace says nothing about publication, and I enclose his letter. But as I had not intended to publish any sketch, can I do so honourably, because Wallace has sent me an outline of his doctrine? I would far rather burn my whole book, than that he or any other man should think that I had behaved in a paltry spirit. Do you not think his having sent me this sketch ties my hands? I do not in least believe that that [sic] he originated his views from anything which I wrote to him\" [Darwin's words] . . . --Barbara G. Beddall, Spring 1988. Journal of the History of Biology 21(1): 52.\n. . . In the narrow focus espoused both by the participants in the events leading up to and including the \"joint papers,\" and by their successors, priority in this case has been treated as a \"single event,\" a zero-sum game with winners and losers, an occasion when \"editorial manipulation\" and \"delicate arrangements\" could be invoked. But, as seen above, the matter is far more complex than this approach would indicate. It requires a broader perspective in which the enormous contributions made by both Darwin and Wallace can be recognized. In game theory this would be a non-zero-sum game, where both Darwin and Wallace benefited from the work of the other, thus becoming codiscoverers of the theory of evolution by means of natural selection. If this interpretation of the events is rejected, the status of the matter reverts to a zero-sum game, which brings back with it not only its winners and losers, but also the problems of \"editorial manipulation\" and \"delicate arrangements,\" as posed by Kohn and Nelson . . . --Barbara G. Beddall, Spring 1988. Journal of the History of Biology 21(1): 62.\nStrangely enough, it was A. R. Wallace, not Darwin, who suggested an explicit associative hypothesis integrating learning theory with natural selection. In a paper entitled \"On the Origin of Food Aversion Paradigms,\" Garcia and Hankins present the case for a Darwin-Wallace conditioning theory initiated in 1866 and experimentally verified by 1887. Their theory was actively generating research 2 decades before Pavlov began his studies in classical conditioning, and 3 decades before Thorndike presented his thesis on instrumental conditioning. This pioneer effort culminated in today's research area, narrowly labeled \"conditioned taste aversion.\" More broadly considered, this paradigm is representative of homeostatic conditioning which Tolman (1949) called \"cathexis\"; when responding to survival needs, organisms come to cherish one particular type of food and drink, or one given type of mate, and to abhor others . . . --Robert C. Bolles & Michael D. Beecher, eds., 1988. In their Evolution and Learning (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates): 29.\n. . . Wallace had traveled widely in South America and the South Pacific as a naturalist and collector of exotic specimens. His observations of native peoples had convinced him that the intellectual and moral faculties required by the aboriginal way of life were not markedly different from those needed by mammals generally to survive in their respective ecological situations. Yet aborigines brought to England and educated there had the capacity to acquire the behavioral sophistication of modern Europeans. Thus, aborigines had moral and intellectual capacities far exceeding the immediate requirements of the environments in which they had evolved. Therefore the intellectual capacities of primitive man, and by implication modern man, could not be the result of natural selection . . . --Robert C. Bolles & Michael D. Beecher, 1988. In their Evolution and Learning (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates): 41.\nThe adaptive nature of warning, or 'aposematic' colour patterns seemed clear a century ago (Wallace, 1867, 1878; Poulton, 1890), but recently it has been debated whether 'individual' natural selection may explain their initial evolution. Fisher (1930) had earlier suggested a similar problem with the evolution of unpalatability. Previous explanations depend purely on selection to explain the evolution of warning colours. Here we propose that drift, combined with natural selection, may also be important . . . --James Mallet & Michael C. Singer, December 1987. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 32(4): 338.\n. . . Although mimicry strongly suggests that colour patterns are used as warning signals, there is only anecdotal evidence that warning colours are easier to learn than non-warning colours. Traditionally, it has been assumed that the bright colours of unpalatable insects are more efficient signals (Wallace, 1867, 1878). Birds seem to learn to avoid conspicuous prey more easily, and humans use bright colours in warning signs. However unpalatable insects could be brightly coloured for other reasons . . . --James Mallet & Michael C. Singer, December 1987. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 32(4): 338.\n. . . In the pages of the Encyclopedia Britannica, over several editions, Alfred Russel Wallace argued the case for acclimatization. He was more careful than most, at that stage, in distinguishing between domestication, naturalization and acclimatization. And yet arguing from first evolutionary principles and from plant and animal biogeography, he urged that \"numerous facts in the distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate\". In more recent times, the migrations of the Jews, and the settlement of the Dutch in South Africa, the English-speaking peoples in America and Australia, and the Spanish in South America all demonstrated that complete acclimatization was entirely possible . . . --David N. Livingstone, December 1987. History of Science 25(4): 381.\n. . . But now that the monogenist thesis had triumphed, acclimatization followed as a natural consequence. Similar deductions were drawn by A.R. Wallace: \"numerous facts in the distribution of races show that man must, in remote ages at least, have been capable of constitutional adaptation to climate\" he urged. Hence, \"if the human race constitutes a single species, then the mere fact that man now inhabits every region, and is in each case constitutionally adapted to the climate, proves that acclimatization has occurred.\" . . . --David N. Livingstone, December 1987. History of Science 25(4): 386.\nWallace's view was kindred in spirit to Henry George's Progress and Poverty (1879), although Wallace had less regard for the market. Both saw man as needing land. Their mutual disapproval of Parnellism brought them together, and both submerged methodological differences to further their common concept. Wallace gave him a platform when George toured Britain. Wallace cast George as a theorist who confirmed Wallace's inductive argument, perhaps underrating George's journalistic background. For many years single tax and land nationalization were closely linked by friend and foe . . . --Mason Gaffney, 1987. In John Eatwell, Murray Milgate & Peter Newman, eds., The New Palgraves: A Dictionary of Economics (Macmillan), Volume 4: 850.\nAccording to both Spencer and Wallace, a natural principle of evolution inexorably led to the moral perfection of man. Wallace, of course, had a different principle in mind than Spencer's device of adaptation through the inherited effects of habit. He nonetheless believed that the principle of natural selection would add further support to Spencer's primary vision, the view that man's moral character was not only a goal of evolution, but also a chief means of progress toward the perfection of human nature . . . --Robert J. Richards, 1987. In his Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (University of Chicago Press): 165-166.\n. . . Evolutionary theory, as Darwin himself admitted in the Origin, remained mute concerning how life and consciousness first arose in the universe; it could only account for subsequent transformations. Just so, Wallace now proclaimed, natural selection brought no clear perception of the origins of specifically human intellect and moral feeling. He was persuaded that these distinctive capacities must have originated under the influence of higher powers, intelligences who shepherded the progressive development of mind through the ages . . . --Robert J. Richards, 1987. In his Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (University of Chicago Press): 178.\n. . . Contemporary primitives and our ancestors thus had latent mental qualities that could not be explained by natural selection, which demanded that selected traits confer immediate advantage, not simply promise it. Wallace's contacts with the spirit world convinced him that higher intelligences rather than natural selection controlled human evolution. Wallace forthrightly claimed that a conversion to spiritualism proximately caused his rejection of natural selection as an adequate principle to explain human evolution; and virtually all historians have taken him at his word. But we need not. For after all, Wallace might well have chosen to regard natural selection as the disposing instrument of higher spiritual powers and to have held survival of the fittest as a secondary cause . . . --Robert J. Richards, 1987. In his Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (University of Chicago Press): 181.\n. . . Huxley tarried only a short while over Wallace's demur about natural selection in the case of man. He derived from Wallace's own writings about savage life descriptions of the extraordinary mental feats such life actually required--knowledge of a vast territory, reading signs of game or enemies, discovery of properties of plants and habits of animals, and so forth. \"In complexity and difficulty,\" Huxley estimated, \"the intellectual labour of a 'good hunter or warrior' considerably exceeds that of an ordinary Englishman.\" Wallace had simply miscalculated the brain power the savage actually needed for survival; thus neither primitive man nor modern native likely had in excess what could be delivered by natural selection or augmented by entering into civilized life. On the question of the moral sense, Huxley could \"find nothing in Mr. Wallace's reasonings which has not already been met by Mr. Mill, Mr. Spencer, or Mr. Darwin.\" . . . --Robert J. Richards, 1987. In his Darwin and the Emergence of Evolutionary Theories of Mind and Behavior (University of Chicago Press): 227.\nAnd in The Growth of Biological Thought Ernst Mayr comments: \"In his letter, Wallace said that if Darwin thought his paper sufficiently novel and interesting, he should send it to Lyell and, presumably, submit it for publication (the original Wallace letter is no longer in existence).\" But it is clear that Wallace did not ask Darwin to arrange for publication. Unfortunately, as Mayr notes, the letter that accompanied Wallace'1s paper is lost. However, we have Darwin's word for it that there was no such instruction. On the same day that Wallace's paper arrived, Darwin wrote an anguished letter to Lyell, in which he refers to Wallace's \"MS, which he does not say he wishes me to publish\". Then, a week later, he wrote to Lyell again, to express his misgivings about Lyell's and Hooker's plan. One of his reasons for worrying was that \"Wallace says nothing about publication\". Why should such distinguished writers as Ruse and Mayr make this particular mistake? This is the kind of error that might perhaps follow from a moral presumption. It seems wrong to publish someone's work, without consulting him, in a forum he has not approved. Thus, if we are assuming that Darwin and his friends acted properly, it will be natural to assume that Wallace must have asked that his paper be published. But in fact he did not . . . --James Rachels, Summer 1986. National Forum 66(3): 24.\nThe concept of r- and K-selection is intuitively reasonable and indeed there is much circumstantial evidence from both macroecology and microbial ecology that it exists. The seminal ideas were contributed largely by Dobzhansky (1950), who compared evolution in the tropics and temperate latitudes. Actually, it is usually overlooked that the great naturalist Wallace (1878), in his remarks on tropical plant and animal life, anticipated many of Dobzhansky's conclusions. Dobzhansky surmised that adaptation in the species-rich tropics is primarily to a harsh biological environment, while the fewer species in colder realms have to contend mainly with the physical environment. Put simplistically, the outcome of different evolutionary pressures between the two regions is competitiveness (high K) or productivity (high r), respectively . . . --John H. Andrews & Robin F. Harris, 1986. Advances in Microbial Ecology 9: 104.\n. . . there even continued to be one or two plebeians who became recognised leaders in a field. Most famously, though A. R. Wallace . . . was of impoverished gentle family, he had something of a craftsmanly formation, during which he became a life-long Owenite (he died in 1913). Had his fellow-FRSs borne this in mind, they might have been less puzzled by his left-wing politics, his anti-vaccinationism and his plebeian-type spiritualism. A recent historian has plausibly treated him as an import into the later nineteenth century from the 1840s, and we might also see him as an import into prestigious scientific circles from the world of self-taught scientists. His particular route to eminence involved much specimen-hunting but no diploma-hunting, much jungle-fever but no exam-fever . . . --Logie Barrow, 1986. In his Independent Spirits; Spiritualism and English Plebeians, 1850-1910 (Routledge & Kegan Paul): 153.\n. . . Darwin and Wallace defended a programme of theoretical research by appeal to the superior coherence and fecundity of their programme. The appeal to superior coherence took place on two levels. At a substantive level they argued that their programme promised the discovery of relevantly similar natural forces for the explanation of relevantly similar natural phenomena. At an epistemic level they claimed coherence in their use of biogeographical and geological evidence and coherence in the application of the epistemic desideratum of scrutability. As Wallace had suggested, the appeal to coherence at substantive and epistemic levels is justified by the overall aim of science to construe its subject matter as maximally accessible to investigation and as maximally decidable by acceptable argument. The appeal to superior fecundity can also be justified as instrumental to the achievement of these aims . . . --Scott A. Kleiner, December 1985. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 36(4): 391.\nThe allopatric model of speciation proposes that populations diverge genetically during a period of isolation either by drift, differential selection or different responses to similar selection pressures. When the barrier to dispersal is removed, this divergence may have led to premating reproductive isolation, post-mating isolation or both. Only if there is complete assortative mating, hybrid inviability or hybrid infertility will the two new taxa be able to coexist without exchanging genes and only if there is at least some premating reproductive isolation will they be able to invade on another's territory. Otherwise a hybrid zone is expected to form. Premating isolation may evolve, or be strengthened, in the hybrid zone because heterogametic matings produce unfit offspring--as first proposed by Wallace (1889) and subsequently incorporated into speciation theory by Dobzhansky (1940). However, this 'reinforcement' of premating isolating mechanisms is a contentious idea . . . --R. K. Butlin & G. M. Hewitt, November 1985. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 26(3): 269-270.\nIn contrast, Alfred Russel Wallace (1864), the co-discoverer of natural selection, stressed that group selection (i.e. selection not between individuals, but between groups) played an important role, at least among human beings. Describing the process of human evolution, he wrote: \"In proportion as physical characteristics become of less importance, mental and moral qualities will have increasing importance to the well-being of a race. Capacity for acting in concern for the protection of food and shelter; sympathy, which leads all in turn to assist each other; the sense of right, which checks depredation upon our fellows . . . are all qualities that from earliest appearance must have been for the benefit of each community, and would therefore have become objects of natural selection.\" . . . --Umberto Melotti, Summer 1985. The Mankind Quarterly 25(4): 324.\nThis is not meant to demean Darwin. In addition to his genius, Darwin was a warm, liberal man for his times: opposed to slavery, in favor of electoral reform, and concerned for the oppressed. But he was, in some areas, of his times and not very far ahead of them. For many scientists of the day, the existent native peoples were virtual \"missing links.\" It was only through work in Wallace's tradition that \"the Negro's skull is no longer placed on the lecturer's table between that of the gorilla and the Caucasian\". At the time, Wallace's belief in the ultimate intellectual potential of native peoples must have seemed bizarre beyond reason . . . --Stephen E. Glickman, 1985/1992. In Sigmund Koch & David E. Leary, eds., A Century of Psychology as Science (American Psychological Association): 750.\n. . . Less than a year later he wrote the first of two papers that together presented, in brief but complete form, a theory of evolution by natural selection. While the second paper, written three years later, postulated natural selection in variable populations as the mechanism by which species originated, the first paper (Wallace 1855) analyzed the significance of extinction within evolving lineages in producing all of the known patterns of organic distribution in time and space. It must be emphasized that this paper was the first published statement to appreciate the importance of the extinction of intermediates in a species lineage in creating the oft-observed gaps in taxonomic affinities, as well as those in distribution in both space and time. This meant that the observed placement of organisms in the regions of the globe was not the result of supernatural forces and divine objectives, but of the natural phenomena of extinction and species transmutation (or evolution.) . . . --John L. Brooks, 1985. Earth Sciences History 4(2): 115.\nIn his discussion of the debate between Darwin and Wallace, Mayr has claimed, \"they used the term 'sterility' where we would use the term 'isolating mechanisms'.\" If this were the case, then Darwin advocated the incidental origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms, Wallace their origin by natural selection. Grant has gone on to suggest that it would be \"fitting and desirable\" to call the selective origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms the \"Wallace effect\". There can be no question that some late nineteenth-century naturalists did use the word \"sterility\" where evolutionists now use \"reproductive isolation mechanisms\". But I would argue that in their debate Darwin and Wallace meant what we do by \"sterility\". The distinction Wallace drew in point 6 of his 1 March 1868 letter between \"disinclination to cross-unions\" and \"sterility\" certainly supports his view. Consequently Wallace was not proposing the selective origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms in general, but rather the selective origin of the particular post-mating mechanisms of cross- and hybrid sterility. Since, according to current theory, these forms of sterility are precisely the types of reproductive isolation that cannot be produced by selection, the Darwin-Wallace debate provides little historical justification for the term \"Wallace effect\". The present view on the origin of sterility is essentially Darwin's view of an incidental origin. Furthermore, during the debate it was Darwin not Wallace who recognized the possibility of the selective origin of pre-mating reproductive isolation (\"disinclination to cross\"), while rejecting the selective origin of cross- and hybrid sterility . . . --Malcolm Jay Kottler, 1985. In David Kohn, ed., The Darwinian Heritage (Princeton University Press): 416-417.\nOur idea--and the support for it we have found thus far--points to the need for renewed examination of the effects of avian parasites and diseases on their hosts. If females are indeed choosing males that appear to be advertising their freedom from parasites, and if showy plumes and melodious voices have evolved from such a prosaic and down-to-earth cause, perhaps even Alfred Wallace might be mollified . . . --Marlene Zuk, April 1984. Natural History 93(4): 34.\n\"That excellent results may be obtained from a consideration of the habits and characters of the living bird is, we think, shown in Mr. Wallace's arrangement of the order Passeres. His remarks were published in 1856; but, if we mistake not, many of his suggestions have been more or less adopted in that part of Professor Owen's classification which relates to the same group. His conclusions, moreover, generally harmonize with the improvements proposed by Eyton and Nitzsch before him, and Blanchard and others after him, on anatomical groups; as also with what we consider to be the best features in Bonaparte's scheme\" [passage quoted from an anonymous author] . . . --John L. Brooks, 1984. In his Before the Origin (Columbia University Press): 124.\n. . .The explanation of the virtual faunal identity was revealed by the discovery of clear physiographic evidence that the sea between Aru and New Guinea had been created by recent subsidence--recent in geological time. This discovery provided Wallace with a geographic situation of the kind he had sought since his Amazonian days. According to his theory, only a slight change in the organic world should be manifest following a recent physiographic change. The species of birds, mammals, and insects he found in Aru were identical to those described for New Guinea, with the sole exception of the Ornithoptera. The Aru form was distinct, but minimally so, from O. poseidon, described from New Guinea. Observation thus confirmed the theory . . . --John L. Brooks, 1984. In his Before the Origin (Columbia University Press): 172.\nWallace's demonstration that man's tools (including language) removed his body from the realm of evolutionary specialization that operates inexorably elsewhere was recognized immediately as a turning point in the scientific study of man. His paper was intended as a vehicle for applying natural selection to a wide range of concerns--the antiquity of man, racial superiority, man's taxonomic rank--with the clear implication that human mental and moral attributes would also be subsumed under a strict evolutionary naturalism . . . --Martin Fichman, 1984. In Everett Mendelsohn, ed., Transformation and Tradition in the Sciences; Essays in Honor of I. Bernard Cohen (Cambridge University Press): 475.\nA final, important difference separates Wallace from Dyson and most modern supporters of the anthropic principle. Our contemporary advocates develop their arguments and then present their conclusion--that mind designed the universe, in part so that intelligent life might evolve within it--as a necessary and logical inference. Wallace was far too good a historical scientist to indulge in such fatuous certainty; he understood only too well that ordered and complex outcomes can arise from accumulated improbabilities . . . --Stephen Jay Gould, May 1983. Natural History 92(5): 38.\nAvian selection on females might be stronger than that on males for a variety of reasons. First, birds might preferentially select females if they were larger, more valuable (e.g. because they contain eggs or embryos), or more easily captured than males. Wallace originally proposed a version of this hypothesis to account for female-biased polymorphisms in butterflies. He suggested that female butterflies might be more vulnerable to predators because they are laden with eggs and fly more slowly. Recently, it has been shown that birds do preferentially select female cicadas, which are less vagile and more nutritious than males. Even if birds did not discriminate between the sexes in prey species, selection on females might still be more intense if avian predators encountered or noticed more females than males. Female-biased encounter rates could result if the sex ratios of adult prey were heavily skewed towards females, if females occurred more often in microhabitats frequented by predators, or if females engaged in behaviors that made them more conspicuous than males. The differential predation hypothesis would be supported if birds ate females more frequently than males; it can be refuted if males completely lack protective patterns but are still eaten by birds . . . --J. A. Stamps & S. M. Gon III, 1983. Annual Review of Ecology & Systematics 14: 233-234.\nAfter collecting briefly near Singapore, Wallace went to Sarawak to meet its celebrated White Rajah, Sir James Brooke. St. John, Brooke's secretary and biographer, has written: \"We had at this time the famous naturalist, traveller and philosopher, Alfred Russel Wallace, who was then elaborating in his mind the theory that was simultaneously worked out by Darwin--the theory of the origin of species; if he could not convince us that our ugly neighbours, the orang-utans, were our ancestors, he pleased, instructed and delighted us by his clever and inexhaustible flow of talk--really good talk\" (Life of Sir James Brooke, 1890). So much for the quiet, shy man . . . --Ralph E. Bernstein, 3 June 1982. New Scientist 94: 653.\nI believe that study of specimens and field observations in New Guinea presently warrant two conclusions. First, orioles are indeed mimics of friarbirds, as Wallace postulated over a century ago. The case for mimicry is much stronger than Wallace realized: he had seen only two of the eight sets of populations that we now know . . . --Jared M. Diamond, April 1982. The Auk 99(2): 193.\n. . . Spencer, wrote Wallace, was misconceiving natural selection. It does not work by favouring 'any special bone, or muscle, or limb . . . but by the selection of the capacities or qualities.' By 'capacities or qualities' Wallace meant things like strength or speed. Wallace maintained that artificial selection works in the same way. The breeder selects for qualities such as quickness, not for particular variations of bones. 'The two modes of selection are thus strictly analogous and strictly comparable.' He further insisted that natural selection is not limited by the supply of variation because 'as a matter of fact, there is a sufficiency of useful variation always present in each succeeding generation to increase any required life-preserving quality, all theoretical objections to the contrary notwithstanding.' Artificial selection is not the 'point after point' improvement of organs; both modes of selection transform structures as a whole, by selecting for a capacity. Each step in the selection of a capacity would produce an improvement so Romanes' and Spencer's criticism would not apply . . . --Mark Ridley, March 1982. British Journal for the History of Science 15(1): 61.\nCareful consideration of both theories shows quite readily their differences in emphasis. Darwin was theorizing as to why males were brightly coloured. All Wallace (1891) could offer that pertained directly to this point was the vitalistic argument that male colour was due to \"great vigour and health and generally higher vitality\". Wallace in his Theory of Bird's Nests, had a perfectly reasonable hypothesis as to why females are dull--not the same question Darwin was trying to answer . . . --R. B. Aiken, 1982. Quaestiones Entomologicae 18(1-4): 8.\n. . . But what of Wallace? He was not as involved in the question of aesthetic taste of females as he was in the question of animal colouration. Interestingly enough, criticisms from Wallace focused on ambiguity in the argument about female aesthetic sense. The process by which female choice was effected was not made clear. Most discussion revolved around the issue of whether females were exercising some conscious choice or were being excited by and yielding to a male. Was it selecting or succumbing? Darwin (1871) originally thought it was selection. He states: \"No doubt this implies powers of discrimination and taste on the part of the female . . .\" Wallace (1891, 1901) objected to this notion of conscious choice, returning again and again to the admonition that female choice could not be shown in nature. Wallace stated that while female birds may be excited by a display of decorative plumage, there was no reason to suppose that this conferred a mating advantage. It is difficult to understand Wallace's reasoning in the light of his own ideas. He stated that colour and ornament are concomitant with vigour and general health and that it is the most healthy, persistent males that will mate. Differences between Darwin and Wallace seem to be a matter of mechanism rather than basic principles . . . --R. B. Aiken, 1982. Quaestiones Entomologicae 18(1-4): 10.\nTo Wallace, Victorian scientists' failure to consider the implications their work held for moral behavior indicated severely misplaced priorities. In Spiritualism's demonstration of the reality of the soul, he himself found a basis for belief in moral as well as material evolution. Scientists' refusal to address so important a matter, Wallace believed, revealed an amoral materialism and, as such, outright dereliction of scientific duty . . . --John J. Cerullo, 1982. In his The Secularization of the Soul; Psychical Research in Modern Britain (Institute for the Study of Human Issues): 28.\nWallace states his thesis with extraordinary clarity: \"There is a general principle in nature which will cause many varieties to survive the parent species, and to give rise to successive variations, departing further and further from the original type. The language in which this observation is presented is rather typological; Wallace's conclusion, however, clearly contradicts Lyell's claim that \"varieties have strict limits, and can never vary more than a small amount away from the original type.\" The most important aspect of Wallace's analysis is that he carefully stayed away from the quagmire of the morphological controversy on species and varieties but based his conclusion on a rather strictly ecological argument. He concluded that population size of a species is not at all determined by fertility but by natural checks on potential population increase. An enormous number of animals must die each year to keep the number constant, and \"those that die must be the weakest--the very young, the aged, and the diseased--while those that prolong their existence can only be the most perfect in health and vigour--those who are best able to obtain food regularly and avoid their numerous enemies.\" . . . --Ernst Mayr, 1982. In his The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance (The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press): 495.\nWallace couched his new argument about evolution and man in 1869 not in terms of spiritualism, in which he was unable to interest seriously the majority of his fellow evolutionists, but in terms of utility. He used the essential principle of evolution to deny the evolution of man. To recapitulate, natural selection is a theory of usefulness--traits are selected in individuals because they confer some use to the individual in the struggle for survival. Wallace rejected sexual selection in the name of this principle. But applying now the same principle to man, Wallace argued that many of the traits characteristic of man were in fact of no use when they first arose, and therefore could not have been developed by natural selection . . . --Nancy Stepan, 1982. In her The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain 1800-1960 (Archon Books): 71.\nInterestingly, issues like these must have been a preoccupation of Alfred Russel Wallace a century ago. Wallace, the coauthor of the theory of evolution, reneged on the theory in excluding man from his rightful place on the evolutionary tree. He did so because he could not reconcile (see especially Wallace 1891) the incredible capacity for humans to process information (as evidenced by the accomplishments of a learned man of society in Victorian times) with the fact that such capacity went largely unused throughout the entire period of human evolution (extrapolation based on his observations of \"primitive\" peoples in what is today Eastern Indonesia.) Wallace's dilemma has never been completely resolved. . . --David F. Lancy & Andrew J. Strathern, December 1981. American Anthropologist 83(4): 790.\nLowell's books about life on Mars provoked Alfred R. Wallace, with Darwin the discoverer of the theory of evolution by natural selection, into analysing the likelihood of the evolution of an intelligent species elsewhere in the Universe. He concluded that it was essentially zero, and thus we are alone in the Universe. His arguments are worth repeating in detail, because although published in 1905 they are exactly the same as those given by modern evolutionists such as Dobzhansky, Simpson, and Mayr. Thus the biological arguments against the evolution of intelligence have not changed in 75 years. The great evolutionists have always been united against ETI. The biologists who have supported ETI have generally been biologists with the viewpoint of a physicist, and lacking the historical sense of the evolutionist. Such men often err in questions about evolutionary biology; in particular they err about questions concerning the probability of the evolution of a species with specified properties, as the recent recombinant DNA debate shows . . . --Frank J. Tipler, June 1981. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 22(2): 140.\nWallace does not show a concern for Darwin's problem with the 'swamping effect', i.e., the dilution and loss of variants from crossing back into the unvaried population. Accordingly we don't find in Wallace's writings Darwin's attempt to explain speciation by isolation. Possibly Wallace concluded swamping could be ignored because by observation permanent varieties/species exist in nature. Thus he might have concluded backcrossing is in fact not significant in nature. Also, as he viewed the line between species as something other than a barrier preventing intermixing, he would not have felt the need to explain how such barriers are effective. Another consideration that subsequently supports Wallace's attitude is implicit in his approach to the theory of natural selection. Unlike Darwin, Wallace used the knowledge of domestic animals against the claim that species are permanent and not to support evolution, as did Darwin. In domestic animals, natural selection tends to favor reversion to original unvaried forms . . . --Scott A. Kleiner, April 1981. Synthese 47(1): 146-147.\n. . . To consider now the main problem of concern to Darwin and Wallace, the origin problem, not only is there lacking a decision procedure for determining whether the goal state is reached, but also, as we have argued above, the goal state for why-questions cannot be fully described in advance without actually answering the question. Although Darwin cannot and does not specify in advance the kind of explanatory mechanism he is seeking he is able to say what kind of causal process he does not want, viz., the agent--teleological process of the creationist theories. His goal state can be described only in terms of a few desiderata, viz., a theory consisting of universal laws applicable to all organisms including humans and bringing together a wide variety of previously unconnected facts, and one in which the process of evolution is \"gradual\" in the sense that it is in conformity with Lyellian uniformitarianism applied to living organisms. Specifically, all large evolutionary changes are to be explained in terms of persistant small incremental changes occurring over a long time, and the law governing these changes are the same throughout geological time even though varying local conditions may produce happenings in the past that are not presently occurring or rather sudden and calamitous effects on local biota . . . --Scott A. Kleiner, April 1981. Synthese 47(1): 154.\nA key process in speciation among sexual organisms is the evolution of reproductive isolation. There are essentially two views on the origin of isolating mechanisms . . . The first view, championed by Darwin (1872), holds that isolating mechanisms originate as an incidental by-product of genetic divergence in geographically isolated populations. The second view, argued by Wallace (1889), holds that isolating mechanisms are established by means of natural selection in zones of overlap between incipient species . . . The contemporary view, which holds that premating reproductive barriers (often behavioral) are built up by natural selection in areas of sympatry in order to supercede postmating barriers that arose allopatrically, has come to be known as the Wallace effect. The plausibility of the Wallace effect has been demonstrated by Knight et al. (1956) and by Kessler (1966), who showed that artificial selection could be successful in enhancing premating reproductive isolation in Drosophila. In light of the important role of the Wallace effect in modern speciation theory, it is surprising that the phenomenon has not been studied quantitatively . . . --Stanley Sawyer & Daniel Hartl, April 1981. Theoretical Population Biology 19(2): 261-262.\nSome zoologists, like Raven in 1935, considered the validity of Wallace's line on the basis of the proportion of mammals that had crossed the line going east compared with those that had not and came to the conclusion that Wallace's line marked a boundary which was the eastern limit of the great majority of East Indian mammals, like rhinoceroses and elephants. Others made their assessment on the proportion of western and eastern elements to be found on each island in Wallacea. Thus, Rensch in 1935, following Mertens (1934), calculated that 88 per cent of the butterflies were of western origin which was a similar proportion to that found on Lombok and more than twice as high as for the Kai Islands. Following the same line of argument for Austral-Malayan birds, Ernst Mayr calculated that 67.6 per cent of the passerines were from the west and decided that 'there is no doubt, Celebes must be included with the Oriental region' (Mayr, 1944) . . . --Wilma George, 1981. In T. C. Whitmore, ed., Wallace's Line and Plate Tectonics (Oxford University Press): 5.\nThe notion that islands are somehow different stems from the concerns of naturalists. The observations by Darwin and others that the existence of islands permitted the development of significant variations in plant and animal life formed an important part of the intellectual underpinning of theories of evolution. Thus Wallace, in his study of island life (1880), points out that 'some of the most remarkable and interesting facts in the distribution and affinities of organic forms are presented by islands in relation to each other and to the surrounding continents'. He refers to 'the unexpected relations or singular anomalies which are so often found to characterize the fauna and flora of islands'. More recently, there has been a growing interest in the total ecological balance of islands (already hinted at in Wallace's work) . . . --Percy Selwyn, December 1980. World Development 8(12): 945.\n. . . it is interesting to note that in this disagreement there are faint echoes of the other matter which separated Darwin and Wallace at this time: sexual selection through female choice. Darwin wanted to argue that the beauty of, say, the peacock as opposed to the peahen, is a function of the females choosing beautiful males. Wallace argued that the difference is essentially a function of the females being more drab than the males, this drabness coming through the female's need for camouflage from predators as they incubate their eggs and care for their young. In arguing this way, Wallace was certainly not invoking group selection. However, unlike Darwin, who was emphasizing the individual nature of selection by seeing the main competition (at this point) as coming from within the species, Wallace was deemphasizing competition within the group by seeing the threat coming from without . . . --Michael Ruse, November 1980. Annals of Science 37(6): 625.\n. . . let us offer solace to the opponents of human sociobiology. If one uncomfortable with a rather extreme individual selectionism, particularly as applied to man, and if one yet wants historical precedent to legitimize one's yearnings, then no less than the sociobiologists can one find the most respectable of intellectual ancestors. One may not be able to claim one of the fathers of evolutionism, but one can claim the other: Alfred Russel Wallace. He was a group selectionist, and moreover he was not prepared to see man treated on a par with other organisms. I certainly do not want to pretend that today's biologists would find convincing the details of Wallace's doubts about the all-sufficiency of individual selection, or that those who criticize human sociobiology grind the same metaphysical axe as did Wallace (although interestingly, politically Wallace was fairly left-wing, as are many of today's critics). But, given Wallace's conclusions, it does seem true to say that the critics of human sociobiology are no less part of the evolutionary tradition than those they criticize! . . . --Michael Ruse, November 1980. Annals of Science 37(6): 630.\n. . . this letter . . . reveals in clearer outline the professional relationship between Spruce and Wallace and their mutual but competitive interests in the Palmae: their meeting in the Amazon, the discovery that they had made similar collections in this important family, Spruce's offer to collaborate on the book and Wallace's subsequent refusal. It appears that Spruce was discouraged on learning that Wallace had discovered and intended to name and describe the same palms, primarily those along the Rio Negro, that he had studied. He writes of \"relaxing\" his study of the palms, in view of the fact that Wallace would return to England and publish his results before Spruce left South America. Clearly, in this instance, Spruce felt botanically somewhat overshadowed by Wallace, whom he considered a distinguished zoologist and friend . . . --Michael J. Balick, September 1980. Botanical Museum Leaflets 28(3): 265.\nA major misconception about this debate has become fairly widespread. According to this misconception, Darwin was for sexual selection, while Wallace was against it and for natural selection instead. It is true that from 1876 on, Wallace gave up sexual selection--he rejected female choice completely and interpreted male combat as just a form of natural selection. But the debate between Darwin and Wallace took place in 1867 and 1868, with a brief resumption in 1871 after publication of the Descent of Man. During this earlier period, Wallace fully accepted female choice and male choice, at least in birds. Wherever Darwin invoked female choice or male choice in birds, Wallace invoked it too. In other words, Darwin and Wallace agreed that, in birds, sexual selection was the cause of the coloration of the more brilliantly colored sex. Thus the debate did not come down to all sexual selection on one side and all natural selection on the other. The disagreement with respect to birds centered on the cause of the coloration of the less conspicuous sex . . . --Malcolm Jay Kottler, June 1980. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 124(3): 203-204.\n. . . The basic reason for their divergence was Darwin's belief that, although the most common form of inheritance was equal inheritance by both sexes, variations first appearing in one sex were fairly often sex-limited in inheritance from the first. Thus female choice alone, in conjunction with sex-limited inheritance from the first of the variations sexually selected in the male, would produce a conspicuous male and an inconspicuous female; in such cases, natural selection for the sake of protection of the sex in greater danger was unnecessary . . . --Malcolm Jay Kottler, June 1980. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 124(3): 204.\nI cannot analyze Wallace's psyche and will not comment on his deeper motives for hewing to the unbridgeable gap between human intellect and the behavior of mere animals. But I can assess the logic of his argument and recognize that the traditional account is not only incorrect, but precisely backward. Wallace did not abandon natural selection at the human threshold. Rather, it was his peculiarly rigid view of natural selection that led him, quite consistently, to reject it for the human mind. His position never varied--natural selection is the only cause of major evolutionary change. His two major debates with Darwin--sexual selection and the origin of human intellect--represent the same argument, not an inconsistent Wallace championing selection in one case and running from it in the other . . . --Stephen Jay Gould, January 1980. Natural History 89(1): 35-36.\n. . . Wallace's anthropology closely paralleled his interest in natural ecology. He asked very similar questions about the peoples he encountered to those he asked about other organic forms. These were questions on how well a region could support a population; what were the natural checks on its expansion; the relationship between subsistence and size of population. His other preoccupation was with the geographical distribution of peoples. He put much greater emphasis than Darwin upon the role of geographical isolation in the evolution of species and varieties. Similarly he attributed many of the human racial differences in the Malay area to geographical isolation. Wallace was also interested in the effect on human evolution of that other major plank of natural ecology--migration. He spent some time in the classification of the languages of the Malay region partly for the clues they might reveal about the migration patterns of the peoples in the area . . . --Greta Jones, 1980. In her Social Darwinism and English Thought; The Interaction Between Biological and Social Theory (Humanities Press): 26-27.\n[William] James first anticipated some of his mature opinions on race and nationality in an 1865 review of A. R. Wallace's article, \"The Origins of the Human Race.\" Agreeing with Wallace, James held that the races of humanity developed from a common ancestor through natural selection. Race differentiation antedated all but the most rudimentary forms of social organization. But soon every race evolved more elaborate social systems. Natural selection then became more complicated. The environment supported whichever groups acted together; each group protected whichever individuals it valued. Such social selection allowed physically weak people to survive and reproduce so long as they served community ideals. Survival of the weak checked physical evolution. Further progress then had to be mental and moral . . . --Larry C. Miller, Fall 1979. American Quarterly 31(4): 539.\nA widely held generalization about tropical tree species is that most occur at very low adult densities and are of relatively uniform dispersion, such that adult individuals of the tree species are thinly and evenly distributed in space. If true, this generalization has potentially profound consequences for the reproductive biology, population structure, and evolution of tropical tree species. In this article the adequacy of this generalization is judged with respect to a particular tropical forest, a large tract of which has been mapped in detail. The origins of this generalization can be traced back at least to Wallace . . . --Stephen P. Hubbell, 30 March 1979. Science 203(4387): 1299.\nThis distinction reflected a general tendency of Spencer and his contemporaries to distinguish higher and lower stages in all development: barbarism and civilization, status and contract, militarism and industrialism. In this instance, he also joined the controversy that developed in the late sixties between Darwin and A. Russel Wallace as to whether natural selection altered bodily structure at all stages of evolution. Darwin believed it did. Wallace maintained that, with the attainment of a certain level of intelligence, mental changes superceded physical ones. Spencer preferred the thrust of Wallace's view. He himself had earlier identified the importance of cerebral development among the races of man. But he rejected Wallace's view that such cerebral development within societies resulted from the natural selection of spontaneous variations in the brain . . . --Robert C. Bannister, 1979. In his Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought (Temple University Press): 47.\n. . . Fiske's philosophy was inherently conservative in that he stressed the slowness of change, which he neither wanted nor urged. However, the context was also usually religious. His system would bring no religious revolution, no attacks on existing churches, he assured readers in the conclusion of the Cosmic Philosophy. In the one section in which he discussed social evolution--published earlier in the North American Review under the title \"From Brute to Man\"--Fiske differed little from the speculations of A. R. Wallace, whose work he described as \"one of the most brilliant contributions ever yet made to the Doctrine of Evolution.\" Like Wallace, he believed that natural selection ceased operating on bodily factors with the appearance of the human brain. \"And hence in the future as in the recent past,\" he told readers of the North American Review, \"the dominant fact in the career of humanity is not physical modification but civilization.\" . . . --Robert C. Bannister, 1979. In his Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought (Temple University Press): 65.\n. . . Darwinism upset such happy assumptions. Throughout his career [Henry] George harbored suspicion of the theory, a suspicion that colored his thought no less than Carey's and Bowen's. In Progress and Poverty he attempted to evade the issue. How men had originated was not his concern: \"all we know of him is as man.\" But his hostility was plain. During the 1880s he mellowed somewhat, comforted by the views of the British biologist A. R. Wallace (who early preached the \"limits of evolution as applied to man,\" and who also befriended George during his English crusade), and of St. George Mivart, a leading Christian evolutionist who, more firmly than Wallace, denied that natural selection has shaped human faculties. By the 1890s George could manage grudging acceptance . . . --Robert C. Bannister, 1979. In his Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought (Temple University Press): 120.\n. . . His view of \"mental and moral progress\" (which sociologists would later call cultural evolution) also led to the conclusion \"that the higher--the more intellectual and moral--must displace the lower and degraded races.\" But his process was again not analogous to struggle and selection in nature. Certain that improvement would come, Wallace would not attribute it to survival of the fittest. Following a popular usage of the day, he equated such survival with the success of \"the mediocre, if not the low, both as regards morality and intelligence.\" Rather, as with mind itself, mysterious forces were at work. The \"glorious qualities\" of men were the \"surest proof\" of \"higher existences than ourselves.\" The goal was not racial imperialism but the brotherhood of man: \"a single nearly homogeneous race, no individual of which will be inferior to the noblest specimens of existing humanity.\" . . . --Robert C. Bannister, 1979. In his Social Darwinism: Science and Myth in Anglo-American Social Thought (Temple University Press): 185-186.\nBut, of course, it does matter who starts the trend. If it had been Wallace instead of Darwin, we would have had a very different theory of evolution today. The whole cybernetics movement might have occurred 100 years earlier as a result of Wallace's comparison between the steam engine with a governor and the process of natural selection . . . --Gregory Bateson, 1979. In his Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (E. P. Dutton): 43.\n. . . It was Alfred Russel Wallace who remarked in 1866 that the principle of natural selection is like that of the steam engine with a governor. I shall assume that this is indeed so and that both the process of individual learning and the process of population shift under natural selection can exhibit the pathologies of all cybernetic circuits: excessive oscillation and runaway. In sum, I shall assume that evolutionary change and somatic change (including learning and thought) are fundamentally similar, that both are stochastic in nature, although surely the ideas (injunctions, descriptive propositions, and so on) on which each process works are of totally different logical typing from the typing of ideas in the other process . . . --Gregory Bateson, 1979. In his Mind and Nature: A Necessary Unity (E. P. Dutton): 148.\n. . . [W. R.] Greg represented those who saw competitive individualism as the logical outcome of the operation in society of the law of natural selection; for him, naturalism in sociology was equivalent to the Hobbesian vision of a continual 'war of all against all'. But equally, Wallace was representative of a considerable number of people who claimed that man was unique in nature precisely because of his ability to transcend this state of affairs; by stressing the biological advantages of intelligent cooperation, he attempted to reconcile Darwinian principles with a very different moral and political vision. Thus, the dispute involved a fundamental conflict of ideologies, even though it was fought out almost wholly within a naturalistic framework. This conflict was to be a recurrent feature of Wallace's thought; and indeed it is still with us today in 'sociobiological' discussions of the legitimacy of the theory of 'group selection.' . . . --John R. Durant, 1979. British Journal for the History of Science 12(40): 45.\nWallace, who unfortunately never wrote a book on the subject, probed deeper into the nature of man than any of the circle immediately around Darwin. Because in the end science has so thoroughly accepted them, we have not only forgotten their source but also forgotten how heretical some of his views were at the time they were uttered. First Wallace postulated an erect, small-brained bipedal stage of human development, followed by a second phase in which the human brain and cranium assumed their present size and form. Only with the present-day discovery of the Australopithecine man-apes is the early stage beginning to be documented. Second, he quickly saw that the complete fossil history of man might well be prolonged far beyond Pleistocene times, and that the big-brained men of the upper Pleistocene, who were at that time troubling the evolutionists, need not be regarded as an effective argument against the reality of the human transformation. Rather, the scientists must cease confusing living races with grades or levels on the evolutionary scale of the past--something which was at that time exceedingly common . . . --Loren Eiseley, 1979. In his Darwin and the Mysterious Mr. X; New Light on the Evolutionists (E. P. Dutton): 197.\nWallace and many later biogeographers have proposed that tropical areas support more species than temperate zones simply because they have not been glaciated and are thus ecologically older. Although evidence is very scant, under this interpretation the observed high tropical diversity is a result of long-term undisturbed speciation. If so, the latitudinal trend in species numbers is partially attributable to a strictly geographic factor (latitude) . . . --Joseph J. Schall & Eric R. Pianka, 25 August 1978. Science 201 (4357): 681.\nIt is likely, for instance, that Wilde would have sympathized with Grant Allen's and A. R. Wallace's eugenic plans. Allen argued in his essays for free love as part of a eugenic proposal which encouraged women to choose for child-bearing purposes temporary mates from among the finest, healthiest, and most intelligent men. Wallace, in an essay which appeared in The Fortnightly Review, four months before \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism,\" also outlined a nonauthoritarian socialist scheme for human improvement through sexual selection. Stating that education could not lead to permanent cultural improvement, Wallace suggested that once removed from economic competition, and totally free to choose a mate, women would be attracted to men who embodied what Victorians called \"the higher qualities,\" and the cumulative hereditary impact of that sexual selection would therefore improve the culture of the race. In February 1891, when Wilde published \"The Soul of Man Under Socialism,\" in The Fortnightly Review, he argued that marriage and family should be abolished in favor of a freer and more beautiful love relationship between man and woman. His suggestion can be understood as one of his proposals for a socialist utopia and, indeed, as his contribution to the debate among socialists and cultural critics over the eugenic role of sexual selection in cultural improvement . . . --Michael S. Helfand & Philip E. Smith II, Summer 1978. Texas Studies in Literature and Language 20(2): 211.\nMust fantasy inevitably accompany speculation on the plurality of worlds? Fortunately not, for even the history of the question contains a few indications of sober deliberation. In this respect, two nineteenth-century dissenters on plurality, William Whewell and Alfred Russel Wallace, stand out as the first post-Copernican thinkers to rein in imagination by proposing sensible rules for thinking about such a provocative but thorny issue. When Whewell's Of the Plurality of Worlds was published in 1853, it challenged what had become, since the sixteenth century, a traditional belief in the existence of life elsewhere. Fifty years later, Alfred Russel Wallace, co-discoverer of the theory of natural selection and later Percival Lowell's most tenacious opponent, extended the dissenting tradition by writing the first study that successfully synthesized biological and astronomical perspectives on life in a plurality of worlds . . . --William C. Heffernan, January-March 1978. Journal of the History of Ideas 39(1): 82-83.\n. . . However unkind it became, most criticism of Man's Place in the Universe was kept within the confines of the dissenters' strictures on reasoning. There was a gratifying irony in this, for while most of Wallace's peers found fault with the book, they unwittingly based their comments on the rules which Whewell and Wallace considered necessary for careful speculation on plurality. For instance, H. H. Turner, the Savilian professor of astronomy at Oxford, captured the thrust of the many unfavorable reviews of Man's Place when he insisted that the universe is probably not bounded in the sense of having an edge; that even if it were, there would be no center; and that even if the sun were at the center, such a position would not be uniquely stable. Like other critics, Turner was able to seize on the flaws in the argument of life beyond the solar system and thus ignore the strengths of Wallace's overall position--the banishment of theology when considerations of probability were at stake, the introduction of an explicitly evolutionary perspective, and the low likelihood of life within the solar system. Wallace had created a grand and only somewhat flawed synthesis, although few people remarked on this . . . --William C. Heffernan, January-March 1978. Journal of the History of Ideas 39(1): 92-93.\n. . . And what about the climate itself? Lowell had claimed that although Mars receives only half the earth's heat, the absence of an atmosphere would actually mean that the sun's radiation would have a more direct effect on it than on the earth. Wallace was appalled that a respected scientist could be responsible for such an hypothesis. The opposite would have to be the case, as Wallace showed: because of its lack of sufficient atmosphere, Mars must retain heat more poorly than the earth. There would also have to be greater variations in temperature between the ground and the air a few feet above it, and Wallace pointed out that these would impede the development of advanced organisms . . . --William C. Heffernan, January-March 1978. Journal of the History of Ideas 39(1): 95.\n. . . Since both the dissenters and their \"majoritarian\" opponents were moved by extra-scientific convictions, could it be said that the two traditions were methodologically indistinguishable? Certainly not. Precisely because they were dissenters, Whewell and Wallace had been forced to articulate their position with a degree of care that no pluralist had ever shown. Because they were inspired by different and unusual convictions about man's status, the dissenters had to take the scientific road to plurality; for their case would not otherwise have been heard. In this way, discussion of the possibility of life in other worlds was transformed; for in later years, the metaphysical context of the debate would fall away, leaving a core of scientifically grounded speculation for which Whewell and Wallace had prepared the way . . . --William C. Heffernan, January-March 1978. Journal of the History of Ideas 39(1): 100.\nThe idea of surplusage seems most directly traceable to Alfred Russel Wallace (1870). His belief that savages possessed brains far in excess of their requirements was the germinal idea of surplusage; consider, he would argue, that civilized humans use the same brain as that of savages to accomplish higher mental feats such as mathematical reasoning, a kind of reasoning never required of our primitive ancestors. If the potential for higher mental processes appeared before it was evolutionarily adaptive, what caused its presence? This is the dilemma posed by the notion of surplusage. As naive as the arguments about savages might seem today, surplusage remains an interesting consideration for psychologists studying animal intelligence in the laboratory . . . --Robert Boice, June 1977. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 9(6): 452.\nCrolls' work played a critical role in the biologists' attempts to obviate the threats posed to evolutionary theory by Kelvin's argument for a shortened history of the earth. But Croll's ideas had an even broader significance for Wallace: they functioned as a catalyst for his magisterial formulation of zoogeography. The explanatory potential of glacial theory with respect to the question of the migration and distribution of animals and plants was considerably enhanced by Croll's speculations, and Wallace was alert to their implications for his work on geographical distribution . . . --Martin Fichman, Spring 1977. Journal of the History of Biology 10(1): 60-61.\n. . . Wallace and Huxley disagreed about how humans evolved because they had different perceptions of non-western people and the working class. Those perceptions were informed by different social experiences. Wallace's was an unusual experience in the nineteenth century, and it led him to an interpretation of human development with which modern anthropologists generally agree, that the artifice of culture informs our perceptions. How our opinions and experiences can remain unaffected or uninvolved in a holistic theory like human evolution remains a mystery. Yet that is the working assumption of most scientists and bureaucrats of science . . . --Michael S. Helfand, Winter 1977. Victorian Studies, 20(2): 176-177.\nA. R. Wallace's hypothesis that visual stimuli provided by the insect become a conditioned signal for predatory animals through association with its noxious taste was formulated 24 years before I. P. Pavlov was elected Professor of Pharmacology at the Military Medical Academy of St. Petersburg. Several years later, Pavlov was to begin his studies there on \"psychic\" reflexes, employing visual and auditory stimuli to signal the taste of acid or meat powder in the mouth of dogs. Poulton's summary of two decades of comparative animal research upon the positive effects of satisfying foods and the negative effects of annoying tastes was presented eleven years before E. L. Thorndike's (1897) doctoral thesis on animal intelligence and the law of effect. Pavlov and Thorndike went on to investigate conditioned responses more rigorously, and ultimately their students operationally defined a series of methodological \"laws\" . . . --John Garcia & Walter G. Hankins, 1977. In Lewis M. Barker et al., eds., Learning Mechanisms in Food Selection (Baylor University Press): 6.\n. . . I want to suggest that the first step in any study of his contribution must be a careful analysis of how he actually presented his idea in the 1858 paper, concentrating especially on the kind of variation that was the basis of natural selection. Strangely enough, such a detailed analysis is provided neither by Beddall nor McKinney, both of whom simply assume that what Wallace eventually discovered was a straightforward equivalent of the Darwinian theory. This assumption is common to most general accounts of the history of evolutionism, and was shared by Darwin himself. But there are good reasons for suggesting that Wallace's initial concept of selection differed considerably from Darwin's, or at least was expressed in very different terms . . . --Peter J. Bowler, January 1976. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 31(1): 18.\n. . . It was only at a later stage in his thought--after he had discovered the principle of divergence--that Darwin actually came to realize that varieties would at some stage have to compete with one another. The essence of Wallace's mechanism was for Darwin a secondary insight gained some time after he had worked out the primary mechanism of selection acting on individual differences. Furthermore, when Darwin discussed varieties coming into conflict, he pictured this as a geographical effect caused by one form's invading and conquering the territory of the other. Wallace on the other hand, simply wrote of species splitting into varieties as though this occurred across the whole geographical range, with members of each variety in face-to-face conflict at all points. Wallace's failure to appreciate the role of geographical factors in the formation of varieties again suggests that he may not at first have recognized natural selection as the agency that created the varieties out of individual differences. Or, if he did recognize the action of natural selection on individual differences, he had certainly failed to work out its full implications for his own theory of selection acting among the varieties . . . --Peter J. Bowler, January 1976. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 31(1): 22-23.\n. . . It is clear that in the later stages of his career Wallace was fully aware of the importance of individual variation to selection. He was able to exploit both modes of representation employed by Darwin, using especially the range concept to make a notable contribution to the measurement of variation among wild populations. But all of this occurred after he had read the Origin of Species, with its clear descriptions of Darwin's primary conception of selection's acting on the individual differences first to form varieties and then species. His own first paper on natural selection had side-stepped this level of the mechanism and developed a theory of competition among the varieties after they had been formed. This was a valid Darwinian mechanism, but one which to Darwin himself represented a second level of selection which utilized the varieties formed from the selection of individual variations. It may be that from the beginning Wallace also recognized the primary action of selection upon individual differences, and simply preferred to describe the mechanism acting at the second level because he was more familiar with what he called permanent varieties. But even if this were so, there are certain points in the 1858 paper which suggest that he had at least failed to work out the consequences of the first level of selection for his own theory . . . --Peter J. Bowler, January 1976. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 31(1): 28.\nAt one point Wallace reasoned logically and with telling effect that even if martians existed they could not have the high intelligence with which Lowell credited them. For the \"canals\" they were supposed to have built in many instances ran for thousands of miles across arid deserts and beneath clear cloudless skies, thus \"losing enormously from evaporation, if we assume them to contain water. The mere attempt to use open canals for irrigation purposes would argue ignorance and stupidity. Long before half of them were completed, their failure to be of any use would have led any rational being to cease constructing them.\" . . . --William Graves Hoyt, 1976. In his Lowell and Mars (University of Arizona Press): 215.\nMany suggestions have been formulated over the years to explain the evolution of vertebrate color vision. Most have dealt with possible modifications of photoreceptors and neuronal layers of the retina (see especially Edridge-Green, 1920; Ladd-Franklin, 1929; Willmer, 1949; Pickford, 1951) and have hardly considered function. Only Wallace (1891, p. 411) and Walls (1942, p. 463) appear to have seriously asked the question, \"Why color vision?\" Each suggested that color detection originated to provide for the strongest contrast and, therefore, to enhance the visibility of objects against the background. We believe that this simple and prescient suggestion is correct . . . --W. N. McFarland & F. W. Munz, October 1975. Vision Research 15: 1071.\n. . . a major aim of Vestiges is to show that as good Newtonians we much accept a biological evolutionary theory. Wallace, I think, whilst rejecting as inadequate Chambers' own evolutionary theory, entirely accepted Chambers' research programme, to find the biological analogue of Newtonian astronomy. Thus I would suggest that Wallace like Darwin, may have reacted favourably to Malthus' ideas because he could then start to see his way towards a biological equivalent of Newtonian astronomy. Hence, I think that Darwin and Wallace quite possibly started from similar philosophical positions, although I have no reason to believe that they drew on exactly the same immediate sources for the philosophies . . . --Michael Ruse, June 1975. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 6(2): 172-173.\n. . . By combining what he considered to be the reliable features of both the calculations, the more recent date for the ice age and a consequently accelerated rate of species change, Wallace arrived at a figure of 24 million years for the time since the beginning of the Cambrian. This estimate, he concluded happily, would fit easily within Kelvin's limits and still leave a period three times as long for the slow operation of natural selection during the Precambrian. Wallace was not finished, however, for it was in the application of Croll's hypothesis to biology that he showed the true measure of his ingenuity. Neither he nor Darwin had ever completely escaped from the Lamarckian dependence upon environment as a causal factor in species change. And now he saw in the radical changes of climate a mechanism whereby the continuously \"altered physical conditions would induce variation.\" Furthermore, in alternating from one hemisphere to the other, the successive cycles of glaciation would stimulate a constant migration of plant and animal types, thus continually bringing allied species into competition and accelerating the process of extinction . . . --Joe D. Burchfield, September 1974. Isis 65(228): 317.\n. . . As early as 1876, the naturalist and zoogeographer Alfred Wallace noted that \"we live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all of the hugest, and fiercest, and strangest forms have recently disappeared.\" He remarked especially on the \"sudden dying out of so many large Mammalia, not in only one place but over half the land surface of the globe\" (Wallace 1876). At the end of the Pleistocene in North America, there was a loss of 33 genera of large mammals (>50 kg), while only 13 genera had become extinct in the preceding 1 or 2 million years. Smaller mammals (<50 kg) were not similarly affected, nor were marine mammals, which we might also expect to show high extinction rates if the cause were environmental catastrophes. Wallace (1911) observed that these sudden extinctions were not correlated with major environmental changes, such as those responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs, but seemed to coincide with the arrival, on different continents at different times, of Stone Age man . . . --Richard S. Miller & Daniel B. Botkin, March-April 1974. American Scientist 62(2): 172.\nThis concept of the separation of the human personality from the human body meant that Wallace considered man and the relation of science to man in a context wholly different from that of the advocates of scientific naturalism. As William Irvine once described the evolution of Huxley's mind, \"He became interested in man as a physical mechanism, as an anthropoid ape, as a social unit and a citizen, as a delicate machine for the discovery of scientific truth, but never to any appreciable extent in man as a personality and a human being.\" Wallace's development was exactly the reverse. He was originally interested in the physical mechanism of man for the sake of the moral personality encased therein. He studied the anthropoid ape because it resembled man. He wrote on social questions in the hope that society might be so organized as to allow the moral faculties to flourish. Throughout his long and varied scientific career, Wallace was primarily concerned with what Koestler has dubbed \"the ghost in the machine\" rather than with the machine itself . . . --Frank M. Turner, 1974. In his Between Science and Religion; The Reaction to Scientific Naturalism in Late Victorian England (Yale University Press): 82.\n. . . In the London Anthropological Society address of March 1864, Wallace continued to discuss, though in a very different kind of forum, matters that had weighted upon his mind for over twenty years. He brought into the professional scientific sphere the scientific concepts and goals that he had learned in the provincial mechanics institutes. The address was his single most important comment on man and contained the latent seeds for all his later departures from scientific naturalism. The American evolutionist John Fiske recalled that the address \"seemed to open up an entirely new world of speculation.\" Such speculation was indeed new to men who had known little or nothing of \"physical puritanism\" or the \"belated rationalism\" of the working-class culture in which Wallace had come to maturity. For Wallace the paper was simply a continuation of his earlier thought . . . --Frank M. Turner, 1974. In his Between Science and Religion; The Reaction to Scientific Naturalism in Late Victorian England (Yale University Press): 83-84.\n. . . Spiritualism furnished Wallace with a scientific explanation for the development of man's moral nature and brought man's total being under the rule of rational cosmic law. In a curious manner, the theory of spiritualism provided a law for the moral world analogous to that provided by natural selection for the organic world. Natural selection removed the necessity for an arbitrary and interfering God of Special Creation. Spiritualism banished the arbitrary God of predestination and replaced Him with a uniform law of individual moral progress and of personal moral responsibility. . . --Frank M. Turner, 1974. In his Between Science and Religion; The Reaction to Scientific Naturalism in Late Victorian England (Yale University Press): 88.\n. . . \"Consistency,\" the tract by Robert Dale Owen, Robert Owen's son, particularly interested Wallace. The younger Owen, who himself also later converted to spiritualism, argued that the doctrine of predestination led to immoral living because it rendered one's eternal reward a matter of chance rather than a function of the virtue of one's life. Concurring in these arguments, Wallace moved very quietly and painlessly from faith to skepticism. His loss of faith grew directly out of a situation succinctly described by a writer later in the century: \"God, and immortality, and the Bible have been so taught as to make scepticism the only refuge for morality to flee to.\" Wallace later identified this rational skepticism with agnosticism. His skepticism, however, more nearly resembled deism. He did not deny the possibility of religious knowledge or of pure religion but rather the validity and morality of the Christian religion. Most important, Wallace and the Owenites did not dismiss the moral significance of the questions that Christianity had addressed. The questions of religion remained valid even if the Christian answers were false. The Owenite criticism of Christianity made Wallace, as well as genuine Owenites, highly susceptible to a rational religion, such as spiritualism, that was based on empirical evidence and that emphasized social cooperation and benevolent individualism . . . --Frank M. Turner, 1974. In his Between Science and Religion; The Reaction to Scientific Naturalism in Late Victorian England (Yale University Press): 89-90.\nThe notion that man's first language was primarily gestural, carried on with hand and arm signals rather than vocal sounds, has been supported by a distinguished line of scholars: Condillac (1746), Tylor (1868, 1871), Morgan (1877), Wallace (1881, 1895), Romanes (1888), Wundt (1912), Paget (1944, 1963), and Johannesson (1949, 1950). The gestural theory seems to be the most attractive of the many glottogonic hypotheses advanced so far, and receives support from recent studies of chimpanzees and other primates, such as Gardner and Gardner (1969, 1971), Premack (1970a, b, 1971), and Menzel (1971), as well as from other sources. The fact that this evidence was unavailable to earlier proponents of the gestural theory explains some of the weaknesses in its former formulations . . . --Gordon W. Hewes, February-April 1973. Current Anthropology 14(1-2): 5.\nAlfred Russel Wallace was the co-founder of the theory of natural selection and one of its most tenacious defenders. It is therefore of great interest that Wallace emphatically opposed a demarcation between ethical and scientific ideas and that he also resisted the breakdown of the common intellectual milieu with his own unified world-view. He endeavoured to combine notions of value with his scientific theory of evolution, particularly in relation to man. British biologists in the first half of the nineteenth century characteristically analysed their data in terms of the teleological framework of Natural Theology. Evolutionary theory supposedly demolished this framework. Nevertheless, Wallace incorporated a fundamental teleology into all his theories. He considered that he had thereby reconciled the tensions of scientific and ethical demands in his contribution to the evolutionary debate on man's place in nature . . . --Roger Smith, December 1972. British Journal for the History of Science 6(22): 177-178.\n. . . Wallace traced the 'action of some unknown higher law' in the evolution of man and also in the origin of consciousness. As he commented, 'no physiologist or philosopher has yet ventured to propound an intelligible theory of how sensation may possibly be a product of organization; while many have declared the passage from matter to mind to be inconceivable'. While other biologists tended to avoid this question, Wallace believed in a spiritual purpose behind the phenomenon of consciousness. It was not clear to him that conscious actions could have any biological utility if they were merely parallel, or epiphenomenal, to automatic physiological actions. In particular, he believed that it was not possible to assign utility to the consciousness of volition if this consciousness was deceptive . . . --Roger Smith, December 1972. British Journal for the History of Science 6(22): 183.\nFor Lyell the challenge was to develop the continuous process, the gradual extinction and creation of species. The intermittent process was available in the fortuitous nature of the circumstances favorable for the preservation of fossil remains. Wallace on the other hand had for some years been attempting to validate the hypothesis of gradual species transformation. Although he had been examining the relationships between geographical distribution and affinity within affinity groups (general, families), there is no evidence that he had given any thought to the question of the origin of discontinuities within such groups until a few months before he wrote the 1855 essay. During that brief period several quite unexpected patterns of distribution and affinity came to his attention. Soon thereafter grew the appreciation that extinction, interacting with species transformation, could give rise to all known patterns of organic discontinuities . . . --John L. Brooks, December 1972. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 44: 26.\n. . . A contemporary reader of Wallace's \"Attempts at a natural arrangement of birds\", should he be unaware of its date of publication, would probably find little to criticize in its presentation of the role of extinction in the genesis of observed patterns of diversity. So completely do we share Wallace's faith that \"all gaps between species, genera, or larger groups are the result of extinctions of species during former epochs of the world's history\" that this statement seems nothing unusual. It is only when it is clearly understood that this statement was published in 1856, three years before Darwin published the Origin of Species, that we appreciate that this essay carries the proclamation of a prophet's faith . . . --John L. Brooks, December 1972. Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 44: 45.\n\"What think you of Wallace's paper in the Ann. N. Hist.? Good! Upon the whole! But how about such forms as the Giraffe, which has typical representatives in the Siwalik tertiary deposits? Or the true Elk (= Moose)? Can we suppose a lost series of gradations connecting these general with the Deer type, & ramifying off to them paulatim [gradually]? Wallace has, I think, put the matter well; and according to his theory, the various domestic races of animals have been fairly developed into species\" [quotation from Edward Blyth letter to Darwin] . . . --Barbara G. Beddall, Spring 1972. Journal of the History of Biology 5(1): 155.\nWallace, in fact, proposed the first cybernetic model. Nowadays cybernetics deals with much more complex systems of the general kind; and we know that when we talk about the processes of civilization, or evaluate human behavior, human organization, or any biological system, we are concerned with self-corrective systems. Basically these systems are always conservative of something. As in the engine with a governor, the fuel supply is changed to conserve--to keep constant--the speed of the flywheel, so always in such systems changes occur to conserve the truth of some descriptive statement, some component of the status quo. Wallace saw the matter correctly, and natural selection acts primarily to keep the species unvarying; but it may act at higher levels to keep constant that complex variable which we call \"survival.\" . . . --Gregory Bateson, 1972. In his Steps to an Ecology of Mind (Chandler Publishing Company): 435.\nThe importance of larval dispersal was already recognized by Alfred Russel Wallace in his work on The Geographical Distribution of Animals (1876). Wallace knew that the univalve and bivalve Mollusca have free-swimming larval stages and recognized that \"they thus have a powerful means of dispersal, and are carried by tides and currents so as ultimately to spread over every shore and shoal that offers conditions favorable for development.\" . . . --Rudolf S. Scheltema, April 1971. Biological Bulletin 140: 285.\n. . . Darwin (1859) and later evolutionists (especially Muller 1940, 1942) proposed that reproductive isolating mechanisms develop as by-products of divergent evolution and are purely incidental features of adaptive differentiation which confer no advantage to populations at the time they develop. Conversely, Wallace (1889), Fisher (1930), and Dobzhansky (1941, 1951) contended that isolating mechanisms could arise from selection against hybrids and hybridizers. Selection for reproductive isolation in areas of sympatry would reinforce previously existing barriers and thereby reduce gametic wastage, hybridization, and disruptive gene flow. Grant (1966) has suggested the term \"Wallace effect\" for this process . . . --Donald A. Levin, November-December 1970. The American Naturalist 104(940): 571.\nThe basic answer to the question--\"Why does man occupy this worldwide and universally dominant niche?\"--also given by Wallace, is that by the use of his greatly superior mind, man has continually modified the environment to meet his needs, so that \"he would cease to be influenced by natural selection in his physical form and structure.\" As Dobzhansky (1962, 1967) has pointed out, this statement is an exaggeration. Nevertheless, the general conclusion of Wallace, that in early man the action of natural selection was largely transferred from the bodily structure to the mind, is still valid . . . --George Ledyard Stebbins, March-April 1970. The American Naturalist 104(936): 112.\nThe next questioner said the lecturer had termed Mr. [Henry] George a poet. He then called attention to the fact that Mr. George advocated nationalisation of the land as a remedy for poverty, and asked how it was that Mr. A. Wallace, an able man, came to the same conclusion. Professor Marshall said that Mr. Wallace's proposal was much more reasonable than that of Mr. George. He did not call Mr. George a poet because he said erroneous things. He was a poet because he was poetic, and he was not a man of science because he said erroneous things [report on a lecture by Alfred Marshall] . . . --Ronald H. Coase, April 1969. Journal of Law and Economics 12(1): 199.\n. . . We next come to Mr. Wallace's plan. It proposed that the inherent value of the soil should become the property of the State, but that the buildings and other improvements on it should remain private property. He would give to the landowner an annuity equal to that part of the rent which corresponds to its present inherent value, for his life and the life of any descendants born in his lifetime, or in failure of such, for the life of anyone nominated by the landlord. He calls this full compensation, but of course it is only partial compensation; the State would confiscate, independently of any rise in its inherent value, the reversion of this inherent value some years hence. If we put the probable duration of the lives at forty years, this is equal to an immediate confiscation of 30 per cent of the inherent value, if we take interest at 3 per cent, or a confiscation of 20 percent if we take interest at 4 per cent. The question whether this is just or not must be looked at straight in the face [from the words of Alfred Marshall] . . . --Ronald H. Coase, April 1969. Journal of Law and Economics 12(1): 206.\n. . . The principle may be extended to the generalization that a proportionately small percentage of any fauna will be fit as invaders, since any intervening barrier, however slight, will act as a kind of \"filter\" to at least some of them. Simpson has developed and supplemented this argument, demonstrating that Wallace's interpretation was essentially correct. The precise differences in approach between Darwin and Wallace need some additional study, but it would seem that Darwin tended to concentrate on the effects of different dispersal mechanisms on patterns of distribution, Wallace more on the influence of barriers in restricting faunas conceived of as units. Thus, Wallace was more orientated toward historical explanation for classes of phenomena, Darwin toward reasoning from the effects of the properties of individuals upon the overall pattern of distribution . . . --Michael T. Ghiselin, 1969. In his The Triumph of the Darwinian Method (University of California Press): 41.\n. . . Darwin and Wallace merit particular respect for having developed the theory of natural selection through a process of \"retroduction\": that is, they were aware of a phenomenon, and successfully sought out an explanation in superficially unconnected processes. The method through which this insight was obtained would seem to have been orderly and rational . . . --Michael T. Ghiselin, 1969. In his The Triumph of the Darwinian Method (University of California Press): 77.\nIn a modification of the quinarian system of William Sharpe Macleay, Swainson divided the earth into five regions according to what he believed to be the five major races of mankind; animal groups were likewise divided into fives. The divisions were mathematical, the reasons not only unknown but unknowable. But Wallace questioned Swainson from the first, noting that \"there appears not to be the slightest reason for believing a priori that all groups of animals are divided into the same number of types of forms or divisions\" . . . --Barbara G. Beddall, September 1968. Journal of the History of Biology 1(2): 270.\n. . . Lamarck had interpreted them in his own light, believing them to be the result of \"the permanent disuse of an organ, arising from a change of habits, [which caused] a gradual shrinkage of ultimately the disappearance and even extinction of that organ.\" Wallace, like Chambers, thought that rudimentary organs showed relationships, but he misinterpreted them, confusing vestigial with nascent organs. He did, however, ask the right question: \"If each species has been created independently, and without any necessary relations with pre-existing species, what do these rudiments, these apparent imperfections mean?\" . . . --Barbara G. Beddall, September 1968. Journal of the History of Biology 1(2): 280.\n. . . The argument from design was teleological, presuming that a contrivance existed in accordance with a preconceived plan. Adaptation between structure and function was recognized, but it was thought that a structure was provided simply because a function required it. Wallace wondered, however, how an animal could have necessities before it came into existence? And how could it \"continue to exist unless its structure enabled it to obtain food? He thought that the arguments brought forward as proofs of design were absurd; not only were they insulting to the intelligence of a Supreme Being, but they also placed narrow limits on His power . . .Barbara G. Beddall, September 1968. Journal of the History of Biology 1(2): 282.\n. . . Looking back, it is interesting that Wallace, in 1880, thought that enough information was already at hand to make further expeditions and collecting redundant. What was needed, he said, was intensive study of selected islands, and since Britain owned most of the world's islands, the government should post naturalists on some of them to make such studies. Wallace's suggestion was good, though naturally nothing came of it, but his major premise was wrong. We still need to know a great deal more than we do about the species that make up island biotas, not merely for the sake of naming and cataloguing them, but because knowledge of the identities, relationships, distribution, behavior, and ecological roles and requirements of the species is essential for understanding both the evolution of the island biotas and the evolution and functioning of the island ecosystems . . . --Theodore H. Hubbell, May 1968. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 60(1): 22.\nThe hypothesis of a secondary and supplementary process of selection for reproductive isolation, considered as an advantageous situation in its own right for the species concerned, was advanced in the early period of evolutionary biology by Wallace (1889), who tried unsuccessfully to convince Darwin. It seems fitting and desirable to designate the process of selection for reproductive isolation as the Wallace effect. The Wallace hypothesis was proposed again in the modern period by Fisher (1930), Dobzhansky (1941; 1951), and Huxley (1943). The subject has been reviewed recently by Mayr (1963) and Grant (1963). It is argued that the individuals of two sympatric species populations which produce inviable or sterile hybrids will contribute fewer offspring to future generations than will sister individuals in the same parental populations which do not hybridize. Consequently the genetic factors determining some block or aversion to hybridization will tend to increase in frequency within each species over the course of generations. This process of selection is expected to lead to a reinforcement of the reproductive isolation which had developed as a by-product of divergence . . . --Verne Grant, March-April 1966. American Naturalist 100(911): 99.\nSpecies of animals living on islands may have morphological characteristics not possessed by their mainland counterparts, a fact which was recognized by Wallace (1881). He remarked that in the Celebes: \"Nearly thirty species of butterflies, belonging to three different families, have a common modification in the shape of their wings by which they can be distinguished at a glance from their allies in any other island or country whatever, and all these are larger than the representative forms inhabiting most of the adjacent islands.\" . . . --P. R. Grant, September 1965. Evolution 19: 355.\nWallace was one of the first to suggest that birds might build their nests on the basis of their previous experience. Although it now seems that nest building in birds is not solely a function of memory, the extent to which experience plays a role has not been determined . . . --Theodore D. Sargent, January 1965. The Auk 82(1): 48.\nWallace (1889), after summarizing the findings of Bates and M\u00fcller, proposed AN EXTENSION OF M\u00dcLLERIAN MIMICRY WHEREBY SEVERAL MEMBERS OF THE SAME UNPALATABLE GENUS LOOK ALIKE IN THE SAME LOCALITY (e.g., 4 or 5 Heliconius having a yellow-banded forewing and radiating red stripes on the hindwing.) This really is somewhat different from M\u00fcller's case of convergence of widely unrelated species. Modern speciation theory predicts that closely related species when sympatric will diverge in appearance, habits, and season due to rigorous selection for the two main speciation sequelae: anti-hybridization mechanisms and niche diversification (anti-competition). Wallace's M\u00fcllerian extension explains an important deviant. He also suggested the possibility of a still different sort of mimicry, in which A SCARCE EDIBLE SPECIES CAN MINGLE WITH AND CLOSELY RESEMBLE AN ABUNDANT EDIBLE SPECIES AND THUS GAIN SOME FREEDOM FROM PREDATION . . . --Charles L. Remington, 1963. In Proceedings of the XVI International Congress of Zoology (The Congress), Volume 4: 148.\nThe general patterns of the distribution of mollusks in the Pacific, particularly those of the terrestrial forms, aroused attention because of the difficulties involved in transporting such forms to small and widely scattered islands. Suggested dispersal agents have included land connections, drifting vegetation, typhoons and migratory birds. The use of islands as stepping stones, including those now buried beneath the sea, was suggested by Wallace in 1881. In Wallace's time there was little geological evidence to support the idea of submerged islands. As late as 1950 it was pointed out that complete proof for island distribution was \"hopelessly buried in the geological past.\" . . . --Harry S. Ladd, 1960. American Journal of Science 258-A: 140.\nThe occurrence of a number of river-like channels running across the group and dividing it into islands is beyond doubt the most remarkable geomorphic phenomenon of the Aru Islands. Numerous branch channels are also encountered. There are several theories concerning the genesis of these channels. Wallace (1857, 1869) tried to explain them as the remainders of the Pleistocene lower courses of New Guinea rivers preserved here by subsequent uparching of the Aru region, whereas elsewhere the river courses gradually disappeared during the transgression of the shelf associated with the postglacial rise in sea level . . . --Herman Verstappen, Summer 1959. American Journal of Science 257(7): 493.\nThe difficulty inherent in attempting to rid biology of normative concepts incapable of definition in purely biological terms became even more evident when Darwin and others tried to find a substitute for the term natural selection. Asa Gray and Alfred Russel Wallace objected to the expression because it seemed to imply an intelligent agent selecting according to pre-established standards . . . --John C. Greene, 1959. In his The Death of Adam (Iowa State University Press): 300.\nAlfred Russel Wallace had lived for many years in tropical regions, first in the Amazon basin and later in the East Indies, where he had been especially impressed by the phenomena of animal distribution. He thus had a broader and more direct and intimate acquaintance with the subject than any other naturalist traveller of his century. He was continually at work on this subject from 1860 until 1876, the date of publication of his two volumes on The Geographical Distribution of Animals. He somewhat modestly refers to this work as an extension and amplification of the two chapters on the subject in the Origin of Species, comparing it with Darwin's own two-volume expansion of the chapters on animals and plants under domestication. The two principal sections of Wallace's work on contrasted as \"zoological geography,\" a descriptive discussion of the land animals of the different zoogeographic regions, and \"geographical zoology,\" a review of the distribution of vertebrates and certain invertebrates, group by group. Whatever their fate in a reclassification of regions and subregions, Wallace's scheme and nomenclature are the ones that appear most widely in zoological literature . . . --Karl Patterson Schmidt, December 1954. The Quarterly Review of Biology 29(4): 323.\nAfter Dr J. Rae, the most notable contribution to the Gesture Theory came from Charles Darwin's rival, Dr Alfred Russel Wallace, who in 1895 pointed out, in Fortnightly Review, that, in English speech, it is common to produce words by an appropriate gesture of the tongue, lips or jaw, so as 'to bring sense and sound into unison'. Thus, in UP, the jaw makes an upward movement, while in DOWN, the jaw moves down. Continuing consonants, such as F, L, M, N, etc., symbolize continuing motions, such as fly, run, swim, move. On the other hand, words for abrupt motions end with a stopped consonant--e.g., B, D, G, K, P, T, in stop, hop, pat, stab, kick, etc. Dr Wallace considered it in the highest degree probable that the pantomimic use of the various parts of the mouth constitute 'a fundamental principle which has always been at work, both in the origin and in the successive modifications of human speech'. Dr Wallace did not recognize Dickens' observation of hand and mouth as exemplified by Sam Weller; but he was, I believe, the first to point out that the pantomimic principle may be still active in man's unconscious development of his spoken language, and that modern languages may be just as gestural as the older ones . . . --R. A. S. Paget, 1951. Science News (England) 20: 87.\n\"He [Conrad] loved old memoirs and travels--and I think Wallace's Malay Archipelago was his favorite bedside book.\" Again Mr. Curle wrote that Conrad read The Malay Archipelago \"over and over again . . . It was his favorite bedside companion. He had an intense admiration for those pioneer explorers--'profoundly inspired men' as he called them--who have left us a record of their work; and of Wallace, above all, he never ceased to speak in terms of enthusiasm. Even in conversation he would amplify some remark by observing, 'Wallace says so-and-so,' and The Malay Archipelago had been his intimate friend for many years.\" [comments by Richard Curle] . . . --Florence Clemens, July 1939. South Atlantic Quarterly 38: 305.\nThough born and bred in England, no snobbishness had ever touched him, he felt that the peasant's life, being richer in experience, was more interesting than the lord's. Yet he was of the finest courtesy, kindness and generosity; he loved to relieve any want or alleviate any misery; he said once: \"The sole value of riches is the joy of giving.\" I knew him for more than a quarter of a century and can recall no fault in him--no flaw even. His temper was as patient and quiet and fair as his mind, and his health was almost perfect even in extreme age. In writing thus of him, I feel as if I were ladling out treacle to my readers; but I can't help it; I can't go outside the Truth. Looking back, I'm inclined to think he was the wisest and best man I've ever known. Fortunately this word may be added, I've met dozens of bad men who were incomparably more interesting . . . --Frank Harris, 1920. In his Contemporary Portraits (Third Series) (published by the author): 105.\n. . . The illustrious names of Myers, Sidgwick, Gurney, Wallace, Crookes, Zoellner and many other prominent men, are associated with the rebirth and the rehabilitation of the ancient belief in spirits. Even if the real nature of the observed facts be disputed, even if the explorers may be accused of errors, and sometimes of self-deception, there still belongs to them the immortal merit of having thrown the whole of their authority on to the side of non-material facts, regardlesss of public disapproval. They faced academic prejudices, and did not shrink from the cheap derision of their contemporaries; even at a time when the intellect of the educated classes was spellbound by the new dogma of materialism, they drew public attention to phenomena of an irrational nature, contrary to accepted convictions. These men typify the reaction of the human mind against the senseless and desolating materialistic view . . . --Carl Jung, May 1920. Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research 31(79): 76.\n* * * * *\nReturn to Home", "id": "<urn:uuid:214f7a54-1d28-42e6-a52c-0900275c851d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/wallace/threads.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9502941370010376, "token_count": 77396, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Elephants We\u2019ll Never Forget\nIn 1919 a Major Pretorius was given the task to shoot all the remaining elephants in the Addo area of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. By 1920 only 16 elephants remained and these were given sanctuary on the land of a farmer named J.T. Harvey. The elephants were viewed both as a nuisance and potential profit. Citrus farmers in this region battled them for water resources. Opportunists saw cash in their tusks. Initial efforts to fence elephants were unsuccessful and farmers were aggravated when elephants trampled through in search of food. But by 1954, thanks in part to improvements in elephant-proof fencing, the Addo Elephant National Park was thriving. Elephant population was improving and farmers had their irrigation and crops intact. Now this national park is roughly 50,000 acres (the 3rd largest national park in SA) and is home to 450 elephants and a host of other wildlife. From our limited experience of the place it seems like a beneficial situation for the wildlife, the environment, the local community, and farming. For us it was a thrilling two days driving around the park in search of animal and plant life. Here's some of what we saw.", "id": "<urn:uuid:91c100dc-67dc-4fc3-b4cb-e17ba0f6d6cf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://petespeiser.wordpress.com/2013/02/27/elephants-well-never-forget/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9810490608215332, "token_count": 243, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "June is Cataract Awareness Month. Did you know that cataracts are the leading cause of vision loss among adults 55 and older? In fact, more than half the people over age 65 have some degree of cataract development. A cataract is a clouding of the lens in the eye, the part of the eye that focuses light and produces clear images. Inside of the eye, the lens is contained in a sealed bag or capsule. As old cells die they become trapped within the capsule. Over time, more cells die and accumulate causing the lens to cloud, making images look blurred or fuzzy. (Eye America.org)\nCataracts are caused by the breakdown of proteins within the clear lens of the eye that cause it to become cloudy and difficult to see through, effecting vision. Some of this protein breakdown is associated with oxidative stress. It is believed that the majority of oxidative stress is generated in the eye via photochemical reactions caused by exposure to sunlight although oxidative stress can be caused by neuronal dysfunction in certain conditions.\nAntioxidants fight free radicals and reactive oxygen species by neutralizing them and thus causing them to lose the ability to cause oxidative stress. Antioxidants can be found in many different foods. Some examples are blueberries, raspberries and olive oil. The regular intake of these foods can be beneficial to your health and can combat oxidative stress. However, science is finding that more concentrated doses of antioxidants can be even more beneficial in combating eye disease than diet alone. The use of antioxidant supplementation may protect the eye from oxidative-stress induced damage and disease.\nHydroxytyrosol, a powerful antioxidant derived from olive byproducts, has a chemoprotective effect on retinal cells, the type of cell that is damaged by the progression of macular degeneration and possibly other eye diseases.\nPinnaclife\u2019s Supplement Olivamine Essential, is a blend of Antioxidants, and if used in association with a healthy lifestyle can help to reduce the effects eye disease. Our supplements are available at most Hy-Vee locations. Start your journey towards good health today!", "id": "<urn:uuid:63980197-2e57-4e31-98e8-cf30f68cd6e8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://pinnaclife.wordpress.com/2012/06/04/cataract-awareness-month/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9481527805328369, "token_count": 431, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Deer more active this time of year in roadways | News\nCAPE GIRARDEAU, MO (KFVS)- Troopers are warning drivers to be on the lookout for deer crossing Missouri's roadways.\nColonel Ron Replogle, superintendent of the Missouri State Highway Patrol says more deer are active this time of year especially during evening and early dawn hours.\nHe says that's mainly due to mating season, hunting and crop harvesting.\nAccording to the Missouri Highway Patrol, in 2011 there were 3,563 traffic crashes involving deer in Missouri. Four people were killed and 367 injured. And, in 2011, 26.7 percent of the traffic crashes involving deer happened in urban areas.\nCol. Replogle says the majority of deer-vehicle strikes occur from October-December, with the most strikes happening in November. He adds most deer strikes occur between the hours of 5 p.m. and 6:59 a.m.\nHere are some tips to observe when driving this time of year:\n-When you see deer, slow down and proceed with caution.\n-In areas where there are streams or wooded corridors surrounded by farmland, look for more deer to cross roadways.\nCopyright 2012 KFVS. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ddd561e8-0412-4c9f-9eef-f40793b2c962>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://stoddard.kfvs12.com/news/news/58988-deer-more-active-time-year-roadways", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9596933722496033, "token_count": 258, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "America's oil and natural gas industry is committed to protecting the environment and to continuously improving its hurricane preparation and response plans. After any hurricane or tropical storm, the goal is to return to full operations as quickly and as safely as possible. For the 2012 hurricane season, the industry continues to build upon critical lessons learned from 2008's major hurricanes, Gustav and Ike, as well as other powerful storms, such as 2005's Katrina and Rita and 2004's Ivan.\nAPI plays two primary roles for the industry in preparing for hurricanes. First, it helps the industry gain a better understanding of the environmental conditions in and around the Gulf of Mexico during hurricane or tropical storm activity and then assists industry in using that knowledge to make offshore and onshore facilities less vulnerable. Second, API collaborates with member companies, other industries and with federal, state and local governments to prepare for hurricanes and return operations as quickly and as safely as possible.\nAPI member companies also independently work to improve preparedness for hurricanes and other natural or manmade disasters. They have, for example, reviewed and updated emergency response plans, established redundant communication paths and made pre-arrangements with suppliers to help ensure they have adequate resources during an emergency.\nThe API Subcommittee on Offshore Stuctures, the International Association of Drilling Contractors, and the Offshore Operators Committee, serve as a liaison to regulatory agencies, coordinate industry review of critical design standards and provide a forum for sharing lessons learned from previous hurricanes.\nThese combined efforts are critical since the Gulf of Mexico accounted for about 23 percent of the oil and 8 percent of total natural gas produced in the United States (approximately 82 percent of the oil supply comes from deepwater facilities), and the Gulf Coast region is home to almost half of the U.S. refining capacity.\nUpstream (Exploration and Production)\nDuring the major 2005 hurricanes, waves were higher and winds were stronger than anticipated in deeper parts of the Gulf so the industry moved away from viewing it as a uniform body of water. Evaluating the effects of those and other storms, helped scientists discover that the Central Gulf of Mexico was more prone to hurricanes because it acts as a gathering spot for warm currents that can strengthen a storm.\nThe revised wind, wave and water current measurements (\"metocean\" data) prompted API to reassess its recommended practices (RPs) for industry operations in the region.\n- The upstream segment continues to integrate the updated environmental (metocean) data on how powerful storms affect conditions in the Gulf of Mexico into its offshore structure design standards. This effort led to the publication in 2008 of an update to RP 2SK, Design and Analysis of Stationkeeping Systems for Floating Structures, that provides guidance for design and operation of Mobile Offshore Drilling Unit (MODU) mooring systems in the Gulf of Mexico during the hurricane season. API RP 95J, Gulf of Mexico Jack-up Operations for Hurricane Season, which recommends locating jack-up rigs on more stable areas of the sea floor, and positioning platform decks higher above the sea surface, was also updated.\nAPI publications are available at our (Search and Order\nAPI in the past six years also has issued a number of bulletins to help better prepare for and bring production back online after Gulf hurricanes. These include:\nProduction and Hurricanes (steps industry takes to prepare for and return after a storm)\n- Bulletin 2TD, Guidelines for Tie-downs on Offshore Production Facilities for Hurricane Season, which is aimed at better-securing separate platform equipment.\n- Bulletin 2INT-MET, Interim Guidance on Hurricane Conditions in the Gulf of Mexico, which provides updated metocean data for four regions of the Gulf, including wind velocities, deepwater wave conditions, ocean current information, and surge and tidal data.\n- Bulletin 2INT-DG, Interim Guidance for Design of Offshore Structures for Hurricane Conditions, which explains how to apply the updated metocean data during design.\n- Bulletin 2INT-EX, Interim Guidance for Assessment of Existing Offshore Structures for Hurricane Conditions, which assists owners/operators and engineers with existing facilities.\n- Bulletin 2HINS, Guidance on Post-hurricane Structural Inspection of Offshore Structures, which provides guidance on determining if a structure sustained hurricane-induced damage that affects the safety of personnel, the primary structural integrity, or its ability to perform the purpose for which it was intended.\nRefineries and Pipelines\n- Days in advance of a tropical storm or hurricane moving toward or near their drilling and production operations, companies will evacuate all non-essential personnel and begin the process of shutting down production.\n- As the storm gets closer, all personnel will be evacuated from the drilling rigs and platforms, and production is shut down. Drillships may relocate to a safe location. Operations in areas not forecast to take a direct hit from the storm often will be shut down as well because storms can change direction with little notice.\n- After a storm has passed and it is safe to fly, operators will initiate \"flyovers\" of onshore and offshore facilities to evaluate damage from the air. For onshore facilities, these \"flyovers\" can identify flooding, facility damage, road or other infrastructure problems, and spills. Offshore \"flyovers\" look for damaged drilling rigs, platform damage, spills, and possible pipeline damage.\n- Many offshore drilling rigs are equipped with GPS locator systems, which allow federal officials and drilling contractors to remotely monitor the rigs' location before, during and after a hurricane. If a rig is pulled offsite by the storm, locator systems allow crews to find and recover the rig as quickly and as safely as possible.\n- Once safety concerns are addressed, operators will send assessment crews to offshore facilities to physically assess the facilities for damage.\n- If facilities are undamaged, and ancillary facilities, like pipelines that carry the oil and natural gas, are undamaged and ready to accept shipments, operators will begin restarting production. Drilling rigs will commence operations.\nDespite sustaining unprecedented damage and supply outages during the 2005 and 2008 hurricanes, the industry quickly and safely brought refining and pipeline operations back online, delivering to consumers near-record levels of gasoline and record levels of distillate (diesel and heating oil) in 2008. The oil and oil-product pipelines operating on or near the Gulf of Mexico continue to review their assets and operations to minimize the potential impacts of storms and shorten the time it takes to recover. While there have been some shortages caused by hurricanes, supply disruptions have been temporary despite extensive damage to supporting infrastructure, such as electric power generation and distribution, production shut-ins and refinery shutdowns. Pipelines need a steady supply of crude oil or refined products to keep product flowing to its intended destinations.\nTo prepare for future severe storms, refiners and pipeline companies have\nRefineries and hurricanes (steps industry takes to prepare for and return after a storm)\n- Worked with utilities to clarify priorities for electric power restoration critical to restarting operations and to help minimize significant disruptions to fuel distribution and delivery.\n- Secured backup power generation equipment and worked with federal, state and local governments to ensure that pipelines and refineries are considered \"critical\" infrastructure for back-up power purposes.\n- Established redundant communications systems to support continuity of operations and locate employees.\n- Worked with vendors to pre-position food, water and transportation, and updated emergency plans to secure other emergency supplies and services.\n- Provided additional training for employees who have participated in various exercises and drills.\n- Reexamined and improved emergency response and business continuity plans.\n- Strengthened onshore buildings and elevated equipment where appropriate to minimize potential flood damage.\n- Worked with the states and local emergency management officials to provide documentation and credentials for employees who need access to disaster sites where access is restricted during an emergency.\n- Participated in industry conferences to share best practices and improvement opportunities.\nPipelines and hurricanes (steps industry takes to prepare for and return after a storm)\n- Refiners, in the hours before a large storm makes landfall, will usually evacuate all non-essential personnel and begin shutting down or reducing operations.\n- Operations in areas not forecast to take a direct hit from the storm often are shut down or curtailed as a precaution because storms can change direction with little notice.\n- Once safe, teams come in to assess damage. If damage or flooding has occurred, it must be repaired and dealt with before the refinery can be brought back on-line.\n- Other factors that can cause delays in restarting refineries include the availability of crude oil, electricity to run the plant and water used for cooling the process units.\n- Refineries are complex. It takes more than a flip of a switch to get a refinery back up and running. Once a decision has been made that it is safe to restart, it can take several days before the facility is back to full operating levels. This is because the process units and associated equipment must be returned to operation in a staged manner to ensure a safe and successful startup.\n- If facilities are undamaged or necessary repairs have been made, and ancillary facilities - like pipelines that carry the oil and natural gas - are undamaged and ready to accept shipments, operators will begin restarting production.\n- Pipeline operations can be impacted by storms, primarily through power outages, but also by direct damage.\n- Offshore pipelines damaged require the hiring of divers, repairs and safety inspections before supplies can flow. Damaged onshore pipelines must be assessed, repaired and inspected before resuming operations.\n- Without power, crude oil and petroleum products cannot be moved through pipelines. Operators routinely hold or lease back-up generators but need time to get them onsite.\n- If there is no product put into pipelines because Gulf Coast/Gulf of Mexico crude or natural gas production has been curtailed, or because of refinery shutdowns, the crude and products already in the pipelines cannot be pushed out the other end.\n- Wind damage to above ground tanks at storage terminals can also impact supplies into the pipeline.\n: The 2008 hurricane season was very active, with 16 named storms, of which eight became hurricanes and five of those were major hurricanes. For the U.S. oil and natural gas industry, the two most serious storms of 2008 were Hurricane Ike, which made landfall in mid-September near Baytown, Texas, and Hurricane Gustav, which made landfall on September 1 in Louisiana.\nHurricane Gustav, a strong Category 2 storm, kept off-line oil and natural gas delivery systems and production platforms that had not yet been fully restored from a smaller storm two weeks earlier, and brought significant flooding as far north as Baton Rouge. Hurricane Ike, another strong Category 2 hurricane, caused significant portions of the production, processing, and pipeline infrastructure along the Gulf Coast in East Texas and Louisiana to shut down. Ike caused significant destruction to electric transmission and distribution lines, and these damages delayed the restart of major processing plants, pipelines, and refineries. As many as 3.7 million customers were without electric power following the storm, with about 2.5 million in Texas alone.\nAt the peak of disruptions, more than 20 percent of total U.S. refinery capacity was idled. The Minerals Management Service - now called Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE)\nestimated that 2,127 of the 3,800 total oil and natural gas production platforms in the Gulf of Mexico were exposed to hurricane conditions, with winds greater than 74 miles per hour, from Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. A total of 60 platforms were destroyed as a result of Hurricanes Gustav and Ike. Some platforms which had been previously reported as having extensive damage were reassessed and determined to be destroyed. The destroyed platforms produced 13,657 barrels of oil and 96.5 million cubic feet of natural gas daily or 1.05 percent of the oil and 1.3 percent of the natural gas produced daily in the Gulf of Mexico.\n: The 2005 hurricane season was the most active in recorded history, shattering previous records. According to the Department of Energy, refineries in the path of hurricanes Katrina and Rita accounting for about 29 percent of U.S. refining capacity were shut down at the peak of disruptions. Offshore, the Minerals Management Service (MMS) estimated 22,000 of the 33,000 miles of pipelines and 3,050 of the 4,000 platforms in the Gulf were in the direct paths of the two Category 5 storms. Together the storms destroyed 115 platforms and damaged 52 others.\nEven so, there was no loss of life among industry workers and contractors. An MMS report found \"no accounts of spills from facilities on the federal Outer Continental Shelf that reached the shoreline; oiled birds or mammals; or involved any discoveries of oil to be collected or cleaned up\".\n: Hurricane Ivan was the strongest hurricane of the 2004 season and among one of the most powerful Atlantic hurricanes on record. It moved across the Gulf of Mexico to make landfall in Alabama. Ivan then looped across Florida and back into the Gulf, regenerating into a new tropical system, which moved into Louisiana and Texas.\nThe MMS estimated approximately 150 offshore facilities and 10,000 miles of pipelines were in the direct path of Ivan. Seven platforms were destroyed and 24 others damaged. The oil and natural gas industry submitted numerous damage reports to MMS, including for mobile drilling rigs, offshore platforms, producing wells, topside systems including wellheads and production and processing equipment, risers, and pipeline systems that transport oil and gas ashore from offshore facilities.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5a1087ae-92e7-46db-8ae2-20172a204f5d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.api.org/news-and-media/hurricane-information/hurricane-preparation.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9519500136375427, "token_count": 2794, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Get ready for Comet PANSTARRS \u2014 2013's first naked-eye comet\nComet PANSTARRS promises to be the brightest comet in six years when it peaks in March.\nFebruary 26, 2013\nLuis Argerich from Buenos Aires, Argentina, captured Comet PANSTARRS in the sky above Mercedes, Argentina, on February 11, 2013. The comet shone at magnitude 4.5 to the left of an Iridium flare.\nI\u2019m here today to talk about what promises to be the brightest comet during the first half of 2013 and likely one of the brightest comets of the 21st century \u2014 so far. Comet PANSTARRS (C/2011 L4) will peak in March and remain bright well into April. If predictions hold, it should be an easy naked-eye object and will look great through binoculars for several weeks.\nAstronomers discovered this comet June 6, 2011. As the fourth new comet detected during the first half of June that year, it received the designation \u201cC/2011 L4.\u201d And because researchers first spotted the object on images taken through the 1.8-meter Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System on Haleakala in Hawaii, it received the instrument\u2019s acronym, PANSTARRS, as a secondary name. Astronomers credit this scope with more than two dozen comet discoveries, so the \u201cC/2011 L4\u201d designation is more precise even though it\u2019s much easier to say \u201cPANSTARRS.\u201d\nThe comet is making its first trip through the inner solar system. Its journey began eons ago when a star or interstellar cloud passed within a light-year or two of the Sun. This close encounter jostled the so-called Oort Cloud, a vast reservoir of icy objects that lies up to a light-year from the Sun and probably holds a trillion comets. PANSTARRS has been heading toward the Sun ever since.\nFor complete coverage of Comet PANSTARRS, visit www.astronomy.com/panstarrs.\nSouthern Hemisphere observers had the best comet views during February. But by early March, PANSTARRS veers sharply northward and gradually becomes visible in the evening sky for Northern Hemisphere observers. The earliest views should come around March 6 or 7, when it appears a degree above the western horizon 30 minutes after sunset. Each following day, the comet climbs a degree or two higher, which dramatically improves its visibility.\nIt comes closest to the Sun (a position called \u201cperihelion\u201d) the evening of March 9, when it lies just 28 million miles (45 million kilometers) from our star. It then appears 7\u00b0 high in the west 30 minutes after sunset. If predictions hold true \u2014 never a sure thing when it comes to comets making their first trip through the inner solar system \u2014 the comet will be a superb object through binoculars and probably an impressive naked-eye sight. Astronomers expect it to reach magnitude 0 or 1 at perihelion, although no one would be too surprised if it ends up one or two magnitudes brighter or dimmer.\nFrom perihelion to the end of March, the comet moves almost due north through Pisces and Andromeda while its brightness drops by about a magnitude every five days. In the admittedly unlikely event that the tail of PANSTARRS stretches 10\u00b0 or more March 13, it will pass behind a two-day-old crescent Moon. The comet should glow around 4th magnitude in early April, which would make the extended object visible only through binoculars or a telescope. It passes 2\u00b0 west of the Andromeda Galaxy (M31) on the 3rd, then crosses into Cassiopeia on the 9th. During the third week of April, the comet fades to 6th magnitude and is visible all night for those at mid-northern latitudes, where it appears highest before dawn.\nIf Comet PANSTARRS lives up to expectations, it should show two tails emanating from a round glow. The photograph at right shows Comet Hale-Bopp from 1997. Although PANSTARRS likely won\u2019t get as bright as Hale-Bopp was, it lets us see the major components of a comet.\nIf Comet PANSTARRS lives up to expectations, it should show two tails emanating from a round glow. Although PANSTARRS likely won\u2019t get as bright as 1997's Comet Hale-Bopp (pictured) did, it lets us see the major components of a comet. // Tony Hallas\nThe circular head, known as the \u201ccoma,\u201d masks the comet\u2019s nucleus. The nucleus is a ball of ice and dust that typically measures a mile or two across. As sunlight hits the nucleus, the ices boil off, and the process liberates dust particles. This cloud of gas and dust forms the coma, which can span a million miles or more. Sunlight removes electrons from the ejected gas molecules, causing then to glow with a bluish color. The solar wind carries this gas away from the comet, creating a straight bluish gas tail. The ejected dust gets pushed away from the Sun more gently, so it forms a curving tail. The dust particles simply reflect sunlight, so the dust tail has a white to pale-yellow color. Although Comet McNaught didn\u2019t show much of a gas tail when it achieved fame in 2007, it more than made up for it with a 30\u00b0-long curving dust tail.\nWill PANSTARRS rival Hale-Bopp or McNaught? The best way to find out is to plan a few observing sessions for this March and April. Even if PANSTARRS falls short of greatness, goodness is a fine attribute when it comes to comets. And remember that 2013 isn\u2019t over yet. November and December should provide exceptional views of Comet ISON (C/2012 S1), which could be 100 times brighter than PANSTARRS. I\u2019ll be back later this year with more details on viewing Comet ISON.\nExpand your observing with these online tools from Astronomy magazine\n- Special Coverage: Find everything you need to know about Comet PANSTARRS in Astronomy.com's Year of the Comet section.\n- StarDome: Locate Comet C/2011 L4 (PANSTARRS) in your night sky with our interactive star chart. To ensure the comet is displayed, click on the \"Display...\" drop-down menu under Options (lower right) and make sure \"Comets\" has a check mark next to it. Then click the \"Show Names...\" drop-down menu and make sure \"Comets\" is checked there, too.\nImages: Submit images of Comet PANSTARRS to our Online Reader Gallery.\nDiscussion: Ask questions and share your observations in our Reader Forums.\n- Sign up for our free weekly e-mail newsletter.\nLook for this icon. This denotes premium subscriber content.\nLearn more \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:e69a0af5-424d-41c4-ae2e-f8bcfbc644b5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.astronomy.com/en/Columnists/Bob%20Berman/2012/09/~/~/link.aspx?_id=AC9F90EA366543F8A596D6C71B602F54&_z=z", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9135695695877075, "token_count": 1443, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "January 16 is the 16th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. There are 349 days remaining (350 in leap years).\n- 27 BC - Octavian Caesar given the title Augustus by the Roman Senate.\n- 929 - Emir Abd-ar-rahman III of Cordoba declares himself caliph, thereby establishing the Caliphate of Cordoba.\n- 1362 - A great storm tide in the North Sea destroys the German island of Strand and the city of Rungholt.\n- 1412 - Medici family made official bankers of the Papacy.\n- 1456 - Painter Filippo Lippi elopes with Lucrezia Buti, a young nun from the convent of Saint Margherita .\n- 1492 - The first grammar of a modern language, in Spanish, is presented to Queen Isabella.\n- 1547 - Ivan the Terrible becomes Tsar of Russia.\n- 1556 - Philip II becomes King of Spain.\n- 1572 - The Duke of Norfolk is tried for treason for his part in the Ridolfi plot to restore Catholicism in England.\n- 1581 - English Parliament outlaws Roman Catholicism.\n- 1605 - The first edition of El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (Book One of Don Quixote) by Miguel de Cervantes was published in Madrid.\n- 1761 - British capture Pondicherry, India from the French.\n- 1777 - Vermont declares its independence from New York.\n- 1780 - American Revolution: Battle of Cape St. Vincent.\n- 1795 - French occupy Utrecht, Netherlands.\n- 1809 - Peninsular War: The British defeat the French at the Battle of La Coru\u00f1a.\n- 1847 - John C. Fremont is appointed Governor of the new California Territory.\n- 1883 - The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, establishing the United States Civil service, is passed.\n- 1900 - The United States Senate accepts the Anglo-German treaty of 1899 in which the United Kingdom renounced its claims to the Samoan islands.\n- 1909 - Ernest Shackleton's expedition finds the magnetic South Pole.\n- 1917 - German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann sends the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico, proposing a German-Mexican alliance against the United States\n- 1919 - Temperance movement: The 18th Amendment, authorizing Prohibition, was passed by the Congress of the United States. It went into effect one year later, on January 16th, 1920.\n- 1938 - Benny Goodman plays Carnegie Hall.\n- 1945 - Adolf Hitler moves into his underground bunker, the so-called F\u00fchrerbunker.\n- 1956 - President Gamal Abdal Nasser of Egypt vows to reconquer Palestine.\n- 1957 - The Cavern Club opens in Liverpool.\n- 1961 - Mickey Mantle becomes the highest paid baseball player by signing a $75,000 contract.\n- 1964 - The first musical version of Hello, Dolly! opens at New York City's St. James Theatre.\n- 1966 - The Metropolitan Opera House opens at Lincoln Center in New York City.\n- 1969 - Czech student Jan Palach commits suicide by self-immolation in Prague, in protest against the Soviets' crushing of the Prague Spring the year before.\n- 1970 - Buckminster Fuller receives the Gold Medal award from the American Institute of Architects.\n- 1970 - Curt Flood files suit, stating that major league baseball had violated the American anti-trust laws.\n- 1977 - The Marx Brothers were inducted into the Motion Picture Hall of Fame .\n- 1979 - The Shah of Iran flees Iran with his family and relocates to Egypt.\n- 1986 - Herbert W. Armstrong, the founder of the Worldwide Church of God (the Church of God in Philadelphia Era) died.\n- 1988 - Sports commentator Jimmy 'the Greek' Snyder is fired by CBS a day after publicly stating that African Americans had been bred to produce stronger offspring during slavery.\n- 1991 - US serial killer Aileen Wuornos confesses to the murders of six men.\n- 1992 - El Salvador officials and rebel leaders sign the Chapultepec Peace Accords in Mexico City that ends a 12-year civil war that claimed at least 75,000.\n- 1997 - Ennis Cosby, the only son of actor Bill Cosby, is killed by a gunman while changing a flat tire in Los Angeles, California.\n- 1998 - NASA announces that John Glenn will return to space when Space Shuttle Discovery blasts off in October 1998.\n- 2000 - In Sacramento, California a commercial truck carrying evaporated milk is driven into the state capitol building killing the driver.\n- 2001 - Congolese President Laurent-D\u00e9sir\u00e9 Kabila is assassinated by one of his own bodyguards.\n- 2002 - A student shoots 6 people at the Appalachian School of Law . Three of those shot die.\n- 2002 - John Ashcroft announces that so-called \"American Taliban\" John Walker Lindh would be tried in the United States.\n- 2002 - The UN Security Council unanimously establishes an arms embargo and the freezing of assets of Osama bin Laden, Al-Qaida, and the remaining members of the Taliban.\n- 2003 - Space Shuttle Columbia takes off for mission STS-107 which will be its final one. Columbia disintegrates 16 days later on re-entry.\n- 2004 - Goatse.cx is shut down by the Christmas Island Registry\n- 2005 - Adriana Iliescu gives birth at age 66 and becomes the oldest woman in the world to do so.\n- 1245 - Edmund Crouchback, 1st Earl of Lancaster (d. 1296)\n- 1821 - John C. Breckenridge, Kentucky Senator 1861-1861, Confederate General (d. 1875)\n- 1838 - Franz Brentano, German philosopher and psychologist (d. 1917)\n- 1874 - Robert W. Service, poet (d. 1958)\n- 1881 - Sir Arthur Percy Morris Fleming , radio pioneer\n- 1886 - John Hamilton , American actor (d. 1958)\n- 1898 - Margaret Booth, film editor (d. 2002)\n- 1901 - Frank Zamboni, inventor (d. 1988)\n- 1901 - Fulgencio Batista, Cuban leader (d. 1973)\n- 1902 - Eric Liddell, Scottish runner (d. 1945)\n- 1907 - Paul Nitze, American government official (d. 2004)\n- 1908 - Ethel Merman, American actress, singer (d. 1984)\n- 1910 - Dizzy Dean, Baseball Hall of Famer (d. 1974)\n- 1912 - Franz Tumler , Austrian narrator (d. 1998)\n- 1917 - Buddy Lester , American actor (d. 2002)\n- 1918 - Stirling Silliphant , writer, producer (d. 1996)\n- 1921 - Francesco Scavullo, photographer (d. 2004)\n- 1922 - Ernesto Bonino, Italian singer\n- 1924 - Katy Jurado, actress (d. 2002)\n- 1928 - William Kennedy, author\n- 1931 - Johannes Rau, President of Germany\n- 1932 - Dian Fossey, zoologist (d. 1985)\n- 1934 - Marilyn Horne, American mezzo-soprano\n- 1935 - Udo Lattek , football coach\n- 1935 - A.J. Foyt, automobile racer\n- 1943 - Brian Ferneyhough, composer\n- 1944 - Jim Stafford , singer\n- 1944 - Ronnie Milsap, country music singer\n- 1946 - Kabir Bedi, actor\n- 1946 - Ronnie Milsap, singer\n- 1946 - Katia Ricciarelli , opera singer\n- 1947 - Laura Schlessinger, psychiatrist, radio talk show host\n- 1948 - John Carpenter, director\n- 1948 - Dalvanius, New Zealand entertainer (d. 2002)\n- 1948 - Cliff Thorburn, Canadian snooker player\n- 1950 - Debbie Allen, actress, dancer, choreographer\n- 1950 - Caroline Munro , actress\n- 1954 - Nancy Richards-Akers , novelist (d. 1999)\n- 1958 - Anatoli Boukreev, Russian climber (d. 1997)\n- 1959 - Sade, singer\n- 1969 - Roy Jones Jr., boxer\n- 1974 - Kate Moss, supermodel\n- 1977 - Jeff Foster, professional basketball player\n- 1979 - Aaliyah, singer (d. 2001)\n- 1980 - Albert Pujols, baseball player\n- 1980 - Michelle Wild, Hungarian pornstar\n- 1747 - Barthold Heinrich Brockes, German poet (b. 1680)\n- 1794 - Edward Gibbon, historian (b. 1737)\n- 1806 - William Pitt the Younger, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1759)\n- 1876 - Edmund H. Sears , composer\n- 1917 - George Dewey, Admiral (b. 1837)\n- 1936 - Albert Fish, serial killer (electrocuted) (b. 1870)\n- 1942 - Carole Lombard, actress (b. 1908)\n- 1957 - Arturo Toscanini, conductor (b. 1867)\n- 1962 - Ivan Me\u0161trovi\u0107, sculptor (b. 1883)\n- 1972 - Ross Bagdasarian, actor, songwriter\n- 1979 - Ted Cassidy, American actor\n- 1981 - Bernard Lee, British actor\n- 1982 - Red Smith , sports columnist\n- 1983 - Meyer Lansky, gangster\n- 1986 - Herbert W. Armstrong, evangelist, author, publisher\n- 1988 - Ballard Berkeley , British actor\n- 1989 - Trey Wilson , American actor\n- 1995 - Eric Mottram - poet, teacher, critic, editor (b. 1924)\n- 1998 - Emil Sitka , American actor\n- 2001 - Laurent-Desire Kabila, president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (assassinated; death officially confirmed on January 18)\n- 2002 - Michael Bilandic, mayor of Chicago (b. 1923)\n- 2002 - Eddie Meduza\n- 2002 - Bobo Olson, American boxer\n- 2002 - Ron Taylor, American actor (b. 1952)\n- 2004 - Kalevi Sorsa, former Finnish prime minister (b. 1930)\n- 2005 - Marjorie Williams, Washington Post columnist and contributing editor for Vanity Fair (b. 1958)\nHolidays and observances\nJanuary 15 - January 17 - December 16 - February 16 -- listing of all days\n|Top Encyclopedia Articles", "id": "<urn:uuid:feaf284e-1ec5-4798-b289-85f6e673a176>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.biologydaily.com/biology/January_16", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.894091010093689, "token_count": 2214, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This section provides a short description of all the major objects in the book. This can be printed out as a study guide for students, used as a \"key\" for leading a class discussion, or you can jump to the quiz/homework section to find worksheets that incorporate these descriptions into a variety of question formats.\nParisappears in Paris Spleen - The majority of the poems within this collection are in this setting, especially the poorer areas of the city.\nNatureappears in The Artist's Confiteor - This frustrates a man who cannot capture it wholly.\nRoomappears in The Double Room - The narrator dreams up this beautiful place.\nStatue of Venusappears in The Fool and Venus - A jester stares at this in a park.\nPublic Parksappears in The Widows - These are described as the shady retreats that are the gathering places of those crippled by life.\nThis section contains 273 words|\n(approx. 1 page at 300 words per page)", "id": "<urn:uuid:10dfe04c-59e1-4dfe-b201-dfd16ad59407>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/paris-spleen-1869/objects.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8897064924240112, "token_count": 209, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This section provides a short description of all the major characters in the book. This can be printed out as a study guide for students, used as a \"key\" for leading a class discussion, or you can jump to the quiz/homework section to find worksheets that incorporate these descriptions into a variety of question formats.\nMuhammad Bilal - This character is the son of a farmer who is stolen from Africa and sold as a slave.\nLizzy - This character is a slave on the Live Oaks plantation in South Carolina who never has a freedom dream.\nElijah Lewis - This character is intelligent and forward thinking and dreams of making enough money to help his family hold onto the Glory Field.\nLuvenia Lewis - This character is tall and dark-skinned. He/she has ideas of his/her own and does not want to move to Curry Island with his/her...\nThis section contains 570 words|\n(approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)", "id": "<urn:uuid:5d62c583-9e93-4909-ab3d-b04e84ed203f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/the-glory-field/characters.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9362614750862122, "token_count": 202, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Rainbow smelt, leefish, freshwater smelt, frost fish, ice fish, candy fish - there seems to be no shortage of references for these tasty, shimmering, torpedo-like creatures.\nWhat there does seem to be these days, however, is a shortage of smelt altogether.\nInterestingly, fishermen on both Lake Champlain and Lake George are reporting a significant reduction in the number of smelt caught through the ice this year.\nIt is a phenomenon that began a few years ago, actually, and one biologists have difficulty understanding.\nOn one thing biologists agree: both lakes are continually evolving, changing with the introduction of new fish and aquatic species as well as the impacts of human intervention.\nVermont Fisheries Biologist Bernie Pientka said a number of factors seem to be influencing the smelt population in Lake Champlain.\nWhile the lake still holds a healthy population of rainbow smelt, a change in habitat along with the introduction of non-native fish like alewives has impacted where smelt congregate and where they've traditionally been caught, Pientka said.\nThe physical size of Lake Champlain smelt is also changing, he said, making it more difficult to achieve large catches of the fish like those seen in year's past.\nIn the late 1990s, studies of smelt conducted through trawling surveys showed a reduction in the overall age of smelt in the lake, Pientka said.\n\"We used to see a lot of four or five-year-olds, now for some reason, we are seeing more one, two and three-year-olds,\" he said. \"The larger fish now average just five or six inches long.\"\nWhile fishermen tend to blame the alewife infestation with reducing smelt populations in Lake Champlain, biologists still discount this theory, saying the fish has not been around long enough to impact smelt.\nLake Champlain Fisheries Biologist Lance Durfey said that while ice fishing catches appear to be down in recent winters, it does not appear to be caused by a \"crash\" in the smelt population.", "id": "<urn:uuid:45dc833f-e5d4-407a-9b7e-96509506ec8e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.denpubs.com/news/2009/jan/30/where-have-all-the-smelt-gone/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9632381796836853, "token_count": 433, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "As everybody knows, sometimes studying Phrasal verbs\nis not an easy task, does it? When I was a student, it was really hard (for me\n) learning and realizing what phrasal verbs were about. I bought a Dictionary about phrasal verbs, I would use them in class with my Professors & classmates, English native speakers and so on. But then, I noticed that there were some very common and very useful Phrasal verbs\nto study as well as keeping in mind during an English conversation. This is my list:\n(Most of these phrasal verbs have several meanings, so make sure you remember them all!)\n1. Add up\na- To be added together and equal the expected or correct total.\nExample: \u201cWe added up the apples: there were 12\u2033\nb-To make sense : to seem to be logical or true.\nExample: \u201cHer story didn\u2019t add up, I think she was lying, it didn\u2019t make sense\u201d\n2. Blow up\na- To fill (something) with air or gas\nExample: \u201cPlease could you blow up those balloons?\u201d\nb- To explode or to cause (something, such as a bomb) to explode.\nExample: \u201cThe building was blown up by a bomb\u201d\nc- To become very angry.\nExample: \u201cWhen I said I couldn\u2019t go to her party, she blew up\u201d\n3. Bring up\na- To take care of and teach (a child who is growing up).\nExample: \u201cTheir grandparents brought them up because their parents were always travelling\u201d\nb- To mention (something) when talking : to start to talk about (something).\nExample: \u201cDon\u2019t bring up the fight again, please!\u201d\n4. Call off\na- To stop doing or planning to do (something) .\nExample: \u201cMaria called off the wedding, she decided she didn\u2019t love him\u201d\nb- To cause or tell (a person or animal) to stop attacking, chasing, etc.\nExample: \u201cCall off your dog! He\u2019s attacking my cat\u201d\n5. Carry on\na- To continue to do what you have been doing\nExample: \u201cSorry I interrupted, carry on talking!\u201d\nb- To behave or speak in an excited or foolish way.\nExample: \u201cThe little boy was carrying on: shouting and kicking all day long\u201d\n6. Come across\na- To seem to have a particular quality or character : to make a particular impression.\nExample: \u201cJulia came across as a bit bossy\u201d\nb- To be expressed to someone.\nExample: \u201cI tried to sound happy but it came across as over-excited\u201d\nc- To meet or find (something or someone) by chance.\nExample: \u201cLuis was leaving the fruit shop and he came across Tom, what a coincidence\u201d\n7. Come up with\na- To get or think of (something that is needed or wanted).\nExample: \u201cWe finally came up with a solution to the problem!\u201d\n8. Fall apart\n(Oh, listen to the song \"Emotions\" by Bee Gees & Samantha Sang)\na- To break into parts in usually a sudden and unexpected way,\nExample: \u201cMy cake fell apart when I tried to cut it\u201d\nb- To become unable to live in a normal way because you are experiencing a lot of confusion or emotional pain\nExample: \u201cAfter the divorce, she fell apart\u201d\n9. Get along\na- To be or remain friendly\nExample: \u201cWe\u2019re not together anymore, but we get along great\u201d\nb- To make progress while doing something.\nExample: \u201cHow are you getting along at playing the guitar?\u201d\nc- To leave a place\nExample: \u201cIt was lovely to see you, but my friend has to get along, she has class\u201d\nd- To become old.\nExample: \u201cHer grandma is getting along; she\u2019s almost 99\u2033\n10. Get away\na- To go away from a place.\nExample: \u201cI can0t wait to get away from the city\u201d\nb- To avoid being caught : to escape\nExample: \u201cThe thieves managed to get away in a stolen car\u201d\nc- To not be criticized or punished for (something).\nExample: \u201cYvonne is always lying, I can\u2019t understand how she gets away with it\u201dTO BE CONTINUED", "id": "<urn:uuid:5179126f-d498-4d28-8db2-dcaa0d64c5b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.englishclub.com/esl-forums/viewtopic.php?p=409500", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.958807110786438, "token_count": 998, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A single application of Rootgrow will support a plant for its entire lifetime.\nHow do mycorrhizal fungi benefit plants?\nIn its simplest sense mycorrhizal fungi do everything plant roots do, just better.\nWhen new plants are planted with Rootgrow it takes only 2-4 weeks under normal conditions for these fungi to start benefiting plants. In that time they attach themselves to the plant's root system and grow out rapidly into the soil, searching for nutrients and water. They essentially become part of the plant's own root system.\nThe benefits to plants are; Better nutrient uptake. These fungi are so much thinner and finer than the plant's own roots they can therefore find nutrients in the soil far more efficiently than the plant's own coarse roots. They are especially good at finding nutrients responsible for flowering and fruiting such as Phosphorus and Potassium. As they can explore a much greater amount of soil than the plant's own roots they are also far more likely to find trace elements and the rare nutrients that all plants need to grow well.\nMycorrhizal fungi are an essential part of a plant's ability to combat drought. Leaves and stems have developed mechanisms to combat drought such as silver leaves, waxy leaves and hairy leaves but these adaptations on their own aren't enough if the plant doesn't have its friendly fungal partner on its roots.\nMycorrhizal fungi hold onto water in soils like a sponge.\nEstablishment in difficult soils\nMycorrhizal fungi will enable plants to establish and thrive even in difficult soils. In poor sandy soils the mycorrhizal fungi will be able to find scarce nutrients and hold onto water. In clay soils these fungi will be able to unlock nutrients from the soil acting like a clay breaker.\nHow much do I need?\nAs a quick guideline, the amount of rootgrow needed usually works out to approximately 10% of the value of the plants purchased. i.e. spend \u00a3100 on plants and you will need 1x 360gram pouch to treat all of them.\nFor grass seed, you will approximately require 10 to 15 per cent of the volume (i.e. a 2.5kg bag of grass would required 250g-375g of rootgrow)\nAvailable in a variety of sizes.\nThe 360g GEL variant is designed to treat bare rooted plants ONLY. Use on plants such as hedging, fruit canes, roses and trees.\nIt is a two step process, mixing sachet of powder to create the gel and then add rootgrow and dip roots into solution. One pouch will treat up to 150 bare root whips.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e65d04d8-984f-4554-9a3b-60546ad05546>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.greenvelvetlawnseed.co.uk/Rootgrow-RHS.asp?menu_id=81", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9496117234230042, "token_count": 543, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Rate Canadian Hospitals\n|British Columbia Hospitals|\n|New Brunswick Hospitals|\n|Nova Scotia Hospitals|\n|The North Hospitals|\nTop User Rated Hospitals\nMost Popular Hospitals\n- Royal Jubilee Hospital, Victoria (2)\n- Prince County Hospital - Summerside (1)\n- Misericordia Community Hospital, Edmonton (1)\n- Queen Elizabeth II Hospital, Grande Prairie (1)\n- Cobequid Community Health Centre (1)\n- Stanton Regional Hospital, Yellowknife (1)\n- Rockyview General Hospital, Calgary (1)\n- University of Alberta Hospital, Edmonton (1)\n- St. Catharines General Site, St. Catharines (1)\n- Toronto General Hospital, Toronto (1)\n- Devon General Hospital, Devon (1)\n- Thunder Bay Regional Health Sciences Centre, Thunder Bay (1)\nWHAT IS A DEPRESSIVE DISORDER?\nA depressive disorder is an illness that involves the body, mood, and thoughts. It affects the way a person eats and sleeps, the way one feels about oneself, and the way one thinks about things. A depressive disorder is not the same as a passing blue mood. It is not a sign of personal weakness or a condition that can be willed or wished away. People with a depressive illness cannot merely \"pull themselves together\" and get better. Without treatment, symptoms can last for weeks, months, or years. Appropriate treatment, however, can help most people who suffer from depression .\nTYPES OF DEPRESSION\nDepressive disorders come in different forms, just as is the case with other illnesses such as heart disease. This pamphlet briefly describes three of the most common types of depressive disorders. However, within these types there are variations in the number of symptoms, their severity, and persistence.\nMajor depression is manifested by a combination of symptoms that interfere with the ability to work, study, sleep, eat, and enjoy once pleasurable activities. Such a disabling episode of depression may occur only once but more commonly occurs several times in a lifetime.\nA less severe type of depression, dysthymia, involves long-term, chronic symptoms that do not disable, but keep one from functioning well or from feeling good. Many people with dysthymia also experience major depressive episodes at some time in their lives.\nAnother type of depression is bipolar disorder, also called manic-depressive illness. Not nearly as prevalent as other forms of depressive disorders, bipolar disorder is characterized by cycling mood changes: severe highs (mania) and lows (depression). Sometimes the mood switches are dramatic and rapid, but most often they are gradual. When in the depressed cycle, an individual can have any or all of the symptoms of a depressive disorder. When in the manic cycle, the individual may be overactive, overtalkative, and have a great deal of energy. Mania often affects thinking, judgment, and social behavior in ways that cause serious problems and embarrassment. For example, the individual in a manic phase may feel elated, full of grand schemes that might range from unwise business decisions to romantic sprees. Mania, left untreated, may worsen to a psychotic state.\n|< Prev||Next >|", "id": "<urn:uuid:fda89f26-25a5-4081-8aef-f2b7b2a21bff>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.healthtalk.ca/content/view/19/9/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9242674708366394, "token_count": 669, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Screen Printer/Stencil Preparer\nScreen printers set up and operate power-driven or hand-operated screen printing machines to create images.\nDuties & Tasks\nScreen printers may perform the following tasks:\n- prepare stencils to be printed by handcutting, photographic or electronic methods\n- choose, mix and match coloured inks and load ink into printing machines\n- load paper, fabric, plastic or other material onto printing machines, making sure that objects to be printed are lined up correctly and, if there is more than one colour, that the colours are properly aligned\n- control machines and check the quality of printing\n- keep records of work completed\n- put the stencils onto a mesh fabric-printing screen and operate the printing machine, then dry the printed items by loading them into drying racks or dryers using hot air or ultraviolet light\n- unload printed items from drying racks and stack them\n- remove waste, clean and maintain machines, and maintain and care for equipment including cameras and lenses, screens, stops and filters.\n- enjoy practical and manual work\n- good eyesight (may be corrected) with normal colour vision\n- good hand-eye coordination\n- good problem-solving skills.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8a71f5dd-86b5-44b1-bffc-b2bca96ad0d8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hobsonscoursefinder.com.au/career/view/392112A/NT", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8905293941497803, "token_count": 254, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "IntroductionKiribati (k\u012dr\u02cc\u012db\u0103s\u02c8) [key], officially Republic of Kiribati (2005 est. pop. 103,000), 342 sq mi (886 sq km), consisting of 33 islands scattered across 2,400 mi (3,860 km) of the Pacific Ocean near the equator. It includes 8 of the 11 Line Islands, including Kiritimati (formerly Christmas Island), as well as the Gilbert and Phoenix groups and Banaba (formerly Ocean Island). Tarawa is the capital. The population is nearly all Micronesian, with about 30% concentrated on Tarawa. English is the official language, and Kiribati, a Micronesian language, is also spoken. Some 50% of the inhabitants are Roman Catholic, while 40% are Protestant.\nFishing and the growing of coconuts, taro, breadfruit, and sweet potatoes form the basis of the mainly subsistence economy. The mining of Banaba's once thick phosphate deposits ended in 1979. Copra, coconuts, seaweed, and fish are the chief exports; foodstuffs, machinery and equipment, manufactured goods, and fuel are imported. Australia, Japan, Fiji, and the Unites States are the main trading partners.\nA member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the nation is a republic governed under the constitution of 1979. The president, who is both head of state and head of government, is elected by popular vote for a four-year term and is eligible for two more terms. The unicameral House of Parliament has 42 members, most elected by popular vote, who serve four-year terms. Administratively the country is divided into three units (the Gilbert, Line, and Phoenix islands), and subdivided into six districts. There are also 21 island councils, one for each of the inhabited islands.\nSections in this article:\nThe Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright \u00a9 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.\nSee more Encyclopedia articles on: Pacific Islands Political Geography", "id": "<urn:uuid:e2c891b4-e6f2-44ad-80fc-527ee0a0f828>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/world/kiribati.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9441813230514526, "token_count": 423, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "MCP Spelling Workout Homeschool Bundle Level A (Grade 1)\nSpelling Workout Primary Levels have a high phonics base and the upper grades study word origins and vocabulary. Spelling practice is provided through riddles, puzzles, interactive activities and reviews, and reinforces what has been previously learned. This program uses a test-study method. Your child will first take a pre-test of words not introduced and then, under your direction, will self-correct the test, rewriting correctly any missed word. The spelling words will be studied as your child works throughout the practice exercises, and then a final test will be given. This bundle includes: Student Edition, Teacher's Edition, & Parent Guide.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e18a1760-f81c-4336-9927-bd09caac21f7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kaplantoys.com/store/trans/productDetailForm.asp?CatID=23%7C%7C0&Page=4&Max=123&Seq=19.99&PID=141323", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.926345705986023, "token_count": 143, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Did you know that many gadgets in your home suck up energy \u2013 and your hard-earned dollars \u2013 even when they are turned off? De-fang these \"energy vampires\" and you'll lower your monthly energy bills.\nWhat is a \"vampire appliance\" and how is it sucking up money?\nMany electronic devices use what is called \"standby power\" when they're turned off--as long as they are plugged in. That way, you don't have to wait the few seconds it takes for the device to \"power up\" when you turn it on. But that \"Instant-On\" convenience wastes a ton of energy and dollars.\nFirst clue that an appliance is an energy vampire--if it has a glowing LED light or lit clock, it's using energy even when it's turned off:\n- DVD players\n- Video game consoles\n- Microwave ovens\n- Computers (laptops especially)\n- Music systems\n- Rechargeable appliances such as hand-held vacuums and tools\nOther unplugable energy wasters: phone and battery chargers. Do you leave the charger plugged into the wall even when your phone is not attached? That vacant charger is costing you money. Read: \"Top 5 Energy-Sucking Vampire Appliances\".\nAlso, check out this standby energy chart to see which devices use the most energy when not in use.\nJust how much these \"energy vampires\" are costing you?\nFederal regulations have cut back on the amount of electricity \u201cvampire appliances\u201d can consume, but they still account for as much as 5 \u2013 10% of the electricity used in the average home. In other words, $0.05 to $0.10 out of every dollar spent on electricity could be eliminated, according to the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.\nOne TV can waste about $150 a year in standby energy (depending on the type and age of the TV); many video game consoles another $25 a year. Multiply those TVs, DVD players and other appliances and the dollars really add up!\nWhat's the easiest way to eliminate these unnecessary energy costs?\nThe cheapest option is to just unplug the suckers. When you turn off your TV, video game player or other electronic device or appliance, unplug it from the electric outlet. That keeps the device from continuing to draw power. Simplify unplugging appliances by bundling them on a power strip. This is a smart practice anyway, because the power strip protects sensitive electronics from power surges and outages. And with the touch of a button all of the devices on the power strip will be disconnected from the power supply.\nBest of all, look into purchasing \"smart power strips\". These reduce your power usage by automatically shutting down power to products that go into standby mode. There are even some smart power strips that included infrared motion detectors that turn off appliances when nobody is in the room. These will cost around $80 per power strip, but will pay off with the energy you save.\nFinally, when purchasing new appliances and electronics, be sure they are ENERGY STAR\u00ae- qualified products.\nFor more money-saving tips and info on discounts and incentives on energy-saving products and services, visit PSOklahoma.com/save\nThis post is sponsored by PSO.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8a1db8c1-b79a-40ec-b0e3-8422345c6fc9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.khou.com/marketplace/money-saving-queen/deals/185706611.html?ref=next", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9430479407310486, "token_count": 681, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fun Learning with Printable Flash Cards\nHere you will find our selection of free printable flash cards for preschool learning (and beyond!). Flash cards are a great way for kids to learn the basic elements and memorize them through short repeat sessions. You\u2019ll find helping them learn their first abc, animal names and numbers incredibly rewarding.\nA few minutes here, a few minutes there, whether at home, traveling, in the park or at Auntie\u2019s it\u2019s learning on the go. These lovely cards turn learning into playing (\u2026 but we also love decorating kids\u2019 rooms by sticking them on the wall or putting them in picture frames.)\nWe\u2019ve made all our printable flash cards here free for everybody and of course you can print them as many times as you like!\nAlphabet Flash Cards\nHelping the little one\u2019s first learning fun and sweet!\nVocabulary Flash Cards\nLearning new words and concepts is great fun!\nNumber & Math Flash Cards\nVarious flash cards for all your math activities.\nShapes & Colors Flash Cards\nTry combining abstract shapes and pretty colors with various colorful activities.\nWe have a growing selection of children\u2019s resources for preschool, homeschool & classroom learning activities. Please check back soon to see what\u2019s new. Thank you!\nWe\u2019d also love to hear from parents and teachers with suggestions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3bcc3f8d-efc9-4c16-87f0-df69d12c3b5a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mrprintables.com/printable-flash-cards.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9260563850402832, "token_count": 292, "score": 3.609375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On a trip to Ireland a few years ago, I was struck by a number of faces among the crowds. They were children with the tell-tale look of Down syndrome.\nDon't miss these Health stories\nMore women opting for preventive mastectomy - but should they be?\nRates of women who are opting for preventive mastectomies, such as Angeline Jolie, have increased by an estimated 50 percent in recent years, experts say. But many doctors are puzzled because the operation doesn't carry a 100 percent guarantee, it's major surgery -- and women have other options, from a once-a-day pill to careful monitoring.\n- Larry Page's damaged vocal cords: Treatment comes with trade-offs\n- Report questioning salt guidelines riles heart experts\n- CDC: 2012 was deadliest year for West Nile in US\n- What stresses moms most? Themselves, survey says\n- More women opting for preventive mastectomy - but should they be?\nWhat struck me was the realization that I hardly ever see these young faces out on the street in the United States.\nA fascinating probe by the Associated Press suggests the reason. Gene testing of parental carriers is leading to the birth of fewer and fewer children with inherited diseases in the United States. Other conditions such as Down syndrome, which uses prenatal testing of the fetus, are also apparently being screened out in greater numbers.\nBy encouraging genetic testing for potential parents of European background, fewer and fewer children in the U.S. are being born with cystic fibrosis. Aggressive programs to offer genetic testing to a subset of Jewish ancestry has, over the last decade, resulted in a situation in which only about a dozen new cases of fatal Tay-Sachs Disease occur each year in babies in the United States. Experts believe that wider testing of parents may produce in the years to come a sharp decline in the number of children born with sickle cell disease and Fragile X syndrome, a leading cause of cognitive impairment in boys.\nReducing the burden of disease is obviously a good thing. But genetic testing of parents, and, as is now happening with increasing frequency, embryos, raises some difficult ethical challenges as well.\nIn many cases, genetic testing of parents may discourage them from trying to have a child but, in situations where there is risk but not certainty, some parents will try to conceive. Then, aware of the risk, they pursue further prenatal testing, and end any pregnancy in which a fetus could be affected.\nDestroying an embryo is obviously a difficult ethical and personal choice. Not as obvious are two other ethical challenges that more and more testing creates: The impact on those with genetic disabilities and their families and the likely expansion of genetic testing to more and more conditions in the years to come.\nAs some families with a Down syndrome child have noted, fewer kids with Down may mean fewer public programs, fewer resources in schools and for housing and less political clout. If some genetic diseases begin to fade away, will society\u2019s willingness to provide support for the diminishing numbers of those born with such diseases fade as well? And are we headed to a time when parents who choose not to be genetically tested find themselves condemned as morally irresponsible parents?\nThere may be broad agreement that getting rid of a disease like Tay-Sachs, which produces a slow, miserable and inevitable death, usually by age 4, morally justifies aggressive genetic testing and even decisions to abort pregnancies where the fetus has the disease. But, could the same ethical consensus be brought to bear concerning conditions such as deafness or dwarfism, which also have a genetic component?\nAnd what about using genetic testing on parents to pick out those at high risk for passing on conditions such as breast cancer, depression, Alzheimer\u2019s or addiction \u2014 conditions that involve genetic risks but that may not appear until mid-life or later and for which therapies may well be found in the future?\nAnd at the far extreme will companies be free to tout genetic testing of would-be parents simply to try and make matches that would result in a \"better\" baby?\nAs with many scientific advances, the good they do comes with some very hard dilemmas for you and me.\nArthur Caplan is director of the Center for Bioethics at the University of Pennsylvania.\n\u00a9 2013 msnbc.com. Reprints", "id": "<urn:uuid:02da5f14-3de6-4c37-afa6-be36f22bfb9e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nbcnews.com/id/35463644/ns/health-health_care/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9637728929519653, "token_count": 885, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By Dr. Perry Kendall\nProvincial Health Officer\nAug. 14, 2012\nVICTORIA - As summer vacations come to an end, and we begin to look forward to the fall, it is a good time to start thinking about how to best protect ourselves and our loved ones from illnesses like influenza.\nThe Public Health Agency of Canada estimates that between 2,000 and 8,000 Canadians die every year from influenza and its complications.\nBritish Columbia provides the flu shot for free each year to those considered at higher risk of developing influenza complications, or those who care for them. That list includes:\n- People over age 65 and their caregivers.\n- Children and adults with chronic health conditions and their household contacts.\n- Health-care workers.\n- Emergency responders.\n- Healthy children aged six months-five years.\n- Household contacts and caregivers of children aged zero-five years.\n- Pregnant women who will be in their third trimester during the influenza season.\n- Residents of nursing homes and other chronic-care facilities.\n- Aboriginal peoples.\n- People who are very obese (those with a body mass index of 40 or greater)\nEven if you are not considered a person of high risk, if you regularly interact with or work around someone who is, I strongly encourage you to get vaccinated for their sake. High-risk populations can suffer severe consequences from influenza, including death. Bacterial pneumonia, an infection of the lungs, is the most common complication from influenza, especially in elderly people. It can also lead to more complications for people who have heart, lung or other health conditions.\nFor these reasons, it is especially important that health-care workers get their flu shot each year, and I would like to acknowledge and thank those health-care workers who do get vaccinated.\nAs a physician myself, I know how important it is to protect patients. All of the major professional health care bodies, such as the College of Registered Nurses of British Columbia, support vaccination of health-care workers. Unfortunately, each year throughout B.C., fewer than 50 per cent of health-care workers get immunized against influenza. This rate is too low - patients deserve better. Some jurisdictions in the United States have managed to achieve 95 per cent coverage of health-care workers. There is significant evidence in long-term care facilities that high health-care worker influenza vaccine coverage results in diminished illness and fewer deaths. Getting the flu shot should be considered standard patient safety practice for all health-care workers who come into contact with patients - as important as following effective hand hygiene practices, staying home when ill or wearing a mask in the operating room.\nI would like to briefly address the concerns that some people have about the vaccine, as each year far fewer people get vaccinated than we in the public health community would like to see. The flu vaccine is extremely safe. It is not possible to contract the flu from getting a flu shot, because the publicly funded vaccines use only killed - inactive - virus particles. There is also no risk of developing conditions like autism from the flu vaccine (or any vaccine, for that matter). It is far safer to get the vaccine than to get sick - especially if you or someone you love is considered high risk.\nVaccines have been one of the most important medical advances of the modern era and have been responsible for wiping out (or nearly eliminating) once common illnesses, such as smallpox. This year, if you are eligible for a free flu shot, I encourage you to get immunized. If you care for vulnerable people, I especially urge you to get immunized, and if you are a health-care worker providing care to patients, the National Advisory Committee on Immunization considers influenza immunization an essential component of the standard of care. Finally, if you are a parent, ensure that your child's other vaccinations are up-to-date. Vaccines are safe and effective. They reduce illness and save lives.", "id": "<urn:uuid:165cf05a-0106-4744-a7f0-487c0e8c1939>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newsroom.gov.bc.ca/ministries/health/factsheets/opinion-editorial-flu-shots-save-lives-protect-patients.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9607097506523132, "token_count": 809, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The pulling power of chaos\nOur Science Essay ponders the riddle of the wandering stars. Starting with Poincar\u00e9, complex maths i\nWhat is the most efficient way to get a space probe to its target? When Apollo 11 went to the moon in 1969 it followed a conventional Hohmann transfer orbit. Imagine an egg-shaped outline, with the earth at the bottom. As the spacecraft comes up the left-hand side, it burns fuel to accelerate, and swings into orbit around the moon.\nThis was the quickest route \u2013 aside from the impractical one of flying straight out by burning fuel the whole time \u2013 and, in a manned mission, speed was of the essence. However, we now know that when efficient use of fuel is the main objective, and time is unimportant, less direct routes can be much better. When Nasa sent the Cassini probe to Saturn, it first went inwards in the solar system, undergoing two close encounters with Venus. Then it swung back past the earth and on to Jupiter before making a sharp turn to meet Saturn.\nTrajectories such as this exploit the slingshot effect, in which the spacecraft steals energy from a planet. The tiny spacecraft speeds up considerably, pulled towards the planet by gravity; the massive planet slows down very slightly, but not enough to notice. Yet there is another, subtler effect of orbital dynamics which is also being used to get spacecraft to their targets using as little fuel as possible: chaos.\nThe technique was first used in 1991. A Japanese space probe, Hiten, had been surveying the moon. Having completed its mission and returned to orbit the earth, it had pretty much run out of fuel. Edward Belbruno, an orbital analyst at Nasa\u2019s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Los Angeles, came up with an idea that sounded impossible. He wanted to extend its useful life and enhance its scientific value by sending it back to the moon. Then it would visit the moon\u2019s Trojan points \u2013 the points in space 60 degrees ahead of and behind the moon in its orbit where gravity and centrifugal forces cancel each other out. There it could search for cosmic dust that might have become trapped.\nIt sounded crazy, but Belbruno knew a way to do it. Mathematicians and physicists had realised that the motion of bodies under gravity can be chaotic \u2013 highly irregular, despite obeying entirely deterministic laws. Chaotic orbits are sensitive to very small disturbances. Normally, this feature is seen as an obstacle to prediction, but Belbruno realised that it could be used to advantage. Very small changes in position or speed, which use very little fuel,\ncan cause large changes to the trajectory. That makes it easy to redirect the spacecraft in a fuel-efficient, though possibly slow, manner.\nOne place where chaotic orbits can arise is somewhere called the \u201cL1 Lagrange point\u201d between the earth and the moon, where the net gravitational force is zero (essentially, objects are \u201csuspended\u201d between the two bodies because of the forces generated by each). Belbruno designed a new orbit that took Hiten close to the L1 point, where a short, carefully calculated burst of its rockets would loop it out to where he wanted it to go. He faxed his proposals, unsolicited, to the Japanese team; they loved the idea. When the probe arrived at L1, it found there was no more dust than you\u2019d expect; after a few years orbiting the moon, Hiten was crashed into its surface in 1993. Still, it had ushered in a new era of space travel. A similar trick was used for Nasa\u2019s Genesis mission to bring back samples of the solar wind.\nThe first Oscar\nOur fascination with the planets goes back to prehistoric times, when human eyes watched the star-spangled splendour of the night sky and human minds were awed by the cosmic spectacle. Countless stars moved across the sky, pinpricks of light on a gigantic, rotating velvet-black bowl.\nA few of those pinpricks of light, however, did not obey the rules. They went walkabout. The Greeks called them planetes \u2013 wanderers; we call them planets. Their paths are complicated and sometimes loop back on themselves. It is not surprising that the ancients attributed their movements to the caprices of supernatural beings.\nPtolemy, a Roman who lived in Egypt around AD120, began the lengthy process of taming the solar system, proposing that we live in an earth-centred universe in which everything revolves around humanity in complex combinations of circles supported by giant crystal spheres. Around 1300, the Persian Islamic philosopher Najm al-Katibi proposed a heliocentric (sun-centred) theory, but changed his mind. The big breakthrough came in 1543 when Nicolaus Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. He was clearly influenced by al-Katibi, but he went further, setting out an explicitly heliocentric system. Among its implications was the novel thought that human beings were not at the centre of things. To the Christian Church, this suggestion was contrary to doctrine, and explicit heliocentrism was heresy.\nThe riddle of the wandering stars was finally answered in 1609 by Johannes Kepler, an assistant to the astronomer Tycho Brahe. When his employer died unexpectedly, Kepler took over as court mathematician to Emperor Rudolph II. His main role was casting imperial horoscopes, but he also had time to analyse the orbit of Mars. For years, he tried without success to fit the planet\u2019s orbit to an egg-shaped curve, sharper at one end than the other. In 1605 he decided to try an ellipse, equally rounded at both ends. He discovered that this shape fitted the observations, and declared: \u201cAh, what a foolish bird I have been!\u201d\nIn 1609, Kepler published A New Astronomy, stating two basic laws of planetary motion. First law: all planets move in ellipses with the sun as a focus. Second law: a planet moves along its orbit in such a manner that it sweeps out equal areas in equal times. In 1619 he returned to planetary orbits in The Harmony of the World. The book contained many curious ideas \u2013 for example, that planets emit musical sounds as they roll round the sun. But it also contained his third law: the squares of the time taken for planets to orbit are proportional to the cubes of their distances from the sun.\nThis work led to one of the greatest scientific discoveries of all time. In his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy of 1687, Isaac Newton proved that Kepler\u2019s three laws are equivalent to a single universal law of gravitation. Two bodies attract each other with a force that is proportional to their mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Newton\u2019s law of gravity had a huge advantage over Kepler\u2019s ellipses: it applies to any system of bodies, however many there might be. The price to be paid is the way the law prescribes the orbits \u2013 not as geometric shapes, but as solutions of a mathematical equation. The problem is to solve it.\nNewton achieved that for two bodies \u2013 a planet plus the sun \u2013 and the answer is what Kepler had already discovered: the bodies move around their common centre of gravity in elliptical orbits. But some questions involve more than two bodies. If you want to predict the motion of the moon with high precision, you have to include both the sun and the earth in your equations. So, fresh from Newton\u2019s success with the motion of two bodies under gravity, mathematicians and physicists moved on to three bodies. Their initial optimism rapidly dissipated; the three-body problem turned out to be very different from the two-body problem. In fact, it defied solution.\nOnly in the late 19th century did its true complexity become apparent, however, when Henri Poincar\u00e9 tried to win a scientific prize. The 60th birthday of Oscar II, king of Norway and Sweden, happened in 1889. The Norwegian mathematician G\u00f6sta Mittag-Leffler persuaded the king to mark the occasion by announcing a prize for calculating the motion of any number of bodies under gravity and finding out whether the solar system is stable.\nPoincar\u00e9 decided to start with the simplest case: two bodies (say the sun and a planet) moving in perfect circles, with the third body being a dust particle of negligible mass. Even that version proved too ambitious and he failed to solve it, but he made so much progress that he was awarded the prize anyway.\nIn particular, Poincar\u00e9 proved that sometimes the orbit of the dust particle became extraordinarily messy. He deduced this from some highly original ideas that made it possible to infer features of the solutions without actually solving the equations, saying: \u201cOne is struck by the complexity of this figure that I am not even attempting to draw.\u201d We now recognise Poincar\u00e9\u2019s discovery as a sign that the dynamics of such a system are chaotic. The equations are not random, but their solutions can be very irregular, sharing features with properly random processes. This idea is colloquially known as chaos theory, and it all goes back to Poincar\u00e9 and his Oscar award.\nWell, that\u2019s the story that historians of mathematics used to tell. Around 1990, however, June Barrow-Green found a copy of Poincar\u00e9\u2019s prize-winning memoir in the depths of the Mittag-Leffler Institute in Sweden. She realised that when he submitted his work he had overlooked the chaotic solutions. He spotted the error before the memoir was published, and paid to have the original version destroyed and a corrected version printed. His initial oversight lay undiscovered for a century.\nBuilding on Poincar\u00e9\u2019s discovery, we now know that the three-body problem does not have simple solutions. Even so, vast progress has been made on the many-body problem in special cases; for example, when all of the bodies have the same mass. This is seldom a realistic assumption in celestial mechanics, but it is sensible for some models of elementary particles, such as electrons. In 1993, Cristopher Moore at the Sante Fe Institute found a solution to the three-body problem in which the bodies play follow-my-leader along the same orbit. Even more surprising is the shape of the orbit \u2013 a figure of eight.\nStranger than imagination\nIn 2000, the Spanish mathematician Carles Sim\u00f3 used a computer to show that this configuration is stable: it persists after small disturbances. Indeed, it remains stable even when the three masses are slightly different, so, somewhere in the universe, there might be three stars of almost identical mass, chasing each other along a figure-of-eight path.\nThe same year, Douglas Heggie of Edinburgh University estimated that the number of such triple stars lies somewhere between one per galaxy and one per universe. The figure-of-eight orbit is a planetary dance in which the bodies return to the same positions but swap their identities, each occupying the location that the body in front of it has vacated. This kind of orbit is called a choreography. Using a computer, Sim\u00f3 has found a huge number of choreographies, which can involve a large number of bodies.\nThe solar system is, was, and will be, far stranger than we imagine. Consider the comet Oterma. A century ago, Oterma\u2019s orbit was well outside that of Jupiter. After a close encounter with the giant planet, its orbit shifted inside that of Jupiter. After another close encounter,\nit switched back to outside again. We can confidently predict that Oterma will continue to switch orbits in this way every few decades, not because it breaks Newton\u2019s law, but because it obeys it. Oterma\u2019s gyrations are a far cry from Kepler\u2019s tidy ellipses. The explanation is straight out of science fiction. In Pandora\u2019s Star, Peter Hamilton portrays a future where people travel to planets encircling distant stars by train, running the railway lines through a wormhole, a short cut through space-time.\nIn his Lensman series, Edward Elmer \u201cDoc\u201d Smith came up with the hyperspatial tube, which malevolent aliens used to invade human worlds from the fourth dimension. Although we don\u2019t have wormholes or aliens from the fourth dimension, the planets and moons of the solar system are tied together by a network of multidimensional mathematical tubes that provide energy-efficient routes from one world to another. If we could visualise the ever-changing gravitational landscape that controls the planets, we would see these tubes, swirling along with the planets as they orbit the sun.\nOterma\u2019s orbit lies inside two tubes, which meet near Jupiter at a Lagrange point. One tube lies inside Jupiter\u2019s orbit, the other outside.\nAt the Lagrange point the comet can switch tubes, or not, depending on chaotic effects of Jovian and solar gravity; once inside a tube, however, Oterma is stuck there until the tube returns to the junction. Like a train that has to stay on the rails, but can change its route to another set of rails if someone switches the points, Oterma has some freedom to change its itinerary, but not a lot.\nAs such, the way to plan an efficient mission profile is to work out which tubes are relevant to your choice of destination. Then you route your spacecraft along the inside of the first inbound tube, and when it gets to the associated Lagrange point you fire a quick burst on the motors to redirect it along the most suitable outbound tube. That tube naturally flows into the corresponding inbound tube of the next switching point . . . and so it goes on.\nPlans for future tubular space missions are already being drawn up. In 2000, Wang Sang Koon, Martin Lo, Jerrold Marsden and Shane Ross used the tube technique to plot what they described as a \u201cPetit Grand Tour\u201d \u2013 an energy-efficient route \u2013 around the moons of Jupiter, ending in orbit around Europa. In 2005, Michael Dellnitz, Oliver Junge, Marcus Post and Bianca Thiere used tubes to plan an energy-efficient mission from the earth to Venus.\nTheir route would use one-third of the fuel required by the European Space Agency\u2019s Venus Express mission, which has observed Venus since 2006.\nPast, present, future The influence of tubes may go further. Dellnitz has discovered evidence of a natural system of tubes connecting Jupiter to each of the inner planets. This remarkable structure, known as the Interplanetary Superhighway, hints that Jupiter, long known to be the dominant planet of the solar system, also plays the role of a celestial Grand Central Station. In the past, its tubes may well have organised the formation of the entire solar system, determining the spacings of the inner planets.\nSo, is the solar system stable? The answer is a definite \u201cmaybe\u201d. Two research groups, run by Jack Wisdom of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Jacques Laskar of the Observatoire de Paris, have pioneered highly accurate computational methods to understand the probable future of the solar system. Wisdom\u2019s group has found that Pluto behaves chaotically over timescales of several hundred million years.\nIn 1999, Norman Murray of the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Astrophysics and Matthew Holman of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory discovered that the orbit of Uranus can also change chaotically, so that it occasionally gets close to Saturn, with the possibility that Uranus would then be ejected from the solar system. However, it will probably take about one quintillion years for this to happen. (The sun will blow up into a red giant much sooner, about five billion years from now. The earth will move outwards and might just escape being engulfed, even though tidal interactions will probably pull it into the sun. In any case, our planet\u2019s oceans will boil away long before that. And, anyway, the typical lifetime of a species is no more than five million years.)\nIt\u2019s not just the future that is chaotic; the same methods can be used to investigate the solar system\u2019s past. In 1993, Renu Malhotra of the University of Arizona realised that the early solar system must have been far more dynamic than had been assumed. As the planets were condensing from the primal gas cloud surrounding the sun, there came a time when Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune were nearly complete. Among them circulated huge numbers of rocky and icy \u201cplanetesimals\u201d, small bodies about ten kilometres across. Many of these were ejected into the wider solar system, reducing the energy of the four giant planets. Neptune migrated outwards. So did Uranus and Saturn. Jupiter, the big loser in the energy stakes, moved inwards.\nSo, our solar system\u2019s apparently stable plan arose through an intricate dance of the giants, in which they threw the smallest bodies at each other in a riot of chaos.\nIs the solar system stable? Probably not, but don\u2019t worry: we won\u2019t be around to find out.\nIan Stewart is emeritus professor of mathematics at the University of Warwick. His latest book is \u201c17 Equations That Changed the World\u201d (Profile, \u00a315.99)\nMore from New Statesman\n- Online writers:\n- Steven Baxter\n- Rowenna Davis\n- David Allen Green\n- Mehdi Hasan\n- Nelson Jones\n- Gavin Kelly\n- Helen Lewis\n- Laurie Penny\n- The V Spot\n- Alex Hern\n- Martha Gill\n- Alan White\n- Samira Shackle\n- Alex Andreou\n- Nicky Woolf in America\n- Bim Adewunmi\n- Kate Mossman on pop\n- Ryan Gilbey on Film\n- Martin Robbins\n- Rafael Behr\n- Eleanor Margolis", "id": "<urn:uuid:e341a786-6a4a-4849-be8e-f303cb373b58>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newstatesman.com/sci-tech/2012/04/pulling-power-chaos", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.953630268573761, "token_count": 3735, "score": 3.71875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\u2022 Incubation: 18-20 days\n\u2022 Clutch Size: 4 eggs\n\u2022 Young Fledge: 16-21 days after hatching\n\u2022 Typical Foods: insects, aquatic invertebrates and seeds\nFemale red phalaropes are stunning -- they are a rich chestnut color with a dark crown and white face. However, virtually all Ohio birds are in drab non-breeding plumage.\nHabitat and Habits\nThis species prefers the open waters of Lake Erie. It is most typically found along stone jetties and breakwalls in sheltered harbors. The flight call is similar to that of the red-necked phalarope, but generally higher pitched.\nReproduction and Care of the Young\nBreeding takes place in Alaska and northern Canada. Nests are hollows in the ground of marshy tundra. The male raises the young.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5822656d-7af7-48bb-9307-359a74f2061e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ohiodnr.com/Home/species_a_to_z/redphalarope/tabid/17697/Default.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8994008898735046, "token_count": 185, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In the early 1990s, researchers, including Itzhaki, found evidence suggesting that as we age, the herpes virus begins moving from its hideout near the bottom of the skull directly into the brain (possibly because our immune systems lose some bite). Indeed, one Journal of Pathology study found the virus in a high proportion of postmortem brain samples taken from people who'd died in their later decades, while it was absent in those from people who'd died in youth or middle age.\nWhat effect does the virus have when it reaches your brain? The short answer: That depends. In certain people it seems to do much less damage than in others; just as some of us never develop cold sores, some of us can have the herpes virus inside our brains without any horribly ill effects. But Itzhaki believes that in other people\u2014specifically those who carry APOE e4, a gene form, or allele, strongly linked to Alzheimer's\u2014the virus is not only reactivated by triggers like stress or a weakened immune system, but also actually begins to create the proteins that form the plaques and tangles presumed to be responsible for Alzheimer's.\nIf you're looking for evidence, Itzhaki can show you a stack of it. In two studies, for example, she and several colleagues took brain samples from 109 deceased people\u201461 of whom had had Alzheimer's, 48 of whom hadn't\u2014to search for any correlation between herpes, APOE e4, and Alzheimer's.\nTheir results: People who had both the APOE e4 gene and the herpes virus in their brains were 15 times more likely to have Alzheimer's than people who had neither. (The researchers also found, intriguingly, that people who suffered from recurrent cold sores were almost six times as likely to have the APOE e4 gene as those who didn't get cold sores.)\nA decade later, Dr. Federoff, then working at the University of Rochester, administered the herpes virus to four different groups of mice, each of which had a different variation or absence of the APOE gene. He found that in mice with the specific APOE e4 variation, the virus was slower to become dormant than it was in mice with APOE e2, APOE e3, or no APOE gene, suggesting that the virus could be replicating faster in the e4 mice. \"The results definitely suggest there's something different about having APOE e4,\" says Dr. Federoff.\nStill other research shows the direct impact of HSV-1 itself. In 2007, a study by Itzhaki and Wozniak found that infecting lab samples of brain cells with the virus caused a buildup of the protein (beta amyloid) that's the primary component of the plaque clogging the brains of Alzheimer's patients. The same study also found a similar result in the brains of mice that had been infected with HSV-1.\nThen there was January's study in the Journal of Pathology. In it, Itzhaki and Wozniak looked at brain samples from 11 deceased people; six had had Alzheimer's and five hadn't. While both groups had plaques (not surprisingly, the Alzheimer's group had far more) and evidence of the herpes virus in their brains, there was a crucial difference in the concentration of the virus: In the Alzheimer's patients, 72 percent of the virus's DNA was found in the plaques, compared with only 24 percent that was found in the plaques of the non-Alzheimer's brains. Not surprisingly, all but one of the Alzheimer's sufferers also carried the APOE e4 gene, compared with none of the samples from the non-Alzheimer's people.\nWozniak is confident that these last two studies point to the same conclusion: \"The results strongly suggest that HSV-1 is a major cause of amyloid plaques\u2014and probably of Alzheimer's disease.\"\nMost Popular in Health", "id": "<urn:uuid:a943b959-781e-4efa-aaac-6d416b1c524e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.oprah.com/health/A-Link-Between-Alzheimers-and-Cold-Sores/4", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9788050651550293, "token_count": 812, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Giant squids, once believed to be mythical creatures, are squid of the Architeuthidae family, represented by as many as eight species of the genus Architeuthis.\nThey are deep-ocean dwelling squid that can grow to a tremendous size: recent estimates put the maximum size at 10 m (34 ft) for males and 13 m (44 ft) for females from caudal fin to the tip of the two long tentacles (second only to the Colossal Squid at an estimated 14 m, one of the largest living organisms).\nFor more information about the topic Giant squid, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles:\nRecommend this page on Facebook, Twitter,\nand Google +1:\nOther bookmarking and sharing tools:", "id": "<urn:uuid:d8040f71-3afa-434b-8a3e-1971af13bb0c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sciencedaily.com/articles/g/giant_squid.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8951722383499146, "token_count": 161, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Scientists know that many chemicals including PAHs can cross the placenta, but they don\u2019t understand how they may interfere with a fetus\u2019 developing brain.\nIn the sensitive process of brain development, Bellinger said, there are a lot of things that can go wrong.\n\u201cThings are changing very rapidly and they're supposed to happen in a particular way, in a particular sequence,\u201d he said. \u201cIt's almost like a choreography of events that go into building a brain.\u201d This choreography is made up of hundreds of \u201cperformers,\u201d each taking instructions from chemical signals. Pollutants introduce noise to this process, like static over a radio station.\nAlso, PAHs may affect the fetus\u2019 DNA directly. When a mother breathes in PAHs, those chemicals are changed into byproducts in the bloodstream that can cross the placental boundary and bind directly to a fetus\u2019 DNA, explained Susan Edwards, a graduate student at the Imperial College in London, and the lead author on the Poland study.\nThe four-point drop in IQs linked to the air pollutants in New York City and Krakow is fairly subtle; parents and teachers wouldn\u2019t notice it because most children would fall within normal ranges.\nNevertheless, \u201cis a three or point IQ-point decrement important? You bet,\u201d said Lanphear, whose research has focused on lead exposure and children\u2019s neurodevelopment.\nHe said one recent analysis found that for every dollar invested in reducing lead exposure, society would realize a $17 to $220 benefit. \u201cThe bulk of the benefit was from increased lifetime earnings by enhancing children's intellectual abilities,\u201d he said.\n\u201cAt some point, we will cease blaming parents and teachers for children's failure to learn or thrive in academics and focus our attention on reducing their exposure to widespread neurotoxicants,\u201d Lanphear said.\nThe good news, Perera said, is that levels of PAHs are declining in New York City. Using data from the women\u2019s backpacks, researchers reported that airborne levels dropped by more than 50 percent between 1998 and 2006.\nBellinger said while steps should be taken to reduce children\u2019s exposure to pollutants, other factors remain more important for their cognitive development.\n\u201cAn important point is that while these exposures are associated with health outcomes, they aren't the major determinants. How parents interact with their children, and the kinds of stimulation they provide, explains a lot more,\u201d he said.\nLiving in New York City\u2019s Washington Heights, Baldwin, 30, now has five children between the ages of 10 and two. She wore the air-monitoring backpack in 1999 when she was in the third trimester of her pregnancy with her oldest child, Patience.\nLike the other children in the group, Patience has been monitored by the team of scientists since she was born. When Baldwin gave birth, a Columbia University researcher was at the hospital to collect the newborn\u2019s cord blood for testing. Her daughter had her first IQ test as part of the study when she was two and has undergone an array of other tests since then, including a recent CT scan of her brain.\nThere is no evidence that the PAHs affected her daughter\u2019s IQ. Baldwin said the girl has thrived in school and has no learning problems, although she has moderate asthma. She does not know whether her exposure to PAHs during the pregnancy was classified as high or low.\nBaldwin said her role in the study has made her \u201chyper aware\u201d of the risks of pollutants and pesticides. One of her sons was diagnosed with lead poisoning when he was a toddler; he apparently was exposed from peeling paint.\nBut she tries not to think about what effects her various exposures during her pregnancies might have had on her children. \u201cI don\u2019t like to dwell on something I cannot change,\u201d Baldwin said.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dc67439f-e37d-4585-91dd-bf97bce83509>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=urban-air-pollutants-can-damage-iqs-before-babys-first-breath&page=3", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9771616458892822, "token_count": 832, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This is the most populous area of Nicaragua. It is home to beautiful lakes and some of the world's only freshwater sharks.\nWith sandy beaches fronted by a long row of young cone-shaped volcanoes (some of which are active), Nicaragua features beach and resort communities. This area also features an array of colonial architecture and artifacts. The temperatures in the region remain fairly constant throughout the year with November to April being the dry season and May to October representing the rainy season.\nThe North-Central Highlands, or Amerrique Mountains, is less populated than the Pacific Lowlands and features a rugged terrain of forested mountains with deep valleys. This region gradually slopes to the Caribbean Lowlands. The North-Central Highlands boasts an abundance of wildlife as well as mild temperatures that are cooler than the Pacific Lowlands. This area experiences a longer and wetter rainy season.\nThe Caribbean Lowlands are a large rainforest region with several large rivers. It is an area that is sparsely populated. It features a predominately tropical climate with high temperatures and high humidity.\nNicaraguan is multiethnic with a great diversity of art, cuisine and music. Nicaraguan culture on the Pacific side evidences a largely European influence, while on the Caribbean Coast there exists a very clear and lasting British influence. On the Pacific side, the cuisine and main staples revolve around fruits and corn, while on the Caribbean coastal region, cuisine and main staples revolve around seafood and the coconut. The most common dish is the gallo pinto, a blend of rice and beans.\nThere is a tremendous range of attractions in Nicaragua including the capital city of Managua, which features Spanish colonial architecture. One can also visit the Masaya Volcano National Park, Xilo Crater Lake, churches of Leon, ruins of Leon Viego, a conquistador buriel site, and Granada, a favourite of tourist destinations. Nicaragua provides the opportunity for Escondido River boat tours, rainforest eco-tours, fabulous diving among the coral reefs of the Corn Islands, and sightseeing at Bluefields, a coastal town that is the center for reggae music. The opportunities for adventure, discovery, and rejuvenation are endless.", "id": "<urn:uuid:426e2437-71e3-4701-bf9b-56fe64ba5c5c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.selloffvacations.com/Nicaragua/Travel-Guide.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9366820454597473, "token_count": 448, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Using Taskset for Priority Tasks\nUnless you're using a really old machine or cheap netbook, almost any system you touch with Linux these days is going to be a multiprocessor system. Any server machine deployed within the past five years should have at least two CPUs, and most desktops released in the past three years have at least two cores. For a number of reasons, you might want to \"pin\" some tasks so they run exclusively on a single CPU or set of CPUs.A tisket, a tasket, be sure to use the open source server tool taskset for priority tasks.\nWhether you want to ensure resources for a process, ensure that a process doesn't hog all system resources or improve a process that doesn't scale well to multiple CPUs, you can use\ntaskset to assign a task to specific CPUs. It's pretty simple.\ntaskset, you \"bond\" a process to a CPU. Let's say you want to run Google Chrome on one CPU. You'd run something like this:\ntaskset 0x00000001 google-chrome\nNow Chrome will be limited to CPU 0 (0x00000001 is the \"mask\" for CPU 0). If you wanted to assign it to two CPUs, you would use\ntaskset 0x00000003 instead. Or you could use the\n-c option and specify the CPUs by numerical ranges. See the taskset man page for more on that.\nTo see what processors a task is assigned to, try running\ntaskset -p XXXX, where XXXX is the process ID (PID). If you're on a two-core system, for example, and haven't set the affinity, it will return 3. If you've assigned it to both cores/CPUs, then it will return 3. I don't make the syntax, I just write about it ...\nIs this going to speed up your system or be worth doing with all tasks? Nope. It is, however, something you can try to experiment with when you're having performance problems or having issues with a process/application causing problems with the rest of the system. I'd recommend testing it out on your desktop or test systems before attempting it in a production environment -- but with the right combination, you might be able to solve some system problems in short order.\nJoe 'Zonker' Brockmeier is a freelance writer and editor with more than 10 years covering IT. Formerly the openSUSE Community Manager for Novell, Brockmeier has written for Linux Magazine, Sys Admin, Linux Pro Magazine, IBM developerWorks, Linux.com, CIO.com, Linux Weekly News, ZDNet, and many other publications. You can reach Zonker at email@example.com and follow him on Twitter.", "id": "<urn:uuid:eab4db2a-6399-4993-b091-4fcd9f4149c0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.serverwatch.com/tutorials/article.php/3915931/Using-Taskset-for-Priority-Tasks.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9092390537261963, "token_count": 581, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1 in 4 in U.S. Starts Drinking Before Turning 21: Report\nMONDAY, Nov. 26 (HealthDay News) -- Underage drinking in the United States remains a serious public health issue, a new federal government report shows.\nThe analysis of data gathered between 2008 and 2010 from the U.S. National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that more than 26 percent of 12- to 20-year-olds reported drinking in the month before they were surveyed, and nearly 9 percent said they bought their own alcohol the last time they drank.\nThe purchase and consumption of alcohol by anyone under age 21 is prohibited in the United States.\nThere has been progress in reducing the amount of underage drinking in recent years, particularly among those under 18 years of age. However, rates of underage drinking are still unacceptably high, according to the report released Nov. 20 by the U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA).\n\"Underage drinking should not be a normal part of growing up. It's a serious and persistent public health problem that puts our young people and our communities in danger,\" SAMHSA administrator Pamela Hyde said in an agency news release.\n\"Even though drinking is often glamorized, the truth is that underage drinking can lead to poor academic performance, sexual assault, injury and even death,\" she noted.\nRates of underage drinking were highest in Vermont (37 percent) and lowest in Utah (14.3 percent). Five other states in the Northeast were among the 10 states with the highest rates of underage drinking: Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York and Rhode Island.\nNew York also had one of the highest rates of underage youth illegally buying alcohol (15 percent). States with the lowest rates of underage youth buying alcohol included New Mexico (2.5 percent), Idaho (2.6 percent) and Oregon (2.6 percent).\nSouthern states had some of the lowest rates of underage drinking (Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and West Virginia) and some of the highest rates of underage youth illegally purchasing alcohol (Alabama, Louisiana, Kentucky, Mississippi and North Carolina), the investigators found.\nThe U.S. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism has more about underage drinking.\nSOURCE: U.S. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, news release, Nov. 20, 2012Related Articles\n- Health Tip: Help Keep Teen Drivers Safe\nMay 20, 2013\n- Weekend 'Catch-Up' Sleep May Cut Young Drivers' Crash Risk\nMay 20, 2013\nLearn More About Sharp\nSharp HealthCare is San Diego's health care leader with seven hospitals, two medical groups and a health plan. Learn more about our San Diego hospitals, choose a Sharp-affiliated San Diego doctor or browse our comprehensive medical services.\nCopyright \u00a92012 HealthDay. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dbd5746a-20db-4339-b01e-1c3676e958ed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sharp.com/news/health/newsArticle.cfm?articleID=37890&channelID=30", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9487146735191345, "token_count": 592, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Will the US Face Blackouts as Electricity Generation Suffers in Drought?\nWell, its official \u2013 the U.S. government has acknowledged that the U.S. is in the worst drought in over 50 years, since December 1956, when about 58 percent of the contiguous U.S. was in moderate to extreme drought.\nAccording to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration National Climatic Data Center\u2019s \u201cState of the Climate Drought July 2012\u2033 report, \u201cBased on the Palmer Drought Index, severe to extreme drought affected about 38 percent of the contiguous United States as of the end of July 2012, an increase of about 5 percent from last month\u2026 About 57 percent of the contiguous U.S. fell in the moderate to extreme drought categories (based on the Palmer Drought Index) at the end of July\u2026 According to the weekly U.S. Drought Monitor, about 63 percent of the contiguous U.S. (about 53 percent of the U.S. including Alaska, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico) was classified as experiencing moderate to exceptional (D1-D4) drought at the end of July.\u201d\nMuch business writing on the effects of the drought have focused on its agricultural aspects. To give but one, the hottest, driest summer since 1936 scorching the Midwest have diminished projected corn and soybean crop yields s in the U.S. for a third straight year to their lowest levels in nine years. Accordingly, the price of a bushel of corn has jumped 62 percent since 15 June and soybeans gained 32 percent in the same period.\nBut as consumers fret about the inevitable rise in food prices to come, the drought is unveiling another, darker threat to the American lifestyle, as it is now threatening U.S. electricity supplies.\nBecause virtually all power plants, whether they are nuclear, coal, or natural gas-fired, are completely dependent on water for cooling. Hydroelectric plants require continuous water flow to operate their turbines. Given the drought, many facilities are overheating and utilities are shutting them down or running their plants at lower capacity. Few Americans know (or up to this point have cared) that the country\u2019s power plants account for about half of all the water used in the United States. For every gallon of residential water used in the average U.S. household, five times more is used to provide that home with electricity via hydropower turbines and fossil fuel power plants, roughly 40,000 gallons each month.\nMichael Webber, associate director of the Center for International Energy and Environmental Policy at the University of Texas at Austin, is under no such illusions, stating that the summer\u2019s record high heat and drought have worked together to overtax the nation\u00c3\u00a2\u00e2\u201a\u00ac\u00e2\u201e\u00a2s electrical grid, adding that families use more water to power their homes than they use from their tap. Webber said, \u201cIn summer you often get a double whammy. People want their air-conditioning and drought gets worse. You have more demand for electricity and less water available to produce it. That is what we are seeing in the Midwest right now, power plants on the edge.\u201d\nIn July U.S. nuclear-power production hit its lowest seasonal levels in nine years as drought and heat forced Nuclear power plants from Ohio to Vermont to slow output. Nuclear Regulatory Commission spokesman David McIntyre explained, \u201cHeat is the main issue, because if the river is getting warmer the water going into the plant is warmer and makes it harder to cool. If the water gets too warm, you have to dial back production,\u201d McIntyre said. \u201cThat\u2019s for reactor safety, and also to regulate the temperature of discharge water, which affects aquatic life.\u201d\nNuclear is the thirstiest power source. According to the National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) in Morgantown, West Virginia, the average NPP that generates 12.2 million megawatt hours of electricity requires far more water to cool its turbines than other power plants. NPPs need 2725 liters of water per megawatt hour for cooling. Coal or natural gas plants need, on average, only 1890 and 719 liters respectively to produce the same amount of energy.\nAnd oh, the National Weather Service Climate Prediction Center in its 16 August \u201cU.S. Seasonal Drought Outlook\u201d wrote, \u201cThe Drought Outlook valid through the end of November 2012 indicates drought conditions will remain essentially unchanged in large sections of the central Mississippi Valley, the central and southwestern Great Plains, most of the High Plains, the central Rockies, the Great Basin, and parts of the Far West\u2026\u201d The lack of rain and the incessant heat, has also increased the need for irrigation water for farming, meaning increasing competition between the agricultural and power generation sectors for the same shrinking water \u201cpool.\u201d\nBut, every cloud has a silver lining. California\u2019s Pacific Gas and Electric Co. utility, commonly known as PG&E, that provides natural gas and electricity to most of the northern two-thirds of California, from Bakersfield almost to the Oregon border, is on the case. PG&E has informed its customers that its \u201cDiablo Canyon (nuclear) Power Plant, the largest source of generation in the utility\u2019s service area, is cooled by ocean water, not by rivers that could dry up.\u201d\nNever mind the fact that by the time the Diablo Canyon NPP was completed in 1973, engineers discovered that it was several miles away from the Hosgri seismic fault, which had a 7.1 magnitude earthquake on 4 November 1927.\nBut ocean water as a coolant is not necessarily the answer either.\nOn 12 August Dominion Resources\u2019 Millstone NPP, situated on Connecticut\u2019s Niantic Bay on Long Island Sound, was forced to shut down one of two reactor units because seawater used to cool down the plant was too warm, averaging 1.7 degrees above the NRC limit of 75 degrees Fahrenheit. The Millstone NPP, which provides half of all power used in Connecticut and 12 percent in New England, was only restarted twelve days later.\nThe federal government is hardly known for its scaremongering tactics, but it would seem that Mother Nature is forcing Americans to belatedly consider making some lifestyle changes, as the choice seems to be devolving into energy conservation, turning down the air conditioner and digging deeper into the wallet for food costs.\nIt might also be time for serious national discussion about renewable energy, including wind and solar.\nIf the sun stops shining, all bets are off.\nBy. John C.K. Daly of Oilprice.comhome solar power, hydroelectric plants, national oceanic and atmospheric administration, palmer drought index\nShort URL: http://www.solarthermalmagazine.com/?p=21120", "id": "<urn:uuid:86e28879-f223-4422-a14b-5d61114c348e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.solarthermalmagazine.com/2012/10/05/will-the-us-face-blackouts-as-electricity-generation-suffers-in-drought/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9514782428741455, "token_count": 1425, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Four voyages can lead to plenty of misadventure. Discover the places where Christopher Columbus met with high drama (and just a few setbacks) during his discovery of the New World, from 1492 to 1504.\nChristmas Day 1492 wasn\u2019t all glad tidings and good cheer for Christopher Columbus. On a journey to the northern coast of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola, one of Columbus\u2019 3 ships, the <i>Santa Maria</i>, ran aground and had to be abandoned. It was the first of Columbus\u2019 4 voyages to the Americas.\nColumbus didn\u2019t exactly get a warm welcome when he landed on the Samana Peninsula (in present-day Dominican Republic). He met with violent resistance from the Ciguayos, one of the nations of the Caribbean islands. Because of the Ciguayos' use of arrows, Columbus called the inlet where he encountered them the Bay of Arrows. Historians have since debated its exact location: Some say it is the Bay of Rincon, others that it is Samana Bay.\nThe good times kept on coming as Columbus headed for Spain, on the last leg of his first voyage. He soon had to put those plans on hold, as a storm forced his fleet into Lisbon. There Columbus anchored next to Portugal King John II\u2019s harbor partrol ship. Columbus spent the next week in Portugal, before he was able to continue on to Spain.\nNine months later, Columbus once again set sail for the high seas. This time, on his second voyage, he returned to Hispaniola, where he intended to visit the fort of La Navidad (built during his first voyage). However, Columbus discovered that the fort, located on the northern coast of Haiti, had been destroyed by the native Taino people. Centuries later, in 1977, an amateur archeologist excavated artifacts from La Navidad.\nIt seemed like a good idea at the time. When Columbus sailed more than 60 miles eastward, along Hispaniola\u2019s northern coast, he established the settlement of La Isabela, in present-day Dominican Republic. But in 1494 and then, in 1495, the settlement was struck by 2 North Atlantic hurricanes. Hunger, disease and mutiny soon followed, until Columbus abandoned the settlement altogether.\nThat's what Columbus was thinking when he arrived in Cuba (which he named Juana) on April 30, 1494. Exploring the island\u2019s southern coast, Columbus placed his bets that it was part of a peninsula connected to mainland Asia.\nAnd this must be the Garden of Eden! That\u2019s what Columbus concluded as he sailed the Gulf of Paria (between present-day Trinidad and Venezuela). The nice climate, the abundance of food, the friendliness of the natives and the richness of the area\u2019s natural resources all led him to that conclusion. He also wagered that, based on the rotation of the pole star in the sky, the Earth must not be perfectly spherical, but rather bulged out like a pear around the new-found continent we now know as South America.\nColumbus wasn\u2019t feeling so well when he returned to Hispaniola on Aug. 19, 1498, during his third voyage. He felt even worse when he discovered that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were in rebellion against his rule, saying that Columbus had misled them about the supposedly bountiful riches of the New World.\nColumbus\u2019 fourth and final voyage met with choppy waters in June 1502. When his fleet arrived in Santo Domingo, it was denied port by the new governor. But Columbus got his revenge. He told the governor a storm was coming. The gov didn\u2019t listen \u2026 to his demise. He ended up surrendering to the sea, along with 29 of his 30 ships.\nColumbus\u2019 4 ships took a bruising while cruising through present-day Panama. Locals had told Columbus about gold and a strait to another ocean. Columbus set out on an exploration and established a garrison at the mouth of Panama\u2019s Belen River. In April 1503, one of Columbus\u2019 ships became stranded in the river. Meanwhile, the garrison was attacked by the Guaym\u00ed locals. Further headaches followed when shipworms damaged the ships at sea.\nColumbus\u2019 ships sustained further damage when a storm hit off the coast of Cuba. Unable to travel on, the fleet was beached in St. Ann\u2019s Bay, in Jamaica. For 1 year, Columbus and his men remained stranded in Jamaica before help arrived. In all, Columbus\u2019 voyages stretched over 12 years, and -- a few misadventures aside -- opened the door to the \u201cNew World.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:2a587274-0476-4865-bcbd-c607c87b670d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.travelchannel.com/Places_Trips/Travel_Ideas/history/Photos/ci.the-misadventures-of-christopher-columbus.print", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9711565375328064, "token_count": 981, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Water Reuse Links\nDisclaimer: Links to and information about Web sites outside the TWDB are provided solely for the convenience of the user and do not constitute an official endorsement of the information, products, or services contained therein.\n- National Science Foundation\nThe National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent federal agency created by Congress in 1950 \"to promote the progress of science; to advance the national health, prosperity, and welfare; to secure the national defense.\"\n- U.S. Agency for International Development\nPresident John. F. Kennedy created the United States Agency for International Development by executive order in 1961 to extend a helping hand to people overseas struggling to make a better life.\n- U.S. Bureau of Reclamation\nThe USBOR's WaTER Group provides expert water and wastewater treatment engineering and research technical services.\n- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency\nThe mission of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is to protect human health and the environment.\n- U.S. Geological Survey\nThe U.S. Geological Survey is a science organization that provides impartial information on the health of the nation's ecosystems and environment, the natural hazards that threaten us, the natural resources we rely on, the impacts of climate and land-use change, and the core science systems that help us provide timely, relevant, and useable information.\n- American Water Resources Association\nAn international organization dedicated to increasing the beneficial use of recycled water.\n- American Water Works Association\nAWWA is the largest water supply professional organization in the world and is an authoritative source of knowledge, information, and advocacy to improve the quality and supply of drinking water worldwide.\n- Water Research Foundation\nThe Water Research Foundation is a member-supported international non-profit organization that sponsors research to enable water utilities, public health agencies, and other professionals provide safe and affordable drinking water.\n- Global Water Research Coalition\nThe GWRC is a 12-member international alliance offering water research information and knowledge to its members with a focus on water supply, wastewater, and renewable water resources.\n- International Water Association\nIWA is comprised of leading water professionals in science, research, technology and practice.\n- National Water Research Institute\nNWRI is Canada's preeminent freshwater research facility, the largest in the country, leading world-class research on freshwater issues.\n- Water Education Foundation\nWEF is an impartial non-profit organization, dedicated to creating a better understanding of water issues and helping to resolve water resource problems through educational programs.\n- Water Environment Association of Texas\nWEAT is an association of water professionals, practitioners, operations specialists, and public officials working together for professional growth and development, and to educate the public on water issues.\n- Water Environment Federation\nThe Water Environment Federation is a not-for-profit technical and educational organization with a vision of preserving and enhancing the global water environment.\n- Water Environment Research Foundation\nThe Water Environment Research Foundation is dedicated to advancing science and technology addressing water quality issues as they impact water resources, the atmosphere, the lands, and quality of life.\n- WateReuse Association\nThe WateReuse Association is a non-profit organization whose mission is to advance the beneficial and efficient use of water resources through education, sound science, and technology using reclamation, recycling, reuse and desalination.\n- National Institutes for Water Resources\nThe NIWR is a network of 54 research institutes (one institute located in every state or territory of the US) with each institute conducting basic and applied research to solve water problems unique in its area.\n- Texas Water Resources Institute\nTWRI, a member of the National Institutes for Water Resources, provides leadership for priority research and educational programs in water resources within the Texas A & M University system and throughout Texas.\n- Universities Council on Water Resources\nAbout 90 universities in the Unites States and throughout the world comprise the UCOWR which facilitates education, research, technology transfer, and information dissemination on contemporary and emerging water resource issues.\nUseful Reference Documents\nThe document's primary purpose is to facilitate further development of water reuse by serving as an authoritative reference on water reuse practices. It updates and builds on the 2004 Guidelines for Water Reuse by incorporating information on water reuse that has been developed since the 2004 document was issued.\nThis report provides a general overview of current knowledge related to direct potable reuse (DPR), and identifies the information that needs to be developed through targeted studies to inform the stakeholders regarding the feasibility of implementing DPR as a viable water supply management option.\nThe report provides a comprehensive assessment of technical, economic, social, and regulatory issues associated with both potable and non-potable reuse.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e7e23b74-47ca-412e-bc67-8e57481702f6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.twdb.state.tx.us/innovativewater/reuse/links.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9000353217124939, "token_count": 956, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is Natural Resource and Environmental Economics\nIn the U.S. and throughout the world, there is increasing competition for limited land, water and other natural resources, as well as growing concern about environmental degradation of various sorts. As such, there is a growing need for professionals who can assist in the process of balancing economic and environmental tradeoffs. This major prepares students to do just this within a variety of careers in both the private and public sectors. Private business firms face serious challenges in meeting stricter environmental regulations and achieving self-imposed environmental goals. Public agencies must continually seek to design policies so that society\u2019s resource conservation or environmental quality goals are achieved in a cost-effective manner.\nThe curriculum combines coursework in natural and environmental sciences, economics, business, and policy, allowing sufficient flexibility for students to tailor their program to their individual interests and career goals.\nCareer Opportunities in Natural Resource and Environmental Economics\nStudents graduating with this major may find employment in private firms with environmental compliance activities or conservation initiatives directed toward energy or other natural resources. Opportunities also exist with consulting firms that assist clients in meeting environmental objectives. Many nonprofit environmental organizations seek to employ staff with economic training. Several federal government agencies, including the Environmental Protection Agency and the departments of Agriculture, Interior and Energy, employ natural resource and environmental economists. State and local government agencies also provide opportunities for employment. The major provides a strong background for graduate studies in natural resource and environmental economics, leading to career opportunities in teaching and/or research, as well as high-level policy positions. Students would also be well prepared to pursue a professional program in environmental law.\nSalary Trends in Natural Resource and Environmental Economics\nBecause graduates can pursue a variety of careers with respect to type of position and employer, the salary range for entry-level positions is fairly wide. Depending upon the type of employer and position responsibilities, beginning salaries can be expected to range from about $30,000 to $45,000. Starting salaries generally increase over time at slightly above the rate of inflation. Potential for advancement in both responsibilities and salary depends on both the type of employer and the performance of the employee.\nHigh School Preparation\nHigh school students who wish to major in Natural Resource and Environmental Economics should take college-preparatory mathematics courses. Completion of electives in areas such as business, microcomputer applications, oral and written communication, and social sciences such as psychology, political science or sociology could also prove helpful. Participation in extracurricular activities to develop leadership, interpersonal, and communication skills is also advised.\nHow to Major in Natural Resource and Environmental Economics\nStudents planning to pursue this major simply declare this intent once they have gained admission to the University. The department has no enrollment restrictions or association requirements beyond the University-wide minimum 2.0 GPA required to remain in good academic standing.\nStudents who plan to transfer into this major at UT after one or two years at a community college should consult an advisor at UT to choose appropriate courses as early as possible. The flexibility within the curriculum requirements works to the advantage of transfer students, in most cases allowing for all credits taken from up to two years of study elsewhere to apply toward requirements of the program.\nRequirements for Natural Resource and Environmental Economics\nTo complete a bachelor\u2019s degree with this major, students must complete 120 semester hours of course work. This includes 42 hours of general education courses in the areas of English, mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, cultures and civilizations, and arts and humanities. Nine hours of additional course work is required in oral communication, written communication and microcomputer applications. Students take 16 hours of courses in economics, accounting, and statistics. At least 12 hours of courses outside the department but within the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources are required, in the areas of environmental science and forestry. The heart of the curriculum includes 27 hours of required departmental courses and 6 hours of directed electives within the Department of Agricultural Economics. And finally, 8 hours of general electives can be used by students to pursue a minor or special interests.\nSpecial Programs, Co-ops, and Internships\nInternships with private companies, environmental organizations, or government agencies can be an exceptionally valuable component of a student\u2019s academic program. Internships are typically completed during the summer between a student\u2019s junior and senior years of study.\nThree hours of academic credit can be received for a three-month internship. Students must submit periodic progress reports, complete a special project and receive satisfactory ratings from their supervisor. During the following semester, students must also complete a written report and make an oral presentation summarizing their internship experience.\nHighlights of Natural Resource and Environmental Economics\nWide applicability of major to a variety of career options: Graduates are prepared to pursue opportunities for employment or further education in a number of different directions.\nPersonalized advising: Academic advising for majors is handled by a dedicated team of faculty members in the Department of Agricultural Economics. Students typically work with the same advisor from orientation to graduation and develop a close relationship that often extends well beyond graduation. Advisors are committed to assisting their advisees not only in course selection but in career planning and placement as well.\nSmall class sizes: Departmental courses all have relatively small enrollments, allowing for personalized interaction between professors and students.\nScholarship availability: Majors are eligible for a large number of scholarships offered by the Department and the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources.\nNatural resource and environmental issues are often global in nature. Students are exposed to the international dimensions of these issues in various courses within the curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in faculty-led study abroad programs sponsored by the College of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources (CASNR). Other UT faculty-led and semester abroad programs are offered through the Center for International Education. CASNR offers scholarships for students participating in study abroad programs. CASNR students, faculty and staff participate in the annual Unity through Diversity Dinner held each fall. Some CASNR students select a minor in Modern Foreign Languages and Literature.\nLearn more about UT\u2019s Ready for the World initiative to help students gain the international and intercultural knowledge they need to succeed in today\u2019s world.\n|Freshman Year||Credit Hours|\n|Biology 101: Humankind in the Biotic World||4|\n|Forestry, Wildlife and Fisheries 250: Conservation||3|\n|English 101-102: English Composition||6|\n|Math 123, 125: Finite Math, Basic Calculus||6|\n|ESS 120, 220: Soils/Water and Civilizations||6|\n|Social Science Elective||3|\n|AREC 110: Opportunities in Agricultural and Resource Economics||1|\n|Critical courses: English 101-102, Biology 101, Math 123 or 125|\n|Sophomore Year||Credit Hours|\n|AREC 201: Economics of the Global Food and Fiber System||3|\n|AREC 212: The Agribusiness Firm||4|\n|Accounting 200: Foundations of Accounting||3|\n|Statistics 201: Introduction to Statistics||3|\n|Arts and Humanities Elective||3|\n|Ag & Nat Res 290: Microcomputer Applications||3|\n|ESS 210: Soil Science and Physical Science Elective||8|\n|Critical courses: AREC 201 and 212, Accounting 200, Math 123 or 125, Statistics 201|\n|Junior Year||Credit Hours|\n|AREC 310: Career Planning and Placement||1|\n|AREC 315: Agricultural and Environmental Law||3|\n|AREC 320: Microeconomics||3|\n|AREC 324: Quantitative Methods||3|\n|AREC 342 or 350: Management or Marketing||3|\n|AREC 430: Food and Agricultural Policy||3|\n|Economics 362: Environmental and Nat. Res. Policy||3|\n|BSET 326: GIS/GPS Applications||3|\n|Philosophy 346: Environmental Ethics||3|\n|Critical courses: AREC 310, 315, 320, 324, and 342 or 350; Economics 362|\n|Senior Year||Credit Hours|\n|AREC 410: Senior Seminar||1|\n|Economics 463: Environmental Economics||3|\n|AREC 470: Natural Resource Economics||3|\n|AREC 471: Policy Analysis for Nat. Res. Mgmt.||3|\n|Economics, Sociology or Geography Elective||3|\n|Arts and Humanties Elective||3|\n|General (Free) Electives||5|\nFor More Information\nThe information on this page should be considered general information only. For more specific information on this and other programs refer to the UT catalog or contact the department and/or college directly.", "id": "<urn:uuid:645c0040-f2a0-4739-b1b5-e4d9bcbfdfc3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.utk.edu/advising/guides/69", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9195161461830139, "token_count": 1820, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Notes: A colorful and bizarre addition to any reef aquarium, the Spiny Sea Cucumber can live for many years in the home aquarium. It will move around the aquarium until it finds an area with a good current where it can filter plenty of food. Once it finds a desirable spot it may stay there for many months.\nThe Spiny Sea Cucumber uses its oral tentacles to catch food that floats by. As each tentacle becomes full of food it draws its entire tentacle into its mouth. It must be fed foods for filter feeders including marine snow, phytoplankton, and zooplankton. If not properly fed the body of the Spiny Sea Cucumber will slowly begin to shrink.\nThe Spiny Sea Cucumber can be harmed by the intakes of any pumps or powerheads in the aquarium, so make sure to protect all intakes to prevent it from being sucked in.", "id": "<urn:uuid:95623d47-2396-4414-aff5-55b20f679724>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.vividaquariums.com/10Expand.asp?ProductCode=02-1813&SortBy=Price", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9249012470245361, "token_count": 189, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Learn something new every day More Info... by email\nA predicate is part of a sentence or clause in English and is one of two primary components that serves to effectively complete the sentence. Sentences consist of two main components: subjects and predicates. Subjects are the primary \u201cthing\u201d in a sentence which the rest of the words then describe through either a direct description or by indicating what type of action that subject is performing. The predicate is this secondary aspect of the sentence and usually consists of a verb or adjective, though complicated sentences may have multiple verbs and a number of descriptions affecting the subject.\nIt can be easiest to understand predicates by first understanding subjects and how sentences are constructed. A sentence just about always has a subject, though it can be implied in some way and not necessarily directly stated. In a simple sentence like \u201cThe cat slept,\u201d the subject is \u201cthe cat,\u201d which is a noun phrase consisting of the direct article \u201cthe\u201d and the noun \u201ccat.\u201d Subjects can be longer and more complicated, but they are usually fairly simple in nature.\nThe predicate of a sentence is then basically the rest of the sentence, though this is not always the case for longer and more complicated sentences. In \u201cThe cat slept,\u201d the predicate is quite simple and merely consists of the word \u201cslept.\u201d This is simple because \u201cslept\u201d is an intransitive verb, which means that it requires no further description or objects to make it complete. The sentence could be expanded as \u201cThe cat slept on the bed,\u201d but this is not necessary and merely adds a descriptive component to the predicate through the prepositional phrase \u201con the bed.\u201d\nIn a somewhat more complicated sentence, such as \u201cThe man gave the ball to his son,\u201d the subject of the sentence is still quite simple: \u201cThe man.\u201d The predicate in this sentence, however, has become substantially more complicated and consists of the rest of the sentence: \u201cgave the ball to his son.\u201d This has been made more complicated because the verb \u201cgave\u201d is transitive, specifically ditransitive, which indicates both a direct object and an indirect object.\nThe act of \u201cgiving\u201d requires that there is a direct object, which is the item given, and an indirect object, which is who or what it is given to. In this instance, the predicate consists of the verb \u201cgave\u201d and the direct object \u201cthe ball\u201d with a connecting preposition \u201cto\u201d and the indirect object \u201chis son.\u201d Predicates can become even more complicated as an idea expands, such as a sentence like \u201cThe rock rolled off the table, landed on top of a skateboard, and proceeded to roll down the hill until it was stopped by a wall.\u201d In this sentence, the subject is only \u201cThe rock,\u201d which means that the rest of the sentence is the predicate.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b6182938-d2ed-4d47-a28c-9ae9952dbc8d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-predicate.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368700958435/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516104238-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9717612266540527, "token_count": 633, "score": 4.59375, "int_score": 5, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Science Fair Project Encyclopedia\nReligious conversion is the adoption of new religious beliefs that differ from the convert's previous beliefs; in some cultures (e.g. Judaism) conversion also signifies joining an ethnic group as well as adopting that group's religious beliefs. Conversion requires internalization of the new belief system.\nA person who has undergone conversion is called a convert or proselyte. A proselyte (from the Latin word proselytus which in turn comes from the Greek word \u03c0\u03f1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ae\u03bb\u03c5\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, proselytos meaning \"someone who has found his/her place\") is in general a title given to a person who has fully embraced a certain religion, world view, ideology, metaphysics, ontology et cetera. In the traditional sense like in Proselytism this word signified people who have converted to Judaism, but is nowadays used in a wider meaning.\nConversion to Judaism\nSee also the main article ger tzedek\nJewish law has strict guidelines for accepting new converts to Judaism (a process called \"giur\"). According to Jewish law, which is still followed as normative by Orthodox Judaism and most of Conservative Judaism, potential converts must want to convert to Judaism for its own sake, and for no ulterior motives. A male convert needs to undergo a ritual circumcision, and there has to be a commitment to observe the 613 commandments and Jewish law. A convert must accept Jewish principles of faith, and reject the previous theology that he or she had prior to the conversion. Ritual immersion in a small pool of water known as a mikvah is required, and the convert takes a new Jewish name and is considered to be a son or daughter (in spirit) of the biblical patriarch Abraham, and a male is called up in that way to the Torah.\nThe Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism movements are lenient in their acceptance of converts. Many of their members are married to non-Jews, and these movements make an effort to welcome the spouses of Jews who seek to convert. This issue is a lightning rod in modern day Israel as many immigrants from the former Soviet Union are technically not Jewish.\nConversion to Judaism in history\n- See the main article: List of converts to Judaism\nThe most famous Jewish King, King David, was descended from the convert Ruth (who, according to the Talmud and Midrash, was a Moabite princess). No formal conversion procedure is given in the text; modern critical historians generally hold giur, in its modern sense, to be an innovation of a later period. Joseph, the father of the most famous sage of the Talmud, Rabbi Akiva, was a convert.\nChristians were forbidden to convert to Judaism on pain of death during most of the Middle Ages. In the 1700s a famous convert by the name of Count Valentin Potoski in Poland was burned at the stake. He was a contemporary and a disciple of Rabbi Elijah, known as the Vilna Gaon.\nIn Hellenistic and Roman times, some Pharisees were eager proselytizers, and had at least some success throughout the empire. Some Jews are also descended from converts to Judaism outside the Mediterranean world. It is known that some Khazars, Edomites, and Ethiopians, as well as many Arabs, particularly in Yemen before, converted to Judaism in the past; today in the United States, Israel and Europe some people still convert to Judaism. In fact, there is a greater tradition of conversion to Judaism than many people realize. The word \"proselyte\" originally meant a Greek who had converted to Judaism. As late as the 6th century the Eastern Roman empire (i.e., the Byzantine empire) was issuing decrees against conversion to Judaism, implying that conversion to Judaism was still occurring.\nRelationship with converts\nThe Hebrew Bible states that converts deserve special attention (Deuteronomy 10:19). The Hebrew word for \"convert\", ger, is the same as that for a stranger. It is also related to the root gar - \"to dwell'. Hence since the Children of Israel were \"strangers\" - geirim in Egypt, they are therefore instructed to be welcoming to those who seek to convert and dwell amongst them.\nSince around 300 CE, Judaism has stopped encouraging people to join its faith. In fact, in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, converts are often discouraged from becoming Jews and warned that being a Jew entails special obligations, as well as, at least in certain places, the risk of anti-semitism. A Rabbinic tradition holds that a prospective convert should be refused three times.\nDifferences between Jewish and Christian views\nJudaism does not characterize itself as a religion (although one can speak of the Jewish religion and religious Jews). The subject of the Tanach (Hebrew Bible) is the history of the Children of Israel (also called Hebrews), especially in terms of their relationship with God. Thus, Judaism has also been characterized as a culture or as a civilization. Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan defines Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. One crucial sign of this is that one need not believe, or even do, anything to be Jewish; the Rabbinic definition of 'Jewishness' requires only that one be born of a Jewish mother, or that one convert to Judaism in accord with Jewish law. (Today, Reform and Reconstructionist Jews also include those born of Jewish fathers and Gentile mothers if they are raised as Jews.)\nTo Jews, Jewish peoplehood is closely tied to their relationship with God, and thus has a strong theological component. This relationship is encapsulated in the notion that Jews are a chosen people. Although some have taken this as a sign of arrogance or exclusivity, there are Jewish scholars and theologians who have emphasized that a special relationship between Jews and God does not in any way preclude other nations having their own relationship with God. For Jews, being \"chosen\" fundamentally means that Jews have chosen to obey a certain set of laws (see Torah and halakha) as an expression of their covenant with God. Jews hold that other nations and peoples are not required or expected to obey these laws, and face no penalty for not obeying them. Thus, as a national religion, Judaism has no problem with the notion that others have their own paths to God (or \"salvation\"), though it still makes claim as to the truth or falsehood of other beliefs, and as to whether Gentiles are allowed to hold them. Thus, for example, Maimonides believed that the truth claims of Islam were largely false, but he also believed that Gentiles were not sinning by following Islam; on the other hand, he regarded idolatry not just as false, but also as a serious sin, for Jew or non-Jew. In this respect, Rabbinical sources have usually classed Christianity with Islam, rather than with idolatry, though the use of icons in many denominations has raised questions as to whether they are, in fact, idolatrous.\nChristianity is characterized by its claim to universality, which marks a break with Jewish identity. As a religion claiming universality, Christianity has had to define itself in relation with religions that make radically different claims about Gods. Christians believe that Christianity represents the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham and the nation of Israel, that Israel would be a blessing to all nations.\nThis crucial difference between the two religions has other implications. For example, conversion to Judaism is more like a form of adoption (i.e. becoming a member of the nation, in part by metaphorically becoming a child of Abraham), whereas conversion to Christianity is explicitly a declaration of faith. Of course, conversion to Judaism also entails a declaration of faith, and, in Christian churches, conversion also has a social component, as the individual is in many ways adopted into the Church, with a strong family model.\nConversion to Christianity\nIn the times of Jesus, all of his disciples were Jews. On occasion, he performed miracles for Gentiles without requiring their conversion; in one conversation with a Samaritan woman, he downplayed the differences between Jews and Samaritans (John 4). Gentiles who sought to join the early Church were often required to undergo conversion to Judaism first including circumcision for men. This requirement was later dropped entirely after Paul forced the issue.\nThe origin of Christian Baptism in water is derived from the Jewish law requiring a convert to submerge themselves in pure water (of a mikvah) in order to receive a new pure soul from God. It was only many years after Jesus, that there was split in the movement and those seeking to convert to Christianity were not faced with the major obstacles that Judaism presented.\nChristianity and Islam are two religions that encourage preaching their faith in order to convert non-believers. In both cases, this missionary property has been used as an excuse for religious wars (crusades) on other countries. This property encourages evangelists to convert people of other faiths, though unfortunately on some occasions by questionable means.\nIn the year 1000, the Viking age parliament of Iceland decided that the entire country should convert to Christianity, and that sacrifice to the old gods, while still allowed, should no longer be made in the open. Similar mass conversions in other Scandinavian countries were not as democratic.\nThe Christian denomination of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) accepts new members into its monthly meetings. After a person becomes familiar with the beliefs and practices of Friends, he may embrace these things for himself. This embracing of the beliefs and practices of Friends is called convincement. He then applies for membership, and, if accepted is officially a Friend.\nConversion to Islam\nOne becomes a Muslim by believing that Allah (Arabic for God) is the only god and that Muhammad was His messenger. A person is considered a Muslim from the moment he sincerely makes this witness, the shahada. Of course a new Muslim has to familiarize himself/herself with the religion, the belief, and the practices of Islam, but there is no formal requirement for that. It is a personal process; acceptance of all of that is taken to follow from the original statement, since all of Islam is considered to derive from either divine inspiration, in the form of the Qur'an, or prophetic example, in the form of the hadith and sunna of Muhammad.\nConversion to religions of Indic origin\nReligions of Indic origin such as Hinduism, Sikhism and Buddhism do not believe in conversion as a form of religious expansion, even though they welcome anybody to join their faiths. The reason for this is the strongly held belief in these religions that \"all religions are true and are only different paths to the same truth\". The followers also believe that the religion you follow is to be chosen based on an individual's temprement, birth etc. Also, what would be very strange and foreign to non-indic origin faiths is that people can claim to be follower of multiple religions. For example in Japan which was influenced by the indic faith of Buddhism, it is easy to find people who follow both Buddhism and Shinto. It is also common to find people in India claming to be both Hindu and Buddhist or Hindu and Sikh etc. This inclusivism is in direct contrast to the belief that the ordained path in the book is the only true paths, found in exclusivistic belief systems. This inclusivism also makes any conversion unnecessary. It should be noted that the above does not apply for some sects of Indic faiths, like Soka Gakkai and Hare Krishna/ISKCON.\nConversion to new religious movements and cults\nConversion to new religious movements (NRM's) is riddled with controversies. The anti-cult movement sometimes uses the term thought reform or even brainwashing, though the latter term has now become discredited, for this process. Often they will call certain NRM's cults. However, the definition of a cult has become so broad that in many instances it is almost meaningless and is used to define anything outside of Orthodoxy. NRMs are very diverse and it is not clear whether conversion to NRMs differs from conversion to mainstream religions. See also Brainwashing controversy in new religious movements\nResearch, both in the USA and in the Netherlands has shown that there is a positive correlation between the lack of involvement in main stream churches in certain areas and provinces and the percentage of people who are a member of a new religious movement. This applies also for the presence of New Age centers. , The Dutch research included Jehovah's Witnesses and the Latter Day Saint movement/Mormonism to the NRM's.\nProfessor Eileen Barker believes that the psychological changes as described in converts of the Divine Light Mission can be generalized for other NRMs, however she has supplied no proof of such claims.\nConversion of Catholics to Protestantism\nProhibition of conversion\nSeveral ethnic religions don't accept converts, like the Yazidis and the Druze. The only way to become a Yazidi is to be born in a Yazidi family. Conversely, the Shakers and some Indian eunuch brotherhoods don't allow procreation, so every member is a convert.\nThe English language word proselytism is derived ultimately from the Greek language prefix 'pros' (towards) and the verb 'erchomai' (to come). It generally describes attempts to convert a person from one point of view to another, usually in a religious context.\nIn the Bible, the word proselyte denotes a person who has converted to Judaism, without overtly negative overtones. In our day, however, the connotations of the word proselytism are almost exclusively negative. Nonetheless, many people use the words interchangeably. An Orthodox writer, Stephen Methodius Hayes has written: \"If people talk about the need for evangelism, they meet with the response, \"The Orthodox church does not 'proselytize' as if evangelizing and proselytism were the same thing.\"\nMany Christians consider it their obligation to follow what is often termed the \"Great Commission\" of Jesus, recorded in the final verses of the Gospel of Matthew: \"Go to all the nations and make disciples. Baptize them and teach them my commands.\" The early Christians were noted for their evangelizing work.\nThe difference between the two terms is not easily defined. What one person considers legitimate evangelizing, or witness bearing, another may consider intrusive and improper.\nIllustrating the problems that can arise from such subjective viewpoints is this extract from an article by Dr. C. Davis, published in Cleveland State University's 'Journal of Law and Health': \"According to the Union of American Hebrew Congregations, Jews for Jesus and Hebrew Christians constitute two of the most dangerous cults, and its members are appropriate candidates for deprogramming. Anti-cult evangelicals ... protest that 'aggressiveness and proselytizing . . . are basic to authentic Christianity,' and that Jews for Jesus and Campus Crusade for Christ are not to be labeled as cults. Furthermore, certain Hassidic groups who physically attacked a meeting of the Hebrew Christian 'cult' have themselves been labeled a 'cult' and equated with the followers of Reverend Moon, by none other than the President of the Central Conference of American Rabbis\". \nViews on the propriety of proselytism, or even evangelism, differ radically. Some feel that freedom of speech should have no limits and that virtually anyone, anywhere should have the right to talk about anything they see fit. Others see all sorts of evangelism as a nuisance and an intrusion and would like to see them proscribed. Thus, Natan Lerner observes that the issue is one of a clash of rights - the right of a person to express his views versus the right of a person not to be exposed to views that he does not wish to hear.\nFrom a legal standpoint, there do appear to be certain criteria in distinguishing legitimate evangelization from illicit proselytism:\n- All humans have the right to have religious beliefs, and to change these beliefs, even repeatedly, if they so wish. (Freedom of Religion)\n- They have the right to form religious organizations for the purpose of worship, as well as for promoting their cause (Freedom of Association)\n- They have the right to speak to others about their convictions, with the purpose of influencing the others. (Freedom of Speech).\nBy the same token, these very rights exercise a limiting influence on the freedoms of others. For instance, the right to have one's religious beliefs presumably includes the right not to be coerced into changing these beliefs by threats, discrimination, or similar inducements.\nHence a category of improper proselytizing can be discerned.\n- It would not be proper to use coercion, threats, the weight of authority of the educational system, access to health care or similar facilities in order to induce people to change their religion.\n- It would be improper to try to impose one's beliefs on a 'captive audience,' where the listeners have no choice but to be present. This would presumably require restraint in the exercise of their right to free speech, by teachers in the classroom, army officers to their inferiors, prison officers in prison, medical staff in hospitals, so as to avoid impinging on the rights of others.\n- It would not be proper to offer money, work, housing or other material inducements as a means of persuading people to adopt another religion.\nIssues involving proselytism\nSince the collapse of the former Soviet Union and the rise of democracy in the Eastern Bloc, the Russian Orthodox Church has enjoyed a revival. However, it takes exception to what it considers illegitimate proselytizing by the Roman Catholic Church, the Salvation Army, Jehovah's Witnesses and other religious movements  in what it refers to as its canonical territory.\nGreece has a long history of conflict, mostly with Jehovah's Witnesses but also with some Pentecostals over its laws on proselytism. This situation stems from a law passed in the 1930s by the dictator Ioannis Metaxas. A Jehovah's Witness, Minos Kokkinakis, won the equivalent of US $14,400 in damages from the Greek state after being arrested repeatedly for the 'offence' of preaching his faith from door to door. In another case, Larissis vs. Greece, a member of the Pentecostal church also won a case in the European Court of Human Rights.\n- 1. Schepens, T. (Dutch) Religieuze bewegingen in Nederland volume 29, Sekten Ontkerkelijking en religieuze vitaliteit: nieuwe religieuze bewegingen en New Age-centra in Nederland (1994) VU uitgeverij ISBN 90-5383-341-2\n- 2. Starks, R & W.S. Bainbridge The future of religion: secularization, revival and cult formation (1985) Berkely/Los Angeles/London: University of California press\n- 3. Barrett, D. V. The New Believers - A survey of sects, cults and alternative religions (2001) UK, Cassell & Co \n- \"Proselytism, Change of Religion, and International Human Rights\", by Natan Lerner, PhD (legal aspects of defining illicit proselytism)\nThe contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "id": "<urn:uuid:917fc847-092c-4ae4-98b5-7dee520d536a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Convert", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9637006521224976, "token_count": 4024, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This advice is suitable for open-grown ornamental trees. Although pruning does make trees slightly smaller than they would be without pruning, attempting to keep a big tree small by pruning is usually unsuccessful. This advice does not apply to restricted tree forms such as fans and espaliers.\nWhen to prune trees\nDeciduous trees (ones that lose their leaves in winter) are usually pruned in autumn and winter. In some cases, for example with magnolias and walnuts, pruning is best done in late summer, as healing is quicker.\nTrees such as Prunus sp, which are prone to silver leaf disease are best pruned from April to July when the disease spores are not on the wind, and the tree sap is rising rather than falling (which pushes out infection rather than drawing it in).\nSome trees can bleed sap if pruned in late winter and early spring. Although seldom fatal, this is unsightly and can weaken the tree. Birches and walnuts often bleed if pruned at the wrong time.\nEvergreens seldom need pruning, although dead and diseased branches can be removed in late summer.\nHow to prune trees\nPrior to undertaking any work, it is essential to ascertain if a Tree Preservation Order (TPO) is in place or if the tree is in a Conservation Area. If either is the case, seek permission from your local council before beginning work. Potentially dangerous limbs can, in theory, be removed without permission but the penalties for breaching the legislations, inadvertently or not, can be severe.\nSafety is of prime importance when working with trees, so make an honest appraisal of your capabilities, assess the area in which any branches may fall and erect warning signs or barricades if necessary before beginning. If in any doubt engage a professionally qualified tree surgeon or aboriculturist.\nTake a step back and decide what needs to be done to produce a balanced, attractive tree. Work with the natural habit of the tree to shorten or remove branches. Going against the tree\u2019s natural habit produces ungainly trees that lack grace.\nAlways start by removing damaged, dead, diseased shoots, followed by weak, lax or rubbing growth.\nHow to remove tree branches and limbs\n- Wear protective gloves and, if necessary, eye and head protection\n- When cutting a stem, cut just above a healthy bud, pair of buds or side shoot. Where possible, cut to an outward facing bud or branch to avoid congestion and rubbing of branches\n- Make your cut 0.5cm (\u00bcin) above the bud. Beware cutting too close, as this can induce death of the bud Beware cutting too far from the bud, as this can result in dieback of the stub and entry of rots and other infections\n- When removing larger limbs, make an undercut first about 20-30cm (8in-1ft) from the trunk, and follow this with an overcut. This will prevent the bark tearing, leaving a clean stub when the branch is severed\n- Then remove the stub, first making a small undercut just outside the branch collar (the slight swelling where the branch joins the trunk), followed by an overcut to meet the undercut, angling the cut away from the trunk to produce a slope that sheds rain\n- Avoid cutting flush to the trunk as the collar is the tree\u2019s natural protective zone where healing takes place\n- There is no need to use wound paints, as they are not thought to contribute to healing or prevent disease. The exception is plums and cherries (Prunus sp), where wound paint may be used to exclude silver leaf disease spores\nIf pruning cuts bleed sap, don\u2019t bandage or bind the cut, as attempts to stem the bleeding are likely to be unsuccessful and may impede rather than aid healing.\nRemove branches of more than 2cm (\u00bdin) in diameter with a sharp pruning saw. Don't make a flush cut - come out just slightly so that it heals naturally.\nSmall branches can easily be removed with secateurs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bb15a30d-8718-43fd-918e-bdb756d005f1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://apps.rhs.org.uk/advicesearch/profile.aspx?PID=233", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.929332971572876, "token_count": 841, "score": 3.390625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Facts in Focus:\n- States considering legislation this year to expand opportunities for young voters: 15 (at least)\n- States considering advance voter registration for young people: 7\n- Number of votes in favor of final passage of state legislation establishing age 16 as a uniform voter registration age, 2006-2009: 979\n- Number of votes opposing such legislation: 158\n- Votes in both houses of the Connecticut legislature opposing a bill allowing primary voting for 17-year-olds: 0\nIn a nutshell\nAs a key element in what is welcome progress toward universal voter registration, a movement is growing within the states to swing the doors of our democracy wide open, encouraging and facilitating the active participation of young people in the electoral process. From education, to access, to advance registration, more and more legislators and public officials are doing their part to invite young people into the process and kick start habits that can last a lifetime.\nWhen it comes to the political participation of young people, we have come to assume a certain ceiling of enthusiasm; a kind of minimum threshold of apathy that is factored into our expectations. Though last year's presidential campaigns directed significant attention to young voters, and despite having a candidate on both major party tickets imbued with youthfulness and pop culture savvy, actual youth turnout saw only a modest bump from 2004; about 1.5 percentage points according to the Center for Information & Research on Civic Learning & Engagement (CIRCLE). Though voters between 18 and 24 were 12.6% of the voting age population, they made up only 9.5% of those who actually voted.\nThe importance of encouraging youth participation in our democracy is difficult to overstate, and it is in our interest to avoid becoming apathetic about apathy. According to a 2003 study by Alan S. Gerber, Donald P. Green and Ron Shachar in the American Journal of Political Science and Mark Franklin's seminal 2004 book on turnout, Voter Turnout and the Dynamics of Electoral Competition in Established Democracies since 1945, there is a great deal of evidence indicating that participation in one's youth is highly predictive of future participation; in other words, voting is best made into an unkickable habit early in life. We are a country that values the long-term health of our democracy. In hoping that as many people as possible for generations to come will keep themselves informed and reliably take part in elections, we need to take active steps to get young people civically educated, registered, and voting.\nAnd while you're reading this, those steps are beginning to take root in all corners of the country, as legislatures in several states have taken up FairVote's package of youth engagement initiatives. 2009 is shaping up to be the best year yet for \"pre-registration\" or \"advance registration\" legislation. At least fifteen states have introduced measures that would set a uniform voter registration age of 16 years old, allow certain 17-year-olds to vote in primary elections and/or encourage civic education in schools.\nMore than a half-dozen states, including Arizona, California, Washington, Rhode Island and Maryland, have introduced advance voter registration bills, with one chamber each in Michigan, Rhode Island and North Carolina recently passing such bills with bipartisan majorities. California has moved the bills out of a key committee. Meanwhile, Members of Congress are drafting federal legislation to boost the idea. National organizations joining our advocacy now include Project Vote, Progressive States, Common Cause, Rock the Vote and the New America Foundation.\nIn just one example of the broad support state pre-registration legislation is receiving, Michigan's pre-registration bill was supported by such entities and associations as the Michigan Campaign Finance Network, the Michigan Association of County Clerks, the Michigan Association of Municipal Clerks and the Council of Election Officials, the Michigan Municipal League, the Michigan Nonprofit Association, the Michigan Townships Association, and Secretary of State Terri Lynn Land (a leading prospective candidate for the Republican gubernatorial nomination).\nBroadening and deepening opportunities for civic participation - both in elections, and in governance overall - is a core part of FairVote's mission. That's why FairVote has advocated for a package of legislation that would encourage young people to become more civically minded, register to vote and participate in the political process.\nHere's a look at some of the measures that we believe will help achieve those goals:\n1) \"Pre-registration\" or \"Advance Registration\" of 16 and 17-year-olds:\nTriggered by our advocacy for universal voter registration starting after the 2000 elections, FairVote supports the establishment of a uniform voter registration age of 16, with registrations becoming active when pre-registered youth reach normal voting age. This is in line with the previously mentioned studies showing that people who begin voting when they are young tend to become lifetime voters. Youth voting is rife with obstacles, including transience and a presumption of apathy by the political establishment. But at 16, most young people are in school and therefore relatively easy to target en masse. Additionally, at 16 most young people apply for driver's licenses and learner's permits, allowing for pre-registration to be incorporated into existing motor-voter procedures. Pre-registration would make the registration process simpler and more systematic for students and administrators and catch more young voters. Pre-registration is already on the books in Florida, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. Quite literally, we can 'get 'em while they're young' - and in institutional settings like school and the DMV.\nThe pre-registration effort is an important step on the path towards universal or automatic voter registration, whereby all citizens of voting age would be eligible to vote without having to specifically register to do so. It brings us a step closer to an environment that favors an \"opt-out\" approach versus \"opt-in,\", as laid out in FairVote director Rob Richie's National Civic Review article in 2007, \"Leave No Voter Behind\" (PDF).\n2) Primary voting for certain 17-year-olds:\nFairVote supports allowing 17-year-olds who will be 18 on or before the general election to vote in the corresponding primary election. Allowing young people in this \"gap\" to vote will jumpstart the process of civic engagement, and encourage them to learn about the issues that will inform their choices in the general election. Some states already allow for such voting, while others are ambiguous in their relevant regulations. Regardless, parties always have the right to do this in their nomination process if handled privately, as in caucuses. In fact, Connecticut voters supported this reform in a 2008 state constitutional amendment by about a 2 to 1 margin. (For more on this, check out FairVote's fact page on 17-year-old primary voting and our report [PDF] on how parties can make their nominating contests more democratic in general.)\n3) Mandatory comprehensive civic education in high school:\nToo many students leave high school with a limited understanding of what civic engagement and participation in our democracy entail. We encourage the use of curricula like our Learning Democracy resources that teach about the workings of democracy and the history of voting rights. Such civic education should ideally entail things like mock voting to demystify the voting process and make it less intimidating for democratic newbies. A civic education curriculum also provides an opportune moment to encourage pre-registration. Learning Democracy, FairVote's comprehensive civic education curriculum, is available at http://www.fairvote.org/learningdemocracy. (Our prototype state-based edition is available at http://www.rhodeislandsuffrage.org.)\nAn Encouraging Electoral Prognosis\nMight we be on the verge of a kind of youth voting legislation renaissance within the states? Fifteen or more states have seen pieces of the above legislative package introduced this year alone, with action ensuing on many of these bills. Below is a listing of some of the activities in various statehouses (which might not be exhaustive - itself a tantalizing fact). Many or most of these bills were introduced, at least in part, per information received from FairVote, and we are very excited to see those efforts begin to blossom. Because the better informed our young people, the simpler it is for them to register as voters, and the more enthusiastic they are to participate, the more likely it is that our democracy will be healthy and robust for decades to come.\nProgress this legislative session:\nArizona: Representative Ed Ableser introduced HB 2384 and HB 2026, respectively allowing for pre-registration of 16-year-olds, and for 17-year-old primary voting.\nCalifornia: Assemblyman Curren Price introduced AB 30, to allow 16-year-olds to pre-register to vote. It has passed the House Elections Committee and the House Appropriations Committee. It may see a floor vote as soon as the first week of June..\nConnecticut: House Bill 6439 implements a recently passed amendment to the State Constitution to allow for 17-year-old primary voting. It has unanimously passed both the House and Senate.\nIllinois: House Bill 2629 by Representative Kathy Ryg would allow for 17-year-old primary voting.\nKansas: House Bill 2256 by Representative Milack Talia would create a uniform pre-registration age of 14-years-old. (FairVote is supportive of the philosophy that underpins this legislation, but would suggest that a 16-year-old pre-registration age would be sufficient.)\nKentucky: Provisions for pre-registration for 16-year-olds and mandatory public education about elections were introduced by Senator Jerry Rhoads, in the form of an amendment to Senate Bill 109.\nMaryland: Senate Bill 671, allowing for pre-registration of 16-year-olds, was introduced by Senator Jamin Raskin. The bill did not get out of committee, although testimony from the Maryland Board of Elections indicated that it would have no fiscal impact.\nMassachusetts: Representative Ellen Story has introduced House Bill 3895, allowing for pre-registration of 16-year-olds. House Bill 1592 by Representative Steve D'Amico would allow for 17-year-old primary voting.\nMichigan: House Bill 4261, by Representatives Lesia Liss and Matt Lori, would allow 16-year-olds to pre-register to vote. It passed the House on May 14th by a 92-18 margin, with majority support from both Republicans and Democrats and a broad coalition from across the spectrum. Senator Cameron Brown has introduced a companion bill, as SB 61. (The bill has some limitations on where registration can take place, and what sort of identification is necessary to register.)\nMinnesota: HF 873 by Representative Paul Marquart and SF 606 by Senator Ann Rest would allow for 17-year-old primary voting.\nNew York: A 5110 by Assemblyman Michael Cusick would amend the state constitution to permit 17-year-old primary voting.\nNorth Carolina: HB 1260, by Representative Angela Bryant and others, is known as the \"Teen Pre-registration and High School Civic Education Act.\" Passed by the House with a 102-14 vote, it. allows for 16-year-olds to pre-register to vote and requires local boards of education to develop plans to educate high school students in voter registration and voting. A majority of both Republicans and Democrats supported the legislation, while it was backed by civic groups that included Democracy North Carolina, FairVote North Carolina. League of Women Voters of North Carolina, NC Center for Voter Education, NC Civic Education Consortium, Common Cause North Carolina, El Pueblo Inc. and the Southern Coalition for Social Justice.\nRhode Island: House Bill 5005 by Representative Edwin Pacheco passed the House on March 10th by a margin of 56-10, while Senate Bill 85 by Senator Rhoda Perry passed the Senate on March 19th by a margin of 32-2. Both bills would allow for the pre-registration of 16-year-olds and saw support from half of the Republican caucuses, in addition to a majority of Democrats.\nWashington: House Joint Resolution 4204 by Representative Zack Hudgins would propose a constitutional amendment to allow 17 year-olds to vote in primaries, while House Bill 1193 By Representative Marko Liias would allow 13-year-olds to pre-register to vote. (As in the case of the Kansas legislation, we believe that a 16-year-old pre-registration age is sufficient.)\nWisconsin: The introduction of FairVote's youth-engagement package is expected, upon passage of the state's budget in June.\nWyoming: House Bill 76 allows for the pre-registration of all voters who will be 18 as of the next general election. This is an advance, and will sometimes allow 16-year-olds to register, depending on the point in the electoral cycle. (A uniform 16-year-old voter registration age would be less confusing, and more practicable.)\n* * * *\nPrevious editions of Innovative Analysis can be found here.\nContact: Paul Fidalgo, communications director: paul(at)fairvote.org, (301) 270-4616\n* * * *\nProject Vote's Erin Ferns blogs at TPM on Pre-registration\nProgressive States Network: Expand Youth Voting\nBrennan Center's resources on modernizing voter registration\nNew America Foundation on Pre-Registration\nRock the Vote Supports CA and RI Pre-registration Bills\nCommon Cause on Voter Registration Reforms\nMichigan House Legislative Analysis of Pre-registration\nFairVote North Carolina Voter Pre-registration and Education Project\nYouth Voter Pre-registration in Rhode Island\nFairVote.blog: Pawlenty Vetoes Automatic Registration Bill\nKatrina vanden Heuvel advocates for universal voter registration in the Nation", "id": "<urn:uuid:4a7e730e-92e9-4254-8a3f-0c095350eed1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://archive.fairvote.org/presidential/index.php?page=27&pressmode=showspecific&showarticle=247", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9476964473724365, "token_count": 2848, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "History of Initiative & Referendum in Arizona\n|Laws \u2022 History|\n|List of measures|\nThe History of Initiative & Referendum in Arizona began when acquired statewide initiative, referendum, and recall rights at the time of statehood in 1912. The first initiative in the state was for women's suffrage. It was a landslide victory, passing by a margin of greater than two to one on Nov. 5, 1912.\nThen, in 1914, Arizona saw of 15 qualified initiatives, which held the record until 2006 when 19 initiatives were passed. Four of the 1914 initiatives passed because of the efforts of organized labor. One prohibited blacklisting of union members; a second established an \"old age and mothers' pension\"; another established a state government contract system, and a fourth limited businesses employment of non-citizens. Lastly, the voters in 1914 passed an initiative that barred the governor and legislature from amending or repealing initiatives.\nIn response, the legislature tried to pass a constitutional amendment that would make it more difficult to pass initiatives. Because this amendment needed the approval of voters, the Arizona Federation of Labor waged a campaign against the measure. The amendment was narrowly defeated in 1916.\n- This chart includes all ballot measures to appear on the Arizona ballot in the year indicated, not just initiated measures. See also Arizona ballot measures.\n|Year||Propositions on ballot||How many were approved?||How many were defeated?|\nArizonans owe many of their reforms to John Kromko. Kromko, like most Arizonans, is not a native; he was born near Erie, Pennsylvania, in 1940 and moved to Tucson in the mid-1960s. He was active in protests against the Vietnam War, and in the 1970s and 1980s he was elected to the lower house of the state legislature several times. By night, he was a computer-programming instructor; by day, he was Arizona\u2019s \"Mr. Initiative.\"\nKromko\u2019s first petition was a referendum drive to stop a Tucson city council ordinance banning topless dancing, arguing for free speech. In 1976 Kromko was among the handful of Arizonans who, in cooperation with the People\u2019s Lobby Western Bloc campaign, succeeded in putting on the state ballot an initiative to phase out nuclear power. The initiative lost at the polls, but Kromko\u2019s leadership on the issue got him elected to his first term in the legislature.\nRepealing the sales tax on food\nOnce elected, Kromko set his sights on abolishing the sales tax on food, a \"regressive\" tax that hits the poor hardest. Unsuccessful in the legislature, Kromko launched a statewide initiative petition and got enough signatures to put food tax repeal on the ballot. The legislature, faced with the initiative, acted to repeal the tax.\nAfter the food tax victory, Kromko turned to voter registration reform. Again the legislature was unresponsive, so he launched an initiative petition. He narrowly missed getting enough signatures in 1980, and he failed to win re-election that year.\nUndaunted, he revived the voter registration campaign and turned to yet another cause: Medicaid funding. Arizona in 1981 was the only state without Medicaid, since the legislature had refused to appropriate money for the state's share of this federal program.\nIn 1982, with an initiative petition drive under way and headed for success, the legislature got the message and established a Medicaid program. Kromko and his allies on this issue, the state\u2019s churches, were satisfied and dropped their petition drive.\nMotor Voter initiative\nThe voter registration initiative, now under the leadership of Les Miller, a Phoenix attorney, and the state Democratic Party, gained ballot placement and voter approval. In the ensuing four years, this \"Motor Voter\" initiative increased by over 10 percent the proportion of Arizona\u2019s eligible population who were registered to vote.\nLate legislative career\nKromko, re-elected to the legislature in 1982, took up his petitions again in 1983 to prevent construction of a freeway in Tucson that would have smashed through several residential neighborhoods. The initiative was merely to make freeway plans subject to voter approval, but Tucson officials, seeing the campaign as the death knell for their freeway plans, blocked its placement on the ballot through various legal technicalities. Kromko and neighborhood activists fighting to save their homes refused to admit defeat. They began a new petition drive in 1984, qualified their measure for the ballot, and won voter approval for it in November 1985.\nArizona\u2019s moneyed interests poured funds into a campaign to unseat Kromko in 1986. Kromko not only survived but also fought back by supporting a statewide initiative to limit campaign contributions, sponsored by his colleague in the legislature, Democratic State Representative Reid Ewing of Tucson. Voters passed the measure by a two to one margin.\nKromko\u2019s initiative exploits have made him the most effective Democratic political figure, besides former governor Bruce Babbitt, in this perennially Republican-dominated state. And Babbitt owes partial credit for one of his biggest successes - enactment of restrictions on the toxic chemical pollution of drinking water - to Kromko. Early in 1986 Kromko helped organize an environmentalist petition drive for an anti-toxic initiative, while Babbitt negotiated with the legislature for passage of a similar bill. When initiative backers had enough signatures to put their measure on the ballot, the legislature bowed to the pressure and passed Babbitt's bill. Even today, Kromko is still active in politics, writing letters to the editor about immigration policies.\nPetition drive problems in 2008\n2008 was a tough year for ballot initiatives in Arizona. Nine citizen initiatives filed signatures to qualify for the November 2008 Arizona ballot by the state's July 3 petition drive deadline. In the end, only six of the initiatives were certified, with three initiatives disqualified as a result of an historically high number of problems with flawed petition signatures. When the November vote was held, of the six that qualified for the ballot, only one was approved.,\nCriticisms of process\nAfter 19 were proposed in 2006, legislators were worried about \"ballot fatigue\" or overuse of the initiative system. This led to legislators considering steps to limit or otherwise exert more control over the initiative process. Ironically, any attempt to alter the initiative and referendum process would require an amendment to the state constitution, and thus in itself be put forth as a referendum.\nThis article is significantly based on an article published by the Initiative & Referendum Institute, and is used with their permission. Their article, in turn, relies on research in David Schmidt's book, Citizen Lawmakers: The Ballot Initiative Revolution.\nAlso portions of this article were taken from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia under the GNU license.\n- \u2191 Arizona Daily Star, \"'Clown' takes some serious initiative\", July 20, 2007\n- \u2191 Arizona Republic, \"'Flawed' election petitions face review\", September 13, 2008\n- \u2191 Phoenix New Times, \"Citizen initiatives have been kicked off the ballot this year in record numbers, and the problems could go much deeper than invalid signatures\", August 21, 2008\n- \u2191 Legislators seeking more control over initiatives, Arizona Republic, Feb. 13, 2007\n- \u2191 History of Arizona's initiative\n- \u2191 Citizen Lawmakers: The Ballot Initiative Revolution Temple University Press, 352 pp., ISBN-10: 0877229031, October 1991\nHistory of I&R\nAlaska \u00b7 Arizona \u00b7 Arkansas \u00b7 California \u00b7 Colorado \u00b7 Florida \u00b7 Idaho \u00b7 Illinois \u00b7 Kentucky \u00b7 Maine \u00b7 Maryland \u00b7 Massachusetts \u00b7 Michigan \u00b7 Mississippi \u00b7 Missouri \u00b7 Montana \u00b7 Nebraska \u00b7 Nevada \u00b7 New Mexico \u00b7 North Dakota \u00b7 Ohio \u00b7 Oklahoma \u00b7 Oregon \u00b7 South Dakota \u00b7 Utah \u00b7 Washington \u00b7 Wyoming\nDirect Legislation by the Citizenship Through the Initiative and Referendum \u00b7 Citizen Lawmakers: The Ballot Initiative Revolution \u00b7 Direct Legislation: Voting on Ballot Propositions in the United States", "id": "<urn:uuid:a244d012-82a0-4c3c-8ce5-37d705085e34>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ballotpedia.org/wiki/index.php/History_of_Initiative_&_Referendum_in_Arizona", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9480283856391907, "token_count": 1630, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Even before the recent flurry of children\u2019s toy recalls, I questioned the effectiveness of the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) when they failed to act on the presence of lead in children\u2019s lunchboxes. The news has only gotten worse, since I wrote about it last February. Almost everyday, I receive a new email from the CPSC listing more toy recalls, mostly for lead content. How can this be? Who is protecting our youngest consumers?\nIn the past two months, there have been millions of toys recalled for dangerous levels of lead content, and other products that contain smaller levels of lead, such as lunchboxes, have not been recalled. In fact, doctors warn that lead levels considered safe by the CPSC still put children at risk. According to WebMD,\nLead poisoning interferes with neural development in children and developing fetuses. High levels of lead in children can cause learning and behavior problems.\nThe CDC considers lead levels in the blood above 10 micrograms of lead per deciliter of blood to be a concern in children. But some studies have shown harmful effects in children with lead levels measured at or near the current standard.\nThe CPSC was created in 1974 to protect consumers from the expanding globalization of products. Since its creation, imports to the US have increased 338 percent, yet the CPSC\u2019s budget is less than half of what it was in 1974! While we buy more overseas products, the US government has been cutting staffing for this agency, limiting its ability to regulate imports and protect consumers. The agency began with 800 employees in the seventies, and now the CPSC has only 420 staff members. Currently, there is a bill written to empower the agency: The Safety Assurance For Every Consumer Product Act (SAFE), yet CPSC chairperson Nancy Nord opposes this bill.\n- Require children\u2019s products to undergo independent third-party testing;\n- Expand civil and criminal penalties;Ban lead in children\u2019s products;\n- Enhance CPSC recall and inspection authority;\n- Expedite recall disclosure to the public; and\n- Provide additional resources to the CPSC.\nWhy would Nancy Nord oppose these changes, especially when the CPSC has only one full-time toy tester? In an interview on PBS, Nord says,\nBut the change that we\u2019ve got to have is change that is going to be constructive, workable, and is going to help the agency do its job. My concerns with the Senate bill is that it includes a number of requirements for undertaking activities that are really outside our core mission.\nFor example, it has us mediating employer and employee disputes in whistleblower cases. It has us implementing or enforcing intellectual property rights violations in some instances. It has us certifying laboratories.\nSo this is nasty stuff, and it appears that the chemical is actually converting into it in the body.\u201d Of course, Aqua Dots was manufactured in China, where most of the recently recalled toys have originated from.\nRepresentative Diana Degette (D-Colorado) co-introduced the SAFE Act to revamp the CPSC. According to Degette,\nYou\u2019ve got more products coming in from overseas. You\u2019ve got a huge spike in recalls, which is very concerning, because, of course, only a fraction of those people who bought the products will return them. And you have the head of the agency saying, \u201cOh, well, this is no big deal, and we don\u2019t want the money.\u201d\nOver two-thirds of the recent recalls involve products from China, and the problem of dangerous toys is growing. With the holiday season approaching, many parents are very concerned. The Toy Industry Association has launched a new site to inform parents about toy safety. Of course, this site is designed to assure parents that the toy industry is using rigorous standards of toy safety, and there is a lot of useful information on the site; however, you do have to consider the source. For example, the Toy Industry Association answers the question, \u201cShould I avoid toys made in China?\u201d by stating:\nAll toys sold in America regardless of where they are made must conform to tough U.S. safety standards \u2013 standards that have served as models for other industries and countries around the world.\nSince it is companies, not countries, that make toys, it is companies that are responsible for adhering to rigorous safety standards and conducting inspections throughout the process. Random on-site and off-site testing occurs in all manufacturing plants, in China and elsewhere. Toys are also randomly inspected before export to the US.\nIn light of the recent recalls, there has been additional testing and vigilance by toy manufacturers, retailers and importers.\nSomehow, these assurances don\u2019t make me feel better in light of recent events. I will stick to researching reputable companies, such as Plan Toys, and homemade gifts for my children. I will continue my efforts to educate my children and family on junk toys and hope that one day, we can once again shop safely for children\u2019s toys.\nCPSC chart source: Campaign for America\u2019s Future", "id": "<urn:uuid:c13be0bc-6ef3-47f7-89f1-dfa91cdbd76e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ecochildsplay.com/2007/11/12/is-the-consumer-product-safety-commission-doing-their-job/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.964796245098114, "token_count": 1068, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Session E: Libraries in the Digital Age\nArja-Riitta Haarala: The Role of Libraries in Information Management in Finnish University Setting\nLibraries have for some time been in a turbulent state. The information milieu is changing as a result of new technology: information media are in a state of rapid change; the need for increased computing power continues to increase; the use of information is changing; and our masters demand more effectiveness and better results. Old ways of doing things are now less effective. Even the concept of service quality has evolved. Users request new types of services, new ways of producing them, and new methods of delivery. Libraries in Finland have been active in introducing new information services and have a strong tradition of piloting computer-based services. In early 70\u00b4s online database searching were introduced among the first ones in Europe. The first experimental packet-switched Nordic telecommunication network SCANNET was implemented in Nordic technical libraries in 70\u00b4s, and it included first Nordic electronic journal Extemplo. Libraries were also among first ones in universities to accommodate microcomputers for public use in early 80\u00b4s.\nAccording to the outlines mentioned earlier universities have been developed strategies at the local level. Most common are information technology strategies in which libraries are only shortly mentioned, and with a strong emphasis on information technologies. Libraries tend to develop their own strategies. The Helsinki University Libraries Assessment Panel writes in their report \"The University already has a Strategy for Information Management. The Panel believes that this may need to be updated and revised in the light of its recommendations as they affect the goals, objectives, budgets and staff of the Libraries, in compliance with the University of Helsinki policy research and education.\" Furthermore they make a recommendation that the University should appoint a Director of Academic Information and Learning Resources.\nThere are also information strategies where all key players at the local level are taken into account. Recent strategy by the University of Kuopio is a comprehensive one integrating Computing Centre, Kuopio University Printing Office, Learning centre, Library and Photographic Laboratory under the same umbrella as a profit centre. Similar type of strategies are developed in the University of Lapland and Lappeenranta University of Technology. Libraries have also actively entered in publishing business. Quite often they are responsible for university publishing operations, especially so nowadays due to digital publishing.\nCo-operation has considered as important by libraries. Therefore regular national annual meetings have been organised with directors of IT and computing centres together with directors of university libraries for some time. Furthermore at the local level IT steering committees or advisory committees for information management have been introduced at universities.\nIt is necessary to consider the evolutionary stage of present library, computer and information services as well as other players in the field. Are they yet at a sufficiently mature stage for new systems to be designed with confidence, or is there still a great deal of dynamism, so that different design criteria must be incorporated to deal with the continuing evolution? Consequently, most organisations have started to look at new ways of working. Co-operation and collaboration have been found productive and useful, with organisations entering into new type of alliances. Libraries and computing centres have developed closer relationships in the UK and USA, although less so in other countries. The first alliance of this type in Finland is at Tampere University of Technology, where the Computing Centre as a independent institute was terminated.\nCo-operation has always been a strong feature in Finnish university libraries, and not less today. A major work has been carried out in selecting and at the moment implementing a new library system Voyager. This is a second system consecutively in university libraries, and co-operation has proven its advantages and benefits.\nAnother success story is FinELib, Finnish Electronic Library that acquires electronic material for university libraries. The Finnish universities form the core of the FinElib consortium, and it started already in 1997. It is financed by the Ministry of Education (18 mill. Finnish marks) and the rest comes from the licence fees of university libraries. Finnish Electronic Library works in close co-operation with other national development programmes. Common concerns include electronic publishing, long-term storage of electronic material, copyright and other topical issues. International projects in the field of electronic libraries are being followed closely.\nVirtual university collaboration and the development of digital learning environments is the next extensive area to be considered. The work has already begun under the project of Finnish Virtual University.\n\u00a9 This publication and its compilation in form and content is copyrighted. Every realization which is not explicitly allowed by copyright law requires a written agreement. Especially, this holds for reprography and processing / storing by electronic systems.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2d7512bc-89a5-409b-ae95-f2d5b5fce038>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/conferences/eunis2001/e/Haarala/HTML/haarala-ch2.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9495190978050232, "token_count": 939, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "General Chemistry/Periodicity and Electron Configurations\nBlocks of the Periodic Table \nThe Periodic Table does more than just list the elements. The word periodic means that in each row, or period, there is a pattern of characteristics in the elements. This is because the elements are listed in part by their electron configuration. The Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals have one and two valence electrons (electrons in the outer shell) respectively. These elements lose electrons to form bonds easily, and are thus very reactive. These elements are the s-block of the periodic table. The p-block, on the right, contains common non-metals such as chlorine and helium. The noble gases, in the column on the right, almost never react, since they have eight valence electrons, which makes it very stable. The halogens, directly to the left of the noble gases, readily gain electrons and react with metals. The s and p blocks make up the main-group elements, also known as representative elements. The d-block, which is the largest, consists of transition metals such as copper, iron, and gold. The f-block, on the bottom, contains rarer metals including uranium. Elements in the same Group or Family have the same configuration of valence electrons, making them behave in chemically similar ways.\nCauses for Trends \nThere are certain phenomena that cause the periodic trends to occur. You must understand them before learning the trends.\nEffective Nuclear Charge \nThe effective nuclear charge is the amount of positive charge acting on an electron. It is the number of protons in the nucleus minus the number of electrons in between the nucleus and the electron in question. Basically, the nucleus attracts an electron, but other electrons in lower shells repel it (opposites attract, likes repel).\nShielding Effect \nThe shielding (or screening) effect is similar to effective nuclear charge. The core electrons repel the valence electrons to some degree. The more electron shells there are (a new shell for each row in the periodic table), the greater the shielding effect is. Essentially, the core electrons shield the valence electrons from the positive charge of the nucleus.\nElectron-Electron Repulsions \nWhen two electrons are in the same shell, they will repel each other slightly. This effect is mostly canceled out due to the strong attraction to the nucleus, but it does cause electrons in the same shell to spread out a little bit. Lower shells experience this effect more because they are smaller and allow the electrons to interact more.\nCoulomb's Law \nCoulomb's law is an equation that determines the amount of force with which two charged particles attract or repel each other. It is , where is the amount of charge (+1e for protons, -1e for electrons), is the distance between them, and is a constant. You can see that doubling the distance would quarter the force. Also, a large number of protons would attract an electron with much more force than just a few protons would.\nTrends in the Periodic table \nMost of the elements occur naturally on Earth. However, all elements beyond uranium (number 92) are called trans-uranium elements and never occur outside of a laboratory. Most of the elements occur as solids or gases at STP. STP is standard temperature and pressure, which is 0\u00b0 C and 1 atmosphere of pressure. There are only two elements that occur as liquids at STP: mercury (Hg) and bromine (Br).\nBismuth (Bi) is the last stable element on the chart. All elements after bismuth are radioactive and decay into more stable elements. Some elements before bismuth are radioactive, however.\nAtomic Radius \nLeaving out the noble gases, atomic radii are larger on the left side of the periodic chart and are progressively smaller as you move to the right across the period. Conversely, as you move down the group, radii increase.\nAtomic radii decrease along a period due to greater effective nuclear charge. Atomic radii increase down a group due to the shielding effect of the additional core electrons, and the presence of another electron shell.\nIonic Radius \nFor nonmetals, ions are bigger than atoms, as the ions have extra electrons. For metals, it is the opposite.\nExtra electrons (negative ions, called anions) cause additional electron-electron repulsions, making them spread out farther. Fewer electrons (positive ions, called cations) cause fewer repulsions, allowing them to be closer.\n|Ionization energy is the energy required to strip an electron from the atom (when in the gas state).\nIonization energy is also a periodic trend within the periodic table organization. Moving left to right within a period or upward within a group, the first ionization energy generally increases. As the atomic radius decreases, it becomes harder to remove an electron that is closer to a more positively charged nucleus.\nIonization energy decreases going left across a period because there is a lower effective nuclear charge keeping the electrons attracted to the nucleus, so less energy is needed to pull one out. It decreases going down a group due to the shielding effect. Remember Coulomb's Law: as the distance between the nucleus and electrons increases, the force decreases at a quadratic rate.\nIt is considered a measure of the tendency of an atom or ion to surrender an electron, or the strength of the electron binding; the greater the ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove an electron. The ionization energy may be an indicator of the reactivity of an element. Elements with a low ionization energy tend to be reducing agents and form cations, which in turn combine with anions to form salts.\nElectron Affinity \n|Electron affinity is the opposite of ionization energy. It is the energy released when an electron is added to an atom.\nElectron affinity is highest in the upper left, lowest on the bottom right. However, electron affinity is actually negative for the noble gasses. They already have a complete valence shell, so there is no room in their orbitals for another electron. Adding an electron would require creating a whole new shell, which takes energy instead of releasing it. Several other elements have extremely low electron affinities because they are already in a stable configuration, and adding an electron would decrease stability.\nElectron affinity occurs due to the same reasons as ionization energy.\nElectronegativity is how much an atom attracts electrons within a bond. It is measured on a scale with fluorine at 4.0 and francium at 0.7. Electronegativity decreases from upper right to lower left.\nElectronegativity decreases because of atomic radius, shielding effect, and effective nuclear charge in the same manner that ionization energy decreases.\nMetallic Character \nMetallic elements are shiny, usually gray or silver colored, and good conductors of heat and electricity. They are malleable (can be hammered into thin sheets), and ductile (can be stretched into wires). Some metals, like sodium, are soft and can be cut with a knife. Others, like iron, are very hard. Non-metallic atoms are dull, usually colorful or colorless, and poor conductors. They are brittle when solid, and many are gases at STP. Metals give away their valence electrons when bonding, whereas non-metals take electrons.\nThe metals are towards the left and center of the periodic table\u2014in the s-block, d-block, and f-block . Poor metals and metalloids (somewhat metal, somewhat non-metal) are in the lower left of the p-block. Non-metals are on the right of the table.\nMetallic character increases from right to left and top to bottom. Non-metallic character is just the opposite. This is because of the other trends: ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7ab562e2-c61b-4988-9c51-24c5b3cb1d20>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/General_Chemistry/Periodicity_and_Electron_Configurations", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9174867272377014, "token_count": 1666, "score": 4.4375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Look up gable in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|\nA gable is the generally triangular portion of a wall between the edges of a sloping roof. The shape of the gable and how it is detailed depends on the structural system being used (which is often related to climate and availability of materials) and aesthetic concerns. Thus the type of roof enclosing the volume dictates the shape of the gable. A gable wall or gable end more commonly refers to the entire wall, including the gable and the wall below it.\nA variation of the gable is a crow-stepped gable, which has a stair-step design to accomplish the sloping portion. Crow-stepped gables were used in Scotland and England as early as the seventeenth century. Examples of the crow-stepped gable can be seen at Muchalls Castle and Monboddo House, both 17th century Scottish buildings. Other early examples are found in parts of Denmark and Sweden.\nGable ends of more recent buildings are often treated in the same way as the Classic pediment form. But unlike Classical structures, which operate through trabeation, the gable ends of many buildings are actually bearing-wall structures. Thus, the detailing tends to be ambiguous, misleading, and to some architects \"deceitful\".[why?] See: John Ruskin and The Seven Lamps of Architecture.\nGable end roofs are among the worst roof designs for hurricane regions. Not only do gable roofs easily peel off in hurricane winds, but according to one hurricane survival guide book, a gable end \"catches wind like a sail.\"[this quote needs a citation] When wind flows over a gable roof it behaves much like a wing. Lift is created on the leeward side of the roof. The flatter the roof the more likely this will happen. Steep roofs tend to cause the wind to \"stall\" as it goes over the roof and breaks up the effect. The addition of a \"vertical fin\" to low pitched roofs will also help.\nSee also \n- Bell-gable \u2013 Espada\u00f1a\n- Crow-stepped gable\n- Dutch gable\n- Gablet roof\n- Hip roof\n- Cape Dutch architecture\n- Roof damage by hurricane force winds in Bermuda The Fabian Experience, September 2003, page 5, Mark Rowe, Department of Environmental Protection, Government of Bermuda\n|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Gables|", "id": "<urn:uuid:dd294bd2-c4c3-4825-a611-3952cd2314ed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gable", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9473188519477844, "token_count": 512, "score": 3.484375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cori spezzati (kor' ee spetz ah' tee), Italian for \"separated choirs,\" is the term used to describe a musical composition that uses spatial effects to emphasize the interplay between its various voices. Typically, this means placing two or more choirs or groups of instruments in various places around a performance space. Music that is intended to be performed cori spezatti is by nature antiphonal; in fact, some consider these two terms to be synonymous, at least when they refer to instrumental music.\nCori spezzati isn't a particularly common form of music, and for obvious reasons. In order for it to work out right, it must be performed in a specific type of space; namely, one which is both big enough to accomodate the separation of the instrumental/vocal groups and acoustically suited to the kind of call and answer phrasing that characterizes antiphonal music. (If the space is too echoey, the interplay among the groups just becomes muddled. If it's just moderately echoey, though, it sounds great.) And even in concert halls which meet these specifications, there's a certain awkwardness to the idea of putting half the ensemble onstage and sending the rest up to the balcony or (as I have seen done) forsaking the stage altogether and having half the group stand in the left-hand balcony and the other half in the right-hand one.\nThe type of performance space which is most obviously suited to cori spezzati is the cathedral; in churches, the problem of the stage is eliminated, and there are generally balconies and nooks and crannies galore in Renaissance-style basilicas. Unsurprisingly, a Renaissance basilica was the formal birthplace of cori spezzati: in the late 1500's, Giovanni Gabrieli, the music director, organist, and composer-in-residence at St. Mark's Basilica in Venice, began experimenting with the idea of separating his choirs and putting them in different places around the church. Gabrieli is considered to be the father of cori spezzati, and probably the only composer to write a serious volume of work in this style. He wrote both choral and instrumental pieces (mostly sacred, because of the nature of his job), some of which are still performed today and shouldn't be too hard to find recordings of. (I, unfortunately, do not own recordings of any of Gabrieli's music, although I heard his Sonata Octavi Toni for two brass choirs performed live, and it was gorgeous. I recommend it highly if you happen to like Renaissance/Baroque music.)\nThis writeup was made possible by a little bit of help from www.naxos.com/composer/gabrieli.htm, and Virginia Tech's Online Music Dictionary, found at www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary", "id": "<urn:uuid:0f78d82f-b865-4b55-ace2-dd4fb2425460>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://everything2.com/user/lesterjane/writeups/cori+spezzati", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9677411317825317, "token_count": 606, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The mountains and valleys of New Hampshire are rich with mineral formations. From the southwest corner of the state near Keene to the northern Canadian border near Littleton there are fascinating deposits of a variety of minerals.\nOne of these deposits is known as the Littleton Formation which was formed during the Devonian era approximately 300,000,000 years ago. The mining of these mineral deposits has been an important part of New Hampshire history from prehistoric eras to the present.\nThe Ruggles Mine, in Grafton N.H., is part of the Littleton Formation and has a rich mining and geological history. It is the oldest and largest mine of its kind in the United States. Minerals such as Mica, Feldspar, Beryl, and Uranium were mined at Ruggles for 175 years.", "id": "<urn:uuid:331006c5-b1df-41e2-b5b8-e9fd5f32c31a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://fosters.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/99999999/BESTREAD/70508031/0/FOSMEDIA06", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9791533946990967, "token_count": 165, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Most people still think of Web sites such as Google as places to go. Wrong. That's the old media model. In reality, every click is a command for some computer somewhere in the world. (...) Indeed, CEO Eric Schmidt says that Google essentially is a huge, distributed supercomputer \"doing all sorts of things over a fiber-optic network that eventually are services available to end-users.\" Before long, Googling will mean not just searching for something, but getting ALMOST anything done online.\nThe New York Times estimated last year that the Googleplex and its server farms contain 450,000 servers. \"The rate at which the Google computing system has grown is as remarkable as its size. In March 2001, when the company was serving about 70 million Web pages daily, it had 8,000 computers, according to a Microsoft researcher granted anonymity to talk about a detailed tour he was given at one of Google's Silicon Valley computing centers. By 2003 the number had grown to 100,000.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:6d0fc7ed-1e2e-42ce-97d8-cae14228fa3a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://googlesystem.blogspot.com/2007/04/google-supercomputer.html?showComment=1176067380000", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9720285534858704, "token_count": 204, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Version 5 (modified by simonmar, 3 years ago)|\nThe Garbage Collector\nGC algorithms supported:\n- Copying GC\n- Parallel GC?\n- Marking? (for compaction or sweeping)\n- Sweeping? (for mark-region GC)\nThe GC is designed to be flexible, supporting lots of ways to tune its behaviour. Here's an overview of the techniques we use:\n- Generational GC, with a runtime-selectable number of generations (+RTS -G<n> -RTS, where n >= 1). Currently it is a traditional generational collector where each collection collects a particular generation and all younger generations. Generalizing this such that any subset of generations can be collected is a possible future extension.\n- The heap grows on demand. This is straightforwardly implemented by basing the whole storage manager on a block allocator.\n- Aging: objects can be aged within a generation, to avoid premature promotion. See Commentary/Rts/Storage/GC/Aging.\n- The heap collection policy is runtime-tunable. You select how large a generation gets before it is collected using the +RTS -F<n> -RTS option, where <n> is a factor of the generation's size the last time it was collected. The default value is 2, that is a generation is allowed to double in size before being collected.\nGC data structures\nThe main data structure is generation, which contains:\n- a pointer to a list of blocks\n- a pointer to a list of blocks containing large objects\n- a list of threads in this generation\n- the \"remembered set\", a list of blocks containing pointers to objects in this generation that point to objects in younger generations\nand various other administrative fields (see includes/rts/storage/GC.h for the details).\nGenerations are kept in the array generations, indexed by the generation number.\nA nursery is a list of blocks into which the mutator allocates new (small) objects. For resaons of locality, we want to re-use the list of blocks for the nursery after each GC, so we keep the nursery blocks rather than freeing and re-allocating a new nursery after GC.\nThe struct nursery contains only two fields\n- the list of blocks in this nursery\n- the number of blocks in the above list\nIn the threaded RTS, there is one nursery per Capability, as each Capability allocates independently into its own allocation area. Nurseries are therefore stored in an array nurseries, indexed by Capability number.\nThe blocks of the nursery notionally logically to generation 0, although they are not kept on the list generations.blocks. The reason is that we want to keep the actual nursery blocks separate from any blocks containing live data in generation 0. Generation 0 may contain live data for two reasons:\n- objects live in the nursery are not promoted to generation 1 immediately, instead they are aged, first being copied to generation 0, and then being promoted to generation 1 in the next GC cycle if they are still alive.\n- If there is only one generation (generation 0), then live objects in generation 0 are retained in generation 0 after a GC.", "id": "<urn:uuid:33a5f7fa-0ccf-4ab3-bb64-d5642ce42372>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hackage.haskell.org/trac/ghc/wiki/Commentary/Rts/Storage/GC?version=5", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9130827784538269, "token_count": 665, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Join for Just $16 A Year\n- Discounts on travel and everyday savings\n- Subscription to AARP The Magazine\n- Free membership for your spouse or partner\nVulvovaginitis, vulvitis, and vaginitis are general terms that refer to the inflammation of the vagina and/or vulva (the external genital organs of a woman).These conditions can be caused by bacterial, fungal, or parasitic infections. Also, vulvovaginitis can be caused by low estrogen levels (called \"atrophic vaginitis\") or any type of allergic or irritation response from things such as spermicidal products, condoms, soaps, and bubble bath.\nIn general, vulvovaginitis causes vaginal discharge, irritation, and itching. One of the most common reasons why women visit their doctor is because of a change in vaginal discharge. It is completely normal for a woman to have a vaginal discharge, the amount and consistency of which varies during the course of the menstrual cycle. Each of the three most common types of vulvovaginitis will be described separately.\nBacterial vaginosis is the most common cause of vaginitis during the childbearing years. Forty percent to 50% of vaginitis cases are caused by bacterial vaginosis. The occurrence of bacterial vaginosis is difficult to determine but studies have proposed that 10% to 41% of\nBacterial vaginosis is not caused by a particular organism but is a change in the balance of normal vaginal bacteria. Ninety percent of the bacteria found in a healthy vagina belong to the Lactobacillus family. For unknown reasons, there is a shift in the bacterial population that results in overgrowth of other bacteria. Patients suffering from bacterial vaginosis have very high numbers of bacteria such as Gardnerella vaginalis, Mycoplasmahominis, Bacteroides species, and Mobiluncus species. These bacteria can be found at numbers 100 to 1000 times greater than found in the healthy vagina. In contrast, Lactobacillus bacteria are in very low numbers or completely absent from the vagina of women with bacterial vaginosis.\nAuthor Info: Belinda Rowland PhD, The Gale Group Inc., Gale, Detroit, Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine, 2002This feature is for informational purposes only and should not be used to replace the care and information received from your healthcare provider. Please consult a healthcare professional with any health concerns you may have.\nEnter your symptoms in our Symptom Checker to find out possible causes of your symptoms. Go.\nEnter any list of prescription drugs and see how they interact with each other and with other substances. Go.\nEnter its color and shape information, and this tool helps you identify it. Go.\nFind information on drug interactions, side effects, and more. Go.\nMember access to health and insurance products and services at AARPhealthcare.com.\nMembers can get an instant quote with AARP\u00ae Dental Insurance administered by Delta Dental Insurance Company.\nMembers can save on eyewear with AARP\u00ae Vision Discounts provided by EyeMed.\nCaregiving can be a lonely journey, but AARP offers resources that can help.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2cef807c-5322-4add-87ab-91b0cb1221ab>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://healthtools.aarp.org/galecontent/vulvovaginitis", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9250987768173218, "token_count": 657, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Steel is one of the world\u2019s most important engineering and construction materials, and increasingly a material of choice in commercial and residential applications.\nAlthough no one is certain when it was first used, a British inventor named Henry Bessemer is credited with creating the first technique by which steel\ncould be mass-produced. Today, the metal is produced by adding a small amount of carbon to iron ore, and removing impurities, such as sulfur and phosphorous. Small amounts of alloying metals, such as nickel, manganese, chromium and vanadium may also be added.\nFacts About Steel\n- There are currently more than 3,500 different grades, most of which have been developed within the last few decades. The Eiffel Tower, if it were built using modern varieties of steel, would require only one-third as much steel as was used in 1889 when it was constructed.\n- The recent economic boom in China and India has caused a massive increase in it\u2019s demand.\n- China is the world\u2019s top producer, followed by Japan, Russia, and the United States, respectively.\nThe physical properties of steel offer significant advantages over concrete, wood, and other building materials. Here are some of these advantages:\n- It is highly recyclable. In the United States, more steel is recycled than plastic, glass and aluminum combined, making it the most recycled material nationally. The reason for this is threefold: first, by virtue of its magnetic properties, steel can be easily separated from the waste stream. Second, recycling saves the steel industry an enormous amount of energy \u2014 enough to power 18 million homes for one year, according to the Steel Recycling Institute. Third, recycled steel loses none of its properties, making the recycling process simple and efficient.\n- It\u2019s use saves trees. A typical 2,000-square-foot house, which requires 26,700 board feet to build, would require the use of 102 trees, according to the the Idaho Forest Products Commission.\n- More windows can be integrated in structures of steel construction, due to elevated mechanical properties of the metal. Windows reduce energy consumption and increase the comfort of building occupants.\n- Steel has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any comparable construction material, making it among the most durable.\n- Steel conforms to any aesthetic. The availability of finishes, facades and other wall claddings allows builders to craft steel structures in any fashion.\n- There is an unlimited production capacity. Steel\u2019s main ingredient \u2013 iron \u2013 is one of the most common metals in the earth\u2019s crust. The United States\u2019 structural steel industry has the capacity to produce 6 million tons of structural steel per year, which is comfortably more than what will be needed in the foreseeable future.\n- Steel is economical due to its enhanced quality and reduced costs owing to off-site fabrication and rapid construction.\n- Steel is non-combustible, which allows for lower insurance costs.\nSteel in Residential Construction\nSteel has long been a staple in commercial construction, but the material has seen recent use in residences, as well. Increasing lumber prices and a need to conserve timber products, as well as design elements such as resistance to termites, are fueling the transition to steel in the residential construction market. In addition, steel offers excellent earthquake, fire- and wind-resistance. Steel ceiling joists can span greater distances than wooden ones, allowing for a broader range of design possibilities for builders and architects. A disadvantage, however, is that steel readily conducts heat and cold, which may degrade a home\u2019s energy efficiency. Contractors can mitigate this potential by wrapping steel framing in insulation board, as well as by placing insulation batts between the studs. Also, noise due to thermal expansion and contraction, as well as that produced by heavy rain, may cause irritation for occupants. Steel is often used in houses in the following applications:\n- rebar within concrete foundations;\n- floor joists, floor bearers and columns used to raise houses off the ground;\n- wall framing; and\n- battens, trusses and roof sheeting.\nFYI, steel is an excellent building material for residences as well as commercial buildings.\nIf you are really interested in building with steel, framing with steel has obvious advantages over wood. Yet building with steel requires skills that can present challenges to the wood-frame builder or framer.\nThe following book explains the secrets of steel framing techniques for building homes \u2014 whether pre-engineered or built by stick framing. It shows, in step-by-step instructions how to build with steel. It shows you the techniques, tools and materials \u2014 even how to estimate steel-framing costs.\nYou\u2019ll find instructions for designing for steel, tools and fasteners you\u2019ll need, foundations and anchoring, installing floor joists, standing walls, rafters and rood trusses, specialty framing, stick framing and panelization, thermal considerations, nonbearing walls, attaching exterior finished, working with subcontractors, what to expect during inspections and more.\nIncludes access to a FREE download with manhours, material, and labor prices, and an estimating program for estimating steel framing costs, along with steel framing details.", "id": "<urn:uuid:016aeff8-bc9f-4ac9-a5ff-67fb6ba82b25>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://homeinspectionfyi.com/category/building-materials-2/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9510378837585449, "token_count": 1085, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "You just heard you have a math test on Friday \u2014 the same day as your big history test and weekly quiz on Spanish verbs. Are they crazy? How will you get all your studying done?\nDon't panic. There are some secrets to good studying. These 5 study tips can help you take tests with confidence.\n1. Start Studying in School\nStudying for tests and quizzes actually starts way before you even know you'll have a test. Good study techniques begin in the classroom as you take notes. Note-taking is a way of remembering what you were taught or what you've read about.\nSome keys to note-taking are to write down facts that a teacher mentions or writes on the board during class. If you miss something, ask your teacher to go over the facts with you after class.\nKeep your notes organized by subject and making sure they're easy to read and review. This may mean that you need to recopy some notes at home or during a free period while the class is still fresh in your mind.\nUnfortunately, most schools don't have classes that teach you how to take notes. When it comes to taking good notes, it can take some experimenting to figure out what works, so don't give up.\nWhen you sit down to study, think about how much time you want to devote to each topic. This will keep you from getting overwhelmed.\nIf it's Monday, and you've got three tests on Friday, figure out how much time you need for studying between now and then. Then figure out how long each subject will take. For example, a weekly Spanish verb test probably won't be as intense as a big history test. So you won't need to set aside as much study time for the Spanish test \u2014 and if you break it up into a short amount every night, that's even better.\nAnother study technique is called \"chunking\" \u2014 breaking large topics down into chunks. Let's say you have a history test on World War II. Instead of thinking about studying all of World War II (which could overwhelm even an expert), try breaking your study sessions into 2-year chunks or studying the material by specific battles.\nMost people can concentrate well for about 45 minutes. After that you'll probably want to take a short break. If you find yourself getting distracted and thinking about other things as you study, pull your attention back. Remind yourself that when your 45 minutes of studying are up, you can take a 15-minute break.\nMany teachers tell students ahead of time what the format of an exam will be. This can help you tailor how you study. For example, if you know you're going to have multiple-choice questions on World War II, you'll know to focus on studying facts and details. But if the exam will contain essay questions, you'll want to think about which topics are most likely to be covered. Then come up with several possible essay topics and use your notes, books, and other reference sources to figure out how you might answer questions on those topics.\nAs you study, review your notes and any special information from your textbook. Read things over several times if you need to, and write down any phrases or thoughts that will help you remember main ideas or concepts.\nWhen trying to memorize dates, names, or other factual information, keep in mind that it usually takes a number of tries to remember something correctly. That's one reason why it's a good idea to start studying well in advance of a test. Use special memory triggers that the teacher may have suggested or ones that you invent yourself.\nIn the case of math or science problems or equations, do some practice problems. Pay special attention to anything the teacher seemed to stress in class. (This is where good note-taking comes in handy!)\nSome people find it helps to teach what they're studying aloud to an imaginary student. Or work with a study partner and take turns teaching aloud. Another study technique is making flashcards that summarize some of the important facts or concepts. You can then use these to review for a test.\nIt's tempting to put off studying until the last minute (also known as procrastination). Unfortunately, by the time students get to high school there's so much going on that there's usually no room for procrastination.\nIf you're a procrastinator (and who isn't sometimes?), one of the best ways to overcome it is by staying organized. After you've written test dates and project due dates on a calendar, it's hard to ignore them. And sitting down to organize and plan your work really highlights how much time things take. Organization makes it harder to procrastinate.\nSometimes people put off studying because they feel overwhelmed by the fact that they're behind on things or they just feel really disorganized. Don't let this happen to you. Keep your notes organized, stay on top of required readings, and follow the other study tips mentioned earlier to stay focused and in control. Your teachers will give you plenty of notice on important tests so you have enough time to study for the type of exam you'll be taking.\nBut what if you're feeling overwhelmed by all the stuff you have to do? Are classes or extracurricular activities limiting your time to study properly? Ask your teachers for help prioritizing. You may need to involve the people in charge of your activities \u2014 such as your coach or music or drama teacher \u2014 in working out a solution.\nDon't wait until the last minute to talk to your teachers, though, or you'll just look like a procrastinator! And don't be afraid to ask for help. Teachers respect students who are thoughtful and interested in learning and doing well.\nSometimes it can be useful to go over things with people who are studying for the same test: You can make sure that your notes are correct and that you understand the subject. Study groups are also helpful because you can work together to come up with ways to remember concepts and then test one another.\nFor some people who are easily distracted, though, study groups spell disaster because they get off the topic. When you're with a bunch of friends or classmates, you may spend more time hanging out than actually studying. One way to ensure quiet and focus when studying with a group is to study in the library. You'll be forced to keep things more low-key than if you're at someone's kitchen table.\nIn the end, it comes down to what works best for you. If you like to study alone and feel most confident doing it that way, that's great. If you think you'd like to work in a group, try it out \u2014 just be aware of the drawbacks.\nWhen you've finished studying, you should feel like you can approach the test or quiz with confidence \u2014 not necessarily that you will get 100% of the answers correct, but that you have a good understanding of the information.\nMost of all, don't panic if you can't remember some facts the night before the test. Even if you've spent all evening studying, the brain needs time to digest all that information. You'll be surprised by what comes back to you after sleeping.", "id": "<urn:uuid:66dd4e82-3724-4561-9465-ca33e9723a6d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=American_Academy_of_Family_Physicians&lic=44&cat_id=20597&article_set=20447&ps=204", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9694734215736389, "token_count": 1464, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry\nInductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP) is a powerful technique of chemical characterization capable of simultaneously measuring up to 50 different trace elements, sometimes at concentrations as low as several parts per billion. The ICP-MS functions by passing small amounts of material into a plasma, a super-heated gas, which ionizes the sample material. The plasma itself operates at around 8000 degrees C, a temperature greater than the surface of the sun. This ionized sample is then sent through a series of powerful magnets called a mass spectrometer, which separates sample ions on the basis of their mass/charge ratio. These ions are then measured by a detector to establish sample composition.\nSample can be introduced into the ICP-MS either as a vaporized solid, or as a liquid. One such method is Laser Ablation, in which a pulsed laser is used to remove small amounts of sample material, which is then swept into the plasma via a Helium carrier gas. Alternatively, samples can be dissolved in solution and sent into the plasma in liquid form. Depending on sample composition, this may involve dissolving the sample in strong acids, assited by high heat and pressure produced by bombarding the sample with microwaves. Our Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) Laboratory operates around a high sensitivity Varian quadrupole ICP-MS and a New Wave UP213 laser ablation system for solid sample introduction. Additionally, the ICP-MS laboratory houses a Milestone microwave digestion system for sample dissolution and liquid sample introduction.\nThe EAF ICP-MS laboratory. The Varian ICP-MS is connected to our adaptable chamber UP266 laser ablation system, with a ceramic vessel from the north coast of Papua New Guinea positioned for analysis.\nLaser Ablation is particularly valuable due to its ability to target specific components of samples. For ceramics, it is possible to target paste, paints, temper, slips, and glazes separately. In one study performed by museum scientists, the glazes on Chinese Blue and White porcelains and Celadon wares were analyzed chemically by LA-ICP-MS. This study demonstrated that the majority of such ceramics found at archaeological sites in western India and eastern Africa were produced by Chinese kilns, and were not imitation wares produced at Middle Eastern or southeast Asian kilns. Other projects have studied production and exchange of ceramics from Belgian Neolithic sites, proto-historical and historical archaeological sites in the Phillippines, Chinese Neolithic sites, ceramics on the northern coast of Papua New Guinea, and archaeological ceramics from throughout the central Andes. Likewise, LA-ICP-MS can be used to analyze metal and corrosion products separately on metal artifacts, eliminating problems that have plagued bulk characterization studies of archaeological metals. LA-ICP-MS is also highly useful for rapidly characterzing obsidian and artificial glasses. The EAF has large ongoing projects applying LA-ICP-MS to characterize glass beads traded in the Indian Ocean, and obsidian from archaeological sites in the western Pacific, Andes, and Belize.\nThe EAF also houses a modified adaptable chamber New Wave UP266 laser ablation system developed in collaboration with Dr. Richard Cox at the University of Quebec at Chicoutimi, Canada. This adaptable chamber laser ablation system is the first of its kind applied in a museum setting, having only been employed in experimental industrial systems previously. As such, it equips the Field Museum with unique, virtually non-destructive, high precision, multi-element analysis for large objects that cannot be destructively subsampled, such as complete ceramic vessels. Ongoing projects using the adaptable chamber to analyze collections objects include analysis of glass objects from the Sumerian city of Kish, and analysis of ceramics from the western Pacific.", "id": "<urn:uuid:41f2c479-72da-4147-93b2-b92d29f8263e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://mailto:%20bstanley@fieldmuseum.org/inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9430046677589417, "token_count": 809, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "UCIL identified two Uranium blocks named Killung and Rangam in West Khasi hills district of Meghalaya, with total reserves of 9.22 million tones with rated capacity of 0.375 MTPA. The project has acquired 351 ha of land for the establishment of mines, processing plant, DCDA plant (for H2SO4 plant), township and other facilities.\nBoth mining blocks will produce 9.22 million tones of Uranium ore and 62 million tones of waste materials (overburden) in 24 years. The Killung block is divided into Killung A and Killung B and Rangam block will mine separately as a single block. The executive summary is silent on whether all blocks will be operated simultaneously or will operate in stages. However, it seems that both blocks will be mined simultaneously because there are wide various in uranium percentage in the ores of Killung A and Killung B and Rangam.\nLocation wise project is very sensitive because project is located in hilly terrain and receives very high rainfall. Further, project site is an important watershed of various tributaries and rivers. Therefore, estimation of silt load and erosion potential of an area is crucial, however the executive summary has failed to address this significant issue.\nExecutive summary is silent on quantity and quality of tailing wastes, the report states that tailing waste will be stored initially in tailing pond adjacent to plant and disposed off in mined out area along with overburden. This will commenced from the fifth year. According to the executive summary, processing plant and tailing ponds are located in the watershed of Mawkhan River, which is a tributary of Wah Phodthra River. Hence a potential risk of surface water contamination is high. Moreover, executive summary is competently silent on the impacts of project on the watershed and also failed to highlight the safeguard strategies. The executive summary is also silent on quality, quantity and mode of disposal of wastewater from the process plant.\nExecutive summary has failed to provide information on the land use pattern of acquired land and landuse pattern in buffer zone such as forest cover, agricultural land, wasteland etc.\nThe proposed uranium ore handling and its management seem very poor. The crusher will crush ore at the mine pit; crushed ore will be transported continuously to the processing plant by the dumper after covering a distance of 5.5 km. Further, the crushed ore is proposed to store in open at the processing plant. Hence, high radiation risk could be anticipated through air borne particles. Further, multiple handling of ore, coupled with dumper transportation and open storage would likely to increase the risk of air and water contamination.\nThe background level of gamma radiation at the proposed site is comparatively higher with respect to global average 0.9mSv.y-1. According to the executive summary, the radon level around the proposed site was 60 to 91 Bqm-3 and in the village area it ranges from 6.7 to 23.8 Bqm-3, which is comparatively less with respect to prescribed range (workplace range 600 to 1500 Bqm-3, dwelling range 200 to 600 Bqm-3) given by ICRP. The hilly terrain coupled with high rainfall clearly indicates that entire area is highly vulnerable to pollution. It can be anticipated that both silt and radioactive substances would contaminate the exiting rivers in the area once the mines and plant begins to operate at full rated capacity. It could be anticipated that background concentration of radioactive substances would likely to increase in future because of site sensitivity and poor proposed solid waste management (mine i.e. overburden, ore processing plant i.e. tailing waste). The natural river would be worst impacted by overburden and tailing pond because tailing pond and ore processing plant is proposed in the watershed of the river.\nThe executive summary states that the background concentration of uranium in surface water is low but failed to provide the background concentration level. The report has referred AMD data on the background concentration, which was conducted during 1990 \u20131998. As per AMD data, background level of Uranium was in the range of< 0.1 to 1.1 mg. m-3 and radium-226 in the range 15 to 115 Bqm-3.\nThe executive summary is silent on flora and fauna status in the study area and failed to provide information on biodiversity such as presence of scheduled listed species, forest cover area and forest density. According to forest department, fauna in West Khasi district is characterize by the presence of elephants, apes, monkeys, deer, sambar, tigers, wild boars, bears, leopards. It clearly shows that schedule I listed animals exist in the region but executive summary failed to provide any information on flora and fauna characteristic in the study areas.\nExecutive summary is silent on the overburden management; the report states that around 39 ha of land are earmarked for the initial dumping of overburden materials. It seems that at the initial stage of mining, external dumping will be undertaken. If this is the scenario, then high siltation risk, increase of radioactive contaminants in the surface water could be anticipated. The risk probability would be of high magnitude because mine lease areas provides water to Umshopphnew and Wahphodthra rivers, both these rivers finally drains in Kynshi River. The report also states that mine will generate 2.5 million tones of overburden per year but failed to provide basic information like commencement of backfilling and mine reclamation.\nThe plant will also generate large quantity of solid waste from the process, DCDA plant, ETP plant. But no information is available on the characteristic, quantity and mode of solid wastes disposal.", "id": "<urn:uuid:026f0e19-898f-45d4-9464-92075481c620>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://mailto:jgupta@cseindia.org/node/468", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9507821798324585, "token_count": 1176, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Large circular ear ornaments were popular personal adornments of prominent ancient Peruvian lords and a symbol of their status and wealth. The weight of the frontal, which could reach widths of more than four inches, was counterbalanced by a long tubular shaft that went through the distended hole in the earlobe. Particularly impressive are those earflares with colorful mosaics. On this pair, bird-headed (or masked) winged runners, worked in turquoise, sodalite, and spondylus shell, hold bags in their outstretched hands. Their eyes and beaks are sheathed in gold. They may be depictions of mythological messengers.", "id": "<urn:uuid:212bd00b-3d79-491f-a844-082d86928506>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/50002003?high=on&rpp=15&pg=1&rndkey=20121007&ft=*&what=Jewelry&pos=4", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.974643886089325, "token_count": 139, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cure for eczema comes closer to realityPublished On: Thu, Nov 24th, 2011 | Skin care | By BioNews\nAn effective cure for inflammatory skin conditions like eczema is a step closer to reality, researchers say.\nScientists have found that a strain of yeast implicated in skin conditions like eczema, can be killed by certain peptides and could provide a new treatment for these debilitating skin conditions.\n20 percent of children in the UK suffer from atopic eczema and whilst this usually clears up in adolescence, 7 percent of adults will continue to suffer throughout their lifetime.\nFurthermore, this type of eczema, characterized by dry, itchy, flaking skin, is increasing in prevalence. Whilst the cause of eczema remains unknown, one known trigger factor is the yeast Malassezia sympodialis.\nThis strain of yeast is one of the most common skin yeasts in both healthy individuals and those suffering from eczema. The skin barrier is more fragile and often broken in those suffering from such skin conditions, and this allows the yeast to cause infection, which then further exacerbates the condition.\nScientists at Karolinska Institute in Sweden looked for a way to kill Malassezia sympodialis without harming healthy human cells.\nThe researchers looked at the effect on the yeast of 21 peptides that had either; cell-penetrating or antimicrobial properties.\nCell-penetrating peptides are often investigated as drug delivery vectors and are able to cross the cell membrane, although the exact mechanism for this is unknown.\nAntimicrobial peptides, on the other hand, are natural antibiotics and kill many different types of microbe including some bacteria, fungi and viruses.\nTina Holm and her colleagues added these different peptides types to separate yeast colonies and assessed the toxicity of each peptide type to the yeast.\nThey found that six of the 21 peptides they tested, successfully killed the yeast without damaging the membrane of keratinocytes, human skin cells.\n\u201cMany questions remain to be solved before these peptides can be used in humans,\u201d Holm said.\n\u201cHowever, the appealing combination of being toxic to the yeast at low concentrations whilst sparing human cells makes them very promising as antifungal agents.\u201d\n\u201cWe hope that these peptides in the future can be used to ease the symptoms of patients suffering from atopic eczema and significantly increase their quality of life,\u201d she added.\nThe study was recently published in the Society for Applied Microbiology\u2019s journal, Letters in Applied Microbiology.", "id": "<urn:uuid:86b0d1d9-7be1-4578-bf89-66d4b6b3ef58>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://news.bioscholar.com/2011/11/cure-for-eczema-comes-closer-to-reality.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9420307278633118, "token_count": 541, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The samurai dominated Japanese society for 700 years, and the vision of this class permeates Japanese culture. Ever present is the samurai's sword \u2014 as a tool, a companion, and a symbol.\nThe samurai sword is both a technical marvel and a significant cultural object. As a technology, it involves a large system of craftsmen, distinct stages of and for the materials, and a long apprenticeship to develop the necessary skills. Culturally, the sword is surrounded by a history of legend, prescribed behaviors, and complex status relationships. Like a many-faceted diamond, a close examination of this one tool can give us a wide perspective on Japanese culture.\nTo study the relationship between the samurai and his sword, we will study the whole of samurai history. The role the sword has played has changed over time, but so have the times brought out different aspects of that many-layered relationship. The sword makes the samurai, makes him its wielder as much as he makes it his weapon.\nHow was the technology of the sword appropriate to the samurai, and what roles did it play? We will spend considerable time exploring the psyche of the samurai, particularly with respect to Zen anti-ideology. How is Zen reflected in the samurai and in his sword? We will also follow Japanese history as it revolves around samurai. By what fire is the samurai's identity forged, and what of today's society can its gleaming edge cut apart?\n|SES # ||TOPICS ||READINGS ||QUESTIONS |\n|1 ||Introduction to Japan || |\nStorry, Richard. Fig. 1-2 and \"The Silent Warrior.\" The Way of the Samurai. London, England: Orbis Books, 1978, pp. 7-17. ISBN: 9780856134043.\nSuzuki, Daisetz. \"Zen and Swordsmanship I.\" Chapter V in Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970, pp. 89-93. ISBN: 9780691017709.\n|2 ||The katana || Kapp, Leon, Hiroko Kapp, and Yoshindo Yoshihara. \"A Craft Reborn,\" and \"The Sword.\" The Craft of the Japanese Sword. New York, NY: Kodansha International, 1987, pp. 17-27, 53-55 and 61-94. ISBN: 9780870117985. ||(PDF) |\n|3 ||The samurai's cultural origins || |\nTsunoda, Ryusaku, William T. Bary, and Donald Keene. Sources of Japanese Tradition, Vol. I: From Earliest Times to 1600. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 1964.\nPlease read one of:\n- pp. 21-26\n- pp. 14-17 and 27-29\n- pp. 17-18, 29-30 and 274-276\nBeaseley, W. G. \"Buddhism and Shinto.\" In The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000, pp. 42-47. ISBN: 9780520225602.\nStorry, Richard. \"The Samurai Emerges.\" The Way of the Samurai. London, England: Orbis Books, 1978, pp. 18-41. ISBN: 9780856134043.\n|4 ||The code of the samurai || |\nHeike Monogatari [The Tale of the Heike]. Translated by Kitagawa Hiroshi and Bruce T. Tsuchida. Tokyo, Japan: University of Tokyo Press, 1975. Chapter 1, p. 5; Chapter 9, pp. 519-523; Chapter 11, pp. 676-689. ISBN 1: 9780860081883 and ISBN 2: 9780860081890.\nTsunemoto, Tamamoto. Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai. Vol. I. Tokyo, Japan: Hokuseido Press, 1980, sections 2-5, 9 and 12, pp. 35-40. ISBN: 9780893461690.\n|5 ||Zen and the samurai ||Please read one of: |\n- Hoffman, Yoel. \"The Haiku,\" \"Death Poems and Zen Buddhism,\" and poems by Kozan Ichikyo, Suzuki Shosan, Taigen Sofu, Takuan Soho, Zoso Royo, and Bash\u014d. Japanese Death Poems. Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, 1986, pp. 22-27, 65-76, 108, 117-19, 129 and 143. ISBN: 9780804831796.\n- Storry, Richard. \"Zen and the Sword.\" The Way of the Samurai. London, England: Orbis Books, 1978, pp. 43-61. ISBN: 9780856134043.\n- Suzuki, Daisetz. \"What is Zen?\" and \"Zen and the Samurai.\" Chapters I, IV in Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970, pp. 7-15 and 70-85. ISBN: 9780691017709.\n|6 ||Civil war and unification || |\nYoshikawa, Eiji. Taiko. New York, NY: Kodansha International, 1992, pp. 653-663. ISBN: 9784770015709.\nPlease read one of:\n- Beaseley, W. G. \"The Unifiers.\" Chapter 7 in The Japanese Experience: A Short History of Japan. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000, pp. 116-127. ISBN: 9780520225602.\n- Berry, Mary Elizabeth. \"The Sword Hunt.\" and \"Freezing the Social Order.\" Chapter 5 in Hideyoshi. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies at Harvard University, 1989, pp. 102-111. ISBN: 9780674390263.\n|7 ||Giving up the gun || Perrin, Noel. Chapters 1-4 in Giving Up the Gun: Japan's Reversion to the Sword. Boston, MA: D. R. Gordine, 1988. ISBN: 9780879237738. ||(PDF) |\n|8 ||The Tokugawa state || |\nStorry, Richard. \"The Armed Mandarins.\" The Way of the Samurai. London, England: Orbis Books, 1978, pp. 63-77. ISBN: 9780856134043.\nSadler, A. L. \"The Legacy of Ieyasu.\" In The Maker of Modern Japan: The Life of Shogun Tokugawa. Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, 1978, pp. 387-398. ISBN: 9780804812979.\nThe lab for this module is to do blacksmithing (forging) in the MIT forge. After a demonstration, students sign up for four times to work on projects they choose themselves \u2014 from small household items to attempts at Samurai swords (the latter is discouraged, though, as it takes about six months to complete). The MIT crest features a blacksmith, because MIT is dedicated to the intricacies of practice, but few students have a chance to get so close to such a concrete engineering problem. Forging is delicate work, requiring both skill and an understanding of the chemistry of iron. We hope that after this lab, students have a greater appreciation for the \"learning\" necessary for, and part of, \"doing.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:f6981212-92db-4138-9de5-66b1bb75cd7d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/special-programs/sp-272-culture-tech-spring-2003/samurai-swords/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8119483590126038, "token_count": 1548, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Two hundred years ago this week, during the War of 1812, an Ohio fort was front and center as American forces battled the British for control of Lake Erie and the region around it. If the British and their allies had prevailed, places like Toledo, Sandusky, Vermilion, Lorain, Cleveland and Conneaut might be on maps of Canada today.\nThis weekend in Perrysburg, historic Fort Meigs observes the 200th anniversary of the bloodiest day of fighting there during the three-year War of 1812 -- May 5, 1813, the First Siege of Fort Meigs. More...\nVisit the fort this Friday, May 3, through Sunday, May 5, 2013, and meet hundreds of War of 1812 re-enactors from the United States and Canada portraying those who fought there. Explore authentic 1812-era military camps and see battle re-enactments, fife and drum concerts, musket and cannon firings and more.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d9775a63-4892-40f4-a7b1-731099594eee>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ohiohistory.org/publications/ohio-histore-news/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9526313543319702, "token_count": 199, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Statistical modeling could help us understand cosmic accelerationDecember 24th, 2010 in Physics / General Physics\n(PhysOrg.com) -- While it is generally accepted by scientists that the universe is expanding at an accelerated rate, there are questions about why this should be so. For years, scientists have been trying to determine the cause of this behavior. One of the theories is that dark energy could be the cause of cosmic acceleration.\nIn order to test theories of dark energy, a group at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico and the University of California Santa Cruz came up with a technique designed to test different models of dark energy. We are trying to investigate what could be behind the accelerated expansion of the universe, Katrin Heitmann, one of the Los Alamos scientists tells PhysOrg.com. Our technique is based on data, and can be used to evaluate different models.\nHeitmann and her collaborators created their method based on Gaussian process modeling; the implementation was led by Tracy Holsclaw from UC Santa Cruz. Were using statistical methods rather than trying to come up with different models. Our process takes data from different sources and then uses it to look for certain deviations from what we assume in a cosmological constant. The groups work can be seen in Physical Review Letters: Nonparametric Dark Energy Reconstruction from Supernova Data.\nMany scientists think that dark energy is driving the accelerated expansion of the universe, Heitmann says. If this is the case, it is possible to characterize it via its equation of state w(z). The redshift evolution of the equation of state parameter w(z) would show some indication of a dynamical origin of dark energy.\nHeitmann points out that in such a case, there could be an infinite number of models. We cant test all those models, she says, so we have to do an inverse problem. We have data and we can characterize the underlying cause of the accelerated expansion. It assumes that w is a smoothly varying function, and a dynamical dark energy theory would fit that. We can use data and analyze it to see if we can find indications that dark energy really is behind accelerated expansion.\nThe Los Alamos and University of California, Santa Cruz team first tested their statistical technique on simulated data in order see whether the method was reliable. After we saw that it was, Heitmann says, we tried it on currently available supernova data.\nSo far, their analysis has not revealed that a dynamical dark energy is behind the accelerated expansion (the cosmological constant is a very special case of dark energy and is still in agreement with the data), but Heitmann doesnt think that means that the door is closed on dynamical dark energy theories as the cause of acceleration in the expanding universe. The data so far is limited, and better data is coming in every day, she says. Additionally, the group hopes to include other data in their statistical analyses. Our technique allows for the input of data from cosmic microwave background and baryon acoustic oscillations as well, and thats what we want to add in next.\nIf this technique does identify a dynamical dark energy as the reason behind accelerated expansion of the universe, it could mean revisiting the basics of what we know about the workings of the universe. If we do find the time dependence that supports the idea of dark energy as this mechanism, then we can go back to the theory approach. We would have an idea of which models could better explain universes expansion history and ultimately develop a self-consistent theory with no ad hoc assumptions.\nMore information: Tracy Holsclaw, Ujjaini Alam, Bruno Sans\u00f3, Herbert Lee, Katrin Heitmann, Salman Halbib, and David Higdon, Nonparametric Dark Energy Reconstruction from Supernova Data, Physical Review Letters (2010). Available online: link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.105.241302\nCopyright 2010 PhysOrg.com.\nAll rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed in whole or part without the express written permission of PhysOrg.com.\n\"Statistical modeling could help us understand cosmic acceleration.\" December 24th, 2010. http://phys.org/news/2010-12-statistical-cosmic.html", "id": "<urn:uuid:511e54b3-75f5-412a-95d6-d7d80684d08a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://phys.org/print212416303.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9271191954612732, "token_count": 883, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Click the picture above\nto see two larger pictures\nShow birthplace location\n|Previous||(Alphabetically)||Next||Biographies index |\n|Version for printing|\nGiuseppe Peano's parents worked on a farm and Giuseppe was born in the farmhouse 'Tetto Galant' about 5 km from Cuneo. He attended the village school in Spinetta then he moved up to the school in Cuneo, making the 5km journey there and back on foot every day. His parents bought a house in Cuneo but his father continued to work the fields at Tetto Galant with the help of a brother and sister of Giuseppe, while his mother stayed in Cuneo with Giuseppe and his older brother.\nGiuseppe's mother had a brother who was a priest and lawyer in Turin and, when he realised that Giuseppe was a very talented child, he took him to Turin in 1870 for his secondary schooling and to prepare him for university studies. Giuseppe took exams at Ginnasio Cavour in 1873 and then was a pupil at Liceo Cavour from where he graduated in 1876 and, in that year, he entered the University of Turin.\nAmong Peano's teachers in his first year at the University of Turin was D'Ovidio who taught him analytic geometry and algebra. In his second year he was taught calculus by Angelo Genocchi and descriptive geometry by Giuseppe Bruno. Peano continued to study pure mathematics in his third year and found that he was the only student to do so. The others had continued their studies at the Engineering School which Peano himself had originally intended to do. In his third year Francesco Fa\u00e0 di Bruno taught him analysis and D'Ovidio taught geometry. Among his teachers in his final year were again D'Ovidio with a further geometry course and Francesco Siacci with a mechanics course. On 29 September 1880 Peano graduated as doctor of mathematics.\nPeano joined the staff at the University of Turin in 1880, being appointed as assistant to D'Ovidio. He published his first mathematical paper in 1880 and a further three papers the following year. Peano was appointed assistant to Genocchi for 1881-82 and it was in 1882 that Peano made a discovery that would be typical of his style for many years, he discovered an error in a standard definition.\nGenocchi was by this time quite old and in relatively poor health and Peano took over some of his teaching. Peano was about to teach the students about the area of a curved surface when he realised that the definition in Serret's book, which was the standard text for the course, was incorrect. Peano immediately told Genocchi of his discovery to be told that Genocchi already knew. Genocchi had been informed the previous year by Schwarz who seems to have been the first to find Serret's error.\nIn 1884 there was published a text based on Genocchi's lectures at Turin. This book Course in Infinitesimal Calculus although based on Genocchi's lectures was edited by Peano and indeed it has much in it written by Peano himself. The book itself states on the title page that it is:-\n... published with additions by Dr Giuseppe Peano.\nGenocchi seemed somewhat unhappy that the work came out under his name for he wrote:-\n... the volume contains important additions, some modifications, and various annotations, which are placed first. So that nothing will be attributed to me which is not mine, I must declare that I have had no part in the compilation of the aforementioned book and that everything is due to that outstanding young man Dr Giuseppe Peano ...\nPeano received his qualification to be a university professor in December 1884 and he continued to teach further courses, some for Genocchi whose health had not recovered sufficiently to allow him to return to the University.\nIn 1886 Peano proved that if f (x, y) is continuous then the first order differential equation dy/dx = f (x, y) has a solution. The existence of solutions with stronger hypothesis on f had been given earlier by Cauchy and then Lipschitz. Four years later Peano showed that the solutions were not unique, giving as an example the differential equation dy/dx = 3y2/3 , with y(0) = 0.\nIn addition to his teaching at the University of Turin, Peano began lecturing at the Military Academy in Turin in 1886. The following year he discovered, and published, a method for solving systems of linear differential equations using successive approximations. However \u00c9mile Picard had independently discovered this method and had credited Schwarz with discovering the method first. In 1888 Peano published the book Geometrical Calculus which begins with a chapter on mathematical logic. This was his first work on the topic that would play a major role in his research over the next few years and it was based on the work of Schr\u00f6der, Boole and Charles Peirce. A more significant feature of the book is that in it Peano sets out with great clarity the ideas of Grassmann which certainly were set out in a rather obscure way by Grassmann himself. This book contains the first definition of a vector space given with a remarkably modern notation and style and, although it was not appreciated by many at the time, this is surely a quite remarkable achievement by Peano.\nIn 1889 Peano published his famous axioms, called Peano axioms, which defined the natural numbers in terms of sets. These were published in a pamphlet Arithmetices principia, nova methodo exposita which, according to  were:-\n... at once a landmark in the history of mathematical logic and of the foundations of mathematics.\nThe pamphlet was written in Latin and nobody has been able to give a good reason for this, other than :-\n... it appears to be an act of sheer romanticism, perhaps the unique romantic act in his scientific career.\nGenocchi died in 1889 and Peano expected to be appointed to fill his chair. He wrote to Casorati, who he believed to be part of the appointing committee, for information only to discover that there was a delay due to the difficulty of finding enough members to act on the committee. Casorati had been approached but his health was not up to the task. Before the appointment could be made Peano published another stunning result.\nHe invented 'space-filling' curves in 1890, these are continuous surjective mappings from [0,1] onto the unit square. Hilbert, in 1891, described similar space-filling curves. It had been thought that such curves could not exist. Cantor had shown that there is a bijection between the interval [0,1] and the unit square but, shortly after, Netto had proved that such a bijection cannot be continuous. Peano's continuous space-filling curves cannot be 1-1 of course, otherwise Netto's theorem would be contradicted. Hausdorff wrote of Peano's result in Grundz\u00fcge der Mengenlehre in 1914:-\nThis is one of the most remarkable facts of set theory.\nIn December 1890 Peano's wait to be appointed to Genocchi's chair was over when, after the usual competition, Peano was offered the post. In 1891 Peano founded Rivista di matematica, a journal devoted mainly to logic and the foundations of mathematics. The first paper in the first part is a ten page article by Peano summarising his work on mathematical logic up to that time.\nPeano had a great skill in seeing that theorems were incorrect by spotting exceptions. Others were not so happy to have these errors pointed out and one such was his colleague Corrado Segre. When Corrado Segre submitted an article to Rivista di matematica Peano pointed out that some of the theorems in the article had exceptions. Segre was not prepared to just correct the theorems by adding conditions that ruled out the exceptions but defended his work saying that the moment of discovery was more important than a rigorous formulation. Of course this was so against Peano's rigorous approach to mathematics that he argued strongly:-\nI believe it new in the history of mathematics that authors knowingly use in their research propositions for which exceptions are known, or for which they have no proof...\nIt was not only Corrado Segre who suffered from Peano's outstanding ability to spot lack of rigour. Of course it was the precision of his thinking, using the exactness of his mathematical logic, that gave Peano this clarity of thought. Peano pointed out an error in a proof by Hermann Laurent in 1892 and, in the same year, reviewed a book by Veronese ending the review with the comment:-\nWe could continue at length enumerating the absurdities that the author has piled up. But these errors, the lack of precision and rigour throughout the book take all value away from it.\nFrom around 1892, Peano embarked on a new and extremely ambitious project, namely the Formulario Mathematico. He explained in the March 1892 part of Rivista di matematica his thinking:-\nOf the greatest usefulness would be the publication of collections of all the theorems now known that refer to given branches of the mathematical sciences ... Such a collection, which would be long and difficult in ordinary language, is made noticeably easier by using the notation of mathematical logic ...\nIn many ways this grand idea marks the end of Peano's extraordinary creative work. It was a project that was greeted with enthusiasm by a few and with little interest by most. Peano began trying to convert all those around him to believe in the importance of this project and this had the effect of annoying them. However Peano and his close associates, including his assistants, Vailati, Burali-Forti, Pieri and Fano soon became deeply involved with the work.\nWhen describing a new edition of the Formulario Mathematico in 1896 Peano writes:-\nEach professor will be able to adopt this Formulario as a textbook, for it ought to contain all theorems and all methods. His teaching will be reduced to showing how to read the formulas, and to indicating to the students the theorems that he wishes to explain in his course.\nWhen the calculus volume of the Formulario was published Peano, as he had indicated, began to use it for his teaching. This was the disaster that one would expect. Peano, who was a good teacher when he began his lecturing career, became unacceptable to both his students and his colleagues by the style of his teaching. One of his students, who was actually a great admirer of Peano, wrote:-\nBut we students knew that this instruction was above our heads. We understood that such a subtle analysis of concepts, such a minute criticism of the definitions used by other authors, was not adapted for beginners, and especially was not useful for engineering students. We disliked having to give time and effort to the \"symbols\" that in later years we might never use.\nThe Military Academy ended his contract to teach there in 1901 and although many of his colleagues at the university would have also liked to stop his teaching there, nothing was possible under the way that the university was set up. The professor was a law unto himself in his own subject and Peano was not prepared to listen to his colleagues when they tried to encourage him to return to his old style of teaching. The Formulario Mathematico project was completed in 1908 and one has to admire what Peano achieved but although the work contained a mine of information it was little used.\nHowever, perhaps Peano's greatest triumph came in 1900. In that year there were two congresses held in Paris. The first was the International Congress of Philosophy which opened in Paris on 1 August. It was a triumph for Peano and Russell, who attended the Congress, wrote in his autobiography:-\nThe Congress was the turning point of my intellectual life, because there I met Peano. I already knew him by name and had seen some of his work, but had not taken the trouble to master his notation. In discussions at the Congress I observed that he was always more precise than anyone else, and that he invariably got the better of any argument on which he embarked. As the days went by, I decided that this must be owing to his mathematical logic. ... It became clear to me that his notation afforded an instrument of logical analysis such as I had been seeking for years ...\nThe day after the Philosophy Congress ended the Second International Congress of Mathematicians began. Peano remained in Paris for this Congress and listened to Hilbert's talk setting out ten of the 23 problems which appeared in his paper aimed at giving the agenda for the next century. Peano was particularly interested in the second problem which asked if the axioms of arithmetic could be proved consistent.\nEven before the Formulario Mathematico project was completed Peano was putting in place the next major project of his life. In 1903 Peano expressed interest in finding a universal, or international, language and proposed an artificial language \"Latino sine flexione\" based on Latin but stripped of all grammar. He compiled the vocabulary by taking words from English, French, German and Latin. In fact the final edition of the Formulario Mathematico was written in Latino sine flexione which is another reason the work was so little used.\nPeano's career was therefore rather strangely divided into two periods. The period up to 1900 is one where he showed great originality and a remarkable feel for topics which would be important in the development of mathematics. His achievements were outstanding and he had a modern style quite out of place in his own time. However this feel for what was important seemed to leave him and after 1900 he worked with great enthusiasm on two projects of great difficulty which were enormous undertakings but proved quite unimportant in the development of mathematics.\nOf his personality Kennedy writes in :-\n... I am fascinated by his gentle personality, his ability to attract lifelong disciples, his tolerance of human weakness, his perennial optimism. ... Peano may not only be classified as a 19th century mathematician and logician, but because of his originality and influence, must be judged one of the great scientists of that century.\nAlthough Peano is a founder of mathematical logic, the German mathematical philosopher Gottlob Frege is today considered the father of mathematical logic.\nArticle by: J J O'Connor and E F Robertson\nClick on this link to see a list of the Glossary entries for this page\nList of References (13 books/articles)|\n|Mathematicians born in the same country|\nAdditional Material in MacTutor\n|Honours awarded to Giuseppe Peano|\n(Click below for those honoured in this way)\n|Speaker at International Congress||1897|\nCross-references in MacTutor\nOther Web sites\n|Previous||(Alphabetically)||Next||Biographies index |\n|History Topics || Societies, honours, etc.||Famous curves |\n|Time lines||Birthplace maps||Chronology||Search Form |\n|Glossary index||Quotations index||Poster index |\n|Mathematicians of the day||Anniversaries for the year|\nJOC/EFR \u00a9 December 1997 |\nSchool of Mathematics and Statistics|\nUniversity of St Andrews, Scotland\nThe URL of this page is:|", "id": "<urn:uuid:bd26223b-de5e-48e7-81d7-ea1a900196e0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Peano.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9858985543251038, "token_count": 3239, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How to find a missing number in a sequence\n- Determine if the order of numbers is ascending (getting larger in value) or descending (becoming smaller\n- Find the difference between numbers that are next to each other.\n- Use the difference between numbers to find the missing number.\nExample: Find the missing number: 15, 13, ?, 9\n- The order of numbers is going down or descending.\n- The difference between numbers is 15 - 13 = 2\n- Since the order is descending subtract 2 from 13. The missing number may be 11.\n- The missing number is 11 since it is 2 more than the last number 9.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c7ba8a8e-019e-4d95-91f8-cd57b04e3403>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.aaamath.com/B/g3fmby10.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8828904628753662, "token_count": 135, "score": 3.25, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Keynes at the Border?\nWednesday, April 15, 2009\nA common fallacy holds that imposing taxes on imports and rebating taxes on exports would stimulate the economy.\nA common fallacy holds that border tax adjustments\u2014imposing taxes on imports and rebating taxes on exports\u2014would enhance American exports and reduce imports. The reasoning behind this mistake is simple enough. A border adjustment seems to provide a subsidy to exporters and to levy a tariff on importers. Border adjustment proponents, noting that international trade rules allow nations to border adjust consumption taxes such as European-style value added taxes, urge the adoption of a consumption tax in the United States so that we can border adjust and enhance our trade competitiveness.\nYet, such an argument ignores an essential truth about imports and exports: over the long term, exports and imports must be equal. We can think of a country like a household. Purchases are paid for from the proceeds of sales, and sales are made for the purpose of additional purchases. In the long run, purchases and sales must be equal. A nation\u2019s trade policy works the same way. Over a nation\u2019s history, the value of exports in current dollars must equal the value of imports in present value. Any attempt to permanently increase exports and decrease imports is futile.\nWhat would actually happen if we border adjusted imports and exports is that exchange rate movements would offset the trade effects and the dollar would appreciate. The key variable is the real exchange rate, which determines the terms at which a country buys and sells. (For the United States, the real exchange rate is the value of the dollar in terms of foreign currency\u2014the nominal exchange rate\u2014multiplied by the U.S. price level and divided by the foreign price level.) The real exchange rate adjusts to keep the present discounted value of exports and imports equal. The adoption of a border adjustment by the United States would trigger an increase in the real exchange rate that would offset the perceived boost to exports and the perceived restraint on imports.\nThe argument for border tax adjustments ignores an essential truth about imports and exports.\nImagine, for the moment, that one euro and one dollar have the same value under the current trade regime. If a firm in the United States wanted to import one euro\u2019s worth of German chocolate, the cost of the chocolate to the importer would be one dollar.\nNow, let\u2019s imagine that we institute a 25 percent border adjustment. The cost of the chocolate to the importer would increase to \u20ac1.33 (25 percent of 1.33 is 0.33). At the same time, the dollar would appreciate to \u20ac1.33; conversely, one euro would be worth 75 cents. At the new exchange rate, the \u20ac1.33 chocolate would still cost the importer one dollar, so there would be no net increase in cost.\nThe same dynamics would be at play in the case where the United States is an exporter. Imagine that a German importer wants to buy one dollar worth of Florida oranges, which would cost one euro under the current trade regime. Under the border adjustment, the United States would rebate the American exporter 25 percent, so the cost to the German importer would decrease to 75 cents. Because the dollar would appreciate to \u20ac1.33, however, the cost to the German importer would still be one euro. There would be no competitive advantage for U.S. exports.\nThese examples reveal that the impact on overall trade flows would be neutral.\nEven if a border adjustment could permanently increase exports and reduce imports, the impact of the change would be disastrous for an economy. In that case, the United States would send more goods and services, produced by our own labor and resources, abroad while receiving fewer goods and services in return. Because imports are the gain from trade while exports are the cost of trade, a permanent increase in net exports would reduce our standard of living. Although attractive at face value, the desire to permanently increase exports and reduce imports reflects the misguided view known as mercantilism, the doctrine that Adam Smith condemned so forcefully in 1776.\nEven if a border adjustment could permanently increase exports and reduce imports, the impact would be disastrous for an economy.\nIronically, a border adjustment would result in a one-time wealth transfer from American to foreign asset holders. A border adjustment would tax the consumption of Americans financed by their holdings of foreign assets and would exempt from the tax base the consumption of foreigners financed by their holdings of American assets. Consequently, the value of foreign assets held by Americans would decline while the value of American assets held by foreigners would appreciate.\nThe popularity of Keynesian stimulus during the current recession has led to a renewed interest in border adjustments as a way to stimulate aggregate demand. But a border adjustment would not produce permanent changes in trade patterns. In addition, the desire to provide a permanent boost to the economy through a border adjustment constitutes a misunderstanding of Keynesianism. Sound Keynesian policies seek to make output more stable throughout the business cycle by increasing aggregate demand in a downturn and restraining demand during an upturn; they do not permanently boost aggregate demand in a futile effort to permanently raise output.\nSupporters of consumption taxation in the United States often rely on misperceptions about border adjustments in order to make their case. There are compelling reasons to adopt a consumption tax in the United States, including simplification and enhanced capital accumulation. The ability to border adjust is immaterial. The border adjustment fallacy should not obscure the real case for consumption taxation.\nAlan Viard is resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute. He was a senior economist at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas and an assistant professor of economics at Ohio State University. He has also worked for the Treasury Department\u2019s Office of Tax Analysis, the White House\u2019s Council of Economic Advisers, and the Joint Committee on Taxation of the U.S. Congress. This article was adapted by Amy Roden, a research assistant at AEI, and Scott Ganz, AEI\u2019s program manager for economic policy studies, from a longer paper.\nFURTHER READING: Viard recently released Tax Policy Lessons from the 2000s (AEI Press, 2009), a collection of essays which explore the role taxes play in setting policy and their effect on businesses' financial and investment decisions. Findings were discussed at this AEI event.\nImage by Darren Wamboldt/the Bergman Group.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6d0ccd21-0815-474f-9dc2-603fdfb99cde>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.american.com/archive/2009/april-2009/keynes-at-the-border", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9539066553115845, "token_count": 1312, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. - Even large amounts of manufactured nanoparticles, also known as Buckyballs, don't faze microscopic organisms that are charged with cleaning up the environment, according to Purdue University researchers.\nIn the first published study to examine Buckyball toxicity on microbes that break down organic substances in wastewater, the scientists used an amount of the nanoparticles on the microbes that was equivalent to pouring 10 pounds of talcum powder on a person. Because high amounts of even normally safe compounds, such as talcum powder, can be toxic, the microbes' resiliency to high Buckyball levels was an important finding, the Purdue investigators said.\nThe experiment on Buckyballs, which are carbon molecules C60, also led the scientists to develop a better method to determine the impact of nanoparticles on the microbial community.\n\"It's important to look at the entire microbial community when nanomaterials are introduced because the microbes are all interdependent for survival and growth,\" said Leila Nyberg, a doctoral student in the School of Civil Engineering and the study's lead author. \"If we see a minor change in these microorganisms it could negatively impact ecosystems.\"\nThe microbes used in the study live without oxygen and also exist in subsurface soil and the stomachs of ruminant animals, such as cows and goats, where they aid digestion.\n\"We found no effect by any amount of C60 on the structure or the function of the microbial community over a short time,\" Nyberg said. \"Based on what we know about the properties of C60, this is a realistic model of what would happen if high concentrations of nanoparticles were released into the environment.\"\nThe third naturally occurring pure carbon molecule known, Buckyballs are nano-sized, multiple-sided structures that look like soccer balls.\nNyberg and her colleagues Ron Turco and Larry Nies, professors of agronomy and ci\n|Contact: Susan A. Steeves|", "id": "<urn:uuid:a45b666e-60e3-4153-8529-a347a2bc3557>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-1/Manufactured-Buckyballs-dont-harm-microbes-that-clean-the-environment-2817-1/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9453170895576477, "token_count": 409, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Shoumita Dasgupta, Ph.D.\nAssociate Professor of Medicine, Biomedical Genetics\nDirector of Graduate Studies, Program in Genetics and Genomics\nMedical Genetics Course Manager, Boston University School of Medicine\nPh.D. University of California, San Francisco\nM.S. University of California, San Francisco\nB.S. Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nStanley L. Robbins Award for Excellence in Teaching\nThe popular press has called the twentieth century \u201cThe Century of the Gene.\u201d During this time, genetics came forward as a central discipline in biology, first with the rediscovery of the work of Gregor Mendel at the turn of the century, later with the elucidation of the structure of DNA by Jim Watson and Francis Crick, and more recently with the development of recombinant DNA technologies by Paul Berg and Herb Boyer. These scientific events revolutionized the way we thought about biological problems. Mendel\u2019s contributions led scientists to probe the genetic basis of inheritance while Watson and Crick helped to define the molecular nature of this inheritance. Berg and Boyer developed the tools that allowed scientists to manipulate these molecules of inheritance to more deeply understand their functions. Each of these events has had far-reaching consequences because of the explosion of scientific inquiry it both allowed and inspired.\nCurrently, scientists of the twenty-first century are poised at the brink of another genetic revolution, this time triggered by the genome projects of organisms from microbes to humans. With the availability of this data, it has become obvious that current computational tools alone are inadequate to fully mine this immense data set. Although the power of current genomic strategies is tremendous, they are not sufficient to determine gene function. Consequently, scientists are seeking to ascertain gene function using two main approaches. First, there is a great effort underway to create new technologies and computational tools to allow for large scale molecular analyses of complex systems. Secondly, these strategies are utilized alongside methods that take advantage of the powerful role of model organisms in helping to determine gene function, an important focus of the Genetics and Genomics department. This global perspective on the intricate networks that govern the machinery of life is causing a shift in the traditional paradigm of identifying the impact of individual genes on any given process. Instead, the revised concept that no gene acts in isolation is more easily explored with these new genomic and bioinformatics tools.\nThe aim of our program in establishing graduate coursework in Genetics and Genomics is to teach our students to apply the approaches of classical genetics and modern genomics to investigations of the heritable basis of numerous biological traits, the relationships among genes, the regulation of their expression, and the elaborate mechanisms involved in supporting complex biological processes. We want our students to be adept at utilizing hypothesis-driven methods as well as discovery-oriented experimental design styles to explore these problems. The combination of these two tactics will allow our students to systematically and broadly make important contributions to many disciplines of biology. Moreover, it is our goal that our students will also be trained to function as active members of the scientific community who can clearly communicate ideas, critically evaluate biomedical research, and mentor others in scientific scholarship. Towards this end, we offer an array of courses and training opportunities that comprise the Graduate Program in Genetics and Genomics. \u201cPrinciples of Genetics and Genomics\u201d is a core course that focuses on the use of genetic methods in model organisms for understanding complex biological processes. This course focuses on the ability to use genetic systems to probe these problems, and therefore heavily explores the experimental aspects of these investigations. In addition, we discuss the impact of the genome sequences on the practice of modern science. In this regard, the course will be aimed towards first year PhD students in the biological sciences, but the course is open to anyone wishing to study genetic approaches to biological research. In addition, we use a case study approach to investigate the rich variety of scientific insights gained through genetic studies. As such, it is a core course that serves a diverse, interdisciplinary group of students in many fields from genetics and genomics to bioinformatics to immunology, and many others. Further details on this course and our other exciting courses for graduate and medical students can be found on the course website. This course is one of the foundations for our Graduate Program in Genetics and Genomics, which is designed to bring these same approaches to an entire coordinated curriculum. Our Graduate Program aims to bridge the disciplines of experimental biosciences with computational and genomic approaches. The program consists of laboratory rotations, advanced coursework, and journal clubs in the first year. Subsequently, graduate students will focus on their thesis research, qualifying exams, and a teaching requirement. Additional information on our graduate program can be found on the graduate program website.\nThe pace of genetic advances during the last century has been unparalleled scientifically, and these discoveries have already made and are poised to make an incredible impact on the practice of medicine. Currently, OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) lists thousands of identified disease genes, and likewise GeneTests lists thousands of diseases for which there are molecular tests. In this course we explore the precise molecular determinants of medical conditions and of human phenotypic variation that are being elucidated on a daily basis. Clearly, a detailed understanding of the genetic basis of human disease will lead to more precise molecular assays and diagnostics, better-targeted treatments, and more efficient treatment plans overall. Moreover, these developments will certainly affect all clinical specialties of the medical field since genetic components have a clear influence on a wide variety of human traits and conditions, from height and developmental birth defects to cancer susceptibility and neurological degeneration. We consider how these rapid advances can be utilized appropriately in a clinical environment as well as what ethical, legal, and societal implications all of these developments hold. This course is offered to first year medical students.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8b5d6676-ec3a-4bf1-8a47-c5eec4e589f6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bumc.bu.edu/genetics/genetics-people/faculty/dasgupta/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9352250099182129, "token_count": 1186, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Henry Franklin Battles/ Susan (Monks) Battles\nSubmitted by: Archie (Bud) and Doris Battles, grandson and wife.\nThe Henry Franklin Battles and Susan Monks families presumably came from Alabama and settled around Cameron, Indian Territory. Henry Franklin Battles born 12-23-1851, enrolled at Doaksville, Indian Territory and died 2-6-1936 at Gowen, OK. His father was G.W. Battles. Susan (Monks) Battles born 12-23-1856 to F.M. and Susan Monks. She was enrolled in Garris County and died 7-25-1937 at Ashland, OK. It is presumed that around Cameron, Indian Territory is where Henry and Susan met, married and started raising their family of four boys. From there, they moved to Wilburton where they had one girl and two more boys.\nThey farmed and the children went to a small school southwest of Wilburton. They named it the Battles School. Later, some of the boys went to Jones Academy. Later on, they were enrolled on the Choctaw Rolls and was allotted land around Ashland, Indian Territory. They moved to their land where they farmed and horse raced. Their children had all met, married and had children by this time. All of the grandchildren moved, with most of them going to Salt Plains, Van Horne and Ashland. Their children were:\n- William E. born 12-28-1872 and died 1-2-1950. His first wife was named Martha then he married Emma Shaw;\n- Finis Marion born 8-19-1878 and died 1-18-1958. He married Maggie Dunlap on 4-29-1906;\n- John Marim born 5-22-1881 and died 1-21-1970. His first wife was Cemie Patrick then Annie May Chester;\n- George Washington born 8-21-1887 and died 4-5-1962. He married Ola Mae Christian, 10-20-1907;\n- Erma E.L. born 12-24-1888 and died 2-26-1975. She married Jim Carter;\n- James (Jimmie) Ernest born 8-7-1893 and died 7-27-1974. He married Walsie Akin in 1912;\n- Lester born 12-24-1896 and died 12-19-1965. His first wife was Nellie Parnell then he married Mandy Owensby;\n- Pearl Clementine. Clementine was married to #3 son, John. Children of George Washington Battles and Minnie Ola (Christian) Battles are:\nVenita Jewell (Battles) Collie, born 11-13-1908 at Ashland. She married Jim Colie and there were no children;\nOran, born 8-13-1910 at Ashland. His first wife was Birtha ? and they had one son, Charles; Tollie (Dutch), born 6-20-1920 at Ashland and died 12-4-1953. He married Alice? And they had four children:\nMary Jo, Richard, Samuel and Linda; Archie Monroe (Bud), born 7-14-1914 at Wardville. He married Willie Doris Lenox, 12-30-1937 and they had two sons;\nKenneth Hoyt and Walter Roy. Kenneth was born 12-3-1939 and married Mary Alice Hogan. Walker Roy was born 11-24-1942. His first wife was Wilma Sturgeion then he married Gwen Pola Gormly.\nOlen, born 11-22-1916 at Ashland. His wife was Joan; Henry Franklin (Dink), born 8-4-1914 at Ashland and died 3-11-1942. He had no children; Lucille, born 12-30-1920 at Ashland. She married Loyd Faris and they had two children, Shirley and Keith; Jake, born 4-19-1923 at Gowen. His wife\u2019s name was Jean and they had two girls and one boy; Pauline, born 6-23-1928 at Wardville. She married J.B. Dave and they had one child, Pamela; George Washington, Jr. (Sam), born 7-15-1930 at Ashland. His wife\u2019s name was Wanda and they had two children, Machala and Rodney. All of the children were born in Oklahoma within a few miles of each other.", "id": "<urn:uuid:10d8e259-ffcb-4537-a7d0-cd5e21976558>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.choctawnation.com/history/people/original-enrollees/battles-henry-franklin-susan-monks/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.990514874458313, "token_count": 950, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "WHAT YOU SHOULD KNOW:\nAlcohol intoxication is a harmful physical condition caused when you drink more alcohol than your body can handle. It is also called ethanol poisoning, or being drunk.\nAFTER YOU LEAVE:\nYou may be given medicine to manage the signs and symptoms of alcohol intoxication. Take your medicine as directed. Contact your primary healthcare provider if you think your medicine is not helping or if you have side effects. Tell him if you are allergic to any medicine. Keep a list of the medicines, vitamins, and herbs you take. Include the amounts, and when and why you take them. Bring the list or the pill bottles to follow-up visits. Keep the list with you in case of emergency.\nFollow up with your primary healthcare provider as directed:\nWrite down your questions so you remember to ask them during your visits.\nLimit or avoid alcohol:\nMen should not have more than 2 drinks per day. Women should not have more than 1 drink per day. A drink is 12 ounces of beer, 5 ounces of wine, or 1\u00bd ounces of liquor.\nDo not drive or operate machines when you drink alcohol:\nMake sure you always have someone to drive you when you drink alcohol.\nLearn ways to manage stress. Deep breathing, meditation, and listening to music may help you cope with stressful events. Talk to your caregiver about other ways to manage stress.\nFor more information:\n- Alcoholics Anonymous\nWeb Address: http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org.\nContact your primary healthcare provider if:\n- You need help to stop drinking alcohol.\n- You have trouble with work or school because you drink too much alcohol.\n- You have physical or verbal fights because of alcohol.\n- You have questions or concerns about your condition or care.\nSeek care immediately or call 911 if:\n- You have sudden trouble breathing or chest pain.\n- You have a seizure.\n- You feel sad enough to harm yourself or others.\n- You have hallucinations (you see or hear things that are not real).\n- You cannot stop vomiting.\n- You were in an accident because of alcohol.\n\u00a9 2013 Truven Health Analytics Inc. Information is for End User's use only and may not be sold, redistributed or otherwise used for commercial purposes. All illustrations and images included in CareNotes\u00ae are the copyrighted property of the Blausen Databases or Truven Health Analytics.\nThe above information is an educational aid only. It is not intended as medical advice for individual conditions or treatments. Talk to your doctor, nurse or pharmacist before following any medical regimen to see if it is safe and effective for you.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6cb16502-20d4-4437-84c8-59311bd43516>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.drugs.com/cg/alcohol-intoxication-discharge-care.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9285218715667725, "token_count": 548, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sea ice is frozen seawater that floats on the ocean surface. Blanketing millions of square kilometers, sea ice forms and melts with the polar seasons, affecting both human activity and biological habitat. In the Arctic, some sea ice persists year after year, whereas almost all Southern Ocean or Antarctic sea ice is \"seasonal ice,\" meaning it melts away and reforms annually. While both Arctic and Antarctic ice are of vital importance to the marine mammals and birds for which they are habitats, sea ice in the Arctic appears to play a more crucial role in regulating climate.\nBecause they are composed of ice originating from glaciers, icebergs are not considered sea ice. Most of the icebergs infesting North Atlantic shipping lanes originate from Greenland glaciers.\nGlobal Sea Ice Extent and Concentration: What sensors on satellites are telling us about sea ice\nSea ice regulates exchanges of heat, moisture and salinity in the polar oceans. It insulates the relatively warm ocean water from the cold polar atmosphere except where cracks, or leads, in the ice allow exchange of heat and water vapor from ocean to atmosphere in winter. The number of leads determines where and how much heat and water are lost to the atmosphere, which may affect local cloud cover and precipitation.\nThe seasonal sea ice cycle affects both human activities and biological habitats. For example, companies shipping raw materials such as oil or coal out of the Arctic must work quickly during periods of low ice concentration, navigating their ships towards openings in the ice and away from treacherous multi-year ice that has accumulated over several years. Many arctic mammals, such as polar bears, seals, and walruses, depend on the sea ice for their habitat. These species hunt, feed, and breed on the ice. Studies of polar bear populations indicate that declining sea ice is likely to decrease polar bear numbers, perhaps substantially (Stirling and Parkinson 2006).\nIce thickness, its spatial extent, and the fraction of open water within the ice pack can vary rapidly and profoundly in response to weather and climate. Sea ice typically covers about 14 to 16 million square kilometers in late winter in the Arctic and 17 to 20 million square kilometers in the Antarctic Southern Ocean. The seasonal decrease is much larger in the Antarctic, with only about three to four million square kilometers remaining at summer's end, compared to approximately seven to nine million square kilometers in the Arctic. These maps provide examples of late winter and late summer ice cover in the two hemispheres.\nMonitoring sea ice\nPassive microwave satellite data represent the best method to monitor sea ice because of the ability to show data through most clouds and during darkness. Passive microwave data allow scientists to monitor the inter-annual variations and trends in sea ice cover. Observations of polar oceans derived from these instruments are essential for tracking the ice edge, estimating sea ice concentrations, and classifying sea ice types. In addition to the practical use of this information for shipping and transport, these data add to the meteorological knowledge base required for better understanding climate.\nDecline in Arctic sea ice extent\nPassive microwave satellite data reveal that, since 1979, winter Arctic ice extent has decreased about 3.6 percent per decade (Meier et al. 2006). Antarctic ice extent is increasing (Cavalieri et al. 2003), but the trend is small.\nSatellite data from the SMMR and SSM/I instruments have been combined with earlier observations from ice charts and other sources to yield a time series of Arctic ice extent from the early 1900s onward. While the pre-satellite records are not as reliable, their trends are in good general agreement with the satellite record and indicate that Arctic sea ice extent has been declining since at least the early 1950s.\nIn recent years, satellite data have indicated an even more dramatic reduction in regional ice cover. In September 2002, sea ice in the Arctic reached a record minimum (Serreze et al. 2003), 4 percent lower than any previous September since 1978, and 14 percent lower than the 1979-2000 mean. In the past, a low ice year would be followed by a rebound to near-normal conditions, but 2002 was followed by two more low-ice years, both of which almost matched the 2002 record. Taking these three years into account, the September ice extent trend for 1979-2004 declined by 7.7 percent per decade (Stroeve et al. 2005). The year 2005 set a new record, dropping the estimated decline in end-of-summer Arctic sea ice to approximately 8 percent per decade. Although sea ice did not set a new record low in 2006, it did fall below normal for the fifth consecutive year. In 2007, sea ice broke all prior satellite records, reaching a record low a month before the end of melt season. Through 2007, the September decline trend is now over 10 percent per decade. (For current sea ice trends, visit NSIDC's Sea Ice Index Cryospheric Climate Indicators.)\nCombined with record low summertime extent, Arctic sea ice exhibited a new pattern of poor winter recovery. In the past, a low-ice year would be followed by a rebound to near-normal conditions, but 2002 was followed by two more low-ice years, both of which almost matched the 2002 record (see Arctic Sea Ice Decline Continues). Although wintertime recovery of Arctic sea ice improved somewhat after 2006, wintertime extents have remained well below the long-term average.\nDecline in Arctic Sea Ice Thickness\nSea ice thickness has likewise shown substantial decline in recent decades (Rothrock et al. 1999). Using data from submarine cruises, Rothrock and collaborators determined that the mean ice draft at the end of the melt season in the Arctic has decreased by about 1.3 meters between the 1950s and the 1990s.\nEstimates based on measurements taken by NASA's ICESat laser altimeter, first-year ice that formed after the autumn of 2007 had a mean thickness of 1.6 meters. The ice formed relatively late in the autumn of 2007, and NSIDC researchers had actually anticipated this first-year ice to be thinner, but it nearly equaled the thickness of 2006 and 2007. Snow accumulation on sea ice helps insulate the ice from frigid air overhead, so sparse snowfall during the winter of 2007-2008 might have actually accelerated the sea ice's growth.\nGreenhouse gases emitted through human activities and the resulting increase in global mean temperatures are the most likely underlying cause of the sea ice decline, but the direct cause is a complicated combination of factors resulting from the warming, and from climate variability. The Arctic Oscillation (AO) is a see-saw pattern of alternating atmospheric pressure at polar and mid-latitudes. The positive phase produces a strong polar vortex, with the mid-latitude jet stream shifted northward. The negative phase produces the opposite conditions. From the 1950s to the 1980s, the AO flipped between positive and negative phases, but it entered a strong positive pattern between 1989 and 1995. So the acceleration in the sea ice decline since the mid 1990s may have been partly triggered by the strongly positive AO mode during the preceding years (Rigor et al. 2002 and Rigor and Wallace 2004) that flushed older, thicker ice out of the Arctic, but other factors also played a role.\nSince the mid-1990s, the AO has largely been a neutral or negative phase, and the late 1990s and early 2000s brought a weakening of the Beaufort Gyre. However, the longevity of ice in the gyre began to change as a result of warming along the Alaskan and Siberian coasts. In the past, sea ice in this gyre could remain in the Arctic for many years, thickening over time. Beginning in the late 1990s, sea ice began melting in the southern arm of the gyre, thanks to warmer air temperatures and more extensive summer melt north of Alaska and Siberia. Moreover, ice movement out of the Arctic through Fram Strait continued at a high rate despite the change in the AO. Thus warming conditions and wind patterns have been the main drivers of the steeper decline since the late 1990s. Sea ice may not be able to recover under the current persistently warm conditions, and a tipping point may have been passed where the Arctic will eventually be ice-free during at least part of the summer (Lindsay and Zhang 2005).\nExamination of the long-term satellite record dating back to 1979 and earlier records dating back to the 1950s indicate that spring melt seasons have started earlier and continued for a longer period throughout the year (Serreze et al. 2007). Even more disquieting, comparison of actual Arctic sea ice decline to IPCC AR4 projections show that observed ice loss is faster than any of the IPCC AR4 models have predicted (Stroeve et al. 2007).\nDisclaimer: This article is taken wholly from, or contains information that was originally published by, the National Snow and Ice Data Center. Topic editors and authors for the Encyclopedia of Earth may have edited its content or added new information. The use of information from the National Snow and Ice Data Center should not be construed as support for or endorsement by that organization for any new information added by EoE personnel, or for any editing of the original content.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b5246854-fe77-4d8a-96ae-2c3df064ab3d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eoearth.org/article/Climate_change_and_sea_ice", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9421555995941162, "token_count": 1885, "score": 4.1875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This release is available in French.\nYour blood and the level of a hormone in your spit could reveal if you're on the point of burnout, according to research undertaken by Dr. Sonia Lupien and Robert-Paul Juster of the Centre for Studies on Human Stress of Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital and the University of Montreal. In addition to professional and personal suffering, burnout puts distressed workers at further risk of physical and psychological problems if ignored. This is significant, as burnout, clinical depression, or anxiety related to the workplace affects at least 10% of North Americans and Europeans, according to estimates prepared by the International Labor Organization.\n\"We hypothesized that healthy workers with chronic stress and with mild burnout symptoms would have worse physiological dysregulations and lower cortisol levels \u2013 a profile consistent with burnout,\" Juster explained. Cortisol is a stress hormone involved in our bodies stress response and naturally as part of our body's daily rhythm. Cortisol levels are often high in people suffering from depression, while it tends to be low in cases of burnout. Too much cortisol can be as bad as too little when it comes to both mental and physical health.\nChronic stress and misbalanced cortisol levels can exert a kind of domino effect on connected biological systems. The term \"allostatic load\" represents the physiological problems or 'wear and tear' that ensue in these different systems related to risks for diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and immune problems. By looking at various factors such as insulin, sugar, cholesterol, blood pressure, and inflammation, an allostatic load index can be constructed and then used to detect problems before they occur. \"The strength of the allostatic load model is its flexible inclusion of numerous biological systems that get strained by chronic stress. Complementary use of saliva samples and validated questionnaires allows us to go beyond measuring susceptibilities to, say, metabolic syndromes or heart problems, but also into the realm of mental health,\" Juster said.\nThe results of this first pilot study were obtained by testing thirty middle-aged participants. In addition to undergoing routine blood measures that assessed allostatic load, participants were instructed to collect saliva at home and during a laboratory paradigm. They also filled out questionnaires related to their current stress levels as well as symptoms of depression and burnout.\nThis research is part of a greater effort to develop personalized medicine in this field. Personalized medicine targets the customization of treatment according to the needs of the individual. \"In an effort to advance person-centered approaches in prevention and treatment strategies, we have to investigate the biopsychosocial signatures of specific diseases,\" Lupien said. \"For conditions like burnout where we have no consensus on diagnostic criteria and where there is overlap with symptoms of depression, it is essential to use multiple methods of analysis. One potential signature of burnout appears to be fatigued production of the stress hormone cortisol and dysregulations of the physiological systems that interact with this stress hormone.\"\nCritically, people with burnout are often treated with anti-depressant medications that lower cortisol levels. If cortisol is already lower than it should be, this course of treatment could represent a therapeutic mistake. \"The use of an allostatic load index gives researchers and clinicians a window to see how chronic stress is straining the person. In the future, we need studies that track people over time to determine whether this profile of low cortisol and physiological dysregulations is indeed burnout's autograph. If so, science will be one step closer to helping distressed workers before they burn out,\" Juster noted.\nThe research was published in Psychoneuroendocrinology and received funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. Dr. Sonia Lupien is Scientific Director of Fernand-Seguin Research Centre of Louis\u2013H. Lafontaine Hospital and is an associate professor with the Department of Psychiatry at Universit\u00e9 de Montr\u00e9al. Dr. Lupien is the Founder and Director of the Centre for Studies on Human Stress. She also holds a Senior Investigator Chair on Sex, Gender and Mental Health from the Canadian Institute of Gender and Health (IGH). Juster is affiliated with the Fernand-Seguin Research Centre of Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital and the Centre for Studies on Human Stress. He's a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery at McGill University.\nAAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert! system.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e9adff26-a71c-47ec-8864-5d7a24600bc1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2011-02/uom-ssa021411.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.942483127117157, "token_count": 938, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By the HELP Committee and Havre Public Schools\nSummer can be a risky time for teens. More teens try marijuana for the first time in June and July than any other time of the year, according to a new report from the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Each day in June and July, more than 6,300 youths try marijuana for the first time. That's 40 percent more per day than during the rest of the year. The number of new underage drinkers and cigarette smokers also jumps during the summer months.\nThe increase in new marijuana use is likely due to teens having more unsupervised and unstructured time in the summer. Research shows that unmonitored teens are four times more likely to use marijuana or engage in other risky behaviors.\n\"Youth marijuana use has declined by 11 percent over the past two years. Despite the good news, the battle of reducing teen drug use is not yet over,\" said John P. Walters, director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy. \"Kids may equate summer with freedom, but for parents, it's when they need to be even more involved in their teens' lives. By keeping teens busy, knowing who they're with and making sure they're supervised, parents can help prevent their teen's summer from going to pot.\"\nAnd marijuana is more harmful than some parents think. Marijuana can be addictive and lead to a host of health, social and behavioral problems at a crucial time in kids' lives - when their bodies and brains are still developing. Marijuana use damages lungs, impairs learning and decreases motivation. Kids who use marijuana in early adolescence are more likely to engage in risky behaviors, such as delinquency, engaging in sexual activity, driving while high, or riding with someone who is under the influence of drugs or alcohol. They are also more likely to perceive drugs as not harmful and to have more friends who exhibit deviant behavior.\nHavre kids are at greatest risk between 11 and 16 years of age.\nEach year, Havre Public Schools administers the Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance assessment to students at the high school, alternative school and middle school.\nFour of the assessment questions address marijuana use. While these questions do not address which season of the year marijuana was used, students are asked \"How old were you when you tried marijuana for the first time?\" Nearly 16 percent of respondents were 11 or 12 years old when they used marijuana for the first time. Just over 19 percent of respondents were 13 or 14 years old. More than 15 percent were 15 or 16 years old. At 17 years of age, the incidence of first-time marijuana use dropped to 2 percent.\nCanterbury Consultive Services of Helena administers the YRBS assessment. In its executive summary, the Canterbury researchers asserted that \"frequency of alcohol and drug abuse risk behaviors as reported by Havre Middle School respondents were generally consistent with statewide respondents with little variation over the four-year reporting period.\" However, the frequency of these same behaviors \"as reported by Havre High School respondents were consistently higher than statewide respondents. With the exception of alcohol and cocaine, reported usage apparently increased during the four-year reporting period.\"\nSadly, these findings show that, in general, Havre kids experiment with some risky behaviors at a younger age and continue these risky behaviors throughout their youth at a higher rate than other Montana children. This should prompt parents to maintain close ties with and supervision of their children throughout adolescence, even though adolescent children desire, seek and need increasing freedom. It can be a tough balancing act for any parent.\nSo how can you stop your teen's summer from going to pot? Here is a drug-free checklist:\nSet rules. Have you set clear rules and let your teen know that marijuana use is unacceptable?\nSet limits with clear consequences for breaking them. Be sure to balance this with praise and rewards for good behavior.\nUnderstand and communicate. Have you talked to your teen in the past month about the harmful physical, mental and social effects of marijuana and other illicit drugs on young users?\nYoung people who learn about the risks of drugs at home are up to 50 percent less likely to try drugs than their peers who learn nothing from their parents. Look for teachable moments in everyday life to keep the conversation ongoing.\nMonitor your teen's activities and behaviors. Have you checked to see where your teen is, who he is with, and what he is doing?\nTeens who are not regularly monitored by their parents are four times more likely to use drugs. Check up on your teens to make sure they are where they say they are.\nMake sure you stay involved in your teen's life Have you talked to your teen's coach, employer and friends lately?\nStay in touch with the adult supervisors of your child (camp counselors, coaches, employers) and have them inform you of any changes in your teen. Parents of teens with summer jobs still need to know how their teens are spending disposable income, what type of workplace setting they are in, and who they are working with.\nEngage your teen in summer activities. Have you helped plan activities to keep your teen busy?\nTeens who report they are \"often bored\" are 50 percent more likely to smoke, drink, get drunk and use illegal drugs than teens who aren't. Teens who are involved in constructive and adult-supervised activities are less likely to use drugs.\nOther adults who influence teens, such as camp counselors, coaches, physicians and employers, can and do play a vital role in keeping teens drug-free during the summer. These adults are well-positioned to reach teens with marijuana-prevention messages, and, just by being role models or mentors, they help prevent drug use.\nHave you planned a family activity with your teen in the coming weeks, such as going to the movies, taking a walk or sharing a meal?\nTeens who spend time, talk and have a close relationship with their parents are much less likely to drink, take drugs or have sex. Two-thirds of youth ages 13 to 17 say fear of upsetting their parents or losing the respect of family and friends is one of the main reasons they don't smoke marijuana or use other drugs. This proves that parents are still the most powerful influence on their teen when it comes to drugs.\nThe HELP Committee and Boys & Girls Club of the Hi-Line is committed to supporting a drug-free lifestyle for everyone in the community. For more information on this or related topics, call 265-6206.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e3a00fd7-775b-4d27-9b39-9b45573d52ed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.havredailynews.com/cms/news/story-117075.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9677609205245972, "token_count": 1325, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Science may have the solution: a chemical \"hydrogel\" coating made from chitosan, derived from the shells of crabs and shrimp. Chitosan is already sprayed on lots of other fruits and vegetables to kill bacteria and keep produce fresh. And on Wednesday, Xihong Li of Tianjin University presented data at a meeting of the American Chemical Society showing that it can work to delay banana ripening -- bad news for fruit flies, good news for you.\n\"We found that by spraying green bananas with a chitosan aerogel, we can keep bananas fresh for up to 12 days,\" Li said in a statement Wednesday. \"Such a coating could be used at home by consumers, in supermarkets or during shipment of bananas.\"\nLike other fruits, bananas don't die when they're picked. They respire through their skin, taking in oxygen and expelling carbon dioxide. Increased respiration means quicker ripening. The chitosan coating used by Li and his colleagues slowed down respiration enough to keep the fruit fresh.\nBananas also release a compound called ethylene, which encourages ripening. So leaving a bunch of bananas in a bag will trap a lot of ethylene gas in there, which makes them ripen faster. Other fruits and vegetables produce ethylene too, so keeping your banana in the same bowl as a bunch of apples will hasten its progress toward gooey oblivion.\nChitosan, with its seafood origin, could possibly pose problems for strict vegetarians and vegans, but it wouldn't be the first food additive that flew under the radar. Shellac, which you might primarily think of as something to polish furniture, is also applied to apples to replace natural waxes lost during the cleaning process. It's also made from a resin secreted by the female lac bug. Starbucks caught flak from its crunchier customers after it was revealed that the coffee giant was using crushed beetle shells to color its strawberry frappuccinos.\nStill, if you're not squeamish about animal products, chitosan could be a good way to keep good bananas from going bad.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f8329fb8-bcb8-431e-924f-956222334777>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ibtimes.com/fight-against-brown-bananas-crab-shell-compound-752927", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9735636115074158, "token_count": 437, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hitler has become an iconic figure in Asia in recent years, and his book Mein Kampf is being sold in bookstores across the continent. Israel has decided to work against that trend by inviting educators from India, Korea, Singapore, New Zealand and Australia to guide them in Holocaust studies.\nFor the first time a group of 20 school principals and teachers from India recently arrived in Israel to learn about the Holocaust at the International School at Yad Vashem (Israel's national Holocaust memorial and museum).\nDressed in traditional garb, the Indian guests were taught about the true horrors of the Holocaust as a background for ethics and history lessons at schools and universities in their own country. Some of the participants represented school systems that oversee the education of over two million students all the way from kindergarten to university.\nThe Indian delegation was invited by the Foreign Ministry's Department for Combating Anti-Semitism and by Yad Vashem, both of which hoped the visit would spark increased study of the Holocaust throughout Asia.\nThis month will also see the first visit by a group of 23 educators from New Zealand. Recently, a group of 20 teachers from Australia and another delegation from Singapore arrived for background lessons on the Holocaust.\n\"This demonstrates how the topic of the Holocaust remains of interest and is still relevant to the 21st century,\" said Gideon Baker, director of the Department for Combating Anti-Semitism.\n\"In 2013, we will expand the study of the Holocaust to countries that have not yet studied the subject in any organized manner, such as South Korea and Cyprus, as well as establish mobile training teams in India,\" Baker added.\nThere is no anti-Semitism in India. Mein Kampf sells in local bookstores and there is general admiration of Hitler as being a \"strong man,\" but the public is mostly ignorant about who Hitler truly was and what he did to six million Jews. \"Precisely for this reason it is important to teach the Holocaust in this country,\" said Baker.\nAsia in general does not have an anti-Semitism problem. But Nazi symbols are widely used and Hitler is often idolized without true understanding of what this means to the Jews.\nIsraeli diplomats in Asia say that this phenomenon most often occurs as a result of ignorance and with no hostile intentions. \"A lot of people in Asia are aware of what happened in Europe in general. Unfortunately, many people think that Hitler was a hero, not a monster, so it is important to strengthen the memory of the Holocaust,\" explained the Foreign Ministry.", "id": "<urn:uuid:05c4bbe7-d2cb-47e4-a258-4ca449f1cc8c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.israeltoday.co.il/NewsItem/tabid/178/nid/23617/Default.aspx?archive=article_title", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.975303053855896, "token_count": 509, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "More than three decades ago, Vietnamese refugees began to settle in Versailles, a then-isolated community in eastern New Orleans. By the early 2000s, this working-class enclave was home to 8,000 residents. But although the community had accomplished material successes, it remained divided between older immigrants and American-born youth. Many Versailles residents felt like perpetual outsiders in greater New Orleans, ignored by the local government.\nA Village Called Versailles is the incredible story of this little-known, tight-knit community in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. When the storm devastated New Orleans in August 2005, Versailles residents rebuilt their neighborhood faster than any other damaged neighborhood in the city, only to find themselves threatened by a new toxic landfill slated to open just two miles away. Forced out of Vietnam by the war 30 years ago, many residents felt their homes were being taken away from them once again.\nBy January 2006, more than half of the neighborhood has been rebuilt, financed by friends and family, with no help from FEMA. Community leaders put together an ambitious redevelopment plan for Versailles, including its own senior housing, a cultural center, and a community farm and market. But New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin exercised his emergency power to open Chef Menteur Landfill mere miles from Versailles for toxic debris disposal from Katrina \u2014 without getting an environmental impact study first.\nOutraged, Versailles fought back. Residents protested at City Hall and crowded public hearings by the hundreds, making the Vietnamese community\u2019s presence felt in New Orleans for the first time. As elders and youth fought side by side \u2014 chanting in English and Vietnamese \u2014 Versailles finally won a political voice.\n- S. Leo ChiangProducer/Director", "id": "<urn:uuid:7b80449d-abf7-4c78-9bc2-0fe80269a58f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.itvs.org/films/village-called-versailles", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9616667628288269, "token_count": 357, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Why Does Copper Turn Green?\nCopper turns green because of chemical reactions with the elements.\nFor the same reason that iron rusts.\nJust as iron that is left unprotected in open air will corrode and form a flaky orange-red outer layer, copper that is exposed to the elements undergoes a series of chemical reactions that give the shiny metal a pale green outer layer called a patina.\nThe patina actually protects the copper below the surface from further corrosion, making it a good water-proofing material for roofs (which is why the roofs of so many old buildings are bright green).\nIn fact, the weathering and oxidation of the Statue of Liberty's copper skin has amounted to just .005 of an inch over the last century, according to the Copper Development Association.\nMORE FROM LiveScience.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:74fec3df-1ff7-4026-9308-fe6758e0d9e2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.livescience.com/32487-why-does-copper-turn-green.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9179847240447998, "token_count": 169, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Functions in Lisp\n|Column Tag:||Lisp Listener\n\"Functions in Lisp\"\nBy Andy Cohen, Human Factors Engineering, Hughes Aircraft, MacTutor Contributing Editor\nAs you may recall from the first installment of the Lisp Listener, a procedure is a description of an action or computation. A primitive is a predefined or \"builtin\" procedure (e.g. \"+\"). As in Forth, Lisp can have procedures which are defined by the programmer. DEFUN, from DEfine FUNction, is used for this purpose. The syntax for DEFUN in Experlisp is as follows:\n(DEFUN FunctionName (symbols)\n(All sorts of computations which may or may Not use the values\nrepresented by the symbols))\nThe function name is exactly that. Whenever the name is used the defined procedure associated with that function name is performed. The symbols are values which may or may not be required by the procedures within the defined function. If required, the values must follow the function name. When given, these values are assigned to the symbol. This is similar to the way values are assigned to a symbol when using SETQ. It is easier to see how DEFUN works when observed within an example:\n;(DEFUN Reciprocal (n)\n(/ 1 n))\nThe word \"Reciprocal\" is the function name and the numbers following are the values for which the reciprocal (1/n) are found. After the list containing DEFUN is entered and the carriage return is pressed the function and it's title are assigned a location in memory. The function name is then printed in the Listener window.\n;(DEFUN Square (x)\n(* x x))\n;(DEFUN Cubed (y)\n(* y (* y y))\n;(DEFUN AVERAGE (W X Y Z)\n(/ (+ W X Y Z) 4))\n;(Average 2 3 4 5)\nYou might recognize \"Average\" from last month's Lisp Listener. One might imagine using defined functions inside other defined functions. If it was possible to have variables which have the same values in each procedure, then the version of Lisp used has what is called dynamic scoping. In this context the values of the variable are determined by the Lisp environment which is resident when the procedure is called. Experlisp, however, is lexically scoped. That means that variable values are local to each procedure. Two defined procedures can use the same labels for variables, but the values will not be considered as the same. Each variable is defined locally. This is in accordance to the Common Lisp standard. Lexical scoping makes it easier to debug someone elses'' programs. If you don't know what I mean yet, don't worry. This subject will come up again in more detail later.\nIf no values are required by the defined function then \"nil\" or an empty list must follow the function name.\n;(DEFUN Line ()\nThe empty list obviously contains no atoms (I'll describe the above function, \"Line\" later in the section on bunnies). It is synonymous to the special term nil, which is considered by Lisp as the opposite of T or True. Nil is used in many other contexts.\n;(cddr '( one two))\nIn the above, the first cdr returns \"two\". The second cdr returns nothing, hence \"nil\". The values of true and false are returned by procedures called predicates. While nil represents a false condition, anything other then nil, including \"T\", is generally considered true. Please note that I used lowercase letters in the above. ExperLisp recognizes both upper and lowercase. I've been using uppercase only to make it clear within the text when I'm referring to Lisp\nEQUAL is a predicate which checks the equality of two arguments. Note the arguments can be integers or symbols. If the two arguments are equal then \"T\" is returned. If they are not equal then \"nil\" is returned.\n;(EQUAL try try)\n;(EQUAL 6732837 6732837)\n;(EQUAL 6732837 6732833)\n;(EQUAL First Second)\nATOM checks to see if it's argument is a list or an atom. Remember, the single quote is used to indicate that what follows is a not evaluated as in the case of a list. Symbols are evaluated.\n;(ATOM (A B C D))\nIn the first of the above 'thing is an atom due to the single quote. In the second, thing is considered a symbol. A symbol is evaluated and contains a value or values as a list. In the third, (A B C D) is obviously a list.\nLISTP checks if it's argument is a list.\n;(LISTP '( 23 45 65 12 1))\n;(SETQ babble '(wd ihc wi kw))\nOne interesting observation is that nil is both an atom and a list, ()=nil. Therefore ATOM and LISTP both return true for nil.\nWhen one needs to know if a list is empty, NULL does the job.\n;(NULL (X Y Z))\nNUMBERP checks if the argument that follows is or represents a number rather than a string.\n;(SETQ fifty-six '(56))\nNow for a real slick one. MEMBER tests whether or not an argument is a part of a list. An easy demonstration follows:\n;(MEMBER 'bananas (apples pears bananas))\n;(apples pears bananas)\n;(MEMBER 'grapes (apples pears bananas))\nWhen the argument is a member, then the contents of the list are given. If not then nil is returned. MEMBER also checks symbols of lists.\n;(SETQ fruit '(apples grapes pears))\n;(MEMBER 'grapes fruit)\n; (apples grapes pears)\n;(MEMBER 'banana fruit)\nEVENP tests to see if an integer is even and MINUSP checks if an integer is negative. ODDP and PLUSP are not needed since they are simply opposite of the first two.\n;(EVENP (- 806 35))\n;(MINUSP (-34 86))\nIn the second and fourth examples above the lists contained within are calculated prior to MEMBERP evaluation. (806-35=771 & 34-86=-52. There's a few more simple predicates such as NOT, <, >, and ZEROP. I'll discuss them along with conditionals next month. Now for something completely different.\nIf you've ever learned Logo, the concept of Bunny graphics should sound familiar. As mentioned last month, the Bunny is Expertelligence's version of the Turtle. All one needs to do in order to make a Bunny move is to tell it to. FORWARD X initially moves the Bunny upwards on the screen for 'X' display pixels. A negative number initially moves it down. When one enters the following in the Listener window,\nthe default graphics window (I'll discuss windows in more detail very soon in future installments) is then opened and the following is drawn:\nRIGHT X aims the front of the line to the right by X degrees. If one then uses forward again the line moves in a different direction. For example:\n;((RIGHT 50) (FORWARD 50))\nor better yet\n(RIGHT 50) (FORWARD 50))\nAfter a line is moved, the end of the line remains where it was. If one made the Bunny move again the beginning of the new line would begin where the old left off. The original starting point is the graphics window default home position. This position is in the center of each graphics window when the window is first created. In order to return the Bunny to the original starting point one must use HOME.\nThe following produces a much neater triangle:\n(DEFUN Triangle ()\n(Penup) (Left 45)\n(Forward 10) (Pendown)\n(Right 90) (Forward 25)\n(Right 90) (Forward 50)\n(Right 135) (Forward 71)\n(Right 135) (Forward 25))\nAfter the above is typed into the edit buffer the \"Compile All\" selection should be chosen from the Menu Bar. The source code in the Edit Buffer quickly inverts to white letters on a black background as if the whole file was selected for a moment. The function name \"Triangle is then printed in the Listener window. If the user enters the following in the Listener Window a different triangle is drawn in the default Graphics Window:\nIf you Look at the in Triangle you will see a couple more Bunny commands. LEFT does the same as RIGHT but in the opposite direction. PENUP raises the Bunny's pen so that when the Bunny moves no lines are drawn. PENDOWN returns the Bunny to the drawing orientation. The first line of code in \"Triangle\" puts the Bunny off the Home position so that the drawn triangle will be centered on the screen. As mentioned earlier, the orientation of the bunny remains. The last line of code in \"Triangle left the Bunny aimed at about 1:00 rather than the initial position, 12:00. If we were to make \"Triangle\" execute ten times without eliminating the Graphics Window the following would result:\nIn getting \"Triangle\" to execute recompilation of the code in the edit buffer is not necessary. To get the above one can type the function name into a list ten times within the Listener window. The following however, is easier:\n;(Dotimes (a 10) (Triangle))\nDOTIMES is very similar to the FOR...NEXT looping routine in BASIC. I'll discuss it next month in a description of iteration and recursion in ExperLisp.\nIf we wanted to use a three dimensional bunny then the following would be added before \"Triangle\" in the Edit Buffer window:\n(SETQ curbun (new3dbun))\n(Pitch 30) (Yaw 45) (Roll 50)\nSomething like the following is drawn after the source code is recompiled and \"(Triangle)\" is entered into the Listener Window:\nCURBUN is a special symbol in ExperLisp which always refers to the Bunny cursor. NEW3DBUN is a special term which always changes CURBUN. The default Bunny is 2 dimensional. If one wanted the Spherical Bunny then the following would be entered into the beginning of the first version of \"Triangle\":\n(SETQ curbun (newspbun))\nThis would then produce what follows:\nIn order to have the above drawn in a different orientation, different Bunny direction would be required. Windows, two and three dimensional Bunny graphics and toolbox graphics use the same X,Y coordinate system. Home is 0,0. Dual negative coordinates are situated towards the upper left corner. Dual positive coordinates are situated towards the lower right corner. The range is +32767 to -32768 for each dimension. In ExperLisp one can sometimes use the third dimension, as in the 3D sample of \"Triangle\". Negative Z values are behind Home, while positive Z values are in front. The following illustrates the coordinate system in ExperLisp:\nThe ExperLisp disk contains three essential files; Compiler, LispENV and Experlisp. Compiler is not actually the entire Lisp compiler. It contains the information needed in generating all of the higher level Lisp syntactics, such as the Bunny graphics. LispENV stands for Lisp Environment and it is simply a duplication of Compile. LispENV contains information on how the Macintosh memory was organized by the programmer and ExperLisp during the previous session. It also contains information on the system configuration such as the number of disk drives, the amount of memory, etc. Sometimes LispENV can be messed up (i.e. by changing the variable table). When this happens one might not be able to start ExperLisp. In this case LispENV should be removed from the disk. Afterward, when ExperLisp is opened, Compiler generates a new LispENV. Compiler is not needed on the disk unless the LispENV is ruined. Deleting it will provide 100K more space on the disk. Before eliminating it from the disk however, be sure you have a backup as it is an essential file. The Experlisp file contains the assembly language routines which represent the lower level Lisp routines like CAR and CDR. It also allows access to the Macintosh toolbox routines and contains the Listener Window. One opens the Experlisp file in starting a programming session with ExperLisp. Another file on the disk is automatically loaded and activated when Experlisp is booted. It is labeled \u00aalispinit. The contents of this file can be added to so that when one boots up ExperLisp a program can be automatically executed. It can also do automatic configurations. However the contents of \u00aalispinit should not be changed since it configures the Macintosh memory for Exper- Lisp.\nNext month I'll discuss a few more predicate procedures. I also hope to start discussing iteration, recursion and conditionals. If there is enough room left over I might also begin discussing how to access the toolbox graphics.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9ed9dd59-1ad8-422d-be1a-e1d062d262b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.01/01.08/FunctionsinLisp/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8776571154594421, "token_count": 2807, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Lifestyle and home remediesBy Mayo Clinic staff\nYou'll probably need to make lifestyle changes to stop cycles of behavior that worsen your bipolar disorder, and to make sure you get the support you need from people in your life. Here are some steps to take:\n- Quit drinking or using illegal drugs. One of the biggest concerns with bipolar disorder is the negative consequences of risk-taking behavior and drug or alcohol abuse. Get help if you have trouble quitting on your own.\n- Steer clear of unhealthy relationships. Surround yourself with people who are a positive influence and won't encourage unhealthy behavior or attitudes that can worsen your bipolar disorder.\n- Get regular exercise. Moderate, regular exercise can help steady your mood. Working out releases brain chemicals that make you feel good (endorphins), can help you sleep and has a number of other benefits. Check with your doctor before starting any exercise program, especially if you're taking lithium to make sure exercise won't interfere with your medication.\n- Get plenty of sleep. Sleeping enough is an important part of managing your mood. If you have trouble sleeping, talk to your doctor or mental health provider about what you can do.\n- Bipolar disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/bipolar-disorder/complete-index.shtml. Accessed Nov. 2, 2011.\n- Bipolar disorders. The Merck Manuals: The Merck Manual for Healthcare Professionals. http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric_disorders/mood_disorders/bipolar_disorders.html#v1028598. Accessed Nov. 2, 2011.\n- Mood disorders. In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR. 4th ed. Arlington, Va.: American Psychiatric Association; 2000. http://www.psychiatryonline.com. Accessed Nov. 3, 2011.\n- Practice parameter for the assessment and treatment of children and adolescents with bipolar disorder. Washington, D.C.: American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. http://www.aacap.org/cs/root/member_information/practice_information/practice_parameters/practice_parameters. Accessed Nov. 2, 2011.\n- Joska JA. Mood disorders. In: Hales RE, et al. The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry. 5th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2008. http://www.psychiatryonline.com/pracGuide/pracGuideChapToc_8.aspx. Accessed Nov. 3, 2011.\n- Martinez M, et al. Psychopharmacology. In: Hales RE, et al. The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry. 5th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2008. http://www.psychiatryonline.com/content.aspx?aID=320111. Accessed Nov. 3, 2011.\n- Post RM. Bipolar disorder in adults: Maintenance treatment. http://www.uptodate.com/home/index.html. Accessed Nov. 2, 2011.\n- Andreescu C, et al. Complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of bipolar disorder: A review of the evidence. Journal of Affective Disorders. 2008;110:16.\n- Sarris J, et al. Bipolar disorder and complementary medicine: Current evidence, safety issues, and clinical considerations. The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine. 2011;17:881.\n- Hall-Flavin DK (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Nov. 8, 2011.", "id": "<urn:uuid:69740281-9f63-49c1-a87e-83a1e1c51dfa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/bipolar-disorder/DS00356/DSECTION=lifestyle-and-home-remedies", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7621911764144897, "token_count": 777, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Peter S. Jensen, M.D., of the Department of Psychiatry and Psychology at Mayo Clinic, combines use of an ADHD rating scale and Mayo Clinic's electronic medical record (EMR) to track the progress of children diagnosed as having ADHD over time and across health care providers.\n\"The ADHD rating scale and side effects measures assess key aspects of the child's progress when used with consistency. The EMR pushes physicians to use the rating scale consistently and allows us to record its results, as completed by teachers and families, to track symptoms and progress over time,\" says Dr. Jensen.\nThe combination of the rating scale and the EMR creates a reliable tracking process that is also a safeguard for both patients and physicians. \"Pediatric patients' needs change as they age,\" says Dr. Jensen. \"The EMR, coupled with rating scales, allows us to note when patients are doing well\u2014and when they are not. We can view a patient's evolving needs and modify treatment on the basis of a complete record of progress.\"\nThe system also provides information that allows health care providers to reassure the family about the need for medications. \"Across the United States, families go through 11 different health care providers on average before they find one that they fully trust to advise them. If families don't trust medications\u2014a huge issue\u2014they don't use them. The markers and double-checks in the EMR provide information that allows physicians to help reassure the family that they're making an informed choice,\" says Dr. Jensen.\nThe rating scale in the EMR includes questions that help health care providers rule out abuse and vision problems for patients. \"Research shows that we can have 95% diagnostic accuracy if we use this type of system properly,\" says Dr. Jensen.\nThe Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology makes an effort to engage families fully in the health care process. \"Input from the patient, family, and teachers is crucial,\" says Dr. Jensen. \"Not just parents, but even kids can become experts at recognizing the symptoms, particularly as they grow older. The EMR tracking procedures become critical teaching and communication tools in that process.\"\nFor pediatricians, family medicine physicians, child psychiatrists, and psychologists (especially those trained long ago), incorporation of these kinds of assessment and treatment tools involves a learning process.\n\"In other areas of medicine, physicians learn by hands-on practice. They don't learn surgery by viewing slide shows. We are changing the way we are learning in our division and our continuing education courses,\" says Dr. Jensen.\nTraining includes role-playing, feedback from specialists, and 6 months of coaching with 8 to 10 physicians on weekly conference calls. Participants earn up to 30 hours of continuing medical education credits. More than 600 health care providers have completed the program.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3626b642-a70d-448a-bd68-abff8f492615>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mayoclinic.org/medicalprofs/electronic-medical-record-adhd.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9598113298416138, "token_count": 567, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bright Light at Night Could Up Depression Risk, Mouse Study Suggests\nLatest Depression News\nWEDNESDAY, Nov. 14 (HealthDay News) -- A new study suggests that when the sun goes down, you might end up happier and better able to learn new things if you turn down all the lights -- even your computer screen.\nUnfortunately, the research was done just with mice. But because they share the same set of special light-activated cells in their eyes that humans have -- known as ipRGCs -- it may be that the comparisons could apply to people.\nThose cells, called intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells, are stimulated by bright light, which affects the brain's mood, memory and learning centers, the researchers said.\n\"Expose yourself to bright light in the day and avoid it at night,\" suggested study co-author Samer Hattar, an associate professor of biology and neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University, in Baltimore. \"That will keep the ipRGCs that affect mood from being activated.\"\nThe research was published online in the Nov. 14 in the journal Nature.\nHattar said the research team was initially interested in whether seasonal affective disorder (SAD) -- a form of depression people sometimes experience in the lower-light winter months -- applied to mice. They exposed mice to an alternating cycle of 3.5 hours of light and then 3.5 hours of darkness. The mice got depressed.\nHow do you know that a mouse is sad? They take less interest in sugar and move less in the cage, and they have trouble learning and remembering, Hattar explained. When the mice were given Prozac (fluoxetine), a commonly prescribed antidepressant, their symptoms went away.\nTo understand the role of the retina's neurological circuits in affecting mood, memory and learning, the researchers studied animals that didn't have the specialized ipRGC cells.\nWithout them, the irregular light schedule did not impair mood and cognitive (thinking) function, even though their vision and general light detection ability remained intact. This showed that light affects learning and mood directly through these special photosensitive retinal cells, Hattar said.\nThe researchers created light-exposure patterns for the mice that allowed the scientists to rule out the possibility that circadian rhythm and sleep disruption were responsible for the changes in mood and learning ability they observed.\nCircadian rhythms are physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in an organism's environment, according to the U.S. National Institutes of Health.\nOne expert questioned whether the mice's normal circadian rhythm was indeed maintained. \"Perhaps even though the overall sleep timing pattern remained intact, the quality of their sleep deteriorated,\" suggested Tony Tang, an adjunct professor in the department of psychology at Northwestern University, in Evanston, Ill.\nTang also found an important difference between how humans are exposed to light at night in modern life and how the reaction of mice to light was tested during the research.\n\"In the current study, the poor mice ended up having bright lights shining on them while they slept; but for humans in the past century, we've stayed up while we kept lights on, and then turned the lights off when we sleep,\" he said.\nScientists note that research with animals often fails to provide similar results in humans.\nStudy co-author Hattar said the study should be replicated in human subjects. \"But even if it comes out not as clear as it did in mice, I think there will be some benefit for people to turn down their lights at night. I don't think there is any harm in it.\"\nCopyright \u00a9 2012 HealthDay. All rights reserved.\nSOURCES: Samer Hattar, Ph.D., associate professor, biology and neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore; Tony Tang, Ph.D., adjunct professor, department of psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.; Nov. 14, 2012, Nature online\nGet the latest health and medical information delivered direct to your inbox FREE!", "id": "<urn:uuid:32446cfb-c04e-4991-a019-eebec1d9459d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=165072", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9560173749923706, "token_count": 830, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Exquisite workmanship and lavish use of precious materials distinguish this sword as a princely weapon and exemplifies the opulence and refinement of Ottoman luxury arts. Almost identical to a yatagan (now in the Topkapi Palace, Istanbul) made in 1526\u201327 by the court jeweler Ahmed Tekel, for the Ottoman sultan S\u00fcleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520\u201366), this sword was undoubtedly made in the same imperial workshop. The gold incrustation on the blade depicts a combat between a dragon and a phoenix against a background of foliate scrolls. These figures, like the gold-inlaid cloud bands and foliate scrolls on the ivory grips, are Chinese in inspiration, and were probably introduced into Ottoman art through contacts with Persia. This sword is one of the earliest known yatagans, distinctly Turkish weapons characterized by a double-curved blade and a hilt without a guard. Yatagans were commonplace in Turkey and the Balkans in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and served as sidearms for the elite troops known as janissaries.", "id": "<urn:uuid:aa045dba-e3c9-459f-90f2-0c158451c935>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/40003187?high=on&rpp=15&pg=1&rndkey=20120811&ft=*&when=A.D.+1400-1600&where=Istanbul%7CTurkey&what=Arms%7CBone%7CIron+and+iron+alloy%7CMetal%7CTurquoise&pos=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9569393992424011, "token_count": 225, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "ZOO 102 Primates\n3 Credit Hours \u2022 67.5 Contact Hours (Lecture/Lab Combination)\nInvestigate evolutionary concepts and trends including primate fossil records. Students will examine the taxonomic classification of primates and primate history and participate extensively in behavioral studies that require the acquisition and assemblage of data. Students will gain successful understanding of primate groups, morphology, adaptations, social structures, and conservation issues affecting a multitude of species. Exploring primatology in a thorough study will enable students to compare and contrast learned behaviors from a variety of other animal species as well as adapt techniques from a psychological perspective.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a3851e59-c8a1-4e2d-8ea5-701dfc30caae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ppcc.edu/app/catalog/current/zoo-102-primates.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8867921233177185, "token_count": 128, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "I highly recommend the Golden Spider Silk exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum, where the world\u2019s largest piece of cloth, made entirely from spider silk is being exhibited. The exhibition will run from the 25th January to the 5th June. Spider silk is an extremely strong material and on a weight basis is stronger than steel. These spiders are found throughout the tropics, in countries such as Madagascar, and are known as Gold orb weavers because of their gold coloured web. These spiders, large enough to fill the palm of your hand, are in fact blind. Their eyes are only able to vaguely detect changes in light. Instead they rely on a keen sense of touch to feel vibrations on their web and track down the entangled prey. The work of producing golden silk is completely a female endeavour! \u2013 the male spider does not produce silk \u2013 and it is a completely environmentally friendly process. However, as they are cannibals the spiders cannot be in close proximity to one another.\nIt took eight years to make the cloth using silk from 1.2 million Madagascar Golden orb spiders (nephila madagascariensis). The exhibition is the result of the work of two men, Briton Simon Peers who has lived in Madagascar since 1989, and his partner Nicholas Godley whose grandmother was born in Madagascar.\nFor more information visit the Victoria and Albert Museum website.\nAbout our guest blogger: Anita has travelled extensively around the world, she is interested in art and history, and loves discovering new places!", "id": "<urn:uuid:8bcfb650-9926-4472-b2fd-766b258aeeb2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rainbowtours.co.uk/blog/index.php/2012/05/golden-spider-silk/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.969987690448761, "token_count": 306, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sprained ankles are relatively common in tennis players. Roger Federer, Andy Roddick and Andrew Murray have all suffered sprained ankles. The sudden sideways movements that are required during tennis can cause the ankle to twist, particularly if the surface is slippery or the player is fatigued.\nA twisted ankle causes damage to ligaments and other soft tissues around the ankle. This is called a Sprained Ankle. The damage causes bleeding within the tissues, which produces a swollen ankle that can be extremely painful.\nWhat can you do to prevent Sprained Ankles?\nApplying an ankle brace to the ankle can help to reduce the risk of ankle sprains and it's a strategy that is employed by tennis pros such as Andrew Murray and Roger Federer.\nPrevious research has shown the injury incidence in people with taped ankles was 4.9 ankle sprains per 1000 participant matches, compared with 2.6 ankle sprains per 1000 participant matches in students wearing ankle braces. This compared with 32.8 ankle sprains per 1000 participant matches in subjects that had no taping or bracing.\nWhat should you do if you suffer a Sprained Ankle?\nIn the first few days following an ankle sprain it is important to follow the PRICE protocol - protection, rest, ice, compression and elevation (never apply ice directly to the skin). An Ankle Cryo/Cuff is the most effective method of providing ice therapy and is the professional's choice. A Cryo/Cuff is ideal for home use as it is the safest and most effective method of ice therapy. It can provide continuous ice cold water and compression for 6 hours and significantly reduce ankle pain and swelling. Alternatively if you have to apply ice at home, the use of an Ice Bag is recommended. This is a safe method of ice application to avoid the risk of an ice burn.\nRehabilitation with a Chartered PhysiotherapistA member of the Chartered Society of Physiotherapy, signified by the initials MCSP.','',250)\" onmouseout=hideddrivetip() ;>chartered physiotherapist significantly improves the level of ankle function. Wobble board training in the later rehab stage is designed to assist the re-education of the ProprioceptiveRelating to the system by which nerve receptors in skin, muscle, ligament and joint tissue relay information to the brain about body position sense, where this information is quickly processed and movement strategies are formulated and executed using nerve signals to muscles.','',250)\" onmouseout=hideddrivetip() ;>proprioceptive system. Previous research has suggested that patients with ankle instability who underwent wobble board training experienced significantly fewer recurrent sprains during a follow-up period than those who did not follow the training programme.\nIMPORTANT SAFETY NOTICE The articles on this web site are provided for general information only and should not be used as a basis for diagnosis or treatment. All exercises and information featured on this web site should only be practised under the supervision of a qualified healthcare professional\n02-23-2009, 06:13 PM\nI noticed Andy Murray hampered by his ankle again today, he did manage to win with a retirement in the final set by his oponent, looks bad for the rest of the week though !\n02-26-2009, 12:37 PM\nNow reported Andy has a virus and has suffered with it since the Australian Open ! he has pulled out of the quarters in Dubai now, rest a while Andy and get 100% fit again before playing tennis again !", "id": "<urn:uuid:00b14d5d-1673-45b2-802f-160f36350f67>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.tennisw.com/forums/printthread.php?t=6327&pp=15&page=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9485711455345154, "token_count": 728, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Osgood-Schlatter disease is a painful swelling of the bump on the front, upper part of the lower leg bone. This bump is called the anterior tibial tubercle.\nCauses, incidence, and risk factors:\nOsgood-Schlatter disease is thought to be caused by small, usually unnoticed, injuries caused by repeated overuse before growth of the area is complete. The disorder is seen most often in active, athletic adolescents, usually between ages 10 and 15. It is common in adolescents who play soccer, basketball, and volleyball, and who participate in gymnastics. Osgood-Schlatter disease affects more boys than girls.\nThe main symptom is a painful swelling just below the knee on the front (anterior) surface of the lower leg bone. Symptoms occur on one or both legs.\nThe person may have leg pain or knee pain , which gets worse with running, jumping, and climbing stairs.\nThe area is tender to pressure, and swelling ranges from mild to very severe.\nSigns and tests:\nYour doctor can tell if you have this condition by performing a physical exam.\nA bone x-ray may be normal, or it may show swelling or damage to the tibial tubercle. X-rays are rarely used unless the doctor wants to rule out other causes for the pain.\nTreatment starts with rest, ice, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen. In many cases, the condition will get better using these methods.\nIn the rare case where symptoms do not go away, a cast or brace may be used to support the leg until it heals. This typically takes 6 - 8 weeks. Crutches may be used for walking to keep weight off the painful leg.\nRarely, surgery may be needed.\nMost cases get better on their own after a few weeks or months. Most cases eventually go away once the child finished growing.\nAdolescents should be allowed to play sports if the activity does not cause discomfort. However, the condition will get better faster if such activity is kept to a minimum.\nChronic pain is the most significant complication.\nCalling your health care provider:\nCall your health care provider if your child has knee or leg pain, or if pain does not get better with treatment.\nThe small injuries that may cause this disorder are usually unnoticed, so prevention may not be possible. Regular stretching, both before and after exercise and athletics, can help prevent injury.\nPatel DR. Musculoskeletal injuries in sports. Prim Care. Jun 2006; 33(2): 545-79.\nCassas KJ. Childhood and adolescent sports-related overuse injuries. Am Fam Physician. Mar 2006; 73(6): 1014-22.\nMercier LR. Osgood-Schlatter disease. Ferri\u2019s Clinical Advisor: Instant Diagnosis and Treatment. 9th ed. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2009:593.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c6ac7415-82cb-4dc9-877f-b6542823cce7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.texashealth.org/well-being_template_connected-inner.cfm?id=5351&action=detail&AEArticleID=001258&AEProductID=Adam2004_1&AEProjectTypeIDURL=APT_1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.90570068359375, "token_count": 620, "score": 3.71875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.\nCompete | FAQ | Contact Us\nCome To Your Senses\nOur main objective in designing \"Come To Your Senses\" was to learn how to develop a Web site that would be useful and interesting for other students our age. We also wanted to learn everything that we could about the senses from a variety of materials so that we could then teach other students what we learned through the use of the Internet.\nAnother goal was to make learning about the senses more interesting and exciting through the use of technology. For example, we used several visual aids and created links to other interesting Web sites.\nWe hope to make the students' learning experiences more active and to allow them to have some hands-on activities. We feel that through the use of visual aids, \"Sense-sational Activities\" and \"Sense-sational Facts\" students can better understand the information.\n19 & under\nHealth & Safety > Human Anatomy", "id": "<urn:uuid:b249d43e-feeb-4429-b87f-3d81e68d61bc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thinkquest.org/pls/html/f?p=52300:100:1984982674782429::::P100_TEAM_ID:501572195", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.951805591583252, "token_count": 208, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How did this happen? Nearly twice as many women die of lung cancer than breast cancer, and three times as many men die of lung cancer than prostate cancer. Yet, lung cancer receives little public notice and even less research funding. The lung cancer survival rate for both men and women has remained virtually unchanged for more than three decades and, today, lung cancer remains among the most virulent and deadly diseases.\nPerhaps it is because the prevalent myth about lung cancer is that the only people who get it are smokers. Fact: Eighty percent of those who suffer and die from lung cancer have never smoked or quit smoking decades ago.\nYears ago, the states sued the tobacco companies and won. Yet the resulting revenue from what is called the Master Settlement Agreement did not deliver a single cent to lung cancer research.\nNow in California, Proposition 29 will be on the June 5 ballot and, if passed, will increase the cigarette tax by $1 per pack. Should it pass, 60 percent of its funding is earmarked for grants and loans to support research into the prevention, detection and treatment of cancers and other tobacco-related illnesses, plus smoking prevention among children. While not exclusively tagged for lung cancer, the bill is expected to deliver $700 million annually.\nNot surprisingly, it is strongly opposed by the tobacco industry.\nNationally, the Lung Cancer Mortality Reduction Act (H.R. 1394 and S. 754) would encourage lawmakers to make lung cancer a national public health priority and calls for a comprehensive plan to address all aspects of the disease. The legislation authorizes multiple government agencies to develop a comprehensive plan of action to coordinate prevention, early detection and treatment research.\nThe National Lung Cancer screening trial that concluded in November 2010 shows that by using CT screening for early detection, the mortality rate can be reduced by 20 percent, which is greater than PSA screening for prostate cancer, mammography for breast cancer and colonoscopies for colon cancer. Other studies show that the mortality rate can be reduced as much as 90 percent using CT scans for early detection.\nJust this month, news out of the national Lung Cancer Alliance also shows that treating early stages of lung cancer is much cheaper than treating late stages. This issue opens the door for insurance companies to cover early detection screening for those at high risk.\nWhile both of California\u2019s U.S. senators have signed on to S. 754, too many others \u2013 even those who have lost family members to lung cancers \u2013 continue not to join in on the theory, or excuse, that other agendas are \u201cmore important.\u201d Yet the number of other states\u2019 leaders of all parties backing this legislative \u201ccall to action\u201d on lung cancer continues, fortunately, to gain in strength and numbers.\nStill, there\u2019s work to be done. Lung cancer is responsible for one out of three cancer deaths, and funding still trails the levels of other major cancers. (Lung cancer gets about $1,250 per death; breast cancer $26,500.) Survival rates, too, have all increased for other cancers yet remain unchanged for lung cancer.", "id": "<urn:uuid:22382a91-1a5a-4ecd-9911-6d28c3069953>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2012/apr/19/the-stepchild-cancer-that-needs-our-attention/?page=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9558117985725403, "token_count": 636, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Editors Note: This post is a modified version of an article that originally appeared in the Virginiana section of Virginia Memory.\nThe Watkins Family Papers (Accession 42063) include certificates, newspaper clippings, photographs, postcards, programs, and yearbooks documenting a prominent African American family in New Kent County, Virginia. While much of the collection consists of Jones and Watkins family photographs from Richmond and New Kent County, the collection is also significant for its connection to the struggle for school desegregation in Virginia.\nDr. George Washington Watkins (1898-1972) was born in Pickens County, South Carolina, the son of James and Lattie Watkins. He received a Bachelor of Arts degree (and later an Honorary Doctorate of Divinity) from Virginia Union University, and a Master of Arts degree from Hampton Institute.\nWatkins is perhaps best known for his work in education, chiefly as principal of the New Kent Training School (renamed the George W. Watkins School in 1950). This school played an important role in the education of African Americans in the area and was at the center of one of the most significant school integration rulings to follow Brown v. Board of Education (1954). He was also a pastor, heading congregations at Second Liberty Baptist Church of Quinton, and Elam Baptist Church of Ruthville.\nIn 1930, there were 15 elementary schools in New Kent County, Virginia. Although \u2026 read more \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:5f1959b4-cf56-41d4-a15a-9f7eff11f3bc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.virginiamemory.com/blogs/out_of_the_box/tag/charles-c-green-v-county-school-board-of-new-kent-county/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9658434391021729, "token_count": 294, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By: Doris Hausleitner\nDate: September 2005\nTeetering, the downy juvenile owl hops onto the edge of the cavity, wobbles its head around in a dizzying circle and furiously flaps its wings. The mother, perched on a nearby branch, keeps a watchful eye on her chick\u2019s progress.\nThis fledgling Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis) is her hope for the future and the only addition to the dwindling population of Canada\u2019s Northern Spotted Owls in 2005. A precipitous population decline has sparked concern among biologists and environmentalists alike.\nHabitat modeling and population analysis suggests the historical population of Northern Spotted Owls in BC was around 500 pairs. With only 6 pairs and 9 individual birds, the Northern Spotted Owl is the most endangered bird in Canada.\nWhat the Northern Spotted Owl has in common with the Western Screech (Otus kennicottii macfarlanei) and Flammulated Owl (Otus flammeolus), listed as endangered and threatened, respectively, is a requirement for old-growth habitat. The Northern Spotted Owl is resident in coastal and interior Douglas-fir forests and requires a home-range size of approximately 3,400 ha.\nScientists believe the Northern Spotted Owl\u2019s need for old-growth habitat is related to reproduction, thermoregulation, and availability of prey. Their nests are in hollow chimneys, large cavities, branches, or are made from sticks. Spotted owls prey primarily on flying squirrels, pack rats, and other small mammals which can be readily found and captured in an old-growth forest. Additionally these owls have a tendency to overheat. In old-growth they can move vertically along temperature gradients to regulate their body temperature.\nFlammulated Owls tend to be found in drier Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine forests in BC\u2019s interior. They nest in old-growth habitat with a selection of available cavities and little undergrowth. Their breeding home-range size is 16 ha. Flammulated Owls are strictly nocturnal and prey upon moths and other insects. Due to the nature of their diet, they are migratory. They nest in British Columbia and winter in the southern USA and Mexico.\nWestern-Screech Owl habitat is associated with riparian areas and mature deciduous trees. In interior British Columbia, these owls occur in riparian forests containing black cottonwood, trembling aspen or water birch. The coastal sub-species is found in mixed forests of broadleaf maple, red alder, Douglas-fir and western hemlock. They are cavity-nesting individuals and their diet varies from insects to small mammals.\nBC Hydro\u2019s Bridge-Coastal Fish and Wildlife Restoration program, BC Conservation Foundation, Ministry of Environment and the St\u2019at\u2019imc First Nations have contributed to a study conducted by Doris Hausleitner and Vicky Young. Their objective was to inventory these three threatened and endangered owls within the BC Hydro footprint\u2013\u2013land affected by dams.\nTheir research emphasizes the decline in the Northern Spotted Owl population in Canada and expands knowledge of the distribution of Western Screech and Flammulated owls in British Columbia. To learn more about the ecology and conservation of threatened and endangered local owls you are welcome to attend free presentations in:\nSquamish: Monday, Sept. 26, 8:00 pm, Brackendale Art Gallery. (Hosted by the Squamish Environmental Society.)\nWhistler-: Tuesday, Sept. 27th, 7:30 pm, Myrtle Philip Community School. (Hosted by the Whistler Naturalists.)\nPemberton: Wednesday, Sept. 28th, 6:30 pm, Room 111, Pemberton Community Center.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7d4fc200-60b6-4296-8e38-67e5c5db4451>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.whistlernaturalists.ca/?page_id=183", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9220702648162842, "token_count": 807, "score": 3.8125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Unfortunately, the modern buildings we live and work in rival cars and factories as sources of harm to the environment, contributing to deforestation, global warming, overuse of water and energy and carbon dioxide emissions.\nSustainable building refers to those buildings that are built to have the least impact on the natural environment, both in terms of the building itself, its immediate surroundings and the broader global setting. To construct in a sustainable way, some basic rules need to be followed: (a) minimization of non-renewable resource consumption; (b) enhancement of the natural environment; and (c) elimination or minimization of toxic emissions.\nAlmost every step of the green building process is heavily focused on how building elements fit together to optimize efficiency and sustainability.\nSustainable development marries two important themes:\n1. Environmental protection does not preclude economic development.\n2. Economic development must be ecologically viable now and in the long term.\n\u201cSustainable design\u201d involves the planning and development of projects in a manner that minimizes impact on natural resources, such as water and energy. There are many aspects to the sustainable process, one of which involves \u201cLEED\u201d principles \u2013 Leadership in Engineering and Environmental Design, with standards for selecting materials and designing facilities established by the U.S. Green Building Council. Zurn strongly encourages organizations to consider including cost-effective and environmentally friendly practices in the design, construction and retrofit of buildings and facilities. In this way, your buildings and facilities not only exemplify your care for the environment and the well-being of the community that you serve, but they also decrease facility operating and maintenance costs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:180acaf8-94ec-4f00-abe3-803c9ec9f24d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.zurn.com/Pages/SustainabilityProcess.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704392896/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516113952-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9480338096618652, "token_count": 336, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "While all curriculum areas share some of the same issues and concerns, individual curriculum areas seem to also have concerns specific to them and their courses. This list looks at the top ten concerns for social studies teachers.\n1. Breadth vs. Depth\nSocial studies standards are often written so that it is virtually impossible to cover all the required material in the school year. For example, in World History\n, the National Standards require such breadth of material that it is impossible to do more than just touch on each topic.\n2. Dealing with Controversial Topics\nMany social studies courses deal with sensitive and at times controversial issues. For example, in World History\nteachers are required to teach about religion. In American Government\n, topics like abortion and the death penalty can sometimes lead to heated debates. In these instances, it is important for the teacher to maintain control of the situation.\n3. Making Connections to Students' Lives\nWhile some social studies courses like Economics\nand American Government\nlend themselves well to making connections to students and their lives, others do not. It can be tough to connect what was going on in Ancient China\nto a 14 year old's daily life. Social Studies teachers have to work very hard to make these topics interesting.\n4. Need to Vary Instruction\nIt can be very easy for Social Studies teachers to stick to one method of instruction. There is a tendency to give a great deal of lectures\n. It can be very tough to cover the depth of material without relying on lectures and whole group discussions. Of course, there are some teachers who go to the other extreme and have mainly projects and role playing experiences. The key is to balance the activities.\n5. Staying at the Lower Level of Bloom's Taxonomy\nBecause much of teaching social studies revolves around names, places, and dates, it is very easy to create assignments and tests that do not move beyond the Recall level of Bloom's Taxonomy\n6. History Is InterpretationThere is no such thing as \"history\" because it is truly in the eye of the beholder. Social Studies texts were written by humans and therefore are biased. A perfect example is two American Government texts that my school was considering adopting. It was obvious throughout that one was written by a conservative and the other by a liberal political scientist. Further, history texts might describe the same event in a different way based on who wrote them. This can be a tough one for teachers to deal with at times.\n7. Multiple PrepsSocial Studies teachers are often faced with having to teach multiple preps. This can be especially tough for the newer teachers who have to prepare so many new lessons from scratch.\n8. Too Much Reliance on TextbooksSome social studies teachers rely too much on their textbooks in class. Unfortunately, there are ditto masters out there who basically assign the students to read from their text and then answer a particular number of questions.\n9. Some Students Have a Dislike of HistoryMany students come into a Social Studies class with a particular dislike of history. Some will complain that it has nothing to do with their lives. Others will just say it's boring.\n10. Dealing With False KnowledgeIt is not rare for students to come into your class with inaccurate historical information that they were either taught at home or in other classes. This can be really hard to combat. One year I had a student who swore that Abraham Lincoln had slaves. There was really nothing I could to dissuade them of this belief. They had learned in in 7th grade from a teacher they loved. This can be really difficult to handle at times.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7003655b-434e-423e-91fa-38b9b5bdeb26>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://712educators.about.com/od/socialstudies/tp/social_studies_concerns.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702764749526978, "token_count": 737, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Terrorism Act No 83 of 1967 (commenced 27 June) allowed the detention of an individual by a policeman of rank lieutenant-colonel or greater. Terrorism was very broadly defined in the Act and included most common criminal behaviour. People could be held indefinitely since the act allowed detention until all questions were satisfactorily answered or until no further useful purpose would be achieved by keeping the person in detention. Those held under the act were only permitted to be visited by a magistrate one every two weeks. No one else was allowed access (except the police and security services, of course).\nUnlike the previous 90-day (General Law Amendment Act No 37 of 1963) and 180-day (Criminal Procedure Amendment Act No 96 of 1965) detention laws the public was not entitled to information about people held, including their identity this meant that people could effectively 'disappear' for official legal reasons.\nIn order to cover those arrested for the Rivonia trial and for anti-Apartheid acts in both South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) the Act was applied retroactively to 27 June 1962.\nRepealed by the Internal Security and Intimidation Amendment Act 138 of 1991.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e7bd41d8-3c25-4a0f-a450-c184ad1b30cb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://africanhistory.about.com/cs/apartheidlaws/g/No83of67.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9792196154594421, "token_count": 241, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On this day in 1836, the City of Davenport was platted and named.\nIn order to understand the weight of history behind that simple sentence, one would have to look back at least to the treaty, signed on September 21, 1832, that ended the Black Hawk War and sold the land west of the Mississippi River to the United States government.\nChief Keokuk, considered by the United States to be the official leader of the Sac-Fox tribes, presented several acres on the bank of the Mississippi to Marguerite LeClaire, who was the granddaughter of Acoqua, a Sac chief, and wife to Antoine LeClaire, a government translator who assisted with the treaty. A condition of this gift was that the LeClaires build their home on the exact spot where General Scott signed the treaty. In the spring of 1833, Antoine built a log cabin on the site, later replacing it with a small clapboard house.\nAccording to historian Franc Wilkie,* two other men had a prior claim to the gifted land. Forestalling a challenge, Antoine bought this quarter section from \u201cDr. Spencer and Mr. McCloud\u201d for the boggling price (at the time) of \u201cone hundred and fifty dollars!\u201c Mr. Wilkie went on to comment that \u201cA splendid illustration is the sale of the immense fortunes made in the West by . . . judicious investment.\u201d\nBut Antoine had plans. In the fall of 1835, he formed a company to organize the establishment of a town near what had come to be called the Treaty House. Among these gentlemen were Col. George Davenport, Major Thomas Smith, Alexander McGregor, Levi S. Colton, Philip Hambaugh, and Captain James May.\nThe company decided on the specific location of the new town with an eye to drainage, water power, and freedom from mosquito-laden marshes. They paid Antoine $1,750 for this perfect site, in which he retained an eighth interest. It was decided to name the town after Col. George Davenport.** And on May 14 of the following year, Major Gordon, a stockholder in the company, surveyed and laid the town out in a pattern of 7 blocks by 6 blocks-between Front Street (now River Drive) to 6th Street, and from Warren Street on the east side to Harrison on the west.\nDavenport has grown just a little since then, beginning with Antoine LeClaire\u2019s First Addition in 1841, which added Main and Brady Streets to the west side. From 42 blocks to 62 square miles in a little under 175 years-not bad!\nThis 1841 plat map shows the Original Town of Davenport as laid out 5 years previously,\nplus the 8 blocks of LeClaires 1st Addition on the east side.\n* Mr. Wilkie\u2019s Davenport Past and Present was published in 1858, only 22 years after the founding of Davenport. One might think a town that young wouldn\u2019t have generated enough of a past to warrant an entire book\u2014but Mr. Wilkie and we beg to differ.\n**A decision which deserves a blog entry of its own.\n(posted by Sarah)", "id": "<urn:uuid:22b1b452-9355-4995-a2a6-e21a1237b950>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blogs.davenportlibrary.com/sc/2009/05/14/happy-birthday-davenport/comment-page-1/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9668888449668884, "token_count": 679, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Should you choose to learn BSL using Makaton principles, the vocabulary stages are as follows:\nMum, Dad, Brother, Sister, Drink, Drink of Water, Biscuit, Dinner x2, Food, Toilet, Bed, Chair, Table, Washbasin, Bath, Shower, House, Home, Car, Bus, I, Me, You, Where, What, Here, There, To Sleep, To Drink, To Eat x2, To Look, To See, To Stand, To Get Up, To Sit, To Wash x2, To Bath, To Shower, To Go, To Come x2, To Give x2, More, Good x2, OK, Bad, Please, Thank You, Hello, Good Morning, Goodbye.\nMan, Lady, Boy, Girl, Baby, Bread, Butter, Egg, Chapatti, Dal, Rice, Yoghurt, Noodles, Milk, Tea, Coffee, Juice, Sugar, Cake, Jam, Ice Cream, Knife, To cut with Knife, Fork, Spoon, Plate, Cup, Door, Window x2, Fire, Radiator, TV, Lamp, Phone, To Phone, Dog, Cat, Bird, Tree, Flower, Book, Teddy, Doll, Bricks, Ball, And, Hot x2, Cold, Clean, Dirty.\nChocolate, Crisps, Sweet, Cigarette, Banana, Orange, Apple, Fish, Rabbit, Chicken, Horse, Cow, Pig, Sheep, Butterfly, Boat, Train, Plane, Bike, To Have, To Run, To Walk, To Kick, To Dig, To Ride, To Ride a Horse ,To Ride a Bike, To Swim, To Jump, To Jump Off, To Jump On, To Jump Over, To Climb x2, To Fall Off, To Fall Over, To Smoke, Big, Small, Little, Up, Down, My, Your, Mine, Yours, Sorry, Now.\nTeacher, Boss, Friend, Children, Name, School, Work, Outside, Cupboard, Pen, Pencil, Paper, Scissors, Picture, Sand, Water, String, Paint, Key, Box x2, To Put, To Create, To Do, To Sew x2, To Cook x2, To Sing, To Play, To Know, To Think, To Work, To Read, To Write, To Draw, To Paint, To Colour, To Cut, To Teach, To Build x2, To Create, To Break, We x2, Us x2, They x2, Them x2, In x2, On, Under.\nNurse, Doctor, Milkman, Milkwoman, Postman, Postwoman, Policeman, Policewoman, Police Officer, Firefighter, Ambulanceman, Ambulancewoman, Shop, Supermarket, Road, Garden, Blaze, Postbox, Money, Bag, Letter, Stamp, Time, Watch, To Carry, To Throw, To Catch, To Stop, To Help x2, To Like, To Want, To Love, To Quarrel, Quick, Fast, Slow, Happy, Sad, Difficult, Easy, Hard, Soft, Strong, Heavy, Clever, Angry, Frightened, To Be Patient, Trouble, Mistake, But.\nCountry, Town, Sea, Cinema, Disco, Holiday, To Start, To End x2, To Bring, To Ask, To Talk, To Listen, To Hear, Can, To Forget, To Grow x2, Same, Different, New, Old, Beautiful, Smart, Nice, Kind, Our x2, Ours x2, Their x2, Theirs x2, Another, With, Who, Which, Colour, Black, Blue, Brown, Green, Orange, Red, White, Yellow.\n1-10, How, How Much, How Many, How Old, Many, A Lot, Some, Few, Time, Hour, Today, Tomorrow, Yesterday, Next Week, Last Week, Next Year, Last Year, Long Time Ago, Saturday, Sunday, Night, Day, When, Always, Again, Late, Early, Before, After, Wages, To Buy, To Save, Careful, Expensive, Sun, Rain, Wind, Snow, Stars, Moon, Sky, Snowman.\nTo Choose, To Win, To Dance, To Find, To Understand, To Remember, Birthday, Party, Present, Balloon, Photo, Camera, Mirror, Radio, Newspaper, Video Camera, Video Tape, Video Recorder, Music, Stereo x2, Audio Tape, Cassette Player, CD, Computer, First, Last, Next, Over, Through, Near x2, Between, Lucky, Hungry, Thirsty, Worried, True, Why, Because.\nDeaf, Blind, Communication Problem, Medicine, Tablet, Injection, Operation, Sick, Ill, Pain, Dead x2, Hearing Aid x2, Glasses, Wheelchair, How are you, People, Airman, Airwoman, Soldier, Sailor, King, Queen, Prince, Princess, Farmer, Clothes, To Dress, To Undress, Hairbrush, To Brush Hair, Comb, To Comb, Shaver, To Shave, Toothbrush, To Brush Teeth, Soap, Towel, Bacon, Bagel, Beer, Burger, Canned Drink, Cereal, Cheese, Chicken, Chips, Curry, Fish, Fruit, Meat, Naan, Pasta, Pie, Pitta, Pizza, Potato, Salad, Sandwich, Sausages, Soup, Tomato, Vegetables, Wine, Al Salam Alicoom, Namaste, Shalom, Room, Bedroom, Bathroom, Dining Room, Lounge, Kitchen, A, The, This, That, You x4, Your x2, Yours x2, To Open x17, To Close x17.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fdca5ca2-7b92-41c5-92c4-fed6fe7de470>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://bslforkids.com/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7472521662712097, "token_count": 1218, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Caring for a loved one with dementia poses many challenges for families and caregivers. People with dementia from conditions such as Alzheimer\u2019s and related diseases have a progressive brain disorder that makes it more and more difficult for them to remember things, think clearly, communicate with others, or take care of themselves. In addition, dementia can cause mood swings and even change a person\u2019s personality and behavior. This Fact Sheet provides some practical strategies for dealing with the troubling behavior problems and communication difficulties often encountered when caring for a person with dementia.\nTen Tips for Communicating with a Person with Dementia\nWe aren\u2019t born knowing how to communicate with a person with dementia\u2014but we can learn. Improving your communication skills will help make caregiv-ing less stressful and will likely improve the quality of your relationship with your loved one. Good communication skills will also enhance your ability to handle the difficult behavior you may encounter as you care for a person with a dementing illness.\n1. Set a positive mood for interaction. Your attitude and body language communicate your feelings and thoughts stronger than your words. Set a positive mood by speaking to your loved one in a pleasant and respectful manner. Use facial expressions, tone of voice and physical touch to help convey your message and show your feelings of affection.\n2. Get the person\u2019s attention. Limit distractions and noise\u2014turn off the radio or TV, close the curtains or shut the door, or move to quieter sur-roundings. Before speaking, make sure you have her attention; address her by name, identify yourself by name and relation, and use nonver-bal cues and touch to help keep her focused. If she is seated, get down to her level and maintain eye contact.\n3. State your message clearly. Use simple words and sentences. Speak slowly, distinctly and in a reassuring tone. Refrain from raising your voice higher or louder; instead, pitch your voice lower. If she doesn\u2019t understand the first time, use the same wording to repeat your message or ques-tion. If she still doesn\u2019t understand, wait a few minutes and rephrase the question. Use the names of people and places instead of pronouns or abbreviations.\n4. Ask simple, answerable questions. Ask one question at a time; those with yes or no answers work best. Refrain from asking open-ended ques-tions or giving too many choices. For example, ask, \u201cWould you like to wear your white shirt or your blue shirt?\u201d Better still, show her the choices\u2014visual prompts and cues also help clar-ify your question and can guide her response.\n5. Listen with your ears, eyes and heart. Be patient in waiting for your loved one\u2019s reply. If she is struggling for an answer, it\u2019s okay to suggest words. Watch for nonverbal cues and body language, and respond appropriately. Always strive to listen for the meaning and feelings that underlie the words.\n6. Break down activities into a series of steps. This makes many tasks much more manageable. You can encourage your loved one to do what he can, gently remind him of steps he tends to forget, and assist with steps he\u2019s no longer able to accomplish on his own. Using visual cues, such as showing him with your hand where to place the dinner plate, can be very helpful.\n7. When the going gets tough, distract and redirect. When your loved one becomes upset, try changing the subject or the environment. For example, ask him for help or suggest going for a walk. It is important to connect with the person on a feeling level, before you redirect. You might say, \u201cI see you\u2019re feeling sad\u2014I\u2019m sorry you\u2019re upset. Let\u2019s go get something to eat.\u201d\n8. Respond with affection and reassurance. People with dementia often feel confused, anxious and unsure of themselves. Further, they often get reality confused and may recall things that never really occurred. Avoid trying to convince them they are wrong. Stay focused on the feelings they are demonstrating (which are real) and respond with verbal and physical expressions of comfort, support and reassurance. Sometimes holding hands, touching, hugging and praise will get the person to respond when all else fails.\n9. Remember the good old days. Remembering the past is often a soothing and affirming activity. Many people with dementia may not remember what happened 45 minutes ago, but they can clearly recall their lives 45 years earlier. Therefore, avoid asking questions that rely on short-term memory, such as asking the person what they had for lunch. Instead, try asking general questions about the person\u2019s distant past\u2014this information is more likely to be retained.\n10. Maintain your sense of humor. Use humor whenever possible, though not at the person's expense. People with dementia tend to retain their social skills and are usually delighted to laugh along with you.\nHandling Troubling Behavior\nSome of the greatest challenges of caring for a loved one with dementia are the personality and behavior changes that often occur. You can best meet these challenges by using creativity, flexibility, patience and compassion. It also helps to not take things personally and maintain your sense of humor.\nTo start, consider these ground rules:\nWe cannot change the person. The person you are caring for has a brain disorder that shapes who he has become. When you try to control or change his behavior, you\u2019ll most likely be unsuccessful or be met with resistance. It\u2019s important to:\nTry to accommodate the behavior, not control the behavior. For example, if the person insists on sleeping on the floor, place a mattress on the floor to make him more comfortable.\nRemember that we can change our behavior or the physical environment. Changing our own behavior will often result in a change in our loved one\u2019s behavior.\nCheck with the doctor first. Behavioral problems may have an underlying medical reason: perhaps the person is in pain or experiencing an adverse side effect from medications. In some cases, like incontinence or hallucinations, there may be some medication or treatment that can assist in managing the problem.\nBehavior has a purpose. People with dementia typically cannot tell us what they want or need. They might do something, like take all the clothes out of the closet on a daily basis, and we wonder why. It is very likely that the person is fulfilling a need to be busy and productive. Always consider what need the person might be trying to meet with their behavior\u2014and, when possible, try to accommodate them.\nBehavior is triggered. It is important to understand that all behavior is triggered\u2014it doesn\u2019t occur out of the blue. It might be something a person did or said that triggered a behavior or it could be a change in the physical environment. The root to changing be-havior is disrupting the patterns that we create. Try a different approach, or try a different consequence.\nWhat works today, may not tomorrow. The multiple factors that influence troubling behaviors and the natural progression of the disease process means that solutions that are effective today may need to be modified tomorrow\u2014or may no longer work at all. The key to managing difficult behaviors is being creative and flexible in your strategies to address a given issue.\nGet support from others. You are not alone\u2014there are many others caring for someone with dementia. Call your local Area Agency on Aging, the local chapter of the Alzheimer\u2019s Association, a Caregiver Resource Center or one of the groups listed below in Resources to find support groups, organizations and services that can help you. Expect that, like the loved one you are caring for, you will have good days and bad days. Develop strategies for coping with the bad days (see the FCA Fact Sheet, Dementia, Caregiving and Controlling Frustration).\nThe following is an overview of the most common dementia-associated behaviors with suggestions that may be useful in handling them. You\u2019ll find additional resources listed at the end of this Fact Sheet.\nPeople with dementia walk, seemingly aimlessly, for a variety of reasons, such as boredom, medication side effects or to look for \u201csomething\u201d or someone. They also may be trying to fulfill a physical need\u2014thirst, hunger, a need to use the toilet or exercise. Discovering the triggers for wandering are not always easy, but they can provide insights to dealing with the behavior.\nMake time for regular exercise to minimize restlessness.\nConsider installing new locks that require a key. Position locks high or low on the door; many people with dementia will not think to look beyond eye level. Keep in mind fire and safety concerns for all family members; the lock(s) must be accessible to others and not take more than a few seconds to open.\nTry a barrier like a curtain or colored streamer to mask the door. A \u201cstop\u201d sign or \u201cdo not enter\u201d sign also may help.\nPlace a black mat or paint a black space on your front porch; this may appear to be an impassable hole to the person with dementia.\nAdd \u201cchild-safe\u201d plastic covers to doorknobs.\nConsider installing a home security system or monitoring system designed to keep watch over someone with dementia. Also available are new digital devices that can be worn like a watch or clipped on a belt that use global positioning systems (GPS) or other technology to track a person\u2019s whereabouts or locate him if he wanders off..\nPut away essential items such as the confused person\u2019s coat, purse or glasses. Some individuals will not go out without certain articles.\nHave your relative wear an ID bracelet and sew ID labels in their clothes. Always have a current photo available should you need to report your loved one missing. Consider leaving a copy on file at the police department or registering the person with the Alzheimer\u2019s Association Safe Return program (see Resources).\nTell neighbors about your relative\u2019s wandering behavior and make sure they have your phone number.\nThe loss of bladder or bowel control often occurs as dementia progresses. Sometimes accidents result from environmental factors; for example, someone can\u2019t remember where the bathroom is located or can\u2019t get to it in time. If an accident occurs, your understanding and reassurance will help the person maintain dignity and minimize embarrassment.\nEstablish a routine for using the toilet. Try reminding the person or assisting her to the bathroom every two hours.\nSchedule fluid intake to ensure the confused person does not become dehydrated. However, avoid drinks with a diuretic effect like coffee, tea, cola, or beer. Limit fluid intake in the evening before bedtime.\nUse signs (with illustrations) to indicate which door leads to the bathroom.\nA commode, obtained at any medical supply store, can be left in the bedroom at night for easy access.\nIncontinence pads and products can be purchased at the pharmacy or supermarket. A urologist may be able to prescribe a special product or treatment.\nUse easy-to-remove clothing with elastic waistbands or Velcro\u00d2 closures, and provide clothes that are easily washable.\nAgitation refers to a range of behaviors associated with dementia, including irritability, sleeplessness, and verbal or physical aggression. Often these types of behavior problems progress with the stages of dementia, from mild to more severe. Agitation may be triggered by a variety of things, including environmental factors, fear and fatigue. Most often, agitation is triggered when the person experiences \u201ccontrol\u201d being taken from him.\nReduce caffeine intake, sugar and junk food.\nReduce noise, clutter or the number of persons in the room.\nMaintain structure by keeping the same routines. Keep household objects and furniture in the same places. Familiar objects and photographs offer a sense of security and can suggest pleasant memories.\nTry gentle touch, soothing music, reading or walks to quell agitation. Speak in a reassuring voice. Do not try to restrain the person during a period of agitation.\nKeep dangerous objects out of reach.\nAllow the person to do as much for himself as possible\u2014support his independence and ability to care for himself.\nAcknowledge the confused person\u2019s anger over the loss of control in his life. Tell him you understand his frustration.\nDistract the person with a snack or an activity. Allow him to forget the troubling incident. Confronting a confused person may increase anxiety.\nRepetitive speech or actions (perseveration)\nPeople with dementia will often repeat a word, state-ment, question or activity over and over. While this type of behavior is usually harmless for the person with dementia, it can be annoying and stressful to caregivers. Sometimes the behavior is triggered by anxiety, boredom, fear or environmental factors.\nProvide plenty of reassurance and comfort, both in words and in touch.\nTry distracting with a snack or activity.\nAvoid reminding them that they just asked the same question. Try ignoring the behavior or question and distract the person into an activity.\nDon\u2019t discuss plans with a confused person until immediately prior to an event.\nYou may want to try placing a sign on the kitchen table, such as, \u201cDinner is at 6:30\u201d or \u201cLois comes home at 5:00\u201d to remove anxiety and uncertainty about anticipated events.\nLearn to recognize certain behaviors. An agitated state or pulling at clothing, for example, could indicate a need to use the bathroom.\nSeeing a loved one suddenly become suspicious, jealous or accusatory is unsettling. Remember, what the person is experiencing is very real to them. It is best not to argue or disagree. This, too, is part of the dementia\u2014try not to take it personally.\nIf the confused person suspects money is \u201cmissing,\u201d allow her to keep small amounts of money in a pocket or handbag for easy inspection.\nHelp them look for the object and then distract them into another activity. Try to learn where the confused person\u2019s favorite hiding places are for storing objects, which are frequently assumed to be \u201clost.\u201d Avoid arguing.\nTake time to explain to other family members and home-helpers that suspicious accusations are a part of the dementing illness.\nTry nonverbal reassurances like a gentle touch or hug. Respond to the feeling behind the accusation and then reassure the person. You might try saying, \u201cI see this frightens you; stay with me, I won\u2019t let anything happen to you.\u201d\nRestlessness, agitation, disorientation and other troubling behavior in people with dementia often get worse at the end of the day and sometimes continue throughout the night. Experts believe this behavior, commonly called sundowning, is caused by a combination of factors, such as exhaustion from the day\u2019s events and changes in the person\u2019s biological clock that confuse day and night.\nIncrease daytime activities, particularly physical exercise. Discourage inactivity and napping during the day.\nWatch out for dietary culprits, such as sugar, caffeine and some types of junk food. Eliminate or restrict these types of foods and beverages to early in the day. Plan smaller meals throughout the day, including a light meal, such as half a sandwich, before bedtime.\nPlan for the afternoon and evening hours to be quiet and calm; however, structured, quiet activity is important. Perhaps take a stroll outdoors, play a simple card game or listen to soothing music together.\nTurning on lights well before sunset and closing the curtains at dusk will minimize shadows and may help diminish confusion. At minimum, keep a nightlight in the person\u2019s room, hallway and bathroom.\nMake sure the house is safe: block off stairs with gates, lock the kitchen door and/or put away dangerous items.\nAs a last resort, consider talking to the doctor about medication to help the agitated person relax and sleep. Be aware that sleeping pills and tranquilizers may solve one problem and create another, such as sleeping at night but being more confused the next day.\nIt\u2019s essential that you, the caregiver, get enough sleep. If your loved one\u2019s nighttime activity keeps you awake, consider asking a friend or relative, or hiring someone, to take a turn so that you can get a good night\u2019s sleep. Catnaps during the day also might help.\nEnsuring that your loved one is eating enough nutritious foods and drinking enough fluids is a challenge. People with dementia literally begin to forget that they need to eat and drink. Complicating the issue may be dental problems or medications that decrease appetite or make food taste \u201cfunny.\u201d The consequences of poor nutrition are many, including weight loss, irritability, sleeplessness, bladder or bowel problems and disorientation.\nMake meal and snack times part of the daily routine and schedule them around the same time every day. Instead of three big meals, try five or six smaller ones.\nMake mealtimes a special time. Try flowers or soft music. Turn off loud radio programs and the TV.\nEating independently should take precedence over eating neatly or with \u201cproper\u201d table manners. Finger foods support independence. Pre-cut and season the food. Try using a straw or a child\u2019s \u201csippy cup\u201d if holding a glass has become difficult. Provide assistance only when necessary and allow plenty of time for meals.\nSit down and eat with your loved one. Often they will mimic your actions and it makes the meal more pleasant to share it with someone.\nPrepare foods with your loved one in mind. If they have dentures or trouble chewing or swallowing, use soft foods or cut food into bite-size pieces.\nIf chewing and swallowing are an issue, try gently moving the person\u2019s chin in a chewing motion or lightly stroking their throat to encourage them to swallow.\nIf loss of weight is a problem, offer nutritious high-calorie snacks between meals. Breakfast foods high in carbohydrates are often preferred. On the other hand, if the problem is weight gain, keep high-calorie foods out of sight. Instead, keep handy fresh fruits, veggie trays and other healthy low-calorie snacks.\nPeople with dementia often have difficulty remembering \u201cgood\u201d hygiene, such as brushing teeth, toileting, bathing and regularly changing their clothes. From childhood we are taught these are highly private and personal activities; to be undressed and cleaned by another can feel frightening, humiliating and embarrassing. As a result, bathing often causes distress for both caregivers and their loved ones.\nThink historically of your loved one\u2019s hygiene routine \u2013 did she prefer baths or showers? Mornings or nights? Did she have her hair washed at the salon or do it herself? Was there a favorite scent, lotion or talcum powder she always used? Adopting\u2014as much as possible\u2014her past bathing routine may provide some comfort. Remember that it may not be necessary to bathe every day\u2014sometimes twice a week is sufficient.\nIf your loved one has always been modest, enhance that feeling by making sure doors and curtains are closed. Whether in the shower or the bath, keep a towel over her front, lifting to wash as needed. Have towels and a robe or her clothes ready when she gets out.\nBe mindful of the environment, such as the temperature of the room and water (older adults are more sensitive to heat and cold) and the adequacy of lighting. It\u2019s a good idea to use safety features such as non-slip floor bath mats, grab-bars, and bath or shower seats. A hand-held shower might also be a good feature to install. Remember\u2014people are often afraid of falling. Help them feel secure in the shower or tub.\nNever leave a person with dementia unattended in the bath or shower. Have all the bath things you need laid out beforehand. If giving a bath, draw the bath water first. Reassure the person that the water is warm\u2014perhaps pour a cup of water over her hands before she steps in.\nIf hair washing is a struggle, make it a separate activity. Or, use a dry shampoo.\nIf bathing in the tub or shower is consistently traumatic, a towel bath provides a soothing alter-native. A bed bath has traditionally been done with only the most frail and bed-ridden patients, soaping up a bit at a time in their beds, rinsing off\nwith a basin of water and drying with towels. A growing number of nurses in and out of facilities, however, are beginning to recognize its value and a variation\u2014the \u201ctowel\nbath\u201d\u2014for others as well, including people with dementia who find bathing in the tub or shower uncomfortable or unpleasant. The towel bath uses a large bath towel and washcloths dampened in a plastic bag of warm water and no-rinse soap. Large bath-blankets are used to keep the patient covered, dry and warm while the dampened towel and washcloths are massaged over the body. For more information, see the book Bathing Without a Battle,\n(details in the Recommended Reading\nsection below), or visit www.bathingwithoutabattle.unc.edu/.\nAdditional Problem Areas\nDressing is difficult for most dementia patients. Choose loose-fitting, comfortable clothes with easy zippers or snaps and minimal buttons. Reduce the person\u2019s choices by removing seldom-worn clothes from the closet. To facilitate dressing and support independence, lay out one article of clothing at a time, in the order it is to be worn. Remove soiled clothes from the room. Don\u2019t argue if the person insists on wearing the same thing again.\nHallucinations (seeing or hearing things that others don\u2019t) and delusions (false beliefs, such as someone is trying to hurt or kill another) may occur as the dementia progresses. State simply and calmly your perception of the situation, but avoid arguing or trying to convince the person their perceptions are wrong. Keep rooms well-lit to decrease shadows, and offer reassurance and a simple explanation if the curtains move from circulating air or a loud noise such as a plane or siren is heard. Distractions may help. Depending on the severity of symptoms, you might consider medication.\nSexually inappropriate behavior, such as masturbating or undressing in public, lewd remarks, unreasonable sexual demands, even sexually aggressive or violent behavior, may occur during the course of the illness. Remember, this behavior is caused by the disease. Talk to the doctor about possible treatment plans. Develop an action plan to follow before the behavior occurs, i.e., what you will say and do if the behavior happens at home, around other adults or children. If you can, identify what triggers the behavior.\nVerbal outbursts such as cursing, arguing and threatening often are expressions of anger or stress. React by staying calm and reassuring. Validate your loved one\u2019s feelings and then try to distract or redirect his attention to something else.\n\u201cShadowing\u201d is when a person with dementia imitates and follows the caregiver, or constantly talks, asks questions and interrupts. Like sundowning, this behavior often occurs late in the day and can be irritating for caregivers. Comfort the person with verbal and physical reassurance. Distraction or redirection might also help. Giving your loved one a job such as folding laundry might help to make her feel needed and useful.\nPeople with dementia may become uncooperative and resistant to daily activities such as bathing, dressing and eating. Often this is a response to feeling out of control, rushed, afraid or confused by what you are asking of them. Break each task into steps and, in a reassuring voice, explain each step before you do it. Allow plenty of time. Find ways to have them assist to their ability in the process, or follow with an activity that they can perform.\nCredits and Recommended Reading\nBathing Without a Battle , by Ann Louise Barrick, Joanne Rader, Beverly Hoeffer and Philip Sloane, (2002), Springer Publishing, (877) 687-7476.\nCaring for a Person with Memory Loss and Confusion: An Easy Guide for Caregivers, (2002), Journeyworks Publishing, Santa Cruz, CA, (800) 775-1998.\nCommunicating Effectively with a Person Who Has Alzheimer's , (2002), Mayo Clinic Staff, www.mayoclinic.com/invoke.cfm?id=AZ00004\nSteps to enhancing communications: Interacting with persons with Alzheimer's disease. Chicago, IL: Alzheimer's Association, 1997. (Brochure) Order no. ED310Z Cost: Single copy free, call 800/272-3900\nSteps to Understanding Challenging Behaviors: Responding to Persons with Alzheimer\u2019s Disease, (1996), Alzheimer\u2019s Association, Chicago, IL. (800) 272-3900.\nThe Validation Breakthrough: Simple Techniques for Communicating with People with \u201cAlzheimer's-Type Dementia,\u201d Naomi Feil , 2nd Edition 2002, Health Professions Press, Baltimore, MD, (410) 337-8539.\nUnderstanding Difficult Behaviors:Some practical suggestions for coping with Alzheimer's disease and related illnesses , A. Robinson, B. Spencer, and L.White, (2001), Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI, (734) 487-2335.\nFamily Caregiver Alliance\n785 Market Street, Suite 750\nSan Francisco, CA 94103\nFamily Caregiver Alliance (FCA) seeks to improve the quality of life for caregivers through education, services, research and advocacy.\nThrough its National Center on Caregiving, FCA offers information on current social, public policy, and caregiving issues and provides assistance in the development of public and private programs for caregivers.\nFor residents of the greater San Francisco Bay Area, FCA provides direct support services for caregivers of those with Alzheimer\u2019s disease, stroke, traumatic brain injury, Parkinson\u2019s and other debilitating health conditions that strike adults.\nPractical Skills Training for Family Caregivers, Mary A. Corcoran, 2003, Family Caregiver Alliance, 785 Market Street, Suite 750,\nSan Francisco, CA 94103\nFCA Fact Sheets. All Family Caregiver Alliance Fact Sheets are available free online. Printed versions are $1.00 for each title\u2014send your requests to FCA Publications, 785 Market Street, Suite 750,\nSan Francisco, CA 94103. For the full list, see: www.caregiver.org/caregiver/jsp/publications.jsp?nodeid=345\nFCA Fact Sheet: Dementia, Caregiving and Controlling Frustration\nFCA Fact Sheet: Taking Care of YOU: Self-Care for Family Caregivers\nFCA Fact Sheet: Hiring In-Home Help\nFCA Fact Sheet: Community Care Options\nOther Web Sites\nAlzheimer's Disease Education and Referral (ADEAR) Center\nThis service of the National Institute on Aging offers information and publications on diagnosis, treatment, patient care, caregiver needs, long-term care, education and research related to Alzheimer\u2019s disease.\nThis service of the Administration on Aging offers information about and referrals to respite care and other home and community services offered by state and Area Agencies on Aging.\nAlzheimer\u2019s Association Safe Return Program\nA nationwide program that identifies people with dementia who wander away and returns them to their homes. For a $40 registration fee, families can register their loved one in a national confidential computer database. They also receive an identification bracelet or necklace and other identification and educational materials.\nThis fact sheet was prepared by Family Caregiver Alliance in cooperation with California\u2019s statewide system of Caregiver Resource Centers. Reviewed by Beth Logan, M.S.W., Education and Training Consultant and Specialist in Dementia Care. Funded by the California Department of Mental Health. \u00a9 2004 Family Caregiver Alliance. All rights reserved. FS-CGTU20050610.\nE-mail to a Friend", "id": "<urn:uuid:31aebd14-2236-4454-92bb-00085c62402b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://caregiver.org/jsp/content_node.jsp?nodeid=391&expandnodeid=384", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9341628551483154, "token_count": 5871, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The WHO confirms a most horrifying trend in their recent study: one billion individuals cannot afford paid health care of any kind. Reuters reports the issue is even more complicated than that, however. Each year, the high cost of medical care takes 100 million paying customers to the arms of poverty. Post resource - One billion people cannot afford health care, says WHO by Personal Money Store.\nNations that cannot afford medical care must improve efficiency\nThe WHO's global report on health care pays particular attention to financing, as the number of countries with large numbers of individuals who cannot afford medical care has growth significantly. It's extremely essential, with universal coverage as the goal, that there are methods to make medical care more affordable by doing things like fund-raising measures and improving taxes.\nWho\u2019s director of health systems financing in David Evans. He explained that individuals end up making the decision to go without medical care because of the current state of health care worldwide.\n\u201cWhen (health services) are not really affordable, it means you either choose not really to use them or you suffer severe financial hardship,\u201d he said.\nWorld Health Organization intends to improve worldwide medical care\nIn order to keep those who do pay for medical care from sliding into poverty, the World Health Organization recommends that health care and insurance business practices ought to be tweaked so that 15 to 20 percent of a country's total health spending amounts to direct, out-of-pocket payments. There are 33 low-to middle-income nations right now that pay way too much in out of pocket payments. Over 50 percent is paid for them. With the suggestion of sin, taxes, currency transaction taxes and wealth taxes in the report that governments could diversify their revenue sources with, there ought to be less spent.\nMedical care being unused\nHealth care is wasted when you will find one billion individuals world health organization can\u2019t afford to get it. According to WHO director general Margaret Chan, 20 percent to 40 percent of all worldwide medical care spending is wasted through purchase of expensive, unnecessary drugs and treatments. Lack of proper medical training also contributes to such inefficiency. Some countries end up paying 67 times more than the international average for some medications that they need. Many see this and know that solving the medical care dilemma isn\u2019t going to take place quickly.\n\"There is no magic bullet to achieving universal access,\u201d said Chan. \u201cNevertheless, a wide range of experiences from all more than the world suggests that nations can move forward faster.\"\nThe need for health care reform in India", "id": "<urn:uuid:fc86d172-c91b-44a9-9e42-4828777acef6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://community.lls.org/community/regatta/blog/2010/12/01/1-billion-people-cant-afford-basic-medical-care", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.95173180103302, "token_count": 520, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There are nearly two million known species on the planet. But many of those won't be around much longer; one out of every eight known bird species, one in four mammal species, and one in three amphibian species are at risk for extinction, according to the World Conservation Union (IUCN), which maintains the Red List, a catalog of the world's species classified according to their risk of extinction.\n\"It's supposed to inform conservation practice, to be a wake-up call for the extinctions that are happening,\" says Caroline Pollock, a program officer with the Red List unit. Animals that are classified as \"critically endangered\" are at the highest risk--their numbers in the wild may be extraordinarily low or their territories incredibly small. \"It is possible to bring them back,\" Pollock says, \"but it is quite work-intensive and financially expensive.\" Here, a look at five species on the brink.\nNative to Spain and Portugal, there are fewer than 250 of these felines left in the wild. Habitat destruction has been a major cause of its decline as agriculture spreads through its homeland. Additionally, disease has claimed a large percentage of the region's rabbits, one of the lynx's primary food sources. Intensive captive breeding programs are currently underway to help save the lynx, Pollock says. If they do disappear, the lynx will be the first wild cat to go extinct in more than 2,000 years.\nThe wild population of these frogs has declined more than 80 percent in the last decade. The plummeting numbers of the frogs, which are endemic to Panama, is largely a result of chytridiomycosis, an infectious fungal disease that seems to be causing mass amphibian die-offs. The disease is still spreading, and deforestation is adding to the pressures faced by the frogs. Though there are captive-breeding programs in place for these amphibians, they will not be released into the wild until conditions improve.\nFewer than 100 of these birds, which are confined to one small island in Cape Verde, remain in the wild. The birds have been threatened by drought and increasing desertification on the island, conditions that may worsen as a result of global climate change. Because they build their nests on the ground, they also face risks from cats, dogs, and rats that have been introduced to the island.\nOnly 34 of these trees, native to Mexico, remain. The plants have a low rate of pollination--and don't reach maturity until they are approximately 25 years old--and are also profoundly threatened by agriculture. One tree was cut down in 2006 to expand farmland, and insecticides decrease the number of pollinators available to help the trees spread. Human-caused fires have also destroyed or damaged a number of these plants.\nIt could already be too late for the Yangtze River dolphin, or baiji. There has not been a documented sighting of these cetaceans, which lived in China's Yangtze River and nearby lakes, since 2002. A search for the dolphin--and the signature sounds that they make--was conducted in late 2006 but turned up no evidence of the mammals. However, further surveys are still needed to determine whether the dolphins truly have disappeared forever. The baiji's population decline is due, in large part, to the development of Chinese waterways and the expansion of commercial fishing.\nRead more on helping endangered species by breeding captive animals in DISCOVER's Recall of the Wild\nEmotion researcher Jaak Panksepp\nRead More \u00bb\nSign up to get the latest science news delivered weekly right to your inbox!", "id": "<urn:uuid:246be445-3dd9-4c3d-a6e4-a6d193647b45>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://discovermagazine.com/galleries/zen-photo/e/endangered-species", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9625113606452942, "token_count": 741, "score": 3.65625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Description from Flora of China\nHerbs, clambering subshrubs, shrubs, or lianas. Leaves alternate or opposite, entire, exstipulate. Flowers small, bisexual or unisexual, or sterile and reduced, subtended by 1 membranous bract and 2 bracteoles, solitary or aggregated in cymes. Inflorescences elongated or condensed spikes (heads), racemes, or thyrsoid structures of varying complexity. Bracteoles membranous or scarious. Tepals 3-5, membranous, scarious or subleathery, 1-, 3-, 5-, or 7(-23)-veined. Stamens as many as tepals and opposite these, rarely fewer than tepals; filaments free, united into a cup at base or \u00b1 entirely into a tube, filament lobes present or absent, pseudostaminodes present or absent; anthers (1- or)2-loculed, dorsifixed, introrsely dehiscent. Ovary superior, 1-loculed; ovules 1 to many; style persistent, short and indistinct or long and slender; stigma capitate, penicillate, 2-lobed or forming 2 filiform branches. Fruit a dry utricle or a fleshy capsule, indehiscent, irregularly bursting, or circumscissile. Seeds lenticular, reniform, subglobose, or shortly cylindric, smooth or verruculose.\nMorphology of the androecium, perianth (tepals), and the inflorescence has traditionally been used to circumscribe genera and tribes. Pseudostaminodia are interstaminal appendages with variously shaped apices. Filament appendages are the lateral appendages of filaments (one on each side). The basic structure of the inflorescence is the cyme (branchlets arising from the bracteole axils, the bracteoles serving as bracts for upper flowers), which can be reduced to one flower with two bracteoles and a bract. Units of dispersal vary considerably (capsules opening with lower part persistent, flower and bracteoles falling together, or cymose partial inflorescences breaking off above bract) and can be characteristic for genera. Several genera possess long trichomes serving dispersal at the base of the tepals.\nDigera arvensis Forssk\u00e5l (Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 65. 1775) has been reported from Anhui. However, we have seen no specimens and are therefore unable to treat it in this account.\nAbout 70 genera and 900 species: worldwide; 15 genera (one introduced) and 44 species (three endemic, 14 introduced) in China.\n(Authors: Bao Bojian (\u5305\u4f2f\u575a) ; Steven E. Clemants , Thomas Borsch)\nInstitute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 20 Nanxincun, Xiangshan, Beijing 100093, Peoples Republic of China.\nHerbarium, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 1000 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, New York 11225-1099, U.S.A.\nAbteilung Systematik und Biodiversit\u00e4t, Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten, Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universit\u00e4t Bonn, Meckenheimer Allee 170, D-53115 Bonn,\nKuan Ke-chien. 1979. Amaranthaceae. In: Kung Hsien-wu & Tsien Cho-po, eds., Fl. Reipubl. Popularis Sin. 25(2): 194\u2013241.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6d422f8f-ce27-435f-a538-4985a467ce12>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=620&taxon_id=10031", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7586379647254944, "token_count": 800, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "One of the greatest composers of all time, Franz JosephHaydn made an enormous contribution in the creation and development of virtually all musical forms and genres. 1760, Haydn was appointed the official musician for the Esterhazy Princes. Only in 1790, Haydn was released and allowed to travel. Haydn went to London where he became the most important and influential musician. Haydn retired in Vienna still being in the service of Prince Nikolaus. Haydn remains one of the most popular musicians.", "id": "<urn:uuid:904fe78e-1aa3-4ae2-82a8-987d562d6f4a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://everynote.com/orchestralparts.choose/0/58/58/1175.note", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.969534158706665, "token_count": 104, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bringing new beetles to light\n2012 REU Project:\nThe beetle family Staphylinidae \u2013 the rove beetles \u2013 is the largest beetle family in the world, with over 57,000 species and nearly 3,600 genera already described. Several hundred new species and at least two dozen new genera are described every year, the largest proportion of them from Asia. The faunas of Australia, New Zealand, and southern South America also include many new genera awaiting naming and description but have received less attention. This relative lack of attention means that even identifying specimens belonging to described genera is difficult, because there are no comprehensive identification guides. International collaborative work is just beginning on two guides to beetle genera, one focused on Australia and one on southern South America, similar to the two-volume work American Beetles published in 2000 and 2002. Margaret Thayer is a coordinator of the rove beetle chapters of both guides, and hopes to describe the 20 currently known new genera from those areas so they can be included in these guides. The guides will promote more detailed work on those faunas by any researchers, including describing additional species, synthesizing information on all the species, and analyzing their distributions and evolution. This REU project will involve primarily describing one of the new genera (and, if necessary, new species) belonging to the subfamily Omaliinae, based on existing museum specimens from the collections of The Field Museum and others. The intern might also help with some aspects of work on other genera.\nResearch methods and techniques: Research work will include training in beetle skeletal morphology; dissecting, microscopy, and imaging techniques (probably including some SEM \u2013 scanning electron microscopy); databasing and georeferencing specimen collecting records; and using the georeferenced records to map the known distribution of one or more species. The intern will work with the sponsoring curator on writing, for publication, a modern description of the genus with illustrations (drawings, digital macro- and microphotos, SEM) and comparisons to other genera of Omaliinae. This project will provide experience with museum collections, entomological study techniques, and scientific literature on rove beetles. It may also involve developing and/or testing identification keys, potentially either traditional dichotomous or interactive ones. Although not directly involving the genus being studied, some local fieldwork would be possible to enable the intern to see other rove beetles in the field.\nCurator/Advisor: Dr. Margaret Thayer (Zoology - Insects)\nREU Intern: ANTHONY DECZYNSKI\nEntomology/Wildlife Conservation double major\nUniversity of Delaware\nSymposium Presentation Title: Wingless in Tasmania: A New Genus of Flightless Rove Beetle from Tasmania (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Omaliinae)\nSymposium Presentation Abstract: The family Staphylinidae \u2013 the rove beetles \u2013 is the largest family of beetles in the world and also one of the least understood. There are currently over 57,000 described species in over 3,600 genera and more are still being discovered at a rapid rate. In this project we describe a new flightless staphylinid genus from Tasmania belonging to the tribe Omaliini of the subfamily Omaliinae, extending knowledge of the highly endemic Australian fauna. We studied the beetles whole as dry specimens and in alcohol as well as cleared and dissected in permanent or temporary microscope slides. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) allowed us to examine and image selected characters not clearly visible with optical microscopy. Using these sources of data we prepared descriptions and images of the beetles including species-specific genitalic structures and compiled all known distributional and ecological data. We added the genus into an ongoing phylogenetic analysis of World Omaliini by the second author to infer its phylogenetic placement. While we initially believed that this genus consisted of a single undescribed species from Tasmania we discovered that there are actually two species inhabiting different areas of that island. Several other genera of Omaliini have austral disjunct distributions that probably reflect an ancient origin on Gondwana. Our new genus needs to be compared carefully with several undescribed species of wingless Omaliinae known from southern New Zealand to assess whether they are all phylogenetically close \u2013 representing another disjunct genus \u2013 or convergently wingless.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9e05d8ba-8b8a-4ce4-91da-c14334f00dc4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://fieldtrip@fieldmuseum.org/about/bringing-new-beetles-light", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9301124811172485, "token_count": 910, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Meiser repeats the \"reported history\" of the Apollo:\nHicham and Ali Aboutaam readily admitted to gaps in the Apollo's ownership record. From what they were able to determine, the statue was owned by a German family in the early 1900s. World War II forced them to flee, leaving their belongings behind.It could be true. But where is the certified documentation?\nIn the 1990s, a surviving member returned to the family estate after the fall of East Germany. In the backyard lay a pile of debris. He could only make out the bronzed head of a young man, a sculpted hand, the outline of a lizard.\nThe man vaguely recalled seeing the statue in the garden as a child, but he knew nothing of its history. Believing the cost of repair would be greater than its value, he sold the statue to a Dutch dealer in 1994, who in turn sold it to another collector, who then sold it to the Aboutaams in 2001 with the understanding that he'd remain anonymous.\nAnd are all the investigations about the Apollo compelling? Meiser reports:\nThe International Art Loss Register in New York, which tracks stolen art, found no claims on the piece.But, as I have pointed out before, absence from the Art Loss Register does not signify anything when it comes to recently surfaced antiquities.\nOne thing is clear. There appears to be no evidence that the statue had spent time underwater and it thus looks like the Greek Government's claim that it came from a shipwreck is without foundation.\nMeiser then reviews some of the cases of antiquities handled by the Aboutaams, though she does not note an Etruscan architectural terracotta that has been returned from Princeton, or the Italian claim that some of Shelby White's antiquities came from \"the Aboutaam family, the owners of the Phoenix Ancient Art gallery\". Meiser quotes Neil Brodie who said that he \"would be acutely \"suspicious\" of anything that passed through the brothers' hands\". In contrast:\nBennett dismissed the allegations. He'd been dealing with the brothers for years. In his experience, they'd been nothing but forthcoming and ethical.If that is the case, what else has the Cleveland Museum of Art purchased from the brothers? Will the Cleveland Museum of Art make that list public? And, if transparency is important, there is every reason to place this information in the public domain.\nMeiser also touches on the Italian Government's request for the return of other items.\nDuring the trial of dealer Robert Hecht, the Italians cited eight pieces Hecht had sold to Cleveland.A much longer list of requested returns includes some material that has been around for quite a long-time (see, for example, Suzan Mazur, \"Italy Will Contest Medea Vase At Cleveland Museum\", Scoop.co.nz, October 9, 2006). Among the antiquities is the head of the emperor Balbinus from a marble sarcophagus (1925.945; gift of J.H. Wade) and a Roman silver cup from Vicarello acquired in 1966 (1966.371) but first known in 1866. But many of the other pieces have surfaced more recently and certainly after 1970.\nCleveland has apparently refused to comment on the Italian list, and seems to be taking a firm stand.\nBut talking to Bennett, one gets the sense that the museum won't be quick to wave a white flag. \"Our policy is really straightforward,\" he says. \"Anyone at anytime\" can protest an item's status. And \"If someone has information that proves [the piece was illegally purchased], the museum has an obligation to look at that evidence . . . The Cleveland Museum of Art wants to know as much as possible about the items in our exhibits.\"But Bennett misses the point. Can the Cleveland Museum of Art be certain that the pieces in question had not been looted? What was the Museum's due diligence process? Are the pieces documented prior to 1970? Who sold them?\nAt the same time, Bennett claims that all pieces are vigorously researched. Just because a dealer is charged doesn't mean all his deals were tainted. Hecht's case is ongoing.\nThe Museum needs to make this information available.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6e10312f-3993-4fcc-83a0-860ada692d78>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://lootingmatters.blogspot.jp/2008/03/cleveland-apollo-further-comments.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9723907709121704, "token_count": 871, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ratio and Proportion\nDate: 7/4/96 at 19:21:20 From: Anonymous Subject: Ratio and Proportion Six men can complete a piece of work in one day while 5 boys would take 2 days to complete the same piece of job. 44 men can build a tower in 5 days; how long will 40 men and 80 boys take to build the tower?\nDate: 7/5/96 at 8:37:52 From: Doctor Anthony Subject: Re: Ratio and Proportion From the first statement, 3 men would take 2 days to do the job. It follows that 5 boys are equivalent to 3 men. Since we have 80 boys building the tower, these boys are equivalent to (3/5)*80 = 48 men. So the total workforce on the tower is equivalent to 40+48 = 88 men If 44 men take 5 days, then 88 men would take 5/2 = 2 +1/2 days. -Doctor Anthony, The Math Forum Check out our web site! http://mathforum.org/dr.math/\nSearch the Dr. Math Library:\nAsk Dr. MathTM\n\u00a9 1994-2013 The Math Forum", "id": "<urn:uuid:8ac02b37-5315-4d51-885d-b7c4e97f75ac>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/58020.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.876873791217804, "token_count": 240, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Please use this identifier to cite or link to this item: http://hdl.handle.net/1959.13/923825\n- Postmodern ethics\n- The University of Newcastle. Faculty of Education & Arts, School of Humanities and Social Science\n- In Chapter 9 we saw how J\u00fcrgen Habermas's ethical theory epitomizes social work's modern ethical tradition, not least his distinction between values, ethics and morals. For Habermas, since all societies and cultures have values, they assume the character of objective facts that are distinguishable from ethics, the socially agreed-upon normative requirements of a particular group or society about what can rightfully be expected from people in that society or group. And ethics are distinguishable from morals, our beliefs about right and wrong. For Habermas morality is personal and Bauman, the major proponent of a postmodern ethics, agrees, but for different reasons.\n- Ethics and Value Perspectives in Social Work p. 120-131\n- Palgrave Macmillan\n- Resource Type\n- book chapter", "id": "<urn:uuid:62190e1a-5cf9-4b43-8679-11cf873246ed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nova.newcastle.edu.au/vital/access/manager/Repository/uon:9833?expert=subject%3A%22the+%27other%27%22&exact=subject%3A%22the+%27other%27%22&sort=creator%2F", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7913655638694763, "token_count": 217, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Since 1993, RAN\u2019s Protect-an-Acre program (PAA) has distributed more than one million dollars in grants to more than 150 frontline communities, Indigenous-led organizations, and allies, helping their efforts to secure protection for millions of acres of traditional territory in forests around the world.\nRainforest Action Network believes that Indigenous peoples are the best stewards of the world\u2019s rainforests and that frontline communities organizing against the extraction and burning of dirty fossil fuels deserve the strongest support we can offer. RAN established the Protect-an-Acre program to protect the world\u2019s forests and the rights of their inhabitants by providing financial aid to traditionally under-funded organizations and communities in forest regions.\nIndigenous and frontline communities suffer disproportionate impacts to their health, livelihood and culture from extractive industry mega-projects and the effects of global climate change. That\u2019s why Protect-an-Acre provides small grants to community-based organizations, Indigenous federations and small NGOs that are fighting to protect millions of acres of forest and keep millions of tons of CO2 in the ground.\nOur grants support organizations and communities that are working to regain control of and sustainably manage their traditional territories through land title initiatives, community education, development of sustainable economic alternatives, and grassroots resistance to destructive industrial activities.\nPAA is an alternative to \u201cbuy-an-acre\u201d programs that seek to provide rainforest protection by buying tracts of land, but which often fail to address the needs or rights of local Indigenous peoples. Uninhabited forest areas often go unprotected, even if purchased through a buy-an-acre program. It is not uncommon for loggers, oil and gas companies, cattle ranchers, and miners to illegally extract resources from so-called \u201cprotected\u201d areas.\nTraditional forest communities are often the best stewards of the land because their way of life depends upon the health of their environment. A number of recent studies add to the growing body of evidence that Indigenous peoples are better protectors of their forests than governments or industry.\nBased on the success of Protect-an-Acre, RAN launched The Climate Action Fund (CAF) in 2009 as a way to direct further resources and support to frontline communities and Indigenous peoples challenging the fossil fuel industry.\nAdditionally, RAN has been a Global Advisor to Global Greengrants Fund (GGF) since 1995, identifying recipients for small grants to mobilize resources for global environmental sustainability and social justice using the same priority and criteria as we use for PAA and CAF.\nThrough these three programs each year we support grassroots projects that result in at least:", "id": "<urn:uuid:995ec683-d967-4f36-82d9-547c9ea3d646>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ran.org/protect-an-acre", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9389192461967468, "token_count": 540, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "More mushrooms, less pollution! Yes, you heard right: growing more mushrooms may be the best thing we can do to save the environment and mushroom expert Paul Stamets explains how in \"Mycelium Running,\" a ground-breaking manual for saving the world through mushroom cultivation. The science goes like this: fine filaments of cells called mycelium, the fruit of which are mushrooms, already cover large areas of land around the world. As the mycelium grows, it breaks down plant and animal debris, recycling carbon, nitrogen, and other essential elements in the creation of rich new soil. What Stamets has discovered is that the enzymes and acids that mycelium produces to decompose this debris are superb at breaking apart hydrocarbons-the base structure common to many pollutants. Available here from your favorite online book retailer.\nBelow is an alphabetical list to other individuals, businesses, and organizations we support and wish to share.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b6dd70b8-dbef-4861-8263-262de9bcc107>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://twotoadfarm.com/links", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9169153571128845, "token_count": 189, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by Alexandra Friedman:\n\u201cIt is a complete failure,\u201d sighed Jenn Baka from her hotel room in Tamil Nadu, India.\nAfter months of studying a unique plant on a Fulbright Scholarship, Baka has deemed it\u2014the jatropha curcas\u2014a flop. Just a few years ago, it was hailed as the crown jewel of Indian sustainable energy. The renewable energy industry began to explore the biofuel potential of jatropha, a plant that produces toxic, non-edible nuts. With a readily extractable 45 percent oil content and the ability to run in any diesel machine after processing, jatropha caught the attention of governments, private companies and NGOs alike.\nThe Indian government championed jatropha from the start, largely due to the energy needs of its burgeoning population and its dependency on foreign fuel as the fourth largest consumer of oil in the world. With over one billion people and nearly all of its fertile land allocated to food crops, India\u2019s land shortages render most biofuel cultivation impossible.\nStill, the Indian Ministry of New and Renewable Energy pledged to achieve 20 percent biodiesel consumption by 2017 and to provide the entire Indian population with a source of renewable energy by 2015. For a while, jatropha seemed like the answer, launching to the top of the national Indian energy agenda due to its purported ability to grow anywhere.\nIn 2003 the Indian government began to set aside officially designated \u201cwasteland\u201d as jatropha test sites, where a combination of public and private investment enabled the planting of jatropha plantations. The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act of 2005, which guarantees rural Indian households 100 days of employment on manual labor projects, provided the necessary workforce to plant jatropha. \u201cIt was promoted as a crop that can survive in marginal environments under rain-fed conditions, meaning no fertilizer or extra water required, so farmers took up the crop. Surprise, surprise\u2014it doesn\u2019t grow well in marginal conditions,\u201d explained Baka.\nAt first glance an almost messianic plant, jatropha promised to bolster employment levels and turn wastelands into producers of clean, renewable energy. Researchers had estimated that one acre would yield between 200 and 400 gallons of oil, significantly more than current biofuels like soy and canola oil. But after years of trying to harvest the nut\u2019s potential, researchers and farmers have begun to accept failure. \u201cJatropha is a pandemic like H1N1. It is not going to solve the energy crisis of the world, but rather take away land where large populations are growing,\u201d said Dr. K.K. Tripathi of the Indian Department of Biotechnology, who has conducted multiple government and private studies revealing poor yields of jatropha.\nDr. Robert Bailis of the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies, who is currently researching the lifecycle of jatropha as a biofuel, agreed: \u201cUnfortunately, the plant was really over-hyped if you go back four, five years. It was pitched as this miracle crop that can grow in really poor conditions and give great yields with very little input and very little attention from the farmer,\u201d he said, \u201cand none of that is true.\u201d\nThis trend is especially apparent in the private sector, where companies are steadily decreasing investment in jatropha projects. In 2009 British Petroleum sold its rights in an estimated $12.1 million jatropha project joint venture with D1 Oils for a mere $818,900, making a timely departure before D1 Oils fell into financial woes.\nMegha Rathee, chief operating officer at green consultancy firm Earth 100, commented on dwindling governmental investment: \u201cThe expected yield of jatropha never came into being, so the government lost interest.\u201d The haphazard implementation of projects like these causes skepticism among researchers like Bailis, who questions the motives of corporations and the Indian government behind the push for jatropha. \u201cPeople don\u2019t act ethically when it comes to business,\u201d he insisted.\nUnfortunately, farmers have suffered much more than private investors. A lack of buyers and refineries means that many of these farmers cannot sell their product, even with the government\u2019s push for jatropha. On top of that, many farmers have reported poor yields and insist that in the three-year-plus period it takes to grow, process, and sell jatropha, they could turn a higher profit by planting crops like sorghum or sugarcane.\nOver a third of the 700 farmers Baka interviewed were promised loans from agricultural banks to replace their normal food crops with jatropha, many more receiving encouragement from the local government. Few have received compensation for their efforts.\nJatropha\u2019s final redeeming quality\u2014that it grows in fallow and otherwise unused land\u2014also falls short. Proponents of the plant argue that regardless of yield, jatropha does not compete for valuable food crop space, especially when planted in \u201cwasteland\u201d areas. But Baka found discrepancies in the government terminology of \u201cwasteland.\u201d Baka noted that one village leader she met while doing survey work in Tamil Nadu told her that \u201cthe local state government body had forced him to plant jatropha in his village even though he said he didn\u2019t have land. The government was trying to promote it so heavily and do these propagation schemes that they even forced him [to find land] to plant it.\u201d\nBecause of this external pressure, villages that grow jatropha are often forced to cultivate it in common land areas, normally used as public space for gathering fuel wood or grazing animals. The Indian government definition of wastelands is \u201clands that can be put to more productive use with effort.\u201d In many instances, \u201cthere is this whole other energy economy situated there that\u2019s not mentioned in any of the government assessments of wastelands,\u201d said Baka. These wastelands are often home to trees used for fuel wood, charcoal production, electricity production and tire retreading.\nIn some locales, jatropha has achieved success: A handful of private companies promoting the plant have implemented an effective system of jatropha production, refinement and exportation. Gold Star Biofuels, a private jatropha oil manufacturer, is one such company. Through its unique humanitarian focus on its farmers, Gold Star, \u201chelps the economy of the country by providing jobs to unemployed farmers, keeps the families together on the farms, pays all of our farmers U.N. wages on levels projected for 2015 and pays national insurance,\u201d explained Jack Holden, the company\u2019s executive director.\nEarth 100, part of Goldman Sachs Group\u2019s efforts to reduce its carbon foot-print in India, has similarly achieved success as a buyer in the jatropha oil manufacturing industry. They provide companies with \u2018green fleets\u2019 of cars that are powered solely by nonedible biofuels like jatropha. Most of Earth 100\u2019s jatropha comes from wild sources, picked and collected by villagers in an alternative, organic manner of cultivation.\nAside from the social benefits, jatropha seedcakes produced as a byproduct of oil extraction can help replenish the soil. \u201cThe technology needed for avoiding chemical fertilizer is very important and significant in reducing the carbon footprint as well as energy use and improving the scenario towards sustainability [of jatropha],\u201d said Dr. Alok Adholeya of the Energy and Resources Institute.\nDespite these small-scale successes, the overriding failure of jatropha has left many projects abandoned. The true sustainability of the plant is yet to be determined: Factors influencing the yield, the carbon balance of jatropha, and the amount of energy used to manufacture the oil and the seedcake must still be researched.\nThe enigma of jatropha remains unsolved. As Rathee explained, \u201cJatropha is not the ideal solution, but it\u2019s the only one that we have right now.\u201d\nAlexandra Friedman \u201914 is in Pierson College. Contact her at email@example.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:63c9c4ee-0f51-4645-9d58-4c03f72e2490>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://tyglobalist.org/in-the-magazine/features/jatropha-a-hard-nut-to-crack/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9544530510902405, "token_count": 1714, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "With summer just around the corner, the days are getting longer and the nights are getting shorter. This means more hours a day that the sun is in contact with your skin. With this prolonged UV exposure, it is important to keep your skin protected. Keep reading for some helpful tips on using sunscreen to effectively guard your skin during the summer months.\nChoosing Your Sunscreen\nDo you ever wonder how effective your sunscreen really is? Are certain types better than others? Does SPF actually mean anything? Keep reading for some tips on choosing sunscreen.\nWhat kind is the best?\nThere are two main types of sunscreen: physical blockers and chemical blockers. Each one has its pros and cons. Physical blockers are made from titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, which are materials that sit on the surface of the skin and are not quickly absorbed. Because of this, physical blockers reflect UV rays. This type of sunscreen lasts longer than chemical blockers, but because it is not absorbed can be easily washed or sweated off.\nChemical blockers, on the other hand, are made up of benzophenones. These chemicals help to absorb UV radiation. Because this type of sunscreen does soak into the skin, it is much more water resistant than physical blockers. However, it wears off much faster, and therefore needs to be reapplied more frequently.\nBoth chemical and physical blockers are effective in protecting your skin from UV rays, but which one you use should depend on the situation. If you are going to be in water or sweating a lot, a chemical blocker would probably be the best choice. Any other sun exposure would most likely be fine with a physical blocker.\nWhat does SPF even mean?\nSPF stands for sun protection factor. A common misconception about SPF is that the higher the number, the less you have to reapply. In actuality, the SPF number is only a guide to how long you can go without reapplying. A good rule of thumb is to multiply the number of minutes it takes you to burn without sunscreen times the SPF number to find your maximum sun exposure time with sunscreen. For example, if it normally takes you 15 minutes to burn, and you use a sunscreen of 20 SPF, then you can go a maximum of 300 minutes in the sun before reapplying. This equation is not always accurate, however, because most people use less sunscreen than the amount used in testing; therefore, reapplication needs to be even more frequent.\nThe American Academy of Dermatology recommends using a sunscreen that is of an SPF 30 or higher, and protects against both UVA and UVB rays.\nIn order for sunscreen to be effective, it is important to apply it properly. Here are some tips for using sunscreen:\n- Apply sunscreen 15-30 minutes before going outside so that it has time to fully absorb into your skin.\n- One ounce is usually enough to cover all surfaces of your body. Typically one ounce is about 2 tablespoons.\n- Reapply every two hours or after swimming or heavily sweating.\n- Don\u2019t forget your lips! Use a lip balm with an SPF of 30 or higher to protect your lips from getting burned, too.\nSoothing a Burn\nIf you do get burned, there are some easy home remedies you can try to help ease the pain.\n- Aloe vera or a cool compress to cool off the burn and reduce stinging.\n- Drink water and use lotion to restore moisture back into your skin.\n- Blend washed potatoes in a food processor or blender and apply the mixture to the burned area. Once it dries, wash it off. The potatoes help to relieve some of the pain accompanied by the burn.\n- Taking an over-the-counter pain reliever such as aspirin may also help to relieve pain and reduce inflammation.\nWhile one sunburn may only cause you a slight inconvenience, repeated exposure to the sun\u2019s UV rays without protection could possibly lead to skin cancer. Because of this, it is important to use sunscreen anytime you will be in contact with the sun and to reapply often. Be sure to use enough to generously cover all exposed areas, and your skin will have a much better chance at surviving the summer.\nAre you afraid of going to the dentist? Studies show that about 15% of Americans suffer from dental anxiety or phobia. There are many different factors that may contribute to this fear; however, it is important to overcome dental fears, otherwise it may have a negative effect on your health. Keep reading for some tips to help set your mind at ease at the dentist.\nFear of the Pain/Drill\nIf the fear of excruciating pain from the drill or other procedure is what\u2019s keeping you from going to the dentist, there are some steps you can take to help make the idea less scary. First, do your research. Familiarize yourself with the procedure so that you know exactly what to expect every step of the way. Learn about the technology used; today\u2019s advanced technology makes many procedures painless. Ask your dentist, too, as his technique may be different from what is normally done.\nIf you are still hesitant, keep your eyes closed and ask your dentist if you can put in your headphones and listen to music while he is working on your mouth. If you can\u2019t see or hear what\u2019s going on, it may help reduce any pain or discomfort you might otherwise experience.\nFear of Needles\nThe needle numbs your mouth for the procedure, but what numbs your mouth for the needle? If you\u2019re afraid of that sharp needle piercing your soft gum tissue, talk to your dentist. Depending on the procedure, the dentist may be able to use another means of numbing, such as nitrous oxide. If not, he may be able to use a strong numbing gel to desensitize the area before the needle goes in. It may also help to close your eyes, so that you do not see the needle being put in your mouth.\nIn some cases, people may be avoiding the dentist because they are embarrassed by the condition of their teeth. If you are embarrassed by your teeth, talk to your dentist. It is a dentist\u2019s job to provide you with dental care \u2013 regardless of the state of your teeth. Chances are the dentist has seen much worse, and the only way to repair your smile is to see a dentist. Voice any insecurities you have to your dentist. He or she will be able to ease your mind about getting dental care.\nEffect on Overall Health\nSevere dental anxiety can have negative effects on your health. Letting fear keep you from seeing the dentist can result in poor dental health, which in turn can affect your overall health. If your teeth and gums become chronically infected, this can affect speech patterns and the ability to chew and digest properly, and even lead to heart disease. Because the effect of avoiding the dentist extends beyond dental health, it is important to overcome any dental fear and go in for regular cleanings.\nDental anxiety keeps many people from visiting the dentist, but that can have detrimental effects on oral health. If fear or nervousness is keeping you from seeing the dentist, talk to your dentist about your concerns. He or she should be able to provide you with what you need to make your experience comfortable.\n90% of Americans think they have a healthy diet, according to a survey by Consumer Reports. However, many foods and habits that are widely considered to be healthy may actually be causing more harm than good. Are you promoting a healthy lifestyle, or are your habits hurting you more than you know? Keep reading to find out what foods and habits are surprisingly unhealthy.\nSurprisingly Unhealthy Foods\n- Dried fruit and nuts: Dried fruit and nuts do have some nutritional value as an excellent source of fiber, vitamin C, and healthy fats and protein. However, the fruit and nut mixtures often have a ton of added salt and sugar. They may even include other items in the mix, such as chocolate chips. All of these things combined turn an otherwise healthy snack into a health hazard. Look for mixes without added sugar or salt, to enjoy the snack without the risk. Or buy plain nuts and dried fruit and make the mix yourself!\n- Granola: Granola is a great source of potassium, fiber and protein, but it can also be high in fat and calories. In addition, many of the items eaten with or added to granola are unhealthy, such as yogurt, chocolate or sugar. Try pairing granola with low-calorie cereals to add more nutritional value, and portion control is always key.\n- Bran muffin: While bran itself is very heart healthy and friendly to the digestive system, adding it to a muffin somewhat negates the nutritional value. Muffins contain a lot of sugar and fat. In fact, health expert and author Joan Salge Blake even said that a bran muffin could potentially have more calories than a donut! The best option is to head straight for the bran and skip the muffin altogether; but, if you must have the muffin, there are some recipes available for healthier muffins.\n- Veggie patties: Veggie burgers certainly have a lot of healthy nutrients in them; however, the pre-made, frozen patties usually contain a lot of added ingredients such as yeast extract, cornstarch and gums which have little nutritional value. Check the label for the ingredients and nutrition information before buying veggie patties to make sure they are a healthy choice.\n- Reduced fat peanut butter: You would think anything with reduced fat would be a healthier option than the fatty, regular stuff, right? While oftentimes this is the case, the fat in peanut butter is actually healthy. Removing it therefore eliminates a lot of the nutritional value. Stick with regular peanut butter, but watch your portions since peanuts tend to be high in calories.\nSurprisingly Unhealthy Habits\n- Using hand sanitizer: While hand sanitizer can be helpful for hand washing on the go, it really isn\u2019t any more effective than soap and water. In addition, some hand sanitizing gels contain the ingredient triclosan, which can actually help promote the growth of bacteria. Look for brands that contain at least 60% alcohol which help kill bacteria more effectively.\n- Wearing flip flops: Flip flops help keep your feet cool during the summer, but that\u2019s about the only favor the shoes do for your feet. Flip flops have no arch support or structural support for your feet, which can lead to strained muscles. Likewise, wearing no shoes at all can have a similar effect. For your summer footwear, opt for comfortable sandals that will provide plenty of support for your feet.\n- Drinking bottled water: While drinking it bottled is better than not drinking water at all, only drinking bottled water is not the healthiest option. Bottled water contains no fluoride, as opposed to tap water, which does. A fluoride deficiency can lead to tooth decay, so it is important to try to get fluoride in your water. If you are concerned about what might be in tap water, you can get a purifier such as Brita or PUR. These purifiers eliminate any impurities in the water but keep the fluoride.\n- Cleaning with disinfecting products: Cleaners that claim to be disinfectant or antibacterial may seem useful in cleaning your home, but inhaling the chemicals in these cleaners can have negative effects on your health. These products contain chemicals called quaternary ammonium compounds, which can lead to asthma if inhaled. In addition, some products also contain a cancer-causing chemical called 2-butoxyethanol. Disinfectant cleaners have not been proven to be any more effective than regular cleaners, so you may want to stick with those if you are concerned about the health risk.\n- Overbrushing your teeth: Brushing your teeth is definitely a good thing, but brushing them too hard or too often can be damaging to the enamel, making teeth more prone to tooth decay. Dentists recommend brushing for two minutes, 2-3 times a day with a soft bristled brush to avoid potential damage. If needed, you can rinse away any food particles left over from eating with a glass of water in between brushings.\nEating well and avoiding harmful habits is essential to maintaining a healthy lifestyle. Therefore, it is important to be aware of what could potentially have a negative influence on your health. To find out more about what you can do to be healthier, talk to your doctor.\nDental hygiene is very important to overall health. However, dental care is most effective when done properly. Many people do not realize that they are taking care of their teeth incorrectly. If you\u2019re worried you might be one of these people, read on to discover some helpful tips on proper dental care.\nThe Proper Way to Brush\nBrushing teeth is a daily task. However, many people are unaware that there is a right and wrong way to brush their teeth. In fact, according to a survey by Men\u2019s Health News, 90% of people brush their teeth wrong. Here\u2019s the proper way to brush your teeth, starting with choosing the right toothbrush.\nCertain toothbrushes are better for your oral health than others. Choose a toothbrush that is comfortable for you to use, because the more comfortable it is for you, the more likely you are to brush your teeth. Many sizes and handle varieties are available, but these things are a matter of preference. The bristles, however, should be soft. Hard bristles are abrasive and can damage enamel.\nIn addition, your toothbrush should be stored in an environment that allows it to completely dry in between uses. Toothbrush cases and caps are great for storing your toothbrush during travel, but should not be used immediately after use as they will lock in the moisture, increasing the chance of bacterial growth. Don\u2019t let this fact tempt you to skimp on rinsing your brush after each use, though; leaving the toothbrush un-rinsed can cause bacteria to grow, as well. In addition, you should replace your toothbrush every 3-4 months, as it becomes worn out and is no longer as effective.\nHow to Brush\nBrushing should be done a minimum of twice daily, at morning and at night. Too much brushing, however, can wear away enamel and irritate gums. To prevent this, professionals discourage brushing more than three times a day.\nBrushing should take a total of about two minutes, spending about 30 seconds on each quadrant of the mouth. When brushing, the brush should be held at a 45 degree angle, using short strokes in a circular, up and down motion. Many people move their brush horizontally, but this can wear ridges in your enamel that cause teeth to become dull and rough. Don\u2019t forget to get the inner surfaces of your teeth and your tongue, too!\nThe Proper Way to Floss\nFlossing is often neglected, but is an essential part of your daily oral hygiene routine. Flossing gets in the tight spaces that your toothbrush can\u2019t fit into. In addition, flossing has also been linked to the prevention of diabetes and other diseases. However, flossing is only effective when performed correctly; otherwise, it may cause more harm than good.\nChoosing the Right Floss\nThere are many different types of floss available. You should use either nylon floss, which is multifilament, or PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) floss with one filament. While the nylon floss is much cheaper, its many filaments make it easy for the floss to tear or shred while in use. PTFE floss is one strand and therefore can easily slide in and out of tight spaces; however, it can be very expensive.\nFloss is available in either waxed or unwaxed. Both are effective, so the choice is up to you. It is better to use regular floss instead of harps or Waterpiks, however, as it is the most effective.\nHow to Floss\nTo floss, cut off about 18 inches of floss. Wrap the ends around both of your middle fingers until only about 1-2 inches remains. Place in between two teeth and begin flossing in an up and down motion. Curve the floss around the base of each tooth to get any bacteria along the gum line. When you are done, work the floss back down from in between the teeth and go to the next tooth. Be sure to always use a clean section of floss for each tooth, or else you will just be putting bacteria back in your mouth.\nFlossing should be done once a day, either in the morning or at night. Some say that flossing should be done before brushing, because the bacteria and food particles removed with floss could be blocking the tooth\u2019s exposure to fluoride if brushing is done first.\nThe Proper Way to Use Mouthwash\nMouthwash is probably the most overlooked part of oral hygiene with only 31% of adults claiming to use mouthwash. However, while mouthwash is not a necessary part of oral hygiene, it is very beneficial in killing extra bacteria missed from brushing and flossing. It also helps to freshen breath and strengthen teeth.\nChoosing Your Mouthwash\nThere are many types of mouthwash available: fluoride, antiseptic, cosmetic, and more. There is no one \u201cright\u201d mouthwash, so you should choose the one that best fits your dental needs. However, make sure that whichever mouthwash you choose is non-alcoholic. Alcohol dries out your mouth, which can promote the growth of bacteria because saliva has anti-bacterial properties. Mouthwash that contains alcohol could actually cause more harm than good, so be sure to stay away from alcohol based products.\nHow to Use Mouthwash\nAfter you\u2019ve brushed and flossed, measure out 20mL of mouthwash and gargle the liquid for 45-60 seconds. Be careful not to swallow any of the mouthwash. After you are finished gargling, spit the mouthwash out and rinse with water, unless stated otherwise in the directions on the bottle. It is best not to eat or drink anything for 30 minutes after use for maximum effectiveness.\nIf you use a mouthwash, you should use it one to two times a day. It can be used at any time of day, though some say it is most effective in the afternoon so the fluoride can integrate into the tooth structure.\nWhile brushing your incorrectly is definitely better than skipping brushing all together, it is not as effective and could potentially damage your teeth. For the best results, use the proper methods listed for brushing, flossing and using mouthwash. Talk to your dentist for more information on proper dental care.\nMarch 20th marked the first day of spring this year, and for many people that means warmer weather, green grass and blooming flowers. For some, however, the beginning of spring is not as cheerful an event. To these people, spring only has one meaning \u2013 allergies.\nRoughly 20% of the American population suffers from some sort of allergy. Because spring is the time of year when everything begins to bloom and grow, it is also the time of year when airborne allergies like pollen become most prevalent. Keep reading to find out more about seasonal allergies and what you can do to avoid them.\nCause of Allergies\nHave you ever wondered how allergies develop, or why you react to a particular allergen? The exact cause of allergies is unknown, but there are many factors that are thought to play a part in the development of allergies.\n- Genetics. Certain allergies can be hereditary. If one or both of your parents are allergic to something, there\u2019s a good chance you will develop that allergy as well. However, you may not always develop the same allergy as your parents. While allergies are typically genetic, the substance you are allergic to may vary from generation to generation.\n- Age. Chances of allergy development can increase after repeated exposure to a particular substance that the body does not recognize. Therefore, experts believe that the likelihood of developing allergies increases later in life due to continuous exposure to an allergen.\n- Immune Response. Scientists also believe that how your immune system responds to certain intruders plays a part in the development of allergies. If the immune system identifies a substance that has entered the body as a dangerous intruder, it will fight to eliminate the substance and develop a sensitivity to it.\n- Your Environment. Where you live (or are) can also have an effect on allergic reactions. If a certain allergen has a high prevalence in a particular area, it is unlikely that people who live in that area will react to that substance. Because they are exposed to it often, the immune system recognizes it as a normal substance. However, if someone from a different area is exposed to that allergen, they may develop the allergy because their immune system does not recognize it.\nAllergies can be treated with prescription or over-the-counter medication. Any of the following types of medicine are commonly taken for allergies:\n- Nasal steroids\n- Expectorants such as guaifenesin\nIn addition, some non-medical treatments may be done to help relieve allergies. Some types of acupuncture have been known to treat allergies, as well as some over-the-counter saline sprays. You may also consider getting an air filter for your house to make sure the air that is coming in is pure. It is also a good idea to avoid going outside or to places where your allergies may be triggered.\nIf you\u2019re prone to allergies, you may want to take extra caution during the spring months to avoid coming into contact with allergens. Try one of these helpful tips for allergy-proofing your home.\n- Close your windows and doors. In both your car and at home, open windows/doors invite airborne allergens in. Keep them closed to keep out potential allergy-causing substances.\n- Don\u2019t use fans. Not only do fans help spread allergens throughout a room, they are also a common breeding ground for some common allergens, such as dust mites. Avoid fan usage during allergy season as it may worsen allergies.\n- Dry clothes inside. Drying clothes on a clothes line outside may attract substances to stick to clothing, causing allergies. Keep clothes allergen-free by drying them inside.\n- Wear a hat/sunglasses. If you can\u2019t avoid going outside for the duration of allergy season, try putting on a hat or sunglasses. This will help keep allergens out of your eyes and face to avoid irritation.\nIf you think you may have allergies, contact your doctor. There are tests that can be taken to find out what specifically you are allergic to, and a doctor can prescribe medication as needed. While most allergies do not have a permanent cure, they are highly treatable with the proper medication and care.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fd1f7078-3b6a-49e6-9c0f-fd5f241c9391>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.1dental.com/blog/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9535620808601379, "token_count": 4783, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Peacemaker, warrior, cross-cultural community builder, American Indian activist, tribal elder, cultural preservation consultant, Native American issues advisor, Founding Mother of the modern Indian repatriation movement, Nobel Peace Prize nominee, local Unsung Hero, religious advisor, and the Rosa Parks of NAGPRA -- these are a few of the descriptors applied to a unique woman who spent the last 16 years of her life in Ames (1987-2003).\nMaria Pearson (Running Moccasins) was a proponent of human rights for all Americans, and, in particular, those of American Indians. A member of the Yankton Sioux tribe, she worked tirelessly on behalf of Native American peoples in Iowa and nationwide. Largely through her efforts, the Iowa Burial Code was changed in the 1970s mandating the reburial of American Indian skeletal remains. Her work in Iowa and continued advocacy on behalf of Native American rights was instrumental in the passage of important federal legislation, most recently the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990. This act provides comprehensive protection for Native American burials and associated artifacts on federal properties and in public and private museums and collections. Her accomplishments in this area were recognized not only at a national level but in several international conferences dealing with human rights and repatriation issues.\nIn 1990 she traveled to Venezuela to attend the Second World Archaeological Congress as an official indigenous member of the Executive Council. The BBC made a documentary program, Bones of Contention, about Maria that was broadcast in 1995.\nMaria was featured in the Leadership 2003 series of the Ames Tribune.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a6864681-36b2-488a-bf95-8ee321fac121>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ameshistoricalsociety.org/exhibits/pearson1.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9508072137832642, "token_count": 327, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Let food be your medicine! In India, food has been used to cure minor ailments for years. Learn how you can cure aches and pains, lifestyle conditions, minor skin and hair problems and common ailments at home!\nFind Home Remedy\nBody rash or skin rash is usually an inflammation on the skin. There is a change in color and texture on the affected area. Body rash could be the result of irritation, disease or an allergic reaction. Allergies could be to food, plants, chemicals, animals, insects or other environmental factors. Body rash could affect the entire body or could be limited to a specific area. Sometimes body rashes could be contagious.\nBody Rash Mix 10-12 basil leaves with 1 tbsp olive oil, 2 garlic cloves, salt and pepper. Apply a coat of this mixture to the rashes.\nHoly Basil leaves\nSalt and Pepper\nTake foods rich in Vitamin C. It has antioxidant properties that will help in fighting body rash.\nAvoid foods causing allergic skin rash on the body or back.\nDo not scrub your skin when there is a rash breakout.\nAvoid using soap, switchover to gentle body cleansers.\nDo not expose the area to direct sunlight and hot water.\nApply olive oil to the affected area to get relief from the body rash.\nAnother effective natural cure for body rash and back rash is to apply baking powder on the affected area.\nPour a cup of uncooked oatmeal into your bathwater and soak in the tub for natural treatment of body rash. It relieves inflammation.\nTo relieve from skin rash, make a poultice from dandelion, yellow dock root and chaparral.\nAll advice is intended to be for informational purposes only, and not a substitute for professional or medical advice and/or diagnosis/treatment. DesiDieter does not provide medical advice and is not a substitute for professional medical advice from a qualified healthcare provider.", "id": "<urn:uuid:04b29a1a-b73d-4644-9add-8bf347289f7c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.desidieter.com/home-remedies/skin-and-hair-care/body-rash.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8982864618301392, "token_count": 395, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Per Square Meter\nWarm-up: Relationships in Ecosystems (10 minutes)\n1. Begin this lesson by presenting the powerpoint, \u201cPer Square Meter\u201d.\n2. After the presentation, ask students to think of animal relationships that correspond to each of the following types; Competition, Predation, Parasitism, and Mutualism\na. For example, two animals that compete for food are lions and cheetahs (they compete for zebras and antelopes)\n3. Record the different types of relationships on the board.\nActivity One: My Own Square Meter (30 minutes)\n1. Have students go outside and pick a small area (about a square meter each) to explore. It is preferable that this area be grassy or \u2018natural\u2019. The school playground might be a good spot.\n2. Each student should keep a list of both the living organisms and man-made products found in their area (i.e grass, birds, insects, flowers, sidewalk etc.) Students are allowed to collect a few specimens from this area to show to the class. If students do not have jars, they can draw their observations. *See Reproducible #1\nActivity Two: Who lives in our playground? (10 minutes)\n1. After listing, collecting, and drawing specimens, students should return to the classroom and present their findings.\na. Have the students sit in a circle. Each student should read his or her list of findings out loud. If they collected specimens or drew observations, have them present them to the class.\n2. Make a list of these findings on the board. Only write repeated findings once (to avoid writing grass as many times as there are students). Keep one list of living organisms and one list of man-made products.\n3. For now, focus on the list of living organisms. As a class, help students name possible relationships between the organisms. See if they can find one of each type of relationship. For example, a bee on a flower is an example of mutualism because the nectar from the flower nourishes the bee and in return, the bee pollinates the flower.\nActivity Three: Humans and the Environment: Human Effect on one Square Meter (15 minutes)\n1. Now that students have focused on the animal relationships of their square meter, it is time to examine the effect of humans on the natural environment. Focus on the human-made product list. Ask students to consider the possible relationships between the human-made products and the environment. Prompt a brief class discussion on the effects of man-made products on the environment. Use the following questions as guidelines.\na. What is the effect of an empty drink bottle (or any other piece of trash) in a grassy field? Will it decompose? Will it be used by an animal as a habitat or food?\nAnswer: Trash is an invasive man-made product. Most trash is non-bio degradable and is harmful to the environment and to eco-system relations.Therefore, it is a harmful addition to the square meter.\nb. Who left the bottle there? Do you think they are still thinking about it? Did they leave it there on purpose? Why did they leave it there?\nAnswer: Most people litter thoughtlessly. They are not thinking about their actions and how they may effect the environment or eco-systems. It is important that people recognize that litter has a major effect on the environment.\nc. What about a bench? Does a park bench have the same effect on the environment as a piece of trash?\nAnswer: A park bench can be considered as a positive human-made product. A park bench has little negative effect on the environment and even helps humans further appreciate eco-systems. The Park Bench may even provide shelter or a perch for the eco-systems living organisms.\nd. Is there a difference between positive human-made products and negative ones? What are some examples of each?\nAnswer: Yes, there is a difference between positive and negative human-made products. Positive products have minimal effect on the functioning of eco systems whereas negative products have major effects on eco systems. An example of a positive human-made product would be a solar powered house. An example of a negative human-made product would be a car that produces a lot of pollution.\nWrap Up: Our Classroom Eco-Web (20-30 minutes)\n1. Have students create classroom artwork by illustrating the relationships between their eco-systems.\n2. Each student should draw at least two components of his or her square meter.\n3. After everyone has finished their illustrations, create a web relating the illustrations. Draw arrows between illustrated components with written indications of the type of relationship exemplified.\n4. Post the finished product in the classroom so that students can see the interconnectedness of the earth\u2019s eco-systems.\nExtension: Exploring Aquatic Eco-Systems (On-going Activity)\nStudents can explore another type of eco-system by creating a classroom aquarium or terrarium. The supplies for both of these mini eco-systems can be found at your local pet store. Students should help set up and maintain the aquarium or terrarium throughout the year. Periodically, students should observe how the mini-ecosystem is progressing, note changes, and assess the relationships between the organisms of the eco-system. This way, students are able to directly participate in the functioning of a natural system.\nAnother related activity might be to take your students on a field trip to a different eco-system from that of your school. If you live near a river, lake, or ocean take them there to explore different ecological relations. If you live in a city, examples of diverse eco-systems can be found at the local zoo or aquarium.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c76adb43-fdc6-442d-882e-b7781f7e7d83>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.earthday.org/square-meter", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9390507936477661, "token_count": 1207, "score": 3.921875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.\n- Composite family\nParts Usually Used\nDescription of Plant(s) and Culture\nWhite weed is a perennial plant; the furrowed, simple or sparingly\nbranched stem grows from 1-3 feet high and bears alternate, toothed,\nsessile and clasping leaves. Both stem and radical leaves are spatulate\nor obovate with rounded ends; the radical leaves are more strongly\ntoothed. The stem, and the branch, if any, is topped by a solitary\nflower head with yellow disk and white rays.\nGrows in fields and waste places over most of North America, Europe,\nand Asia as a common weed.\nDiaphoretic, diuretic, irritant\nWhite weed is very seldom used today. Can promote sweating and used\nto treat urinary and dropsical problems. Used to treat pulmonary diseases,\npalsy, sciatica, runny\neyes, and gout. Externally;\napplied to promote the flow of blood to the surface and to treat warts,\npustules, ulcers, wounds,\nbruises. The dried plant and even the flowers of the common daisy,\nboiled up with some honey, have been recommended as an alleviant to\nattacks of asthma.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0382030b-a590-4c1c-8e6a-9fa39b3fcd68>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.emedicinal.com/herbs/herbmargaret.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8439261317253113, "token_count": 281, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Alzheimer's Disease Treatment\nAlzheimer's Disease Medications and Treatments\nIndividuals with Alzheimer's disease should remain physically, mentally, and socially active as long as they are able. It is believed that mental activity can slow the progression of the disease. Puzzles, games, reading, and safe hobbies and crafts are good choices. These activities should ideally be interactive. They should be of an appropriate level of difficulty so that the person does not become overly frustrated.\nBehavior disorders such as agitation and aggression may improve with various interventions. Some interventions focus on helping the individual adjust or control his or her behavior. Others focus on helping caregivers and other family members change the person\u2019s behavior. These approaches sometimes work better when combined with drug treatment for depression, mood stabilization, or psychosis.\nAlzheimer's disease symptoms can sometimes be relieved, at least temporarily, by medications such as cholinesterase inhibitors and NMDA inhibitors, which have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c935d11f-1ebe-40e6-a217-49f75cc78e0a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.emedicinehealth.com/understanding_alzheimer_disease_medications/article_em.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9501781463623047, "token_count": 218, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Miraflores is the name of one of the three locks that form part of the Panama Canal and the name of the small lake that separates these locks from the Pedro Miguel Locks upstream. In the Miraflores locks, vessels are lifted (or lowered) 54 feet (16.5 m) in two stages, allowing them to transit to or from the Pacific Ocean port of Balboa (near Panama City). Ships cross below the Puente de las Am\u00e9ricas (Bridge of the Americas) which connects North and South America.\nAs of 2005, the following schedule was in effect for ship transit through the locks. From 06:00 to 15:15, ships travel from the Pacific towards the Atlantic. From 15:45 to 23:00 ships travel from the Atlantic towards the Pacific. At any other time, travel is permitted in both directions,\nA modern visitor centre allows tourists to have a full view of the Miraflores locks operation. Binoculars are recommended to view the Pedro Miguel Locks in the distance. As of 2010, admittance for adults to the visitors centre costs US$5 (observation terrace) or $8 (supporting exhibits and video show added) with lower rates for children and senior citizens. Panama residents are admitted free of charge. Viewing a transit operation at the centre can take more than 30 minutes. A souvenir shop in the base level sells related merchandise. The centre closes at 17:00.\nThe Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panam\u00e1) is a 48-mile (77.1 km) ship canal in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean (via the Caribbean Sea) to the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a key conduit for international maritime trade. There are locks at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake (85 feet (26 m) above sea-level). Gatun Lake was created to reduce the amount of work required for the canal. The current locks are 110 feet (33.5 m) wide. A third, wider lane of locks is being built.\nFrance began work on the canal in 1881, but had to stop because of engineering problems and high mortality due to disease. The United States (US) later took over the project and took a decade to complete the canal in 1914, enabling ships to avoid the lengthy Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America (via the Drake Passage) or to navigate the Strait of Magellan. One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the Panama Canal shortcut made it possible for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans in half the time previously required. The shorter, faster, safer route to the US West Coast and to nations in and along the Pacific Ocean allowed those places to become more integrated with the world economy.\nDuring this time, ownership of the territory that is now the Panama Canal was first Colombian, then French, and then American; the United States completed the construction. The canal was taken over in 1999 by the Panamanian government, as long planned. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships when the canal opened in 1914, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, the latter measuring a total of 309.6 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2008, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal, many of them much larger than the original planners could have envisioned; the largest ships that can transit the canal today are called Panamax. The American Society of Civil Engineers has named the Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ec4df62f-08b4-4272-a8a0-f8c158dcc4d6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fotopedia.com/items/c9o5i05059t3t-3sdLWgB9nrQ", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9448007941246033, "token_count": 746, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Walking and cycling have long been considered the most environmentally sound methods of getting around. They still are but some environmentalists have argued that food production has become so fossil-fuel intensive that driving could be considered greener than walking (though the analysis has been debunked as flawed).\nWhat of other, more obviously polluting, modes of transport? The data below gives an idea of how your carbon footprint might grow depending on how you make a journey. If you were to take an average domestic flight rather than a high-speed electric train, you'd be personally responsible for 29 times as much carbon dioxide.\nThe data also highlights how the UK government's plans to electrify parts of the rail network could cut emissions. Diesel trains are responsible for more greenhouse gases than electric trains, even taking into account Britain's carbon-heavy electricity production.\nOn the roads, next-generation hybrid and electric vehicles can help those of us behind the wheel to be that little bit greener. However, no journey is completely carbon free.", "id": "<urn:uuid:66d0a330-4520-4e4a-8b95-75da2b16d190>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/datablog/2009/sep/02/carbon-emissions-per-transport-type", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9699062705039978, "token_count": 204, "score": 3.421875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Notes and Comments on the \"Western Rite\"\nThe question of rites is precisely not, has never been and cannot be a mere question of rites per se , but is and has always been a question of faith, of its wholeness and integrity. The liturgy embodies and expresses the faith, or better to say, the experience of the Church, and is that experience's manifestation and communication. And when rites, deta ched from their nature and function, begin to be discussed in terms of \"acceptance\" and \"rejection\" or \"likes and dislikes\", the debate concerning them becomes meaningless.\nFor many people, the eastern and western rites are two entirely different and self-contained \"blocks\" ruling out, as an impure \"hybridization\", all contacts and mutual influences. This, however, is wrong - first of all, historically. In a sense, the enti re history of Christian worship can be termed a history of constant \"hybridizations\" - if only this word is deprived of its negative connotations. Before their separations, the east and the west influenced one another for centuries. And there is no exagg eration in saying that the anaphora of St. John Chrysostom's Liturgy is infinitely 'closer' to the Roman anaphora of the same period than the service of Holy Communion in the Book of Common Prayer is to, for example, the Tridentine Mass.\nWhat makes a western rite Orthodox? For many proponents of the western rite, all it takes is a few additions and a few deletions, e.g. \"striking the filioque \" and \"strengthening of the epiclesis.\" This answer implies, on the one hand, that there exists a unified and homogenous reality identifiable as the western rite and, on the other hand, that except for two or three \"heretical\" ingredients or omissions, th is rite is ipso facto Orthodox. Both presuppositions are wrong.\nIndeed, one does not have to be an \"authority on the West\" in order to know that liturgical development in the West was shaped to a degree unknown in the East by various theologies, the succession of which - and the clashes of one with another - constitute western religious history. Scholasticism, Reformation, Counter-Reformation, etc., have all resulted in sometimes radical liturgical metamorphoses and all have had a decisive impact on worship. Therefore, one should speak today not of the western rite, but of western rites, deeply - if not radically - differing from one another, yet all reflecting in one way or another, the western theological tragedy and fragmentation. This does not mean that all these rites are \"heretical\" and simply to be condemned. It only means that, from an Orthodox point of view, their evaluation in terms merely of \"deletions\" and \"additions\" is - to say the least - inadequate. For the irony of our present situation is that while some western Christians come to Orthodoxy in order to salvage the rite they cherish ( Book of Common Prayer , Tridentine Mass, etc.) from liturgical reforms they abhor, some of these reforms, at least in abstacto , are closer to the structures and spirit of the early western rite - and thus to the Orthodox liturgical tradition - than the later rite, those precisely that the Orthodox Church is supposed to \"sanction\" and to \"adopt.\"\nIt is my deep conviction that the eastern liturgical tradition is alone today in having preserved, in spite of all historical \"deficiencies\", the fullness of the Church's lex orandi and constitutes, therefore, the criterion for all liturgical evaluations.\nFather Alexander Schmemann (1920-1983)\n(SVTQ 24/4, 1980)\nThe Priest. A Newsletter for the Clergy of the Diocese of San Francisco. Issue No. 5, May 1996\nBack to \"Theology-Modern Church Life\" of Holy Trinity Cathedral's Home Page\nShould you have any questions or comments please e-mail us!", "id": "<urn:uuid:30b42780-c3b9-4ba0-8c79-56e9e44c438b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.holy-trinity.org/modern/western-rite/schmemann.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9540069699287415, "token_count": 839, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Do Radioisotope Clocks Need Repair? Testing the Assumptions of Isochron Dating Using K-Ar, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Pb-Pb Isotopes\nby Steven A. Austin, Ph.D.\nRATE II: Radioisotopes and the Age of The Earth: Results of a Young-Earth Creationist Research Initiative, (Volume II), L. Vardiman et al., eds. (San Diego, CA: Institute for Creation Research and the Creation Research Society, 2005)\nThe assumptions of conventional whole-rock and mineral isochron radioisotope dating were tested using a suite of radioisotopes from two Precambrian rocks. Amphibolite from the Beartooth Mountains of Wyoming shows evidence of thorough metamorphism by isochemical processes from andesite by an early Precambrian magma-intrusion event. A diabase sill, exposed within the wall of Grand Canyon at Bass Rapids, formed by a rapid intrusion event. The event segregated minerals gravitationally, apparently starting from an isotopically homogeneous magma. Although K-Ar, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Pb-Pb methods ought to yield concordant isochron dates for each of these magmatic events, these four radioisotope pairs gave significantly discordant ages. Special allowance was made for larger-than-conventional uncertainties expressed as 2\u03c3 errors associated with the calculated \u201cages.\u201d Within a single Beartooth amphibolite sample, three discordant mineral isochron \u201cages\u201d range from 2515\u00b1110 Ma (Rb-Sr mineral isochron) to 2886\u00b1190 Ma (Sm-Nd mineral isochron). The diabase sill in Grand Canyon displays discordant isochron \u201cages\u201d ranging from 841.5\u00b1164 Ma (K-Ar whole-rock isochron) to 1379\u00b1140 Ma (Sm-Nd mineral isochron). Although significant discordance exists between the K-Ar, Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, and Pb-Pb radioisotope methods, each radioisotope pair appears to yield concordant \u201cages\u201d internally between whole-rocks and minerals. Internal concordance is best illustrated from the Bass Rapids diabase sill by the tightly constrained Rb-Sr whole-rock and mineral isochron \u201cages\u201d of 1055\u00b146 Ma and 1060\u00b124 Ma, respectively. The most problematic discordance is the Sm-Nd and Pb-Pb whole-rock and mineral isochron \u201cages\u201d that significantly exceed the robust Rb-Sr whole-rock and mineral isochron \u201cages.\u201d It could be argued that the robust Rb-Sr whole-rock and mineral isochron \u201cages\u201d are in error, but an adequate explanation for the error has not been offered. The geological context of these Precambrian rocks places severe limitations on possible explanations for isochron discordance. Inheritance of minerals, slow cooling, and post-magmatic loss of daughter radioisotopes are not supported as processes causing isochron discordance in Beartooth amphibolite or Bass Rapids diabase. Recently, geochronologists researching the Great Dyke, a Precambrian layered mafic and ultramafic intrusion of Zimbabwe in southeast Africa, have documented a similar pattern of radioisotope discordance. Alpha-emitting radioisotopes (147Sm, 235U, and 238U) give older \u201cages\u201d than \u03b2-emitting radioisotopes (87Rb and 40K) when applied to the same rocks. Therefore, it can be argued that a change in radioisotope decay rates in the past could account for these discordant isochron \u201cages\u201d for the same geologic event. Conventional radioisotope clocks need repair.\nradioisotope decay rates, isochron dating, RATE II\nFor Full Text\nPlease see the Download PDF link above for the entire article.", "id": "<urn:uuid:22201536-2f4b-440e-b7c3-52532dee3e4e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.icr.org/article/do-radioisotope-clocks-need-repair/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.865782618522644, "token_count": 877, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "During the \u201cautomation scare\u201d in the 1950s, people were intrigued yet suspicious about the power of computers. Would they someday send us into permanent unemployment? Could robots eventually take over the world?\nThe original goal of artificial intelligence was to build a person out of silicone. Although scientists made quick progress in building computers and robots that amazed us, they never came close to actually replicating the human brain.\n\u201cMachine learning\u201d was first introduced 50 years ago. This concept focuses on computers\u2019 ability to \u201clearn\u201d not through human programming, but through experience and pattern identification. For example, machine learning allows a computer to become a masterful chess player by observing good and bad moves and learning from mistakes. While a computer looks at every possible move up to 20 to 40 moves ahead, humans use more conceptual skills to decide how to make moves.\nIn a recent PBS NOVA documentary \u201cThe Smartest Machine on Earth,\u201d researchers explore powerful new tools in computing, like \u201cWatson,\u201d a supercomputer with a brain, or central processing unit, that can process 500 gigabytes, or the equivalent of a million books, per second. In 2009, Jeopardy producers came to IBM to size up Watson\u2019s abilities.\nYou might remember when 74-win Jeopardy! champion Ken Jennings went head-to-CPU with Watson a few years back. During Watson\u2019s \u201ctraining\u201d for the match, the scientists at IBM had to constantly expose Watson to large amounts of possible answers to questions so that it would have sufficient rules and logic to come up with correct answers.\nHaving studied thousands of questions, within a few milliseconds Watson analyzed every possible answer. It learned to make statistical judgments based on how pieces of evidence work together in the database of information scientists gave to it. In the end, the competition was close, but Watson pulled ahead and won the show.\nScientists who worked with Watson point out that there are two ways of building intelligence. We can either write down the recipe or let it grow by itself. It\u2019s clear that we don\u2019t know how to write down the recipe, according to scientists. Machine learning enables computers to grow their own intelligence.\nScientists continue to debate the ability of machines to truly displace us. There is so much that we know that we don\u2019t even realize we know, such as the fact that ice is cold and sandpaper is rough. Our common sense knowledge seems too complex to program into a computer. Human intelligence is deeply rooted in language and emotion.\nWithout experience or emotion, can computers ever understand the world the way we do?\nThey don\u2019t connect to human cognition on an emotional level, such as the way a symphony or a play can move us. Language and context are barriers for understanding. For example, figuring out the meaning of a sentence like \u201cI shot an elephant wearing pajamas\u201d is very difficult for computers. Was the shooter wearing pajamas or was the elephant? Was a camera or a gun used to do the shooting?\nOf course machine learning goes far beyond winning trivia game shows. It\u2019s driving a computing revolution. According to an article in Wired magazine , today artificial intelligence isn\u2019t trying to re-create the brain. Instead, it relies on machine learning, massive data sets, sophisticated sensors, and clever algorithms to master discrete tasks. \u201cIn short, we are engaged in a permanent dance with machines, locked in an increasingly dependent embrace.\u201d\nMachine learning makes it possible to predict the weather days in advance. It lets companies like Amazon or Zappos suggest products for you based on what you\u2019ve chosen before. It allows doctors to better diagnose medical conditions.\nIt\u2019s even helping us communicate with people through speech recognition, which was once though impossible. Computers are now trained with millions of patterns of human speech, and the accuracy continues to improve. There are even apps for the iPad and iPhone that you can use to quickly record something and translate it on the spot when talking to a person who speaks another language.\nIBM imagines a time when a computer will operate like the one in Star Trek\u2014as information-seeking tools that communicates with us to ensure we get what we want. This thinking signals a shift in the way we use and accept computers in our lives, compared to the fear and suspicion we felt half a century ago.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3020c353-cba8-4d3a-8b9b-a0bd6890cc69>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.idealearninggroup.com/tag/emotional-learning", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.953580915927887, "token_count": 916, "score": 3.90625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Four Laws That Drive the Universe\nBy Peter Atkins\n(Oxford University Press, USA, Hardcover, 9780199232369, 130pp.)\nPublication Date: November 2007\nWritten by Peter Atkins, one of the worlds leading authorities on thermodynamics, this powerful and compact introduction explains what these four laws are and how they work, using accessible language and virtually no mathematics. Guiding the reader a step at a time, Atkins begins with Zeroth (so named because the first two laws were well established before scientists realized that a third law, relating to temperature, should precede them--hence the jocular name zeroth), and proceeds through the First, Second, and Third Laws, offering a clear account of concepts such as the availability of work and the conservation of energy. Atkins ranges from the fascinating theory of entropy (revealing how its unstoppable rise constitutes the engine of the universe), through the concept of free energy, and to the brink, and then beyond the brink, of absolute zero.\nC.P. Snow once remarked that not knowing the second law of thermodynamics is like never having read a work by Shakespeare. This brief but brilliant book introduces general readers to one of the cornerstones of modern science, four laws that are as integral to the well-educated mind as such great dramatic works as Hamlet or Macbeth.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e313392d-83f3-4599-88cc-d8a92122ac02>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.indiebound.org/book/9780199232369", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9242798089981079, "token_count": 276, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Simplest Things\nSometimes the simplest things are, in fact, the most profound. And the smallest changes can have the greatest impact. I believe it is possible to dramatically improve our approach to training and education with just a few simple changes. Changes simple enough that teachers can begin applying them the day they learn them.\nTo understand the solution, we must first recognize the problem.\nThe problem is that we leak.\nThat's right, leak. We leak information.\nWe very rapidly forget new facts to which we are exposed. If you want to revolutionize training and education, you must fully understand this inherent human weakness. We need to be exposed to information again and again, perhaps even hundreds of times, before we can successfully retain and recall it. This is reality folks. Don't ignore it. Deal with it.\nSo how do we deal with this without genetically altering humans? Here are the simple steps:\n1. Clearly identify the facts you want a student to learn.\n2. Provide a method to reinforce those facts over time (over multiple sleep cycles).\nFolks, that is it. It is so amazingly simple that it boggles the mind. Have you seen how we actually teach and train our students? We do not do these two things well at all!\nClearly Identify the Facts\nMost classes do not clearly identify the specific set of facts to learn. Instead, they take the \u201cguess what I think is important\u201d approach. In this approach, a professor or lecturer stands at the front of the room and drones on and on for hours and hours, over days and days. Eventually, a test is presented to the students. The students are not told exactly what is going to be on the test. Instead, the students get to guess what the instructor thinks is important.\nIf you guessed right, you get an A. As a result, the computer can ensure every single student masters every single fact, and it does this so quickly that to most students, it does not even feel like studying.\nIf you guessed wrong, you fail.\nIn either case, it is highly unlikely that you will remember more than one or two of the facts within thirty days of the exam.\nThis failure is clearly demonstrated in the game show Are you Smarter Than a 5th Grader. We don't remember what we learned in elementary school. Why? Because we leak!\nIt is really simple folks, if the facts are not systematically reinforced, they are most assuredly forgotten.\nTo fix the problem, clearly identify every fact the student should remember for the long-term. Next, give the students all of these facts in advance. Yes, all of them. If they should know 1000 things give them all 1000. Help them master all 1000. Test them on all 1000.\nI know, this is extra work for the educators. They actually need to clearly identify what the students should master. We don't do this today because we think it would take too much time and energy for students to remember all of these facts. The truth is, with the proper reinforcement system in place, it will take less than five minutes a day.\nReinforce the Facts\nTo retain and successfully recall facts, they need to be reinforced over multiple sleep cycles. Some facts are learned quickly. They may only need to be reinforced a few times. Other facts, for whatever reason, are learned slowly. They may need to be reinforced several hundred times. The problem is, these facts are never the same for two different people. Everyone needs to be reinforcing different facts on entirely different schedules. Admittedly, this is almost impossible to do in a lecture. However, for a computerized tutor, it is remarkably simple.\nA computer can be used to build a mind map for each individual student, learning exactly what facts the student knows and doesn't know. The computer can remember every time a student was exposed to a fact, on what date and at what time. The computer can remember each individual student's success in recalling and retaining each and every fact. Finally, the computer can provide a customized reinforcement plan individualized for every single student.\nThis is not a theory folks, it is a fact. For the last two years at Procuit we have been doing applied research on precisely this method of training. Others have been doing it even longer. It really works. However, don't take our word for it, test it on yourself. Pick something you would like to learn and implement a system of spaced repetition and reinforcement over extended periods of time.\nYou learn more. Faster. With less effort.\nSometimes the simplest things are, in fact, the most profound. Identify the facts you want your students to learn, all of them, and provide a customized method to reinforce them. You'll be amazed at how smart they become.\nLet the knowledge revolution begin.\nTip of the Day: My research system is available to use free of charge at StudyTag.com. Try learning all of the U.S. States and Capitals, or author your own course, you can learn almost anything in five minutes a day.\nMy company is Procuit Inc. Visit us, if you are interested in learning more.\nTraining Budgets Waste or Total Waste?\nIf Michigan is interested in learning how to truly compete on a global scale, then we have to get dramatically smarter, about getting smarter.\nWhy is it that whenever the auto industry has a down-turn the first budget slashed is training? One week we want everyone to attend all of these important training seminars and the next week almost ALL of it is canceled. Why?\nI have my own theory as to why training budgets are cut in this way. I propose this theory in the manner of a confession. You see, for most of the past 20 years I've been involved in some form of professional training. I have seen first hand what companies intuitively know, which is that a great deal of the money, time, and energy spent in professional training total is a TOTAL WASTE.\nThere, I said it, I feel better already.\nUnfortunately, this also applies to most on-line training courses. The big difference between on-line training and live training in terms of results is simply that you waste less money with on-line training because you spend less for the course. Not a big win.\nHere is a simple test to see how effective your training has been.\nList, from memory, five facts you learned at your last all-day training course.\nThirty days after you take that on-line computer training lesson, do you remember even two things you learned?\nI doubt it.\nResearch dating back to Ebbinghaus in 1885 shows us why. The reality is, we are great at forgetting. Perhaps it is time we start applying this research? Or, here's an idea, perhaps we can apply some of the additional research done in human cognition and memory that has been performed since 1885. We do have an additional 122 years of research we could be using. Have you ever read any of it? When I look at most professional training it is certainly clear that your trainers haven't!\nRemarkably, whether teaching in schools or training in business, for the the most part, we ignore 122 years of research. We use old and wasteful training methods. Hey Detroit! Interested in learning how to slash your training budgets while achieving dramatically better training results? Want to ensure your employees actually gain and retain the skills and knowledge required to compete in the 21st century? Here is a hint.\nSTOP PUTTING YOUR STUPID POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS ON-LINE INTO STUPID COMPUTER BASED TRAINING SYSTEMS.\nPlease stop doing that, it just makes me sick. In case you didn't notice, most people are BORED TO DEATH by PowerPoint presentations. Why do you think putting them on the Internet will suddenly make them more interesting?\nThere is a dramatically better way to provide training and education. Information worth learning should be properly reinforced so that it is retained and recalled long-term. Here is a thought, if you do training right, you should ACTUALLY REMEMBER WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNED.\nOh, and an additional benefit of doing training right - if you change your tools and approach, most training sessions should not cost more than $10. Think Charles Shaw training: if you are paying more than $10 a bottle of training, you are paying too much. If your vendors are charging you more than that, get new vendors, or demand that they implement a better system, a system based on 122 years of research.\nIf Michigan is going to be competitive in the 21st Century we are going to have to have some of the most effective training and education programs on the planet. We can do this. First we have to be willing to admit that what we are currently doing is not good enough. Next, we have to change. The tools are ready. The time is right. The secrets are ready to be revealed.\nTomorrow, I'll tell you the secrets to dramatically reforming our education and training systems, including exactly what needs to change, how to change it, and where you can begin.\nI Wish We Were So Stupid\nFrom time to time I hears folks criticizing one of our wonderful Michigan businesses. I know, this is hard to believe, but it is true. To be specific, people sometimes call our businesses and their great leaders stupid. \u201cFord was stupid doing this,\u201d \u201cGM was stupid for doing that,\u201d and \u201call of them are stupid for ignoring W. Edwards Deming,\u201d and on and on. (O.K., I admit, I'm usually the one making the Deming comment.) Usually the criticism is followed with, \u201cAnd you will not believe what the morons running my company just did.\u201d\nIn the past, whenever I heard people complaining about how stupid Michigan companies were, I would tell them, \u201cIf you want to really experience stupid, you have work for a California company.\u201d Over the years, while still living in Michigan, I've somehow managed to end up working for California companies. I am not exaggerating when I say that these are the absolutely most amazingly stupid companies I have ever had the pleasure of working with. In fact, in the case of Commerce One, they turned stupidity into a mind numbingly glorious singularity \u2013 burning in stupid brightness, losing literally hundreds of millions of investment dollars, shutting down profitable businesses, and driving themselves to financial ruin. If you really want to meet stupid people, I am convinced that there is no better place than Silicon Valley.\nAt one point I mistakenly took solace in the idea that the Michigan companies I knew were significantly smarter than the California ones. Yes, the California companies were continually doing bold, innovative, and dramatic moves, but most these moves were also colossally unforgiving and, to me anyway, quite frequently stupid. Silicon Valley companies seem to enjoy betting their entire future on some crazy innovation, a single roll of the dice. Imagine how stupid the California VCs and Angels must be to invest in these companies.\nTo add insult to injury. Californians seem to celebrate their stupidity. They wear it as a badge of honor to have tried a startup and failed. Their VCs actually give money to inventors and managers who failed the last time they tried a startup: they let them try again! They even fund teenagers and college students ten to fifty thousand dollars for a stupid startup idea, with no real business plan, not even a single financial projection. Some even expect them to launch a new business in only 10 weeks. Oh the insanity, the insanity, and yes, I'm talking about you, Y Combinator.\nIn Michigan we have a better way \u2013 slow, deliberate, cautious, ..., smart. By golly, I remember the response I received when I presented an idea for an Internet company to a Michigan VC firm in 1996. The Michigan VC said, \u201cThe Internet, well, I don't really know if that Internet is going to go anywhere.\u201d After all, we wouldn't want to invest if we didn't really KNOW the result ahead of time, like a Treasury Bill. That's the smart way to invest.\nI was happy with my opinion on how smart we all are in Michigan. Even my experience with our local VC community didn't really change that opinion, although it did begin to shake the ground a little. It wasn't until I read, On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection by Charles Darwin, that I fundamentally began to question my faith in Michigan's approach to intelligent investing. That Darwin, always challenging our faith. I couldn't help but apply his theory to business, and I was surprised at the perspective it gave.\nThe beauty of the theory of natural selection is that doesn't require intelligent design. That is why it is so offensive to so many people. The key concept that so intrigues me is this:\nNatural selection doesn't require intelligent design.\nIt is not intelligent selection, it is natural selection. It is not survival of the smartest, but survival of the fittest. And sometimes, being the fittest, is simply a function of luck. When I think of Darwin in the realm of innovative startup businesses, I am inclined to believe that intelligence is overrated.\nWhat is required for natural selection to perform its wonders for startup businesses?\nA large population, selection, and time.\nHere is where we may be in trouble in Michigan. We are just too darn smart. We are trying to do intelligent design on a process better suited to natural selection. Intelligent design simply isn't as good as natural selection in creating strong, new, innovative businesses and jobs. The world is changing so fast, and technology is moving fast, if you want to ride the edge of innovation you cannot wait to make intelligent investments, for by the time it is clear what investments will survive and thrive, the opportunity has passed you by, and someone else will have the thriving new business life created by the process.\nSay, for a purely hypothetical example, a new piece of technology appears called XMLhttprequest. Let's call the technology, and how it is applied, Web 2.0. California, being stupid, blindly starts up and finances hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of Web 2.0 companies, all in less than three years. Mostly stupid companies, with stupid ideas, and no hint as to how they will ever even make any money.\nStupid. Stupid. Stupid.\nMichigan, however, is much more clever. We only startup a few, and we don't provide them with any capital. Certainly no Michigan VC gives them any money, and for goodness sake, don't even approach the Angel Groups or the MGCS with this sort of lame idea. Include these types of businesses in the 21st Century Jobs Fund? That would be stupid.\nMichigan is smart. California, clearly stupid.\nEnd of the story? Unfortunately, no. The galling thing is that, in the end, California wins. How? The power of natural selection over a large population outperforms intelligent design.\nOut of these thousands of new startup companies created in California many will, through the process of natural selection, survive, adapt, and even grow. Most die. Some absolutely thrive, creating whole new industries and thousands of new jobs. At the end of a few years, California successfully employs thousands and thousands of engineers and managers in the thriving companies. Thousands more work in those that are merely surviving. These companies being to develop synergy, create new ideas (mostly stupid), and launch yet still more new businesses creating new jobs.\nMichigan. Michigan in the same time frame likely creates ten to twenty Web 2.0 companies. Most get no funding and die on the drawing board. Others move to California. And the few remaining ones who are successful, well, if they have an exit strategy it likely involves selling the company and moving it to California. After all, the only people stupid enough to buy it, are in California.\nFinal score: California, tens of thousands of new jobs in new industries, without a single tax credit to create them. Michigan, 0.\nI wish we were so stupid.\nThere was a time when Michigan was a lot dumber. Henry Ford stupidly wanted to sell affordable cars to everyone. The smart money kept telling him to focus on selling cars only to the rich. \"Silly Henry, don't you know the farmers can't afford cars, and we don't even have any roads for people to drive on.\" I can hear the capital speaking even now. Oh, if only we had a few thousand people as stupid as Henry around, and a few others stupid enough to back them.\nThe next time you hear somebody say how stupid a Michigan company is, tell them what I say, \"Yeah, and not nearly stupid enough.\" I mean, we wouldn't want to have created a good alternative fuel car when gas was only $1.00 a gallon \u2013 that would've been stupid.\nTip of the Day: A slightly different take on my thesis can be found in the most excellent book, Fooled by Randomness: The Hidden Role of Chance in Life and in the Markets by Nassim Nicholas Taleb. Would you like to better understand Web 2.0? Read Tim O'Reilly's original article. It is a bit technical, and a bit old, but still quite good. My personal Web 2.0 project? StudyTag. Check it out, and maybe even learn something about the Great Lakes. Best of all, StudyTag is free. I know, I know, it is stupid to give stuff away for free.\nChrysler, Want To Make an Extra 50 Billion? Or Why Detroit Needs Open Source.\nDid you know that there is an IT breakthrough hidden inside of Chrysler that in the right hands could be worth 50 billion dollars or more? I\u2019m not talking research, I\u2019m talking developed, deployed, and operational software. The funny thing is, Chrysler almost assuredly doesn\u2019t even know what it has! In fact, it is likely they have already turned off and abandoned this bit of amazing IT innovation.\nDon\u2019t get me wrong. At least two Chrysler employees knew exactly what they had, but they were just lowly software engineers in an auto company. They didn't have the temperament to spin-off, raise capital, and start a new industry.\nHere is what happened. An internal software initiative had already failed two or three times, and yet another team had taken seven person-years to try to do it right. Unfortunately, the resulting system was slow, buggy, and behind schedule. The project involved data collection for manufacturing plants. Not just a little data, but a great pile of data for nearly every part for almost every machine (several hundred to several thousand machines per facility.) To make it more interesting, the data being collected would be different for different machines and the data may change over time. Chrysler needed to know how many machine cycles a particular piece of tooling has made on one machine, and on another machine, how long the cycle time was, and on and on. And this was just the data collection. Once the system had the data, they needed to provide alerts on certain conditions, warnings on others, and reports and real-time views on it all. And these needed to be able to be changed in real-time.\nTo make a long story short, a miracle occurred, and a completely new version of the system was written by one individual in two months \u2013 put another way, 84 months worth of work was reduced to 2 months, and the results were error free. This is what an employee told me later:\n\"A little less than two months later, this guy tossed me the product release, I had to laugh, he emailed me the release! How could something that will fit in my email possibly accomplish even a fraction of the requirements! I chuckled under my breath, and performed the install.\nThen it hit me! This was working, just like he said it would.\nAnd, I didn\u2019t have to code the changes for each machine; it would create what was needed from the machine specifications!\nI am always the skeptic, so I presented my first challenge: O.K., smart guy, each minute on this line costs $1000.00, sure you are collecting the down time, but I want to split the cost between every \u201cDowned\u201d machine on the line, on a per minute basis, and at the end of the day, I want to know which machine cost me the most dollars in productivity.\nThe next morning, I opened my E-Mail to find a configuration file.\nI had him now\u2026.he forgot to send me the new release! A quick trip by his desk left me shaking my head, I didn\u2019t need a new release, all I needed to do was apply my new business rules to the existing system!\nMy friend, this is agile.\nThis is what development was supposed to do for us.\nI threw seven man-years of code in the trash that day, and launch a great system at a fraction of the cost. Using traditional methods, I could have spent years trying to design a system just to tell me the high cost machine on my lines, I got it from this system in a single day.\"\nBasically, Chrysler was shown by a lone consultant on a small project a totally new way to develop industrial software, a way that dramatically reduced cost and improved quality. This approach was so innovative that it could have been spun-out into an entire new software industry. Of course, that would require time, energy, and capital, and automotive companies are not software companies.\nSo what happened? The innovation was never developed further. All of our big automotive companies treat IT as proprietary and confidential. And, near as I can tell, all of them are continually redoing the same projects over and over and over again. The result of this secrecy policy? Well, I am sure even Sue Unger never knew this particular innovation existed. You see innovation is a delicate thing that needs to be carefully tended, most of the time it isn't even recognized as innovation by experts in the field. Make every line of software internal and highly confidential, and even you will not know about your own innovations when they happens. Innovation born. Innovation dies.\nSadly, I know of many of these stories in Michigan. Michigan has incredible talent in software engineering. We have tremendous innovation. However, because all of the software is treated as an internal secret, it dies internally and is a secret EVEN TO THE COMPANY THAT CREATED, FINANCED, AND USES IT.\nThe solution? In my opinion, Detroit automotive companies should seek to open source almost all of their software initiatives. Everyone needs to control a factory floor, everyone needs to meet payroll, everyone needs to manage suppliers, and frankly none of you are that good at developing software. So, when you do spend a fortune developing and deploying it, don't hide it, open source it! Let others unabashedly benefit from your investment and nurture your innovation.\nHad this innovation at Chrysler been properly nurtured in an open source community, the IT costs at all of our Michigan automotive companies would have been slashed, and it would still be dropping! Not by moving to cheap offshore labor, but by eliminating most of the labor entirely. Think about it, 80 months of labor reduced to 2 months of labor. I won't even calculate the percent savings because it is too embarrassing to the industry!\nDetroit, do you want to dramatically reduce your software costs? Then open source your software projects! It is probably the only way you will actually be able to benefit and leverage the innovation that is incurring inside your walls. It you are clever, or perhaps I should say if you are stupid, you might even get a piece of the 50 billion dollar non-competing industry that arises from the innovation.\nWe'll talk more about being that stupid tomorrow.\nTip of the Day: Two open source packages I use continually are Open Office and Firefox. Check them out.\nEnough Hoopla Around Google? Not Nearly Enough!\nOn more than one occasion I've heard someone poo poo (poo poo is that the formal term for it?) the announcement that Google opened a large office in Michigan. Typically, their statements go something like this \"We've lost 19,000 manufacturing jobs last year. Sure it is great that Google opened an office here, but what is Google going to be, a thousand jobs? What difference will that make?\"\nIt is a good question. What difference will it make? What difference could having one of the most innovative and interesting search, advertising, and marketings companies on the planet open a large office in Michigan make? Here is an answer for you...\nIt could save Michigan.\nLet me repeat the answer, just to make it clear.\nIt could save Michigan.\nGoogle has the potential to be that important to the long-term future of Michigan. Not because of revenue generated from the thousand jobs, the pay at those jobs is not nearly high enough. Nor will Google setting up shop in Michigan convince many other companies to follow. It may convince a few, but with our shallow VC and Angel market we are certainly not positioned to be the next Silicon Valley.\nNo. The benefit of having one of the world's most innovative search, advertising, and marketing companies setup shop in Michigan is that finally Michigan businesses may finally begin to realize just how important Google's tools are to growing business worldwide. Michigan businesses may begin to recognize that it is ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL that they start using Google products and services to grow their business! Michigan businesses must dramatically improve their game in Internet marketing and selling, their future, and ours, depends on it.\nI attended an event in Ann Arbor this year where a Google guest speaker was flown in from California to demonstrate Google Analytics. It was well attended. The room where it was held was packed. The only problem is if everyone in Michigan who needed to learn the information had attended it would have required Ford Field to hold the audience. Google Analytics and Google Adwords are that important! Don't you know this yet? Where were you? Every single business in Michigan can benefit greatly from a well executed Adwords strategy. These tools may be the single most important way you can grow your company, improve sales, reach new customers, and have a global impact. It is time you learned more about it.\nGoogle is training up to 1,000 Google employees in Michigan on Google Adwords. Even better, it is the job of these people to pass that knowledge on to you! The Google office in Michigan is specifically designed to help you do a better job using Adwords.\nIf I was Governor I would do everything in my power to ensure that every Michigan business understands how to create and execute an Adwords campaign, and how to build a landing page for that campaign that actually converts to sales. These are the skills that will allow new businesses to grow. These are the skills that allow Michigan businesses to sell and test market anywhere in the world at very low cost, and I mean anywhere, including your own backyard. Do you want to give Michigan businesses a head start? Teach Michigan workers how to use Adwords.\nIn case you're wondering, no, I do not work for Google and I do not own their stock (my bad). I have, however, used their tools for years. I KNOW that they work. I know that they can turn a business around. I know that they can make the process of marketing, lead generation, and sales actually fun again. My knowledge is real and personal, and I continue to use these tools every day. Google's tools are not the end of the journey, they are just the beginning, and there are other excellent Internet tools you should be using to grow your business. However, Google is probably one of the best places to start. I suggest you start today.\nYes. Losing 19,000 manufacturing jobs hurts, a lot.\nBut there is also hope. Google opened a large office in Michigan. Google, the company that has been changing how businesses advertise, market, and sell for years. It is still rare to find a Michigan company that is using these tools well. If Google having an office here in Michigan can begin to change that, then yes, it is really, really important.\nIt could just save Michigan.\nTip of the Day: Where would I start learning this stuff if I were you? Get the Ultimate Guide to Google AdWords by Perry Marshall and Bryan Todd.\nCurrently selling for less than $20 on Amazon. Don't just buy it, actually read it! Then, actually do it. The best $20 you will spend this year, and don't be fooled, the book isn't really about Adwords, it is about how to implement a comprehensive Internet marketing and sales strategy.", "id": "<urn:uuid:738873d2-41da-49d3-acb9-639e8f403025>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.metromode.com/blogs/bloggers/TMeloche0037a.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702739715576172, "token_count": 5976, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A bundle of recent genetic studies have suggested modern humans had sex with Neanderthals thousands of years ago when the two populations roamed the planet alongside each other. However, the bones left behind by the two species don't bear any obvious traces of interbreeding, and a new study of monkeys in Mexico shows why we shouldn't expect them to.\nResearchers examined blood samples, hair samples and measurements collected from mantled howler monkeys and black howler monkeys that were live-captured and released in Mexico and Guatemala between 1998 and 2008. The two monkey species splintered off from a common ancestor about 3 million years ago; today they live in mostly separate habitats, except for a \"hybrid zone\" in the state of Tabasco in southeastern Mexico, where they coexist and interbreed.\nThrough an analysis of genetic markers, from both mitochondrial DNA (the DNA in the cells' energy-making structures that gets passed down by mothers) and nuclear DNA, the researchers identified 128 hybrid individuals that were likely the product of several generations of interbreeding. Even so, these hybrids shared most of their genome with either one of the two species and were physically indistinguishable from the pure individuals of that species, the team found.\n\"The implications of these results are that physical features are not always reliable for identifying individuals of hybrid ancestry,\" Liliana Cort\u00e9s-Ortiz, an evolutionary biologist and primatologist at the University of Michigan, said in a statement. \"Therefore, it is possible that hybridization has been underestimated in the human fossil record.\"\nScience news from NBCNews.com\nThe work on howler monkeys was part of the doctoral dissertation of Mary Kelaita, now a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Texas at San Antonio. Kelaita added that the study \"suggests that the lack of strong evidence for hybridization in the fossil record does not negate the role it could have played in shaping early human lineage diversity.\"\nWhen scientists finally finished sequencing the Neanderthal genome in 2010, they revealed that between 1 percent and 4 percent of some modern humans' DNA came from the stocky hominids. This suggested humans had sex with Neanderthals, picking up some genes, and possibly even an immunity boost, from Neanderthals before the population disappeared about 30,000 years ago. But not all scientists are convinced the genetic evidence alone proves ancient interbreeding and a study last year found that even if humans and Neanderthals did have sex, those encounters would have rarely produced offspring.\nThe scientists of the new study say more work is needed to learn about interbreeding and the factors governing the expression of physical characteristics in hybrid individuals.\nThe research was detailed online Friday in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology.\n- Gallery: Monkey Mug Shots\n- Top 10 Mysteries of the First Humans\n- Image Gallery: Our Closest Human Ancestor\n\u00a9 2012 LiveScience.com. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:490085d7-698f-48cf-9420-4e97837c7072>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50147634/ns/technology_and_science-science/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9500831961631775, "token_count": 593, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Science Objects are two hour on-line interactive inquiry-based content modules that help teachers better understand the science content they teach. This Science Object is the first of three Science Objects in the Heredity and Variation SciPack. It explores the historical perspective and experiments of Mendel.\nSexual reproduction results in the continuity of species accompanied with a great deal of variation in physical traits. One familiar observation is that offspring are very much like their parents but still show some variation\u2014 differing somewhat from their parents and from one another. People have long been curious about heredity, using even the most primitive understanding of inheritance to cultivate desirable traits in domesticated species. In the 1800s, Gregor Mendel took his observations of heredity and variation to new heights through carefully designed and executed breeding experiments that generated repeatable inheritance patterns. Mendel developed a model for explaining the patterns he observed, describing discrete units or \u201cparticles,\u201d which both segregate and assort independently of one another during inheritance. This model offered a foundational explanation for how variation is generated through sexual reproduction. Although Mendel\u2019s model over-simplified how traits are inherited and expressed, it set the stage for the discoveries of chromosomes and genes from which contemporary genetics grew.\n[hide full abstract]\n- Explain how domestication of plants and animals produced an early understanding of inheritance.\n- Use Mendel\u2019s model to explain patterns of inheritance represented in graphic form (for example, data tables, histograms, etc.).\n- Identify the conditions required for an inheritance pattern to be explained correctly by Mendel\u2019s model.\n- Use data representing patterns of inheritance to support the idea that some observable traits are defined by discrete units of inheritance that segregate and assort independently of one another during inheritance.", "id": "<urn:uuid:074e5ba1-4e0d-4f64-b7ea-2ab79c7c33e1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nsta.org/store/search.aspx?action=browse&gradelevel=912&product=object", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9362446069717407, "token_count": 367, "score": 3.78125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "PANNA: OP\u2019s in Children, Failed Court Order on Pesticides, Community Monitoring of Pesticides and more\nSee PANUPS updates service, for complete information.\nHazardous Language Barrier: Over two thousand farmworkers in Hawaii cannot read warning labels on harmful pesticides, according to a study conducted by the National Agriculture Statistics Service field office. Over 40% of them speak Ilocano from their native Phillipines, not English. Other workers speak only Tagalog, Chinese, or Spanish. Since the labels are printed only in English, the workers can't follow safety precautions when using dangerous pesticide chemicals--a common situation around the world. Pacific Business News reported the story.\nIrresponsible Businesses: Although a federal judge in Seattle ruled over two years ago that Washington retailers must post warnings to their customers regarding the risks to salmon and other aquatic life posed by pesticides, the retail business community has not been complying with the order, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency claims it has no authority to enforce the rule. Due to pressure from the Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides, Washington Toxics Coalition and other concerned groups, EPA is now handing out signs to some home and garden stores that sell pesticides so they can post warnings. All pesticides with the ingredients malathion, carbaryl, 2,4-D, diazinon, diuron, triclopyr, or trifluralin must carry the warning. Read more in the Seattle Post Intelligencer.\nPoisonous pyrethroids: A UC Berkeley study reveals that an entire class of pesticides -- pyrethroids -- has contaminated Northern California streams and waterways, wiping out \"crustaceans and insects vital to ecosystems,\" according to the Los Angeles Times. The state Department of Pesticide Regulations will be notifying pyrethroid manufacturers that their products will be re-evaluated, and that some bans may be imposed. \"This is a shot across the bow to the manufacturers that we found a reason for concern and you need to provide us with data to either eliminate the concern, reformulate your products or consider taking them off the market,\" said Mary-Ann Warmerdam, Department Director.\nCommunity Empowered: Residents of Lindsey, California, presented evidence of dangerous pesticide drift in the air around their homes in a press conference on July 17. Lindsey is one of several rural San Joaquin Valley communities that have suffered multiple pesticide exposure incidents in recent years. Californians for Pesticide Reform (CPR), a statewide coalition that coordinates the Safe Air For Everyone campaign, helped organize a poll on pesticide exposure with Valley groups. The Lindsey study is part of a collaboration between community group El Quinto Sol, Commonweal, CPR and Pesticide Action Network. Residents collected data using the \"Drift Catcher,\" an air monitoring device developed by PAN senior scientist Dr. Susan Kegley. Read the results of the Lindsey Drift Catcher report. Fresno TV station KFSN has the story.\nPANUPS is a weekly email news service providing resource guides and reporting on pesticide issues that don't always get coverage by the mainstream media. It's produced by Pesticide Action Network North America, a non-profit and non-governmental organization working to advance sustainable alternatives to pesticides worldwide.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0c8e76a0-9d7f-41da-af16-b18b8c154738>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.panna.org/legacy/panups/panup_20060720.dv.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9270679950714111, "token_count": 676, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Issue | Canada engages in a new approach to resolve specific claims made by First Nations.\nSynopsis | The Specific Claims Tribunal Act established an administrative tribunal with the authority to make binding decisions on claims and to award monetary compensation up to $150 million per claim. Claims over $150 million will be dealt with through a specially mandated Cabinet process.\nTiming | Under the Specific Claims Tribunal Act, certain claims will be eligible for filing with the Specific Claims Tribunal as of 16 October 2011.\nFederal policy divides Aboriginal land claims into two broad categories: specific claims and comprehensive claims. Specific claims arise from the alleged non-fulfillment of historic treaties between First Nations and the Crown, or improper administration of First Nations lands and other assets by the Crown. Comprehensive claims are based on the assertion of continuing Aboriginal rights and title that have not been dealt with by treaty or other legal means. This overview focuses on the specific claims process.\nBetween April 2010 and April 2011, 18 specific claims were settled at a total value of approximately $666 million. The monetary value of the claims settled in this period ranged from $134,283 to $231.4 million. As of 5 April 2011, 503 specific claims remain in the federal inventory of claims under assessment or in negotiations.1\nOver the past several years, the federal specific claims process has been the subject of legal and policy reform initiatives intended to reduce the backlog of outstanding claims. In response to a 2006 report of the Standing Senate Committee on Aboriginal Peoples, which highlighted the need for reforms to the specific claims process in several areas, the federal government launched Specific Claims: Justice at Last \u2013 Canada\u2019s Specific Claims Action Plan in June 2007. The reforms proposed in the action plan included an independent tribunal to make binding decisions on claims that cannot be resolved by negotiations, dedicated funding for specific claims settlements, and practical measures to improve the processing of both small and large claims.2\n|Location of Specific Claims Under Assessment or in Negotiations (as of 5 April 2011)|\n|Source: Figure prepared by the Library of Parliament using data obtained from Indian and Northern Affairs Canada.|\nThe Specific Claims Tribunal Act was introduced in the House of Commons on 27 November 2007 and came into force on 16 October 2008. The Act creates the Specific Claims Tribunal, an administrative tribunal composed of Superior Court judges with authority to make binding decisions on claims and to award monetary compensation up to a maximum of $150 million per claim.\nThe Act stipulates that a First Nation may file a claim with the tribunal if the claim has been previously filed with the minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development, and if:\nIn effect, the Specific Claims Tribunal Act introduces three-year timelines for the assessment and negotiation of specific claims. As a result of these timelines, certain cases will become eligible for filing with the tribunal as of 16 October 2011.\nWith this deadline in view, the Specific Claims Tribunal is currently preparing for the commencement of operations. Between November 2009 and November 2010, several Superior Court judges were appointed to the tribunal, and Justice Harry Slade was appointed as its chairperson. Draft Rules of Practice and Procedure were made public in June 2010 and are currently under review by the Department of Justice. The tribunal\u2019s first annual report, dated 30 September 2010, provides a synopsis of work undertaken to that date and of anticipated activities through the current and following fiscal years.3\nThe introduction of the Specific Claims Tribunal Act in November 2007 was accompanied by the signing of a political agreement between the Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development and the National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations. The political agreement provides for additional discussion on improvements in the resolution of specific claims not directly addressed in the legislation, including matters related to claims that exceed the monetary cap of $150 million. The development of a Cabinet process to address claims over $150 million is ongoing.\n\u00a9 Library of Parliament 2011", "id": "<urn:uuid:ad04e71a-9059-4ecb-bf71-7557f0c48d3d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.parl.gc.ca/Content/LOP/ResearchPublications/cei-11-e.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9559466242790222, "token_count": 781, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "History of the Jigsaw Puzzle\nIts generally agreed that London print shop owner and map maker, John Spilsbury created the first jigsaw puzzle, about 1760. He mounted a map onto mahogany, and cut along the borders of the countries, as a way to teach children about geography.\nEarly puzzles were called dissections. The introduction of the treadle saw in 1880, saw the name change to the now familiar jigsaw puzzle.\nJigsaw puzzles remained primarily a teaching tool until they moved into the adult market, about 1907. By 1908 a full blown craze had developed starting in the Eastern United States. The golden age of jigsaw puzzles started in the 1920's peaking in 1933. The onset of the Great Depression in 1929 caused people to spend more time at home, and completing a jigsaw puzzle gave a feeling of accomplishment. Something that was hard to come by at that time. This was also the first time that puzzles were used for advertising purposes - a tooth brush company was the first to supply free puzzles for druggists to give to toothbrush buyers. Other commercial enterprises soon jumped on the band wagon - what better way to advertise , than have someone spend hours assembling a picture of the product.\nIn the early days puzzles made of wood or plywood were expensive - costing as much as a weeks wages for the average worker. Each piece was cut individually. Early puzzles did not interlock and a careless bump or sneeze could undo an entire evenings work. The 1930's saw the development of mass produced die-cut cardboard puzzles, cut on giant industrial presses by companies such as Parker Brothers and Milton Bradley. Libraries and drugstores then started offering puzzle rentals at 25 cents for 3 days.\nSmall run cardboard puzzles were still not economically feasible, primarily due to equipment costs. A flourishing business still exists for hand cut personal and custom puzzles, as is evidenced by the numerous web sites that offer this service. These mainly use photographs glued to plywood and are cut with either scroll saws or water jets.\nColour photocopiers and recent developments in ink jet printer technology, have reduced printing costs, thereby replacing the necessity for photographic enlargements. The huge industrial press problem was solved with the advent of our roller press. Pressures required are enormous. The 308 piece puzzle requires 150 tons of pressure to cut 60 point chipboard. This pressure is achieved over the entire die surface by applying pressure one small area at a time.\n\u00a9 2005 Graffiti Graphics Ltd.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dd7c20bd-d78d-4043-abba-cb7451afb872>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.puzzlemachine.com/history.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.967890739440918, "token_count": 504, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tell Time Like Early Navigators\nFlash back to the 15th century with this model of the very first star dials used by navigators to tell time. This ancient tool still works accurately, because is based on the North Star, which is almost directly on the axis of the Earth\u2019s axis of rotation and always appears in the same position in the sky.\nSimply set the middle wheel to the month, hold the dial upside down, and sight the North Star through the center hole. Move the top of the dial\u2019s arm to align with the uppermost stars of the Big Dipper, and read the time on the inner dial where the arm crosses the hour mark. The reverse side is outlines of the major constellations. Pewter finishes; comes with instructions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4b660bcc-3cab-4e10-a835-57066fc80805>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scientificsonline.com/review/product/list/id/5256/?laser_color=83&price=1%2C1000000", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9228745698928833, "token_count": 159, "score": 3.5, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "From the time of Aristotle (384-322 BC) until the late 1500\u2019s, gravity was believed to act differently on different objects.\n- Drop a metal bar and a feather at the same time\u2026 which one hits the ground first?\n- Obviously, common sense will tell you that the bar will hit first, while the feather slowly flutters to the ground.\n- In Aristotle\u2019s view, this was because the bar was being pulled harder (and faster) by gravity because of its physical properties.\n- Because everyone sees this when they drop different objects, it wasn\u2019t questioned for almost 2000 years.\nGalileo Galilei was the first major scientist to refute (prove wrong) Aristotle\u2019s theories.\n- In his famous (at least to Physicists!) experiment, Galileo went to the top of the leaning tower of Pisa and dropped a wooden ball and a lead ball, both the same size, but different masses.\n- They both hit the ground at the same time, even though Aristotle would say that the heavier metal ball should hit first.\n- Galileo had shown that the different rates at which some objects fall is due to air resistance, a type of friction.\n- Get rid of friction (air resistance) and all objects will fall at the same rate.\n- Galileo said that the acceleration of any object (in the absence of air resistance) is the same.\n- To this day we follow the model that Galileo created.\nag = g = 9.81m/s2\nag = g = acceleration due to gravity\nSince gravity is just an acceleration like any other, it can be used in any of the formulas that we have used so far.\n- Just be careful about using the correct sign (positive or negative) depending on the problem.\nExamples of Calculations with Gravity\nExample 1: A ball is thrown up into the air at an initial velocity of 56.3m/s. Determine its velocity after 4.52s have passed.\nIn the question the velocity upwards is positive, and I\u2019ll keep it that way. That just means that I have to make sure that I use gravity as a negative number, since gravity always acts down.\nvf = vi + at\n= 56.3m/s + (-9.81m/s2)(4.52s)\nvf = 12.0 m/s\nThis value is still positive, but smaller. The ball is slowing down as it rises into the air.\nExample 2: I throw a ball down off the top of a cliff so that it leaves my hand at 12m/s. Determine how fast is it going 3.47 seconds later.\nIn this question I gave a downward velocity as positive. I might as well stick with this, but that means I have defined down as positive. That means gravity will be positive as well.vf = vi + at\n= 12m/s + (9.81m/s2)(3.47s)\nvf = 46 m/s\nHere the number is getting bigger. It\u2019s positive, but in this question I\u2019ve defined down as positive, so it\u2019s speeding up in the positive direction.\nExample 3: I throw up a ball at 56.3 m/s again. Determine how fast is it going after 8.0s.\nWe\u2019re defining up as positive again.\nvf = vi + at\n= 56.3m/s + (-9.81m/s2)(8.0s)\nvf = -22 m/s\nWhy did I get a negative answer?\n- The ball reached its maximum height, where it stopped, and then started to fall down.\n- Falling down means a negative velocity.\nThere\u2019s a few rules that you have to keep track of. Let\u2019s look at the way an object thrown up into the air moves.\nAs the ball is going up\u2026\n- It starts at the bottom at the maximum speed.\n- As it rises, it slows down.\n- It finally reaches it\u2019s maximum height, where for a moment its velocity is zero.\n- This is exactly half ways through the flight time.\nAs the ball is coming down\u2026\n- The ball begins to speed up, but downwards.\n- When it reaches the same height that it started from, it will be going at the same speed as it was originally moving at.\n- It takes just as long to go up as it takes to come down.\nExample 4: I throw my ball up into the (again) at a velocity of 56.3 m/s.\na) Determine how much time does it take to reach its maximum height.\n- It reaches its maximum height when its velocity is zero. We\u2019ll use that as the final velocity.\n- Also, if we define up as positive, we need to remember to define down (like gravity) as negative.\na = (vf - vi) / t\nt = (vf - vi) / a\n= (0 - 56.3m/s) / -9.81m/s2\nt = 5.74s\nb) Determine how high it goes.\n- It\u2019s best to try to avoid using the number you calculated in part (a), since if you made a mistake, this answer will be wrong also.\n- If you can\u2019t avoid it, then go ahead and use it.\nvf2 = vi2 + 2ad\nd = (vf2 = vi2) / 2a\n= (0 - 56.32) / 2(-9.81m/s2)\nd = 1.62e2 m\nc) Determine how fast is it going when it reaches my hand again.\n- Ignoring air resistance, it will be going as fast coming down as it was going up.\nYou might have heard people in movies say how many \"gee\u2019s\" they were feeling.\n- All this means is that they are comparing the acceleration they are feeling to regular gravity.\n- So, right now, you are experiencing 1g\u2026 regular gravity.\n- During lift-off the astronauts in the space shuttle experience about 4g\u2019s.\n- That works out to about 39m/s2.\n- Gravity on the moon is about 1.7m/s2 = 0.17g", "id": "<urn:uuid:43ce7457-915e-4a8a-b78f-fca95b28656c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.studyphysics.ca/newnotes/20/unit01_kinematicsdynamics/chp04_acceleration/lesson12.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9448903203010559, "token_count": 1359, "score": 3.953125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Body Composition Tests\nDecember 19, 2011\nThe tests and measurements described in this fact sheet provide detailed measurements of fat and lean body mass. Repeated measurements can be helpful in monitoring body shape changes associated with lipodystrophy (see Fact Sheet 553) or with wasting syndrome (see Fact Sheet 519).\nSome of these measurements are used to determine if someone is overweight. Excess weight is associated with a higher risk of heart disease. Low weight, including an unintended weight loss of 5% or more, may also be a sign of health problems (see Fact Sheet 519).\nThere are pluses and minuses for each method. Some have to do with cost. Also, a trained technician can often make a big difference in measurements. Try to use the same technique and technician if you are tracking changes over time.\nThis word just means measuring the body. Anthropometry is the simplest technology. It involves using a tape measure to take key readings, such as biceps, thigh, waist, and hips. A trained technician is very important for this method.\nCalipers (a metal tool) are used to \"pinch\" body tissue in several places. The measurements are compared to standards. People doing the measurement should be trained so that the measurements are standardized.\nDivide your waist measurement (at the narrowest point) by your hip measurement (at the widest point.)In general, a healthy waist to hip ratio is below 0.9 for men and below 0.8 for women. These may not hold true for people with HIV who have fat accumulation around the waist.\nIn general, a waist size over 40\" for men or over 35\" for women is associated with greater health risk.\nIn BIA, a person is weighed. Age, height, gender and weight or other physical characteristics such as body type, physical activity level, ethnicity, etc. are entered in a computer. While the person is lying down, electrodes are attached to various parts of the body and a small electric signal is circulated. This signal cannot be felt.\nBIA measures the resistance (impedance) to the signal as it travels through the body muscle and fat. The more muscle a person has, the more water their body can hold. The greater the amount of water in a person's body, the easier it is for the current to pass through it. Higher fat levels result in more resistance to the current. Fat tissue is about 10% - 20% water, while fat-free mass (which includes muscle, bone, and water outside muscles) averages 70% - 75% water.\nBIA values depend on a person's age. Normally you can get an analysis of your results when the test is done.\nThis is a calculation based on your weight and height. The formula is:\n(weight in kilograms) divided by (height in meters squared; or multiplied by itself). To convert pounds to kilograms, divide by 2.2. To convert height to meters, first convert height to inches (12 x feet, plus extra inches). Then divide by 39.4.\nFor example, let's say that someone weighing 165 pounds is 5' 8\" tall.\nBMI result categories are:\nFor more information and a convenient BMI calculator that uses pounds and inches, see the web site \"Calculate your BMI\" at http://nhlbisupport.com/bmi/\nTomography means looking at slices of the body. CAT scanning uses x-rays to do this. It is helpful in calculating the ratio of fat within the abdomen compared to fat under the skin. The equipment is expensive.\nThis x-ray technique divides the body into fat-free (lean) mass, bone mineral content, and fat. Different amounts of the x-ray energy are absorbed by different types of tissue. DEXA scans are very accurate but can be expensive due to the cost of the machine. DEXA scans are also used to measure bone density (see Fact Sheet 557.)\nThis technique uses a magnetic field to create an image of the body. The image shows the location and amount of fat. This is very expensive due to the cost of the machine and reading the scans.\nThis method determines body volume. First the person is weighed dry. Then they are immersed in water in a tank and weighed again. Bone and muscle are more dense than water, and fat is less dense than water. A person with more bone and muscle will weigh more in water than a person with less bone and muscle. The volume of the body is calculated and body density and body fat percentage are calculated.\nThis technique may underestimate the body fat percentage of athletes, and overestimate body fat in elderly people.\nBody composition measurements can be helpful, over time, in tracking changes due to HIV or its treatments. The different techniques have pluses and minuses in terms of reliability, cost, and availability. If you are concerned about your body shape and composition, be sure to ask your health care provider to record baseline readings before you start treatment.\nThis article was provided by AIDS InfoNet. Visit AIDS InfoNet's website to find out more about their activities and publications.", "id": "<urn:uuid:703f20c3-3c8d-4311-8ef1-fa85d8011f16>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thebody.com/content/art43095.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9433763027191162, "token_count": 1056, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Chlorine manufacturers that still use a 19th-century technology have been largely overlooked in the national debate over whether the Bush administration has become aggressive enough in combating mercury emissions, an international group said yesterday.\nOceana, a group formed three years ago to track worldwide efforts to protect the seas, said chlorine plants that don't use a more modern mercury-free technology spew twice the mercury of some coal-fired power plants and should share some blame for fish consumption advisories in the Great Lakes as well as advisories against eating too much tuna from oceans.\nThere are far more power plants, though. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency estimates that power plants are responsible for about two-thirds of America's airborne mercury, a dangerous toxin that can cause problems with brain and nervous-system development among children.\nWhile Oceana agrees the primary focus should be on power plants, it said chlorine makers should not be given a free pass if they have not converted to a mercury-free technology.\nNinety percent of the chlorine made in the United States is manufactured with the cleaner process. The other 10 percent is made by nine manufacturers that haven't embraced it, including Ashta Chemicals Inc. of Ashtabula, Ohio, the group said. Ashta is Ohio's single-largest source of mercury emissions and the nation's fifth-largest mercury emitter. Ohio, which has more coal-fired power plants than most states, is second only to Texas in mercury emissions, U.S. EPA records show.\nAn Ashta spokesman was not available yesterday. But Zoe Lipman of the National Wildlife Federation, a group often critical of state and federal regulators, praised the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency for negotiating improvements at Ashta. In September, the agency announced a $1.54 million settlement that will prevent the release of 1,320 pounds of mercury annually from Ashta.\nAlthough not mercury-free technology, the improvements will be \"an important step forward,\" Ms. Lipman said.\nAlso yesterday, several groups claimed 12 of Ohio's 21 largest power plants increased annual emissions of sulfur dioxide between 1995 and 2004 and eight of them increased their annual emissions of smog-forming nitrogen oxide during that period.\nBut Jack Shaner, an Ohio Environmental Council spokesman, noted that FirstEnergy Corp.'s coal-fired Bay Shore power plant in Oregon posted reductions.\nContact Tom Henry at:", "id": "<urn:uuid:07278f2d-c1ce-45be-83fd-e42fce6f66da>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.toledoblade.com/frontpage/2005/01/27/Chlorine-makers-mercury-output-criticized.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368707435344/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516123035-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9544612765312195, "token_count": 493, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "March 30, 2011 by Valerie Elkins\nThe short answer is keizu. The longer answer is not so easy. There several reasons why it is difficult for those of Japanese ancestry living outside of Japan to trace their lineage. One of the main reasons is a lack of understanding of the language. I am not going to sugar coat it, learning Japanese is hard, BUT learning how to pronounce it is not.\nThere are 5 basic vowel sounds in Japanese. They are always pronounced the same unlike in English! Vowel lengths are all uniformly short:\n|a||as in \u2018father\u2019|\n|e||as in \u2018bet\u2019|\n|i||as in \u2018beet\u2019|\n|u||as in \u2018boot\u2019|\n|o||as in \u2018boat\u2019|\nYou do not need to know everything in Japanese but learning some genealogical terms is helpful.\nGlossary of Japanese genealogical terms to begin building your vocabulary.\n- koseki ~ household register, includes everyone in a household under the head of house (who usually was male)\n- koseki tohon ~ certified copy which recorded everything from the original record.\n- koseki shohon ~ certified copy which recorded only parts from the original.\n- joseki ~ expired register in which all persons originally entered have been removed because of death, change of residence, etc. A joseki file is ordinarily available for 80 years after its expiration.\n- kaisei genkoseki ~ revised koseki\n- honseki ~ permanent residence or registered address (i.e. person may move to Tokyo but their records remain in hometown city hall).\n- genseki ~ another name for honseki\n- kakocho ~ Buddist death register\n- kaimyo ~ Buddist name given to deceased person and recorded in kakocho.\n- homyo ~ Buddist name given to living converts, similar to homyo.\n- kuni ~ country or nation\n- ken ~ prefecture\n- shi ~ city\n- gun ~ county\n- to ~ metropolitan prefecture (Tokyo-to). Similar to ken.\n- do ~ urban prefecture (Hokkaido). Similar to ken.\n- fu ~ urban prefecture (Kyoto-fu, Osaka-fu) similar to ken.\n- ku ~ ward in some large cities (Sapparo, Sendai, Tokyo) divided in to town (cho).\n- cho ~ town\n- aza ~unorganized district\n- machi ~ town within a city (cho) or ward (ku), town within a county (gun).\n- chome ~ smaller division of a town (cho) in some neighborhoods.\n- mura or son ~ village within a county (gun).\n- koshu or hittousha or stainushi ~ head of household, the head of the family\n- zen koshu ~ former head of household\n- otto ~ husband\n- tsuma ~ wife\n- chichi or fu ~ father\n- haha or bo ~ mother\n- sofu ~ grandfather\n- sobo ~ grandmother\n- otoko or dan or nan ~ male, man, son\n- onna or jo ~ female, woman, daughter\n- ani or kei or kyou ~ older brother\n- otouto or tei ~ younger brother\n- ane or shi ~ older sister\n- imouto or mai ~ younger sister\n- mago or son ~ grandchild\n- himago or souson ~ great-grandchild\n- oi ~ nephew\n- mei ~ niece\n- youshi ~ adopted child or son\n- youjo ~ adopted daughter\n- muko youshi ~ a man without sons may adopt his eldest daughter\u2019s husband as his own son and the young man will take his wife\u2019s surname and be listed on her family\u2019s koseki\n- seimei or shime ~ full name, family name\n- shussei or shusshou ~ birth\n- shibou ~ deceased\n- nen or toshi ~ year\n- gatsu, getsu or tsuki ~ month\n- hi or nichi or ka ~ day\n- ji or toki ~ hour, time\n- sai or toshi ~ age\n- issei ~ person born in Japan and later immigrate elsewhere\n- nisei ~ child/generation of issei and born outside of Japan\n- sansei ~ child/generation of nisei and born outside of Japan\n- yonsei ~ child/generation of sansei and born outside of Japan\n- gosei ~ child/generation of yonsei and born outside of Japan\nThere is another Japanese term you really need to know. It is ganbatte which means \u2018hang in there\u2019 or \u2018do your best\u2019 and either one is will work.\nCategory Uncategorized | Tags:", "id": "<urn:uuid:6af83eea-e9c9-4bc3-83b0-3d1f7e904cd8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://advantagegenealogy.com/blog/2011/03/30/how-do-you-say-genealogy-in-japanese/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9097623825073242, "token_count": 1055, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Can you imagine eating grasshoppers \"more savoury than shrimp?\" It's easy if you try. Costa Rican scientists at the National Biodiversity Institute are researching insect farming for purposes of food production. It makes sense: insects are high in protein, low in carbs, and produce very high quality fats including omega 3s. And insects can learn to eat a wide range of cheap feed -- even algal carcases left over from the production of algal biofuels!\nAt the institute, Costa Rican scientists mingle with Bhutan mycology expert Ugyen Yangchen and Elisabeth Zannou, an entomologist from Benin.\nCosta Rica and Benin share historical ties, as many slaves were taken from the western African country to Central America during the colonial era.\n\u201cBenin knows a lot about insect consumption and Bhutan about eating mushrooms, while Costa Rica is bringing its experience in managing biodiversity,\u201d Marianella Feoli, who manages the foundation coordinating the research program, told AFP.\nIn Benin, termites, grasshoppers and crickets, as well as butterfly and moth larvae are a common part of people\u2019s diet, explained Zumbado, who traveled with his colleagues to explore the phenomenon in the coastal country.\n\u201cIn other countries, gourmet restaurants serve insects,\u201d he noted. _ImpactLab\nIf Obama is US President for much longer, humans will have to learn to eat lower on the food chain. Elections have consequences.\nLabels: eating bugs, food, food production", "id": "<urn:uuid:3fc899b9-c038-4288-abb0-9063c00605bf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://alfin2100.blogspot.com/2010/02/gourmet-fare-bugs-and-mushrooms.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9519754648208618, "token_count": 324, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "On the suggestion that the gonococcus was one of the organisms susceptible to sulfanilamide, it was decided to treat gonorrheal vaginitis in children by oral administration of sulfanilamide in further search for a simple and effective method of handling this therapeutic problem. After encouraging results had been obtained in cases of vaginitis, sulfanilamide was applied to the treatment of gonorrheal urethritis in boys and of gonorrheal conjunctivitis.\nThis report summarizes the results of treatment with sulfanilamide in 9 cases of conjunctivitis, in 5 cases of urethritis in boys and in 22 cases of vaginitis in girls since May 1937.\nDiagnosis of gonococcic infection was made on the basis of the finding of gram-negative intracellular diplococci, morphologically typical of gonococci, in smears from the eyes, urethra or vagina. Gonococcic complement fixation tests made on admission were positive in about two thirds of the patients. Cultures for gonococci were not available to", "id": "<urn:uuid:2b191f97-79d2-44db-9ef0-560776301a2f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://archpedi.jamanetwork.com/article.aspx?articleid=1178253", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.951702356338501, "token_count": 226, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Should one want a comprehensive view of the family structure and unit, it would be best to look at both in their historical context. Initially, most families were polygamous. Typically, there would be one husband with several wives generating a substantial number of children to continue the paternal line. Obviously, the male served as a strong authoritarian figure, while his female counterparts tended to be submissive. In certain locales, male children eventually gained authority over their mothers far before the age of what is currently held as legal adulthood. Collectivist moral codes, and the ethics derived from them, served as guiding lights for all family members with the happiness of any one individual rendered irrelevant; though perhaps exceptions would be made for the dominant male.\nIn contemporary America, family matters are unimaginably complicated as they are relative toward the family at hand. Statistics, thankfully, are able to draw a fairly sketchy, but serviceable estimation of the facts on the ground. Roughly half of children reside in single parent households, while one third are born to parents who are not married. The number of unmarried mothers is headed well north of 10,000,000, and a total of 2,000,000 children are now being raised by non heterosexuals. Over 1,600,000 minors live with adopted parents, and the number adopted each year is climbing above 100,000. One in three lesbian households have children, and one in five male gay households are in the same boat. Additionally, one in twenty five children do not even live with their parents.\nMaybe father and mother alike do not know best. Here's hoping that grandma, or grandpa, does.\nWhether society at large accepts these tough but truthful facts is an immensely interesting question. As the subject of family impacts all segments of society, if it opts against doing so, one of the grandest acts of mass delusion and hypocrisy would take place. Unfortunately, any given society is not immune to such foolishness. In the United States, much of the electorate chooses to brush over or ignore and deny what are simple realities. This is reflected in the so-called family values movement, which rams Tinseltown\u2019s aforementioned content across the airwaves, through the mail service, and into voting booths during election season. Despite this, there are millions upon millions of others who acknowledge things as they are and continue moving forward. Such a great variance of opinion is what keeps the American political pendulum swinging back and forth year after year, with no end visible on the horizon. The very touchy topic of why some accept or reject contemporary family ultimately depends upon the individual. Many apply their own religious beliefs to the equation, while others are shaped by their life experiences.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e1ad70a7-be9e-429b-9dce-08218b85c61d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blogcritics.org/politics/article/all-in-the-family-the-changing/page-2/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9726320505142212, "token_count": 547, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Writing An Acceptable Use Policy For Your School\nA helpful guide to creating an Acceptable Use Policy (AUP) for a school's use of services provided by the Internet. The author notes that an AUP is the most important document a school will create since it states the terms, conditions, and rules of Internet use determined by a school or district. Topics include: What is an AUP; Why Establish an AUP; Objectives of an AUP; Components; Distribution; Samples (web based); Resources (web based). Additional coverage is given to writing policy statements and consent forms, and maintaining copyrights, netiquette, privacy, and user responsibility.\nBooks & Booklets; Internet Resources\nAdministration & Leadership\nAdministrator, Teacher, Board Member / Trustee", "id": "<urn:uuid:e8e300fb-e9ef-4cfe-9773-9fb092292ed5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://circle.adventist.org/browse/resource.phtml?leaf=3832", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8540176153182983, "token_count": 160, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Title||ABC in Dixie: a plantation alphabet (V) |\n|Author||Bonte, Louise Quarles; Bonte, George Willard, 1873- |\n|Publisher Location||England--London |\n|Publication Date||ca. 1900 |\n|Image Production Process||Relief prints|\n|Notes||Relief illustrations, color printed in Bavaria.|\nAn alphabet book with rhymes written in imitation of southern Black English of the 19th century and illustrations that depict a variety of stereotyped plantation characters.\n\"V is fer Victor who b'longed ter Mars Lee en after de wah went up No'th en wuz free.\" [V is for Victor who belonged to Mars Lee and after the war went up North and was free.] The illustration depicts a man wearing patched clothing and shoes, and carrying a knapsack and walking stick. His clothing and unsmiling demeanor are in stark contrast to the nicer clothes and grins of the other former slaves depicted in the book who decided to remain and work on the plantation after the war and emancipation.\n|Contextual Notes||Right after the Civil War, books were published that attempted to refute the \"immorality\" of slavery. These books were often illustrated with photographs of former slaves dressed in outlandish costumes looking happy and content. Texts purported to document the kind and reasonable treatment of slaves in the South. All of these books relied on racial stereotypes. Racial stereotypes persisted in the United States long after the Civil War and these children's books were also especially popular in England. At about this same time, silent movies were showing white actors in blackface and featuring minstrel shows.|\nGeorge Willard Bonte was an artist well-known for his portraits and Louise Quarles Bonte was an artist well-known for her miniatures.\n|Subjects (LCSH)||African Americans -- Southern States -- Caricatures and cartoons |\n|Category||Discrimination and bigotry|\n|Digital Collection||Children's Historical Literature Collection |\n|Digital ID Number||CHL1127 |\n|Repository||University of Washington Libraries, Special Collections Division |\n|Repository Collection||Children's Historical Literature Collection. PE1155.B59 1900z |\n|Physical Description|| p.: illustrated; 28.5 x 24 cm. |\n|Digital Reproduction Information||Photographed from original book in TIFF format using a Canon EOS Digital Rebel XTi/EOS 400D, resized and enhanced using Adobe Photoshop, and imported as JPEG2000 using Contentdm's software JPEG2000 Extension. 2009. |\n|Exhibit Checklist||Exhibit checklist L.139 |", "id": "<urn:uuid:7fa73d94-99df-4d6c-a6fc-54b3893965f2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://content.lib.washington.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/childrens&CISOPTR=792&CISOBOX=1&REC=3", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8990129828453064, "token_count": 552, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How The Kumbh Mela Crowds Are Counted\nDate 2013/2/7 18:04:40 | Topic: Hindu Press International\nALLAHABAD, INDIA, February 2, 2013 (India Real Time): The Kumbh Mela is frequently billed as the world's largest religious gathering. It is almost certainly true. But how can we know for sure? The two men with the challenge of counting up to an estimated 80 million people are divided on how to do it. They also come up with different numbers. They are Devesh Chaturvedi, the commissioner of Allahabad, and Alok Sharma, the inspector general of police in the city, which is hosting the Hindu festival.\nThe Commissioner reckons the number of pilgrims passing through the Kumbh Mela site on the banks of the Ganga between Jan. 14 and March 10 will end up somewhere between 60 to 80 million. Both men use different techniques for counting but agree neither method is scientific or water tight. Mr. Sharma is more conservative and estimates the final total will be around 40 to 60 million.\n\"We use thumb rules,\" says Mr. Sharma. His team positions counters at the entry points to the Mela area, which leads to the bathing ghats (banks). They calculate the maximum crowd capacity of 100 meters of road based on the assumption that each pilgrim will take up 1.5 square feet of ground. Then they measure the speed of the crowd by timing how long it takes a police officer to move 600 meters with the throng. \"The pace of crowd keeps changing depending on the density,\" the Inspector General adds. Once they know how long it has taken the policeman to walk 600 meters they can work out how big a crowd has covered the same distance and how many people have passed. Vehicles arriving along the entry roads around Allahabad are counted manually and trains with up to 8,000 passengers each are also added to the total.\nMr. Chaturvedi has a different approach to the enormous population count. From a series of watch towers across the 14 sectors of the Mela site head-counters try to keep a tab on the number of pilgrims below. \"It's not the most scientific way of doing it,\" Mr Chaturvedi says. \"But that is the only estimate available to us.\" This year for the first time the Mela is also being tracked using satellite imagery. \"Based on the color of the images they are going to tell what is the density of human beings,\" Mr. Chaturvedi says. Using calculations based on the average stay of pilgrims and photographs taken at different times of day, the Commissioner hopes it will provide a more accurate count.\nMr. Chaturvedi says that the biggest crowd so far, on the first day of the festival, was 8 million while Mr. Sharma puts it at between 1.5 million and 1.8 million.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0d5f5fd7-704e-461a-b1f9-d629bc3b7c5a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hinduismtoday.com/blogs-news/hindu-press-international/how-the-kumbh-mela-crowds-are-counted/print,12697.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.963623583316803, "token_count": 594, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Jupiter, in Roman mythology, the supreme god. Though principally a sky god in charge of all atmospheric conditions, he had many special functions. In his most important temple, on the Capitoline Hill, he was worshiped as god of the state and was called Optimus Maximus (The Best and Greatest). He directed the course of human affairs, and revealed future events by producing omens in the heavens. White, the color of the light of day, was sacred to Jupiter. His priests wore white robes, white animals were sacrificed to him, and white horses drew his chariot.\nJupiter was identified with the Greek god Zeus, and many of the early stories about him correspond to those told of Zeus.Jupiter was the supreme Roman god.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4ecdbcbb-005f-44f6-a935-4fea238793b7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://history.howstuffworks.com/ancient-rome/jupiter.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9863812327384949, "token_count": 152, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "IRCAN\u2019S SCIENTIFIC GOALS\nWhen the data on epidemiology and pathophysiology are analyzed, aging is usually perceived as a process that results from the combined influence of constitutional or so-called \u00ab genetic \u00bb factors, life-style associated factors and external events. Gerontobiology looks into all the specific medical and biological features of aging on the scale of the human body and develops concepts such as \u00ab harmonious \u00bb aging, \u00ab vulnerable \u00bb and \u00ab hypercatabolic \u00bb states, illustrating the highly heterogeneous characteristics of the aging process. The extreme heterogeneity of aging can be illustrated for a given age by a residual life-expectancy that varies considerably from one individual to another and by the onset, or not, of degenerative disorders, especially cardiovascular and neurological diseases, bone and joint disorders, diabetes and also neoplasms, pathologies in which constitutional determinants and other external factors play a role as they do in aging.\nThe concept of cell aging, or senescence, differs from the aging of an organism as a whole and its features can be observed in primary somatic cell cultures. After a certain number of divisions the cell cycle permanently shuts down and a senescent phenotype is observed in which major changes have taken place both in the cells themselves and in their genetic expression program. This is known as replicative senescence and is caused by the unrelenting shortening of the DNA that forms the end of the chromosomes (or telomeres) each time the cell divides. The erosion of the telomeres is paced by the cell cycle and can be considered as a mechanism that acts as a \u201cmitotic clock\u201d; the cells count the number of divisions rather than chronological time. If this counting mechanism is deregulated to compensate for the shortening of the telomeric DNA, due to the up-regulation of telomerase reverse transcriptase or other alternative mechanisms that lengthen the DNA (a mechanism known as ALT for example) the cells end up by becoming immortal, which is what usually happens in cancer. A noteworthy comment here is that Elisabeth Blackburn, Carole Greider and Jack Scoztack, were awarded the Noble prize for Medicine in 2009 for their work in this area, showing the medical community\u2019s awareness of the importance of these phenomena.\nMore generally, the destiny of a cell in a eukaryotic organism obeys precisely set rules of homeostasis when it is proliferating, differentiating or during apoptosis and senescence. However, all the factors that are required to regulate each of these stages are coded by a set of identical genetic material in each cell, which is identically reproduced each time the cell divides. This is why a special mechanism known as DDR (short for DNA damage response) is required to maintain the integrity of the genome and fine-tune the structure of the DNA. This structure, chromatin, ensures that specific gene expression programs are expressed at each stage of the cell cycle and each cell state. The mechanisms involved are often known as \u201cepigenetic\u201d, although they do not always involve inheritance of the chromatin state. Studying the DNA damage response and chromatin is one of the most promising avenues of research in terms of the biology of aging, because time, together with constitutional and environmental factors, has a direct influence on the integrity of the DNA in the chromosomes (mutations) and their chromatin organization (epimutation). The characteristic heterogeneity of the aging of the body is probably directly related to chromatin regulation mechanisms and many degenerative disorders are largely influenced, if not directly caused, by genetic or epigenetic dysfunctions.\nAmongst these disorders, malignancy is also heterogeneous and is one of the best-known deregulations of cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and senescence. Surprisingly, senescence protects the cells against malignancy. In agreement with the increase in the incidence of cancer with age, cell senescence can also facilitate the development of cancer, making the relationship between aging and cancer even more complex.\nAs in all the physiological mechanisms of homeostasis, the regulation and balance between ageing and cancer in superior eukaryotes and in humans in particular, is extremely complex. On the scale of the cell, accumulated DNA damage seems to be a common cause of aging and the development of cancer, but the p53-dependent adaptive response illustrates the phenomenon of antagonistic pleiotropy, because increasing the anti-tumoral cell response leads to premature ageing. On the scale of an organism, the inhibition of the IGF-1 and GH dependent channels induces a reduction in cell metabolism, whilst protecting against oxidative stress, aging and the development of malignancies.\nFrom this work, it emerges that aging is a way for the body to attempt to escape from cancer, but the attempt remains vain because cell damage builds up as time goes on. Cell senescence may thus prevent us from dying of cancer young, whilst ageing our body which, in return, increases the likelihood of malignancy as we get older.\nGoing into more detail of the understanding of these multiple interconnections requires synergy between many areas of molecular, cellular or biomedical experimental biology or biology more generally dedicated to the study of systems modeling ageing and cancer.\nThis is the goal that IRCAN (Institute of Research on Cancer and Aging in Nice) has set for itself.\nThe research carried out at IRCAN involves major areas of basic research in biology, public health (oncology, geriatrics, age-related disorders such as diabetes, renal failure, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular disease) and sustainable development to improve our understanding of the body\u2019s response to environmental stress.", "id": "<urn:uuid:155cd61f-4162-43be-a996-7ae8c5eadfce>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ircan.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=35&Itemid=53", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443073868751526, "token_count": 1165, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This shape would appear to be a rectangular prism.\nThe lateral area (area of every side except top and bottom) is given by the formula:\nLA = ph (perimeter of the base multiplied by the height)\nThe surface area is then found by adding the LA to the areas of the Bases (top and bottom).\nSA = LA + 2B\nIn your figure:\nLA = 18 times 3 = 54 square cm\nSA = 54 + 2(14) = 82 square cm\nThe volume of a right rectangular prism is given by the formula:\nV = LWH (length times width times height)\nIn your case,\nV = 7 X 2 X 3 = 42 cubic cm.\nWell, on the offchance you can't understand masters' explanation; the easiest way to get the area is just to say: Total surface area = Sum of the areas of each face.\nSo you've six faces, all rectangles. The area of a rectangle is obtained by just multiplying the two sides.\nSo, say, the face at the top is 7x2 = 14.\nAnd the face at the bottom will be the same = 14.\nThe face in front is 7x3=21\nAs is the one at the back = 21.\nThe other face you can see is 3x2 = 6.\nAnd the corresponding one that you can't see =6 also.\nSo the sum of the four squares is 14+14+21+21+6+6 = 82.\nThe Surface Area is found by adding the areas of all the faces or more simply, if the base is \"l\" by \"w\" and the height is \"h\", then the surface area is given by:\nSA = 2(lw + hl + hw)\nAnother method I already gave you in my earlier post.", "id": "<urn:uuid:511ac3d6-f1e2-46a9-9f2e-fc151104aeed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://mathhelpforum.com/algebra/93635-volume-surface-area.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9292895197868347, "token_count": 385, "score": 3.625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sensitization is the word used to describe an allergic reaction that develops after repeat exposure to an allergen. Often, the first time a body is exposed to a substance it does not seem to know what to do with it and basically just observes it. However, in subsequent exposures, it apparently recognizes the substance, and if it deems the material a dangerous intruder, it mounts an attack (immune response) against it.\nOccasionally, sensitization occurs after one small exposure, but more often it occurs after a single high dose or large surface area exposure, or after prolonged, repeat exposures over either small or large surface areas. This is why products such as hair dyes and relaxers recommend that you patch test a small area of skin every single time you plan to use the product.\nSymptoms of sensitization to ingredients in hair care products can include development of a painful, pimply rash, scaly, itchy atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, eczema, inflammation and itchy, flaky scalp. Systemic and/or anaphylactic reactions are unlikely given the typical quantity of any ingredient in a hair product and the relatively small area of exposure, but they are not entirely unheard of.\nThis entry was posted on Tuesday, December 11th, 2012 at 5:00 pm and is filed under Home, Ingredients, Products and Ingredients. You can follow any comments to this entry through the RSS 2.0 feed. You can skip to the end and leave a comment. Pinging is currently not allowed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0c3575d3-b330-46da-a849-a0ec2099a903>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://naturallycurly.com/curlreading/ingredients/top-hair-care-product-allergies?page=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9486379027366638, "token_count": 313, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "But Keller and her colleagues say their research proves otherwise.\nKeller has studied the Chicxulub site and other impact-crater sites around the world for the past decade. She believes that the asteroid impact behind Chicxulub coincided with a \"time of massive volcanism, which led to greenhouse warming.\"\nKeller says those three eventsthe Chicxulub asteroid impact, volcanism, and climate change\"led to high biotic stress and caused the decline of many tropical species populations,\" but not mass extinctions. That die-off didn't occur until later. However, Keller does believe that the initial confluence of volcanic activity, global warming, and the Chicxulub asteroid impact ultimately contributed to the mass extinction.\nKey to Keller's assertions is a 20-inch-thick (50-centimeter-thick) layer of limestone found between the K-T boundary and the impact breccia, or molten lava and rocky debris, laid down when the Chicxulub asteroid collided with Earth.\nKeller and her colleagues believe that the thickness of the limestone layera type of sedimentary rock characteristically formed under large bodies of water like oceans, seas, and lakesindicates that it accumulated in the crater over some 300,000 years after the impact. As proof, Keller points to fossils of microscopic organisms called foraminifera and fossil burrows present in the limestone layer.\nAccording to Keller, those fossils indicate the sediment was deposited after the asteroid impact but before the period of mass extinction that marked the end of the Cretaceous.\nMany other scientists disagree with that interpretation, however. They say the layer of fossil-rich limestone was deposited quickly as backwash and infill caused by a huge tsunami that followed the Chicxulub asteroid's impact with Earth. The layer, they say, did not take 300,000 years to accumulate.\nIn her defense, Keller says the quick-accumulation theory is unsupported by evidence that would have been found during her analysis of core samples gathered at Chicxulub and 45 localities in northeast Mexico.\nBut Alan Hildebrand, a proponent of the quick-accumulation theory, says the burrows were \"made by organisms digging after the fireball layer was deposited.\"\nThomas R. Holtz, Jr., a vertebrate paleontologist at the University of Maryland in College Park, supports the view that the limestone was quickly laid down as crater infill. He said he is not surprised that Cretaceous fossils were found in the limestone layer.\n\"If an asteroid clobbered the Eastern seaboard of the U.S. today, I would expect that most of the infilling would be Chevys and Hondas and shopping malls and houses and cows and McDonald's burger wrappers,\" Holtz said. \"Only a tiny bit might be mastodons and Clovis points and Miocene whales.\" In other words, the crater would quickly fill with objects common on Earth at the time of impact.\nSo where do researchers in the Keller camp look next for the possible K-T crater? Keller says she's unsure, although \"some scientists have suggested it could be a structure called Shiva, in India. We have no convincing evidence so far that this is the case.\"\nSOURCES AND RELATED WEB SITES", "id": "<urn:uuid:4d9d2441-762a-4bf0-bbc6-64a734349fda>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/03/0309_040309_chicxulubdinos_2.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9562605023384094, "token_count": 683, "score": 4.0625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Physical environment is subject to continuous modification from natural causes, such as tectonic forces, temperature extremes, fire, wind and river erosion, vegetation processes, and animal action. No less than natural agents, human actions can result in widespread and irreversible environmental change. Many of these processes occur insidiously over prolonged periods. In such instances, the effects often are cumulative. Other human actions may be more sudden and concentrated, resulting in immediate and noticeable change.\nWhether continuous or precipitous, these human actions frequently have degraded the affected environment. The nineteenth century, a time of British consolidation in Gangetic India, witnessed both types of phenomena. Traditional environmental alterations continued, while imported technologies introduced new, more threatening agents of change.\nAgents of Continuous Change\nThe Banaras region, like most of the Gangetic plain, has been continuously populated for some twenty-five hundred years. In the process local residents established an important urban center, maintained its streets and buildings, connected it to other communities, supplied its industrial needs, and fed its population. Throughout this time human occupation affected the surroundings in a variety of ways.\nLand Use and Resource Depletion . Over the centuries while Banaras city grew, its inhabitants exploited the adjoining terrain and its resources.\nThey cultivated the land to near capacity; hunted wildlife; raised livestock; and extracted timber, fuel, stone, sand, clay, and groundwater. Those materials and supplies which were unavailable locally were imported and brought in by road or stream.\nAs Banaras continued to grow and prosper, surrounding lands strained to supply the rising needs of the city and its visitors. By 1800 the region's resource base was becoming strained. The town itself was built on the site of the legendary Forest of Bliss. But by the nineteenth century, according to Diana Eck, townspeople retained only memories of the once luxuriant woods. One central neighborhood came to be known as the \"Cut-Down Forest\" (Eck 1982:29).\nIn the countryside, too, large tracts had been cleared for farming, leaving only isolated trees and planted groves. The extensive fields in place by 1800 blanketed what was once a natural habitat of dense forest. The original cover included stands of valuable trees, such as sal (Shorea robusta ) shisham (Dalbergia sissoo ), jaman (Eugenia jambolana ), mahua (Bassia latifolia ), ber (Ziziphus jujuba ), pipal (Ficus religiosa ), neem (Azadirachta indica ), pagun[*] (Bombax ceiba ), banyan (Ficus bengalensis ), tamarind (Tamarindus indica ), and babul (Acacia arabica ). Apart from isolated stands near villages, few of these trees remained in the nineteenth century. Grasses and shrubs, too were continuously grazed and harvested for manufacturing bricks (Troup 1921, 2:8; 3:4, 147, 231; Stebbing 1922\u201326: glossary; R. L. Singh 1971:204).\nThis large-scale devegetation of the countryside put an enormous strain on the soil resources. No longer compacted by broad root systems, topsoils were swept away by floods and blown off by winds. And depletion of leguminous trees and shrubs deprived the earth of the nitrogen-fixing action of roots, leaving soils deficient in bacterial content. The stresses of repeated cropping and traditional shallow tillage minimized soil rotation, accelerated nutrient depletion, and reduced fertility. Finally, with firewood growing scarcer owing to devegetation, manure was employed as fuel, reducing the input of fertilizer (Crooke 1897:322\u201334).\nThe familiar cycle of deforestation, reduction of biotic diversity, soil erosion, reduction of fertility, and decline in productivity certainly was manifest in the Banaras region. The responses to this process were equally common: extension of cultivation to terrains previously considered \"wastelands\" or \"barren\" lands; increased irrigation; or multiple cropping.\nAs was noted above, British observers asserted that Banarsi cultivators increasingly adopted irrigation and multiple cropping techniques. Reclamation of barren land also occurred but was severely limited by availability. Already by the end of the eighteenth century most such land had been plowed and sown. Although varying perceptions of what constitutes wasteland render that term ambiguous, figures confirm that little such terrain was available by the 1840s. It appears that the amount may have decreased somewhat between 1848 and 1872 (from 19 to 15 percent), but stabilized at the latter level through the rest of the century. There is some evidence, meanwhile, that farmers were simultaneously abandoning previously productive lands. In 1788 Jonathan Duncan had already noted the desertion of formerly productive fields. Nearly a hundred years later the provincial land-settlement report of 1872 estimated that 5 percent of cultivated land had been recently abandoned (Shakespear 1848: 169\u201370; Colvin 1872, Appendix:16; K. P. Mishra 1975:85).\nIn sum, despite an ostensibly stable population, pressure on farmland was demonstrably heightening. The measures taken to compensate for erosion and soil depletion aggravated the situation. Each of the three alternatives employed\u2014reclamation, irrigation, and multiple cropping\u2014was intensive, adding further stresses on finite resources.\nReligious Activity and Environmental Pollution . The processes described above were principally rural and resulted from land use intensification. Their effects were to degrade a limited resource base. Such phenomena have been common to many societies and typical for much of agrarian north India.\nConsiderably less typical and far more controversial have been the alleged ecological consequences of religious activity in Banaras. As the principal focal point of Hindu pilgrimage and the leading center of Brahmin ritual observance, Banaras has drawn enormous numbers of visitors throughout the year and on special occasions. It is principally the Ganges that affords this distinction, and it is on its banks that most activity occurs.\nPrimarily as a result of the vast number of participants, the riparian environment has been affected. Crowding, sewage generation, and the influx of ill visitors have caused serious public health concern since the beginning of the colonial period. Other actions may have contributed in small ways to riverine pollution, but their effects have been consistently overstated. Throughout British rule, Hindu religious practices were termed responsible for the pollution of the river and the adjoining areas.\nFor centuries throngs of pilgrims have converged on Banaras. In addition to the daily arrival of Hindus seeking personal salvation, sea-\nsonal fairs or eclipses drew occasional crowds of a hundred thousand or more. These congregants required food, drink, and other substantive needs, adding further pressure on overtaxed resources (Hamilton 1820:301; Nevill 1909a:66\u201367; 1909b:85; Oude and Rohilkund Railway 1875:1169; 1878:1057; K. P. Mishra 1975:67). Their contribution to local degradation has been notable, but environmental pollution due to their presence has been a lingering concern. This is particularly ironic given the religious function of Banaras: to purify and cleanse ritual pollution. Diana Eck notes the importance of running water in general, and of Ganges water in particular, in purification. But this notion, as she recognizes, is unrelated to microbial purity (Eck 1982:216\u201317).\nTo colonial observers, eager to introduce Western hygienic principles, Hindu practices appeared unclean. Perceiving a real threat to their own health and well-being, Europeans eagerly condemned certain ritual acts. With the advent of the germ theory, objections that had been merely moral were accorded scientific sanction. By the 1850s a burgeoning body of literature joined religious criticism with social outrage and fear (Calcutta Review 1848:404\u201336; 1851:156\u2013230; 1864: 253\u201394).\nForeign observers repeatedly cited the infectious nature of practices they found deplorable. Of these, perhaps the most shocking to British sensibilities was the Hindu custom of cremating the deceased and casting the remains into the Ganges. In theory cremation itself was not objectionable. In practice, however, it was noted that scarcity of fuel often resulted in incomplete cremation. The consequences of partial consumption aroused an outpouring of righteous anger among British residents and administrators. They were appalled by \"scorched trunks\" thrown into the Ganges to float toward the sea \"in a state of horrible decomposition, poisoning the water of narrow streams, or sickening the eye, whilst tumbled in the torrents of the Ganges\" (Calcutta Review 1848:416; 1851:222). Additional concern was aroused by other aspects of cremation: decomposing corpses awaiting cremation, and burial of incompletely burned bones and dead animals.\nOn several occasions colonial officials attempted to intervene, citing public health considerations. In one such action in 1868 the Banaras Municipal Board asserted its right to close burning ghats or cemeteries deemed problematic. Within days, after reassessing the effective threat posed by the ghats and gauging popular feeling, the Magistrate repealed the proclamation (Bharat Jiwan [23 September] in SVN for 1912:898).\nDisposal of human and animal bodies in the Ganges was another source of English consternation. Although these acts occurred, it is unlikely that their volume could have appreciably affected the quality of the water. Modern residents of Banaras, including the present Maharaja, insist that the above allegations are inaccurate and overstated (N. Kumar communication, March 1986).\nBut if the burning ghats were unlikely sources of pollution, other long-term human actions measurably affected the quality of the Ganges and its banks. The dumping of waste, sewage, and industrial effluent into the river; the bathing of persons and cattle; the washing of clothes and vessels; and emissions of noxious smoke represented real hazards. In addition, poor drainage allowed accumulation of stagnant waters in ponds (Bharat Jiwan [1 May] in SVN for 1893:191; Gopalkrishnan 1985:3\u20134). As early as 1864 the Calcutta Review noted that the \"water is of deadly influence, and the vapour from which fills the air with fever-breeding and cholera-breeding miasma.\" The journal called for immediate steps to improve drainage in the vicinity of the ghats (Calcutta Review 1864:293).\nSensitized by the press, authorities and local residents feared the percolation of toxins and pollutants into the groundwater. In response, in 1886 concerned citizens formed a local pollution-prevention society, the Kashi Ganga Prasadini Sabha. The Sabha's primary objective was to eliminate river contamination, undertake a drainage scheme, and purify drinking water. Nevill reported that the project was completed in 1892. But in February 1893 the Bharat Jiwan of Banaras complained that drains had yet to be constructed and that wastewater continued to flow through city streets. And K. S. Muthiah, writing in 1911, confirmed the failure to implement its scheme (Nevill 1909a:262\u201363; Administration Report 1896\u201397: 167; Bharat Jiwan [6 February] in SVN for 1893:69; Muthiah 1911:164).\nPerhaps the greatest immediate threat to public health was posed by the streams of crowds from throughout India, whose mere presence acted as a universal disseminator of infection. Since Banaras has been a magnet for persons wishing to die in the holy city, many visitors have been aged and generally in poor health. Accordingly, the city has been subjected to epidemics of cholera, typhus, and plague, and to chronic outbreaks of malaria and dysentery. The mortality rate from disease remained one of the province's highest through most of the century (Shola-i-Tur in SVN for 1871:704; Administration Report 1896\u201397: 6\u20137; Klein 1974:210).\nOne supposed factor contributing to epidemics was cited in an 1848 issue of the Calcutta Review . According to the author, sick and infirm individuals, \"anxious for their rewards in the next life,\" were being en-\ncouraged to set up residence in crowded, damp, unsanitary huts by the river. The article decried this practice, which it termed \"ghat murders.\" Certain that the custom hastened death, the author warned against the \"unsalutary\" effects of the vicinity (Calcutta Review 1848:404\u201336).\nWhile similar issues surfaced in other cities, the status of Banaras as the country's leading pilgrimage center heightened British sensitivity to the polluting aspects of religious activity. Sentiments shared by Europeans elsewhere in India found clear expression in Banaras. Certainly, fears of contamination and deadly disease were not baseless. But many observers were unable to distinguish between the real dangers to public health resulting from unsanitary practices and assumed threats posed by certain ritual acts. The resulting mix of missionary righteousness and scientific theory directed unexpected attention to the environment, but the attendant rhetoric often obscured the nature of the problem.\nModern Agents of Change\nThe processes described in the preceding section resulted from ongoing practices, not from any sudden changes. Ninteenth-century improvements in transportation facilitated travel and thus increased pilgrimage to Banaras. The greater traffic placed additional stress on local resources and accelerated riverfront pollution. The modern transportation network and other newly established public works also had a more direct impact on regional environment. Roads and railways were superimposed on the rural landscape. First their construction, then their operation and maintenance, resulted in pronounced and usually permanent modifications of the terrain (Varady 1981, 1985a, 1985b).\nPublic Works Construction . From the 1830s to the end of the century northern India underwent a period of intense public-works construction. Cognizant of the benefits of improved communications, the ruling East India Company initiated a vigorous program for road improvement. Even earlier, in the first years of British administration, Collector Jonathan Duncan had authorized road improvements near the city. The first major project was a complete renovation of the old imperial highway connecting Bengal to the Punjab. Renamed the Grand Trunk Road, this throughfare was graded, then metaled (paved) with crushed limestone. Other provincial roads to Ghazipur, Jaunpur, Allahabad, Mirzapur, and Sasaram soon received similar attention. During the decade 1840\u20131850 alone the British constructed some fifty thousand kilometers of roads throughout their Indian territories (Abbott 1846:56\u201374; Sanyal 1930:3).\nEven before the provincial road network was completed, the government turned its attention to railways. By the mid-1840s entrepreneurs\nand administrators had discussed the idea in England, and soon they took the first steps to actuate their decisions. By 1854 the first train of the East Indian Railway Company (EIR) left Howrah to initiate the line that would parallel the Grand Trunk Road to Delhi and the Punjab.\nFor the next eight years the tracks crept toward Banaras. Construction continued northward through Bengal up to the Ganges, and then via Bhagalpur and Patna along the southern bank to Mughal Sarai, across the river from Banaras. After the completion in 1862 of the 860-kilometer route from Calcutta, construction continued on to Mirzapur, eventually to join the branch descending from Kanpur (East Indian Railways 1853\u201363; Bengal Past and Present 1908:55\u201361; Varady 1981:51).\nBuilding roads and railway lines was both labor intensive and resource intensive. In each case, after rights of ways were secured the surface needed preparation. Gangs of thousands of beldar s[*] (laborers) from the nearby countryside were hired. Housed in meager shacks, underfed, and overworked, these laborers commonly were ill. Epidemics among road and rail gangs were frequent and destructive. There are records of camps of ten thousand losing up to a third of the workers to cholera and other diseases. Worse, the contagion often spread to nearby towns (Varady 1981:188\u201389; United Provinces Public Health Dept. 1903).\nThe work teams were employed to clear jungles of vegetation, excavate tree roots, flatten roadbeds, lay gravel or limestone, dig drainage ditches, construct embankments and berms, and bridge streams and nalla s. Additionally, railways required placement of creosoted sleepers (ties) every seventy-five centimeters (Bingham 1858:3\u201321; Muir 1858: 277\u201379).\nThe quantities of materials required were prodigious. To complete eighty kilometers of railway tracks in Banaras district, the contractor executed 1.2 million cubic meters of earthwork and 6,000 cubic meters of brickwork; in addition, 210,000 cubic meters of ballast were used. Limestone, gravel, and sand were obtained from neighboring floodplains and carted to the sites. The effects of such large-scale removal have not been studied, but elsewhere quarrying of stream beds has seriously affected flow and drainage patterns (Purser 1859:563; Davis 1985:1\u20135).\nIn the case of rail lines, vast amounts of timber were used for sleepers. Based on figures used by Tucker for the Rajputana Railway, tracks in Banaras district alone would have required a hundred thousand sleepers. Although some hardwood sal remained available in the region, stands were too depleted to furnish the railways's needs. Instead, the wood was imported, either from England or from the upper\nGangetic tracts northeast of Delhi, forested with deodar (Cedrus deodara ). The demand on Himalayan timber resources was thus considerable, especially since sleepers needed replacement every five years (Tucker 1983:160\u201361; East Indian Railways 1856:505; 1859a:531).\nAlthough timber was not available in Banaras, local firewood and charcoal supplies were employed to make burnt-clay ballast and to bake the bricks used for bridges, stations, and culverts. In any case, as a Calcutta correspondent wrote to the Times in 1862, \"the want of India is daily becoming more and more a want of wood.\" In the Banaras region, as in the rest of northern India, the railways clearly were agents of deforestation (East Indian Railways 1859a:531; 1862:555).\nRoad and Railway Operation and Maintenance . Devegetation and resource depletion were two important results of road and rail construction. Once in place, the networks continued to affect the surrounding environment. First, roads and railways, by their very presence, interrupted natural landscape. In the interest of efficiency and directness, they both sought linearity. Rather than skirting streams, it was cheaper to cross them. In nearby Son district the EIR alone constructed 240 bridges and culverts in 1860. Primary and secondary roadways also crossed rivers and streams whenever they were encountered. These interruptions interfered with drainage and flow patterns. Runoff characteristics, already altered by devegetation, were further disturbed. Instead of being stored in soils, water was lost to agriculture. Puddles and ponds were formed alongside thoroughfares, providing breeding habitats for disease vectors. Similarly, culverts silted up with lost topsoil. After heavy monsoon rains rushing waters created gullies and arroyos, further hastening soil erosion (East Indian Railways 1859b:1189\u201390; Colvin Gazette [15 April] in SVN for 1890:251; Hindostan [15 August] in SVN for 1902:527; Varady 1985b:2\u20133: Whitcombe 1972:12).\nPartly from weather extremes, and partly from the relentless action of hoofed, wheeled, or rail traffic, surfaces needed constant repair and maintenance. Like the original construction, this activity required extensive labor and supplies. Metaled roads were paved smooth with ten centimeters of pounded limestone. Before long the road rutted and became impassable, demanding full resurfacing. Railbeds were similarly affected by rain, flooding, and heavy wear. Patrolling work crews added ballast and replaced broken and rotten sleepers. Upkeep of the nineteenth-century transportation network placed a continual drain on stone, sand, and timber resources.\nLocomotives, moreover, required fuel. For much of the century engines burned wood, procured wherever it was sold, preferably in the vicinity of the route. So serious was the problem of supply that in the early 1860s, the Calcutta Review reported, \"a great cry arose that\nthe Railway must soon stop for want of fuel.\" Though perhaps exaggerated, the concern was valid, as Indian railway operation consumed enormous amounts of firewood (50,000 kilograms per kilometer per year, according to one estimate). In some areas roots were burned as fuel. And by the mid-1860s some railway firms were calling for private fuel-wood plantations to meet growing demand. Only the advent of cheap coal enabled the EIR and other lines to continue operating (Calcutta Review 1867:262\u2013327).", "id": "<urn:uuid:c6efb835-ea0c-469d-badf-188113ae0966>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft6p3007sk&doc.view=content&chunk.id=d0e11658&toc.depth=1&anchor.id=0&brand=eschol", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9576456546783447, "token_count": 4415, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Manual Testing\n- Test Management\n- Test Automation\n- Test Templates\n- Testing Resources\nTypes of Testing - Page 3 Contd..\nAdhoc testing is a commonly used term for software testing performed without planning and documentation.\nThe tests are intended to be run only once, unless a defect is discovered.\nExploratory testing is a method of manual testing that is described as simultaneous learning, design and execution.\nTesting which covers all combination's of input values and preconditions for an element of the software under test.\nA sanity test is a narrow regression test that focuses on one or a few areas of functionality. Sanity testing is usually narrow and deep. Testing few functions/parameters and checking all their main features.\nIn which one can perform testing on an overall application (all features) initially to check whether the application is proper in terms of availability and Usability.\nSanity testing is done by Test engineer.\nIn software industry, smoke testing is a wide and shallow approach whereby all areas of the application are tested, without getting into too deep.\nSmoke testing originated in the hardware testing practice of turning on a new piece of hardware for the first time and considering it a success if it does not catch fire and smoke.\nWhen a build is received, a smoke test is run to ascertain if the build is stable and it can be considered for further testing. Smoke testing is done by Developer or White box engineers.\nSoak testing involves testing a system with a significant load extended over a significant period of time, to discover how the system behaves under sustained use.\nFor example, in software testing, a system may behave exactly as expected when tested for 1 hour. However, when it is tested for 3 hours, problems such as memory leaks cause the system to fail or behave randomly.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9cf2c760-78df-4c23-8bb1-8a022a2d67a9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://qatutorial.com/?q=Types_of_Testing_3", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9304569363594055, "token_count": 373, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "We highly recommend this series of five videos, The Seventh Day: Revelations from the Lost Pages of History, by Frank Holbrook, now available on the web. (Click on the image.) Each video is just over 50 minutes long, just as in the original video series still available at TheSeventhDay website. Please visit the site for extra resources, including an overview of each video, a History Timeline and complete transcripts of each episode.\nThere\u2019s a reason for \u201cthe lost pages of history\u201d in the title. This is history as you\u2019ve not likely read or heard it before in school or through the media. However, Hal Holbrook takes viewers back across the centuries to trace the history of the Sabbath through the evidence of ancient records as found in the archives and libraries throughout the world.\nFifty historians and theologians from around the world provide a careful expos\u00e9 of the epic battle over the biblical Sabbath. We see how faithful Christians throughout the long centuries of the inquisition and other repression engaged in a heroic struggle for religious liberty. You will be guided through the evidence from the cool green hills of St. Patrick\u2019s Ireland to the steaming South American jungle, from the massacre of a thousand Jews in the Palestinian desert to the bloody Taiping Revolution in 19th-century China, and from the divisive heresies of the early Christian era to the fiery executions of \u201cheretics\u201d in Red Square.\n\u201cI will die today because I have observed the seventh day of the week as the holy Sabbath of God.\u201d So wrote Ivan Kuritsin before he was burned to death in the Red Square of Moscow more than 500 years ago. The Council accused him of honoring the seventh day, the Sabbath, more than the first day, Sunday.\nIs it possible that this same seventh-day (Saturday) Sabbath for which so many faithful Christians gave their lives now coincides with Sunday in the South Pacific island nations of Tonga, Wallis, Futuna, Kiribati, Samoa and Tokelau? Where is the sign of distinction (Ezekiel 20:20) for those who claim that the seventh day now conveniently falls on Sunday so that that they can worship on the same day as their neighbors who celebrate the resurrection on the first day of the week?\nThe ages-long controversy over the biblical day of worship\u2014the Sabbath of the Ten Commandments\u2014continues today in some of the most unlikely places, such as the South Pacific islands. Will the controversy gain more prominence in the rest of the world as well? Time will tell.\nWe welcome your comments after you have watched one or more of the videos. You can also watch the series at SabbathTruth.com in MP4 format. Let us know which works best for you. (Tell us where you are and how you are accessing the videos.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:ed3905d3-50c2-4293-801f-29d62a7477ca>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sabbathissues.org/2012/09/7th-day-1/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9382416605949402, "token_count": 586, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Theme: David the songwriter.\nScripture: 2 Samuel 22\nMain Point: Sing! Our God is worthy of praise!\nSupplies: Bible, play dough, blank paper, pencils/crayons, visuals from the song and a recording or video of a storm for them to listen to (see Auditory/Visual Center below), cd player, red streamers, bolts of lightning made from poster board, any other props for role play. You will also need at least three teachers who are comfortable leading the three centers.\nTeachers: Take this lesson, study it, and make it your own. Allow the truths of the Scripture to sink into your own heart. Know what you are saying and say it with confidence. Passion and voice inflection are essential with preschoolers. Repeat the main point over and over again.\nColoring Sheet (10 minutes)\nHave the coloring sheets ready when the children first enter the classroom from the assembly. Ask the following questions while the children are coloring:\n- What are the children in the picture doing? Playing the drums, raising hands, and singing.\n- Do you like to sing? What do you like to sing about?\n- Why do we sing to God? Because He is worthy of praise.\nStory Circle (15 minutes)\nMain Point: Sing! Our God is worthy of praise!\nRepeat this over and over again. Get the kids to say it with you every time you see it written in bold. This should be the one thing that the kids remember from the day.\nI. Hook \u2013 Introduce the lesson. This is short and simple since there will be so much going on in the Book section.\nII. Book \u2013 Read the passage. Divide the children into groups to experience the story in the three sensory centers. Time permitting, you can allow the children to switch centers, but it may best for them to choose what they would like to do the best.\nIII. Look \u2013 God is our ultimate rescuer through Christ. He is worthy of all of our praise!\n**Please Note: The day before, organize your room into three centers, as described below.\n- Option One: Have the children make with play-doh what they hear as you read David\u2019s song to them. Have several examples ready for them (e.g., David stuck in the waves of death, a fortress that represents our God, clouds, lightning, the rescue from the deep water, arrows, lamp, shield, or even a battle scene where God rescues David from his enemies, the giants). Read the verses over again to the children and let them use their creativity.\n- Option Two: Let the children draw what they hear as you read the song to them with pencils or crayons.\n- Act out the descriptions in the song (verses 5-18 would work best for this. Several children can play the part of David, who is in deep distress and needs to be rescued. Others can act out the part of our Rescuer. Have props available like red streamers for fire and bolts of lightning made from poster board.\n- Listen to the sounds of a storm. Play a recording of a storm or show a video of a storm or hurricane. Have a rain stick for children to play with.\n- Look at pictures of visuals from the song: fortresses and mountains (vv. 3-4), oceans/hurricane (vv. 5-7, 16-20), earthquake and burning coals (vv. 8-9), storms (10-15), lamp and shield (vv. 29-31)\n- As children are looking at the visuals, describe them by reading the verses from the song. Discuss how amazing and great our God is, how helpless we would be in the midst of a hurricane, and how awesome it would to see our God coming down to rescue us like David describes.\nHook (Grab Their Attention!)\nHave music playing softly in the background.\nASK: Who have we been learning about this week? (David!) David was a shepherd, a soldier, a warrior, and a king. David was also human and sinned like you and me. But did you know that he was also a song writer? David wrote many of the Psalms found in the middle of our Bible (show them). But today we are going to learn about a certain song he wrote after God saved him from his enemies! This is a special and beautiful song that praises our God.\nThe main point for today is Sing! Our God is worthy of praise! Repeat this until all the kids are able to say it together.)\nBook (This is Where You School Them!)\nSAY: Today\u2019s lesson is found in 2 Samuel, chapter 22 (show them in your Bible). David had been in a great war with the Philistines, with giants from Gath like the champion Goliath. He had grown weary!\nOn the day when the Lord saved him from the hand of all his enemies, and from the hand of Saul, David spoke to the Lord the words of a beautiful song. This song is all about our great God! In this song, we see how great and mighty He is! Listen closely because you will need to know all about this song in order to do our fun activities! You know that means? You need to turn up your ears and turn down your mouths so you won\u2019t miss a thing! (Demonstrate.)\n3 The Lord is my rock and my fortress and my deliverer, my God my rock, in whom I take refuge, my shield and the horn of my salvation, my stronghold and my refuge, my savior; you save me from violence. 4 I call upon the Lord who is worthy to be praised, and I am saved from my enemies. 5 For the waves of death encompassed me, the torrents of destruction assailed me; 6 the cords of Sheol entangled me; the snares of death confronted me. 7 In my distress I called upon the Lord; to my God I called. From his temple he heard my voice, and my cry came to his ears. 8 Then the earth reeled and rocked; the foundations of the heavens trembled and quaked, because he was angry. 9 Smoke went up from his nostrils, and devouring fire from his mouth; glowing coals flamed forth from him. 10 He bowed the heavens and came down; thick darkness was under his feet. 11 He rode on a cherub and flew; he was seen on the wings of the wind. 14 The Lord thundered from heaven, and the Most High uttered his voice. 15 And he sent out arrows and scattered them; lightning, and routed them. 17 He sent from on high, he took me; he drew me out of many waters. 18 He rescued me from my strong enemy, from those who hated me, for they were too mighty for me. 29 For you are my lamp, O Lord, and my God lightens my darkness. 30 For by you I can run against a troop, and by my God I can leap over a wall. 31 This God\u2014 his way is perfect; the word of the Lord proves true; he is a shield for all those who take refuge in him. 50 \u201cFor this I will praise you, O Lord, among the nations, and sing praises to your name. 51 Great salvation he brings to his king,and shows steadfast love to his anointed, to David and his offspring forever.\u201d\nSAY: We have three centers that will help you learn more about who God is in this song. In one center, you can make or draw things from the song about David and God. In the second center, you can act out the neat things God does in the song as He rescues David. In the last center, you will have something special to listen to and pictures to look at from the song!\nDO: Divide the children into three groups. Encourage them to pick which center they are most likely to enjoy. If time permits, you can allow them to switch centers.\nLook (Look At Your Heart. What Should You Do?)\nDO: Gather the children you once more, in one group.\nASK: Why did David write this song? (To praise God after He rescued Him.)\nSAY: David loved God. He praised Him because of who He is and what He had done. God had rescued David many, many times from bad situations! He knew God was great and mighty! He knew God was worthy of all of His praise!\nASK: Have you ever been in a hard situation that you wanted to be rescued from? (If they need help, give an example from your own life that was hard.) We may not get into situations like David did with giants! But hard things will come to us in life. Know that God will always be there. He is our Rescuer! Call out to Him! And when He rescues you, praise Him!\nSing! Our God is worthy of praise!\nSAY: God has already rescued all of us through sending Jesus to die on the cross for our sins. Because Jesus died and rose from the grave, we can now be forgiven from our sins, know God deeply, and one day spend the rest of forever with Him! He rescued us from our sins, and for this reason, we can always have the strength to sing!\nSing! Our God is worthy of praise!\nDO: Praise God together through prayer\nSnack & Memory (15 minutes)\nAt the appointed point in the schedule, a team will bring snacks to your classroom. While they are passing out the snack, take time to review today\u2019s memory verse, show the kids the visual illustration of the story, and review the story using the following questions:\nPsalm 96:2\u2013 \u201cSing to the Lord, praise his name; proclaim his salvation day after day.\u201d\n- What did David write? A song\n- What was the song about? How God saved David from all of his enemies.\n- How is God described in the song? He is like a mighty fortress. He is a hero who rescues David from the waves. He is described as David\u2019s shield and protector.\n- Why do we sing? Because God is worthy of praise!\nBible Learning Activities (20 minutes)\nSAY: Today we have been learning about how David was a songwriter. He wrote songs to tell others about God\u2019s goodness and greatness. We sing about God to tell others about the wonderful things he has done. Sing! Our God is worthy of praise!\nTeachers: If you are teaching toddlers, it will be important to pre-cut as many of the microphones as possible before class time\nSAY: Now, we\u2019re going to decorate microphones and practice singing praises to God. Have the children color the microphone, cut it out, and sing!\nBig Games (15 minutes)\n**Three and Four Year-Olds will not have an organized Big Games time, but some games have been provided below for use during Playground time. Kindergarten leaders will not be responsible for leading these games. The leaders at the Big Games area will lead Big Games for Kindergartners.\nFruit basket turnover \u2013\nEveryone in the group should sit in a circle. They should each be given the name of a fruit. APPLE, ORANGE, BANANA. When their fruit name is called they should run to change places with someone else that has the same fruit name. So all APPLES should Switch with all APPLES. During the game the leader should shout \u201cFRUIT BASKET TURNOVER!!!\u201d and all of the kids should change seats with someone.\nWritten by: Kara Jenkins\nColoring sheets and Activities by: Mandy Groce", "id": "<urn:uuid:4723f929-a573-42a3-95c1-ad29e549ea4c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sojournkids.com/blog/page/2/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9669538140296936, "token_count": 2457, "score": 3.484375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "I am confused with the uses of \"ah\u00ed\", \"all\u00ed\" and \"all\u00e1\".\nIt seems they are used according to different situations.\nCould you please tell me what are the differences and provide some examples?\nAs far as I know, there are no strong differences between those words, at least in spoken language. There might be tiny differences according to the dictionary, but here are a few examples of their use, at least uses I can think of:\nThis can be explained with the three grades of demonstratives and of verbal persons:\nThe ac\u00e1 and all\u00e1 versions are less precise. You might in English say over here or around there. Por ac\u00e1 is around here, por all\u00e1 is over there somewhere. There is no *ah\u00e1 version for euphonious reasons; people use por ah\u00ed to mean out there somewhere, as though it were the -\u00e1 version of the middle (2\u00aa persona) degree.", "id": "<urn:uuid:29f96678-e394-4939-aab3-8593406a35b7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://spanish.stackexchange.com/questions/1728/differences-betwen-ahi-alli-y-alla/1732", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9659212231636047, "token_count": 194, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Case Study: Theatre Seating\nIn many auditoria, the seating and audience form the main absorption in the room, and consequently being able to correctly measure and predict the absorption coefficient of these surfaces is very important. The wrong estimation of seating absorption has been blamed for acoustic problems in many halls. Salford University developed a method for testing theatre seating which is now used commercial.\nThe aim of measuring the random incidence absorption of a small sample of seats in a reverberation chamber is to predict the absorption that a large area of the same seats will exhibit when installed in an auditorium. There are problems, however, in that the small sample of chairs in the reverberation chamber (say 24) is unrepresentative of a large block of seating because the edge effect is overemphasised in the reverberation chamber measurements.\nThe Kath and Kuhl method involves placing the seating in the corner of the reverberation chamber in rows with their intended row spacing, and the exposed edges obscured with barriers. The concept is to separately measure three absorption coefficients by carrying out measurements with and without barriers:\n- For an infinite array with no edges with side and front barriers in place;\n- For the front edges with the side barrier only in place, and\n- For the side edges with the front barrier only in place.\nThis then allows the absorption of the array, front and sides to be found, and a proper prediction of the absorption of any size array.\nThe test technique has been used extensively over the past few years to test provide information for the design several new or refurbished theatres and concert halls such as the Royal Albert Hall and Royal Festival Hall.\nBack to Commercial Testing homepage", "id": "<urn:uuid:5563b49c-47f8-447d-b847-3fd44ac68de1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/commercial/?content=cs_seating", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9444486498832703, "token_count": 341, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A Brief Description of Islam as the Shi'ites Believe\n5- MONOTHEISM IS THE VERY SOUL OF ALL THE ISLAMIC COMMANDMENTS\nWE BELIEVE that one of the most important subjects of the knowledge of God, is the MONOTHEISM, i.e. the belief that there is but one God. As a matter of fact Monotheism (TOWHID) is not only a principle of the religion, but the most important of the tenets. It is the very soul and the base of all the Islamic ideas and beliefs. We can say that the roots, as well as the branches of Islam take their forms in the monotheism.\nThe UNITY and ONENESS is a general topic of conversation everywhere and in every field:- UNITY OF GOD'S ESSENCE, Unity of His attributes, and actions. In other word, also the unity of prophets and their teachings, the unity of the LAW, GHIBLEH, and the books. And after all, the unity of Moslims through their brotherhood and the unity of the resurrection day. From this point of view the HOLY QUR\u00d8\u00b7N declares POLYTHEISM as an unforgiveable SIN:-\n\"Allah does not forgive those who set up partners with Him, but He may forgive any sin inferior to that, of whom he wills.\nHe that sets up CO-SHARERS with Allah is guilty of a SIN which is most heinous indeed.\"\nTHE HOLY QURAN - S4: 48\n\"It has already been revealed to you as it was revealed to those before you that:-\" If you join gods with Allah, your deeds shall be fruitless, and you surely will be one of those who lose. (all spiritual goodnesses)\nTHE HOLY QURAN - S39: 65\n6- THE BRANCHES OF MONOTHEISM\nWE BELIEVE that MONOTHEISM, (TOWHID) has many branches among which four are the most important ones:-", "id": "<urn:uuid:39e0755c-4a5a-471c-a088-b2ce1d366dc4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.al-shia.org/html/eng/page.php?id=167&page=7", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9526621699333191, "token_count": 425, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "December 1987 | Volume 38, Issue 8\nIn the summer the stretch of the Delaware River north of Trenton, New Jersey, is as alluring as any place in the country. It is green and happy and eloquent of generations of peace and prosperity: prosperity from the river traffic and from the canal; prosperity from the steady little farming communities nearby and, in more recent years, from tourism. It is only in the winter that the countryside suggests with any conviction that this was once fought-over land.\nIn the waning months of 1776, two armies\u2014one well fed, well armed, well clad, eminently professional; the other half-naked, hungry, new to soldiering\u2014struggled for control of this country; and for something far greater. It is hard to exaggerate the importance of the campaigning that took place here. You can go see where it happened in the summer, and you may have a prettier trip. But if you want to get the feeling of that extraordinary season of despair and triumph, go when the days are short and gray and the snow is on the ground.\nAs you drive south from Manhattan toward Trenton on the New Jersey Turnpike, the city falls away behind, and then the great silver coils of the cracking plants, and then you are in country that would be all too familiar to George Washington\u2019s Grand Army in the late fall of 1776. These were the men who had to back up the brave phrases in the Declaration that had been issued a few months earlier, and fortune had not been with them. They had been beaten on Long Island, beaten in Manhattan, beaten in Westchester, beaten wherever they made a stand. Now they were running for their lives from Lord Cornwallis\u2019s hardy British regulars a half-day\u2019s march behind them, their ranks dwindling daily. On these disconsolate flatlands the American Revolution was dying.\nThey came at last to the Delaware, seized all the boats they could lay their hands on for miles up and down the river, and took up defensive positions on the Pennsylvania shore. There they huddled miserably, a few thousand of them, waiting for their enlistments to expire with the year; after December 31 Washington would have fourteen hundred men left. Across the river ten thousand of the enemy settled in for the winter. Not many of them thought the American army would be there in the spring. Even Washington wasn\u2019t sure: in a most uncharacteristic statement he said, \u201cI think the game is pretty near up.\u201d\nNevertheless, Christmas Day found Continental officers shepherding their coughing men down to the frozen riverbank, setting off on a foray spurred by the purest desperation: an attack on the twelve hundred Hessian mercenaries encamped in Trenton.\nThey set out from what is now the Washington Crossing State Park in Pennsylvania: you can visit the big stone Thompson-Neely house in whose kitchen Washington planned out his great gamble with his officers; but never mind the movie playing at the visitors\u2019 center. Made in the 1950s, it incorporates many of the elements that made sensible students shrink from history in high school: self-conscious people in wigs saying things like \u201cGentlemen, we must do or die,\u201d and so forth.\nInstead, walk down to the riverbank and see what the Continentals saw: the dark, swiftly running Delaware\u2014ice moving fast on its surface that Christmas Day \u2014and beyond, the hostile shore with its stands of naked trees looking smoky in the waning light. The river was thick with traffic, as Marblehead fishermen poled the soldiers across in Durham boats. You can see reconstructions of these here, and they are sturdy, sharpnosed cargo vessels, forty to sixty feet long, and nothing like the shallop Washington is riding in Emanuel Leutze\u2019s wonderful painting of the crossing.\nDrive over the narrow bridge to the Jersey shore, and stop at the blue and gray house where Washington watched his command disembark. It took nine hours to get the men across\u2014of course, everything was running behind schedule\u2014but he determined to push on to Trenton. He had no choice. As you drive into the town, the very change in the surroundings from that day to this imparts an odd sense of the scope of the march. It\u2019s nine miles\u2014block after city block through good neighborhoods and bad\u2014and it\u2019s a long way. The men who struggled over that route all night long, many of them barefoot and leaving their blood pink in the snow behind them, were advancing on a community of a hundred clapboard houses and a stone barracks put up for the French and Indian Wars that was the biggest building in town. It\u2019s still there, very nicely kept up, and a guide will take you through and show you the amazing amount of maneuvering required to get an eighteenth-century musket charged and fired. It\u2014and most of the houses in the town\u2014disgorged startled, hung-over German soldiers when the boom of Continental artillery came through the stormy morning. Washington set his guns on the high ground where Broad meets Warren Street\u2014King and Queen Street then. The site is marked with a hundred-foot column with his statue atop it; on the base Thomas Eakins\u2019s bronze reliefs depict the action. As grapeshot clawed through their ranks, the Hessians tried to form, and then the Americans were in among them, fighting with clubbed muskets and bayonets and shouting in a mixture of triumph and amazement at their success. Nobody knows how long the battle lasted\u2014reports range from a half hour to nearly two\u2014but at the end of it a thousand Germans surrendered.\nWashington marched his prisoners into Newtown, Pennsylvania, and you may want to go there too. It\u2019s a goodlooking old town, with some ancient liver-colored stone buildings past which it is not hard to imagine the Americans parading their prisoners, the Germans warm in their winter uniforms, and their captors, as one witness wrote later, \u201cmostly in light, summer dress and some without shoes, but stepping light and cheerful.\u201d The two-century-old Temperance House in Newtown has recently been redone and its guest rooms colonialed-up to a faretheewell. If you can get the one with a working fireplace, you\u2019ll be able to enjoy a considerable pleasure unavailable to summer visitors.\nNews of the victory astonished and appalled the British, and Cornwallis moved fast. In a week he believed he had Washington trapped on the New Jersey side of the Delaware. But the American stole a march on him, and one freezing, crystalline January morning found Washington moving his little army toward Princeton. Some 350 of his men under Gen. Hugh Mercer came up against British regulars under Col. Charles Mawhood. The two forces swung into line, and a short, ugly fight ended with Mercer down and his Continentals in panicked retreat.\nFor a moment it looked like the old story: The Americans were running away from battle again; the coup at Trenton had been a mere fluke. But then Washington came galloping onto the field and took his big white horse to within thirty paces of the British line. There he reined in and yelled for his troops to rally around him. After a moment\u2019s pause, the British fired at this astonishing target. One of Washington\u2019s aides hid his face in his cloak so as not to see his commander die, but when the smoke cleared, there was Washington, still in the saddle, still calling for his troops. And now they were coming. Men from Pennsylvania and Rhode Island and Massachusetts stead- led their ranks, stood, exchanged volley fire\u2014and the British fled.\nPrinceton Battlefield is oddly affecting; it\u2019s so small. A tile map placed there in the 1960s at first seems an incoherent amalgam of peppy colors but on examination resolves itself into an admirable explication of the action that points out, among other things, the oak tree where Mercer took his mortal wound. Across the way is a monument\u2014four Ionic columns that look as if they were part of a grand house that has disappeared. And that is just what they are. When a mansion built on the site years afterward was pulled down, it was decided that the portico made a nice memorial to the men who died there. I like the fortuitous quality of that monument; it somehow reflects the way we fought the Revolution, learning as we went, making do with what we had. A plaque in one of the columns expresses the significance of the battle in a lucid sentence that strikes me as being about as good as English prose gets: \u201cAcross these fields in the early light of the third of January 1777, Washington\u2019s Continentals defeated British regulars for the first time in the long struggle for American independence.\u201d\nWashington moved on into winter quarters in Morristown, while the news went forth\u2014across the country, across the Atlantic\u2014that the American army was still in business and in very capable hands. Nevertheless, it was a hard winter of fear and doubt. There was smallpox in the camp. There was frostbite. Soldiers figured they\u2019d done enough and went home. But now and forever after there would be in the ranks a leavening of men who had seen Hessians throw down their muskets and British regulars break their ranks and run and who would not forget the sight.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bdd6d14e-ad4f-47f6-a1ce-ba0e8840dc6b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.americanheritage.com/print/55829?page=show", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9759102463722229, "token_count": 1958, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "David Maraniss discusses Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World.\nWhat is especially compelling about the 1960 Summer\nWhat attracted me to Rome, what made it special in my mind, was the uncommon\ncombination of legendary athletes, the tension of the cold war, the beauty of\nthe setting, and the issues that arose during the 18 days of competition. With\nthe entire world on the same stage at the same time, I saw the opportunity to\nweave the drama on the playing fields with the political and cultural issues\nthat were emerging then.\nYou say in the book that the 1960 Summer Olympics marked the passing of one\nera and the dawning of another. What do you mean by that?\nIn so many ways, the 1960 Olympics marked a passing of one era and the birth\nof another. Television, money and doping were bursting onto the scene, changing\neverything they touched. Old-school notions of amateurism, created by and for\nupper-class sportsmen, were being challenged as never before. New countries were\nbeing born in Africa and Asia, blacks and women were pushing for equal rights.\nFor better and worse, one could see the modern world as we know it today coming\nThe Berlin, Munich or Mexico City Summer Olympics were arguably more\ncontroversial or meaningful than Rome. Why should people care about Rome?\nBerlin was the Nazi Olympics. Mexico City was the black power salute of\nTommie Smith and John Carlos. Munich was the terrorist tragedy of the slain\nIsraelis. All important events that transcended sports. But all defined by that\none event. What was so powerful about Rome was the totality of it. It was a\nricher canvas, with more stories, more changes, more ways of looking at the\nmodern world, than any of those others. It had not only more issues, but more\nHow did you get the idea to write this book?\nThe idea came to me as I was researching my last book, on the baseball\nplayer Roberto Clemente. An important stretch in Clemente's career was the late\nsummer and early fall of 1960, when his Pittsburgh Pirates were on their way to\nwinning the National League pennant and the World Series. As I was scouring old\nnewspaper sports sections from that time, looking for stories on Clemente, I\nkept seeing these amazing names Cassius Clay, Wilma Rudolph, Rafer Johnson\nall athletes who were competing at the Rome Olympics. My first thought was that\nI did not want to write another sports book, at least not then. But I could not\nshake the magic of those names, and that forced me to take a closer look at the\nRome Olympics, and the more I looked, the more I realized that along with the\nathletic drama there was a much deeper story there.\nDo you need to be a big sports fan to enjoy this book?\nAs I'm finishing a manuscript, I make a point of giving it to a)\nexperts who can check facts and catch errors, b) sports fans who have a keen\ninterest in the subject, and c) someone who knows nothing about the subject and\nhas little or no interest in sports. If I have done my job right, the book can\nappeal to all three. I want to write it so that people who love the sport think\nI got it right, but also in a way that draws people to the characters and the\nThe book focuses on some well-known athletes like Wilma Rudolph, Cassius\nClay and Rafer Johnson, but also on some lesser-known Olympians. Who are some of\nyour favorite characters in the book?\nAlong with the legendary figures who competed in Rome, the book teems\nwith other characters. One of my favorites is Ed Temple, who was the coach of\nWilma Rudolph and her Tigerbelles. Temple still lives in Nashville not far from\nthe campus, and is a great storyteller with a lively sense of humor, so his\nmemories of Rome help bring it alive. He worked without scholarships, without\nhis own office, and from the threadbare facilities at little Tennessee State\nbuilt a powerhouse women's track team that changed history. I also love the\nstory of Dave Sime, a medical student at Duke who lost a photo-finish in the\n100-meter dash and had been recruited by the CIA to try to get a Soviet athlete\nto defect in Rome. And then there is Joe Faust, who finished 16th in the high\njump, whom I used as a typical athlete most don't come close to winning but\nan uncommon human being. When I tracked him down at his little adobe house on\nthe edge of L.A., he still had an old mattress in his backyard that was part of\nhis makeshift high-jump pit.\nOf the major characters, who did you come to admire the most and why?\nHard to choose. I admired Wilma Rudolph for the courage she showed upon\nreturning from Rome and insisting that her hometown of Clarksville, Tennessee,\nnot hold a banquet for her unless it was integrated, the first of its kind in\nthat city. I admired Abebe Bikila for the sheer courage of running the marathon\nthrough the streets of Rome barefooted, and for doing it in the capital city of\na country, Italy, that had invaded his Ethiopian homeland a few decades earlier.\nI admired Rafer Johnson perhaps most of all, just for his integrity as a human\nbeing. Cassius Clay was the same then, in 1960, at age 18, as he would later be\nas the world-renowned Muhammad Ali, the same personality at least; his larger\nmeaning was not there yet.\nRafer Johnson is on the cover of the book and gets more attention in the\nbook than Cassius Clay. Do you think Johnson is underappreciated?\nRafer Johnson is one of the most underappreciated athletes in American\nsports history. He was the best of his era, the most revered athlete in Rome,\nand a human being of intelligence and integrity. I am delighted to have the\nchance to try to give him his due.\nAs a writer, you're known more for your work in the political realm than\nin sports. Why have you written books about Vince Lombardi, Roberto Clemente and\nnow the Olympics?\nI love sports, just as I love politics; but I am no more interested in\nwriting a one-dimensional sports book than I am in writing a one-dimensional\nbook about a political campaign. In each of my three sports books, in different\nways, I saw a chance to write not just about sports, but about deeper subjects.\nWith Lombardi it was the mythology of success and the role of competition in\nAmerican life. With Clemente it was not just a dramatic story but a way to write\nabout the rise of Latinos and the roles of race and language in our culture. In\nsome sense, Rome 1960 represents the culmination of my work, combining all the\nthemes of sports, politics, culture and sociology that interest me. In this\nbook, too, there is a dramatic story on the playing fields, but so much more\nsurrounding the Games.\nTell us a little about how you went about researching this book. How\nmany people did you interview? How much travel was involved? Where did you find\nthe best material?\nMy first rule in writing books is: Go there. Wherever there is. This\nmeant going to Rome and revisiting the sites of the Games, including a memorable\nday tracing the route of the marathon through the ancient streets of the Eternal\nCity. It was much easier to ask my wife to go to Rome than to persuade her to\nmove to Green Bay for the winter to start the research on the Lombardi book. My\nsecond focus is on primary research documents and interviews. My search for\nprimary documents took me not only to Rome, but also to the National Archives at\nCollege Park, the IOC archive in Lausanne, Switzerland, the Avery Brundage\narchive at the University of Illinois (Brundage was IOC president in 1960), and\nthe LA84 Foundation archive in Los Angeles, among others. I also interviewed\nscores of athletes, journalists and others who were in Rome for the Olympics,\nmost from the U.S. but some from Italy, Germany and the USSR.\nDo you have any writing superstitions? What's your daily routine like\nwhen you're writing a book?\nNo superstitions. I'm lucky that I've never suffered from writer's\nblock. I tend to write in the morning, take a break to read, maybe exercise,\nthen write some more until lunch break. I don't have a daily goal, but a weekly\none. Some days I can write only a few paragraphs. One day and night I wrote the\nentire ice bowl chapter for When Pride Still Mattered. I often stop in the\nmiddle of a sentence or paragraph where I know exactly what comes next, so I\ndon't have to worry about where I will pick it up.\nHave you always been interested in the Olympics? What are your first\nmemories of the Olympics?\nI loved the Olympics as a kid, and it is fitting that my first memories\nare of the 1960 Rome Games, since those were the first ones televised. I\nremember the decathlon contest between Rafer Johnson and C.K. Yang, and I\nremember the wonder of Wilma Rudolph; but my strongest memory, for some odd\nreason you can never fully explain what strikes your fancy as a kid is of\nthe field hockey match between India and Pakistan. I was rooting for Pakistan,\nwhy I cannot say, and when they won, 1-0, I remember dancing around my living\nroom shouting Ya-hoo! Ya-hoo! Pak-i-stan! Pak-i-stan! mimicking the\ncelebration I saw on TV.\nWere you surprised that issues we think of as modern\n(performance-enhancing drugs, television, celebrity, sponsorships, racial and\ngender equality, etc.) were so central to the story of the 1960 Summer Olympics?\nYes, at first. But the more I looked, the more I saw how much of the\npresent you could trace back to those days in Rome. That connection is what\ncompelled me to do the book.\nYour biographies inherently focus on one character. This book deals with\nmany characters. What challenges does that pose?\nThe comfort of writing a biography is that a life provides you with a\nnatural chronology, a skeleton around which the flesh of the book can form. This\nstory was more challenging in that sense. But I used the place, Rome, and the\ntime, 18 days, to give the story a chronological coherence. The challenge was to\nbring so many characters onto the stage and not make it too much, too\ncomplicated. But I look forward to challenges in writing my books, and I had\ndealt with that same challenge once before in They Marched Into Sunlight, my\nbook on Vietnam and the 60s.\nDo the Olympics actually represent any sort of ideal (then or now) for\nmankind, or is it just another sporting event?\nI'm of mixed minds about that question. Any event that brings the\nentire world together in a peaceful way hints at the ideal of world peace and\ncooperation. And in 1960 as today, athletes can build personal friendships from\nsports competitions that transcend the tensions between the nations they\nrepresent. But the notion that the Olympics is free from politics was untrue in\n1960 and is equally unattainable today.\nIs the city of Rome a central character in this book, or could this\nstory have taken place anywhere?\nRome adds a certain poignancy to the story, I think. The Olympic\norganizers made good use of the ancient city wrestling and gymnastics were\nheld outdoors amid the ruins; the marathon began at the Capitoline steps and\nended at the Arch of Constantine. But beyond that, the sensibility of the Rome\nGames' representing a turning point in history was enhanced by the literal\ngolden glow of those days.\nWhat's your favorite piece of trivia you picked up while researching\nThat the only athlete representing Surinam either overslept or was told\nthe wrong time and missed his only race, an 800-meter heat. Poor guy.\nBoth of your parents were writers and editors. What influence did they\nhave on your writing style?\nMy parents, Elliott and Mary Maraniss, were enormous influences in my\nwriting. Both were professionals, my father as a newspaperman, my mother as a\nbook editor. Though my mother was skilled in grammar, and was my best\ncopyeditor, both she and my father emphasized that the most important rule in\nwriting was to follow your ear. What sounded best was usually the right way to\ngo, even if that meant breaking some picky grammatical rules. My father had an\neasy, natural style that was both intelligent and accessible.\nYou dedicated this book to your wife and mentioned that she travels with\nyou when you research your books. What's it like to have her by your side?\nLinda is invaluable. She is my nose, since I lost most of my sense of\nsmell. She is my eyes, taking pictures and videos on all our trips. She helps\nfind documents and photocopies materials with me. Wherever we go on our research\ntrips, she makes more friends than I do and keeps up with people from around the\nworld that we've met. I couldn't do any of it without her. Writing books can be\na lonely process, but having her as a partner makes it much less so.\nWhat do you enjoy most about the process of touring the country talking about\nI consider it an honor to explain a book to which I've devoted so much\nof my life. I love the stories I hear from people who have some personal\nconnection to the events of the book. I also enjoy getting the time to talk\nabout the book in depth.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5e3f85c5-6de5-43da-9fdd-55a42314314e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bookbrowse.com/author_interviews/full/index.cfm/author_number/128/David-Maraniss", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9736299514770508, "token_count": 2962, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What to feed birds in winter\nKnow what to feed birds in winter to help wild birds survive the coldThe chilly evenings in autumn are signs that winter, and cold weather, are approaching. While you might not feel the need to feed the wild birds who come to visit your yard in the spring and summer, you may want to help them survive the hardships of winter by setting up a feeding program for late-fall through early spring.\nForget about your late-fall yard maintenance project and leave your withered annuals and late-blooming berries where they are. Birds and small animals will eat the dried fruits, seeds and flower heads from your summer and autumn plants, and can find shelter in the brush. You'll want to supplement this forage feed with seed mixes, fruits, suet, peanut butter and meal worms, which will give the fats, protein and energy that birds need in the harsh conditions of winter.\nSeeds, Cracked Corn and Nuts\nSeed mixes are the basic staples for bird-feeding in the winter. Seeds are rich in fats and protein. Black-oil sunflower seeds appeal to many bird species and should be the major ingredient in your wild bird seed mix. These seeds are easily hulled by most birds, and those birds who have trouble cracking them open will often scour the ground underneath the feeders to catch the pieces dropped by other birds. Bill Thompson, editor of \"Bird Watcher's Digest\" and author, calls these seeds \"the hamburger of the bird world\". Safflower seeds and white proso millet also appeal to a wide variety of birds. Smaller birds such as finches enjoy thistle seed.\nCracked corn and peanuts are also important feeding items. Shelled peanuts are high in fat and are a good energy and protein source. Sprinkle peanut-pieces in the brush around your yard and where branches meet the trunks of evergreen trees as well as incorporating them into your seed mix.\nThe Cornell Ornithology Lab recommends a winter mix of 25 pounds of black-oil sunflower seed, 10 pounds of white proso millet and 10 pounds of cracked corn. Be sure to store your mixes in a waterproof, mouse-proof container. Be wary of commercial bird mixes as they are often filled with cheap filler seeds that are not eaten by wild birds.\nBirds that normally avoid feeders, such as robins and thrushes, may be tempted by berries, cherries, raisins, grapes, apples and raisins. If you leave out grapes and raisins, make sure that dogs will not have access to them as they are toxic to dogs.. Make sure to remove any spoiled or moldy fruit as it can make birds sick.\nSuet and Peanut Butter\nSuet is beef fat. You can find suet bags in feed and grain stores or pet stores or make your own. Get fat from the butcher and put it in an onion bag. Thompson suggests melting suet in the microwave and pouring into ice-cube trays to harden. Drop in seeds, fruit and nuts to make special suet cakes. The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife recommends a homemade suet formula containing cornmeal, water, brown sugar and melted suet.\nPeanut butter is a favorite wintertime treat. Spread it over pine cones or make peanut butter caches in tree holes and on the bark of branches. It provides concentrated energy for birds and is useful for feeding those birds that are wary of feeders.\nMeal worms make some people squeamish, but they are a good source of protein and fat. These beetle larvae are a good high-protein replacement for the worms birds enjoy in the warmer months. You can get meal worms from your local pet store Place them in a heavy flat bowl for easy feeding.\nMake sure to provide fresh water for your visiting birds. Natural water sources are often frozen in the winter.\nLocations for Feeders and Maintenance\nThompson recommends having extra feeders available for the winter to cut down on your refilling chores and accommodate the extra birds who may need wintertime fuel. Sprinkle seeds and nuts in out-of-the-way places on your property for winter birds who will not use a feeder. He suggests that you keep the bird food dry by using tubes and feeders that protect the seed and \"dole out\" the servings.\nKeep the feeders clean by scrubbing them down every two weeks. Remove old shells and any moldy material as it could spread infection and illness. Manually check the feeders to make sure no sharp edges and areas develop that can injure the birds as they are feeding.\nCornell Lab of Ornithology: Bird Notes: Winter Feeding\nHumane Society: Bird Feeding Tips\nWashington Department of Fish and Wildlife: Winter Bird Feeding\nBird Watcher's Digest: Top 10 Foods for Winter Bird Feeding", "id": "<urn:uuid:e1c8c302-dbc9-4080-9c66-2ba27f7a68f5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.catalogs.com/info/outdoor/feed-birds-in-winter.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9383454918861389, "token_count": 1002, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Participating elementary schools identify and work with TANF children in grades one through eight, and their families, who are not attending school regularly. The school is responsible for defining irregular school attendance. For\nexample, irregular school attendance may be defined as:\n- a combination of school defined absences, tardies, or early dismissals within a 30-day period; or\n- a pattern of absence/tardiness/early dismissal, such as absence every Friday within a 30-day period; or\n- a pattern of all children in the family being absent on the same day.", "id": "<urn:uuid:34a192e8-d3cc-40c1-b3aa-83dd9ecb5678>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dhs.state.il.us/page.aspx?item=14702", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9482704401016235, "token_count": 121, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What we ship things in makes a difference.\nTake the banana, for example. In 1876, at the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition, the banana was a delicacy (and very black). Millions of bunches could only be sent to U.S. shores if they were refrigerated. By 1901, as I describe in Econ 101 1/2, United Fruit was distributing 14 million bunches of bananas in the U.S. One reason, in addition to the railroad and the steamboat, was a banana vessel that could maintain a 53 degree temperature for its cargo.\nJust like refrigerated banana vessels transformed world trade, so too has the cargo container. Introduced in 1956, now one ship can carry 3,000 forty foot containers with 100,000 tons of shoes, electronics and clothing. Imagine the potential efficiency. Put everything in the container, arrive at a port, and just slip it onto a truck or a railroad car for it to move to its next stop. Journalist Marc Levinson says the result is more variety for consumers, lower freight bills, less shipping time, lower inventory costs and longer supply chains.\nThis takes us back to yesterday\u2019s supership post and the expansion of the Panama Canal. Larger ships mean more containers on board. The NY Times said that the newest generation of superships could hold 15,000 containers that are 20 feet long.\nThe Economic Lesson\nAdam Smith would have been delighted to see his ideas about mass production and regional specialization extend around the world. Describing the productivity of factory pin production in The Wealth of Nations, he told us that one worker, functioning alone, could produce 1 pin per day. However, when that worker specialized through a division of labor in a factory, 4,800 pins per worker per day were made.\nAdam Smith used the term \u201cdistant sale\u201d to explain the transport of goods from a factory to a distant market. He could have been describing a container ship moving from China to the U.S.", "id": "<urn:uuid:473a31c4-d44e-4ff8-bad9-6fb0119b23d4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.econlife.com/tag/refrigeration/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9578902721405029, "token_count": 410, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Virigina Tech Transportation Institute has released the results of studies it has performed on cell phone use and driver distraction. Though common sense dictates that talking or texting while driving is a bad idea, these studies help to put some real numbers around just how dangerous the practice is. The studies include observations of drivers for a total of more than 6 million miles of driving. The studies also differentiated light vehicles and heavy vehicles or trucks.\nWhen it came to simply dialing on a cell phone the risk of a crash or near crash was 2.8 times that of a non-distracted driver for light vehicles. The practice was even more dangerous for heavy vehicles or trucks since the risk was nearly twice as much at 5.9 times. There was also a big difference between light vehicles and heavy vehicles or trucks when it came to simply reaching for an object while driving. Light vehicle drivers\u2019 risk of a crash was 1.4 times as high as non-distracted driving. Heavy vehicle or truck drivers\u2019 risk rose to 6.7 times.\nOne of the most dangerous risks was text messaging while driving a heavy vehicle or truck. Those engaging in that practice had a risk of crash that was 23.2 times as high as non-distracted driving. A summary of the findings of the studies was that any action that took the driver\u2019s eyes away from the road would result in a higher risk of an accident.\nRead more from the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute press release (PDF).\nHmm, so let me get this straight. If something takes my eyes off the road while driving I am more likely to have an accident?\nSeriously, there are some people that actually don\u2019t see the harm in talking or texting while driving. Heck, some truck drivers watch movies while driving. Clearly, these are the people that need to hear the results of studies like this. Unfortunately, some drivers find out the risks too late and end up hurting other people who actually are keeping their eyes on the road.\nThe most stunning result of the studies was the fact that texting while driving a heavy vehicle or truck basically increased your chance of having an accident to about 1 in 4. That\u2019s not very good odds when it comes to safe driving. It really makes you realize that there is no text message worth reading or responding to that would increase your risk of an accident like that.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9ebef796-058b-450b-b323-199bc781a3ac>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.geek.com/mobile/studies-find-mobile-phone-use-increases-risk-of-crash-858621/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9770476222038269, "token_count": 483, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "ASL Literature and Art\nThis section is a collection of ASL storytelling, poetry, works of art, and other creative works. It also consists of posts on literary aspects of ASL.\nSpeech language can convey sound effects in storytelling, whereas sign language can convey cinematic effects in storytelling.\nPoetry in sign language has its own poetic features such as rhymes, rhythms, meters, and other features that charactierize poetry which is not limited to speech.\nExplore ASL literary arts in this section including some visual-linguistic literary works in ASL and discussion.\nSelected works of interest\nDeconstruct W.O.R.D.: an original poetry performance.\nKnowing Fish: poetic narrative video.\nCompare three versions of the poem \"Spring Dawn\" originally written by Meng Hao-jan. The poem is translated by the literary artist Jolanta Lapiak into ASL in video and unique one-of-a-kind photograph print. Watch how ASL rhymes arise in this signed poem.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b344255a-07df-484e-98b4-d3de751e2e8e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.handspeak.com/lit/browse.php?byte=w", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9455929398536682, "token_count": 212, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fortunately, at Harvard we have the pre-eminent School of Public Health, which has released the Healthy Eating Pyramid and is what we use as our guiding principle in making menus.\nAccording to HSPH, \u201cWhen it comes down to it, the best advice on what to eat is relatively straightforward: Eat a plant-based diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains; choose healthy fats, like olive and canola oil; and red meat and unhealthy fats, like saturated and trans fats, sparingly.\u201d\nAs a complement to the Healthy Eating Pyramid, they summarize \u201cEight Tips for Eating Right:\n- \u201cChoose good carbs, not no carbs. Whole grains are your best bet.\n- \u201cPay attention to the protein package. Fish, poultry, nuts, and beans are the best choices.\n- \u201cChoose healthy fats, limit saturated fat, and avoid trans fat. Plant oils, nuts, and fish are the healthiest sources.\n- \u201cChoose a fiber-filled diet, rich in whole grains, vegetables, and fruits.\n- \u201cEat more vegetables and fruits. Go for color and variety\u2014dark green, yellow, orange, and red.\n- \u201cCalcium is important. But milk isn't the only, or even best, source.\n- \u201cModerate drinking can be healthy\u2014but not for everyone. You must weigh the benefits and risks.\n- \"A daily multivitamin is a great nutrition insurance policy. Some extra vitamin D may add an extra health boost.\u201d\nThat said, good carbs, lean proteins, healthy fats, no trans fats, and lots of veggies and fruits are available. HSPH declines to specify portions or calories, but notes that moderation is the cornerstone of wellbeing.\nWhich leads to nutrition information on the menu cards. Many of you have inquired about the decision to remove nutrition information. As you know, HUDS consulted with University Health Services, the Bureau of Study Counsel, and the College, about limiting nutrition data to the kiosks and web. Specifically, we needed to address the challenge a quiet and surprisingly large contingent of our community faces with eating disorders. Those individuals can place an undue emphasis on calories and other literal food values, making their placement over every food item a real challenge. Thus, we did what we felt best addressed the special health needs of those individuals, much as we support people with food allergies or religious dietary preferences.\nFor those who would like assistance with shaping a healthy approach to food, Harvard does have nutritional counseling available through University Health Services and support groups available with the Bureau of Study Counsel. And as always, we\u2019ll continue to work with individuals who have special dietary needs, be they allergies, religious guidelines, or political preferences such as vegetarianism. And as always, we continue to forge ahead on the sustainability of our menus (See the sustainability report at http://www.dining.harvard.edu/about_HUDS/sustainability.html).\nTo that end, don\u2019t forget: sign up for the Ward\u2019s Berry Farm trip this Friday. Spots are filling in a hurry, so email email@example.com to save your spot!", "id": "<urn:uuid:3e065ffe-cece-4328-9479-c92cfa68397d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.harvarddining.blogspot.com/2008/09/healthy-eating-at-harvard.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9213173985481262, "token_count": 669, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "< Browse to Previous Essay | Browse to Next Essay >\nLowell Community Church in Everett burns on December 31, 1984.\nHistoryLink.org Essay 10263\n: Printer-Friendly Format\nOn December 31, 1984, in the early morning hours, Everett\u2019s oldest church building, the Lowell Community Church (5216 S. 2nd Avenue), is destroyed by fire. The structure dates back to 1892, its land and construction materials having been donated by Lowell\u2019s founder, Eugene D. Smith (1837-1909). The old church is considered a total loss, but the congregation will rebuild on the same site.\nIn September 1863, Eugene D. Smith and Otis Wilson set up a logging camp on the\nSnohomish River at a site that eventually would become the town of Lowell.\nSmith left in 1865 to try his luck in the Coeur d\u2019Alene Gold Rush,\nbut came back to the Snohomish River broke and resumed logging. The\nSmith camp at Lowell was situated on a hill, about a mile and a half\nfrom the river. Here Smith built a timber-planked railroad to\ntransport the huge felled trees out of the woods. A 2,000-foot chute\nallowed the logs to rapidly drop to the river below, where they were\ntransported to regional mills. An earlier settler, Reuben Lowe, had\noperated a bordello here. In buying out Lowe, Smith decided to name\nthe proposed town after Lowe\u2019s hometown of Lowell, Massachusetts.\nSmith platted the\ntown in 1873 and the community\u2019s population continued to grow. The\nbeginnings of the city of Everett in the fall of 1891 changed\nLowell\u2019s future, since part of the development plans included a\npaper mill on the Lowell waterfront. Lowell soon became a company\ntown, focused around the mill. Homes were built and Lowell\u2019s\npopulation quickly grew, although the town was never incorporated.\n(It became a part of Everett in 1962.)\n1891, E. D. Smith donated land and materials for a community church.\nConstruction began that year and the structure was completed in 1892.\nOver the years, it became a source of pride for Lowell, and many\nresidents attended. An addition to the structure subsequently was built, and the exterior was repainted and the interior refurbished. In the\nmid-1980s -- shortly before the fire -- the church was re-sided and\nthe interior redecorated, the work done by volunteers.\nYear\u2019s Eve 1984\nThe Everett Fire Department received\nthe alarm call at 4:37 a.m. on December 31, 1984. When firefighters\narrived at the scene, the church was completely ablaze, with flames\nroaring out through the building\u2019s large stained-glass windows and\nconsuming the second floor. They began fighting the blaze from\noutside, then went inside to inspect for several minutes and withdrew\nto change fire lines. They watched as the church roof collapsed onto\nthe place where they had been standing only a few minutes before.\nInspection the following day determined\nthe fire to have been accidental. It appeared to have started in the\nsanctuary near the altar and was likely due to faulty wiring.\nVolunteer work and contributions helped to rebuild the church. At\nthe time of the fire, the congregation was affiliated with the United\nChurch of Christ Congregational and is, in 2012, the River of Life\nJim Haley, \"Everett\u2019s Oldest Church\nBurns: Lowell Loses Landmark Church,\" The Herald, December\n31, 1984, p. 1; Charles Z. Henderson, The Fire Boys: 100 Years of\nEverett Firefighting History, p. 160, 221; \"Church at Lowell\nGets Facelifted,\" The Everett Daily Herald, September 22,\nTravel through time (chronological order):\n< Browse to Previous Essay\nBrowse to Next Essay >\nLicensing: This essay is licensed under a Creative Commons license that\nencourages reproduction with attribution. Credit should be given to both\nHistoryLink.org and to the author, and sources must be included with any\nreproduction. Click the icon for more info. Please note that this\nCreative Commons license applies to text only, and not to images. For\nmore information regarding individual photos or images, please contact\nthe source noted in the image credit.\nMajor Support for HistoryLink.org Provided\nBy: The State of Washington | Patsy Bullitt Collins\n| Paul G. Allen Family Foundation | Museum Of History & Industry\n| 4Culture (King County Lodging Tax Revenue) | City of Seattle\n| City of Bellevue | City of Tacoma | King County | The Peach\nFoundation | Microsoft Corporation, Other Public and Private\nSponsors and Visitors Like You", "id": "<urn:uuid:b052b744-a675-4909-86ea-79561030435f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?DisplayPage=output.cfm&file_id=10263", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9475393295288086, "token_count": 1029, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Swallowing Small Batteries Is A Big Danger For Children\nDec. 15-Small children are at serious risk of swallowing \"button batteries\" which can get stuck in their throats, causing choking or even worse, severe throat burns and possibly death.\nHurley and Safe Kids Greater Flint are spearheading local efforts for \u201cThe Battery Controlled,\u201d a national partnership between Safe Kids Worldwide and Energizer that shares life-saving information with parents and caregivers about the potential risks of swallowing coin lithium batteries. In 2010 alone, more than 3,500 \"button batteries\" swallowing cases, including 18 deaths, were reported to U.S. poison control centers, according to the National Capital Poison Center.\nThe most serious injuries are usually associated with the 20 mm diameter coin lithium battery. In the majority of swallowing incidents among children, the batteries are from remote control devices.\nDr. Rima Jibaly, Hurley Children\u2019s Hospital Gastroenterologist, said, \u201cThese coin-sized button batteries can get stuck in the throats of children. The saliva immediately triggers an electrical current that causes a chemical reaction that can severely burn the esophagus in as little as two hours. In some cases, children have died from their injuries.\"\n\u201cOnce the burning reaction begins, it can continue even after the battery is removed,\" said Dr. Brian Nolan, Director, Hurley Pediatric Critical Care Unit. \"This can paralyze vocal chords or form an abnormal connection between the esophagus and trachea (wind pipe). Repairing that damage is painful and can require feeding tubes, breathing tubes and multiple surgeries.\u201d\nLew Moquin, Safe Kids Greater Flint Coordinator, explained that \"parents and other caregivers often don\u2019t realize that coin-sized button batteries are included in devices they buy. Too often, these devices are left within reach of young children. Car keys with electronic fobs, for example, are often shared with children for their amusement. The batteries inside, if swallowed, can get stuck in a child\u2019s throat and cause serious injury or death.\u201d\nThese batteries can be found in just about any device\nCoin-sized button batteries, approximately the size of a nickel, are found in everyday devices such as:\n- Mini remote control devices that unlock car doors and control portable DVD players, MP3 speakers and other devices\n- Bathroom scales\n- Reading lights\n- Flameless candles\n- Talking and singing books and greeting cards\nDon't let children play with electronic devices\nMany of these potentially-deadly batteries are often inside compartments within electronic devices. However, because many of these devices are not children\u2019s toys, the battery compartments are easy to open. Small children often have easy access to these devices and enjoy playing with them, and many parents do not know there is a risk. In a recent survey by The Battery Controlled, 66% of parents responded that they have not read, seen or heard anything about the risks of coin-sized button batteries and 56% said their children seem to like electronic devices more than their own toys.\nSerious complications and deaths are increasing\nThe number of cases where children have been seriously hurt or have died as a result of swallowing a button battery has more than quadrupled in the past five years (2006-2010) compared to the five years prior (2001-2005).\nPreventative steps for parents and caregivers\n- Examine devices and make sure the battery compartment is secure. Strong tape is one option.\n- Keep button batteries and devices that use them out of reach of small children if the battery compartments aren\u2019t secure.\n- Go to the emergency room immediately if swallowing is suspected.\n- Tell others about this threat and share these steps.\nCall the National Battery Ingestion Hotline at (202) 625-3333 for additional treatment information.", "id": "<urn:uuid:54a643ea-1c25-4b1b-837b-11a66b23c475>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hurleymc.com/news/hurley-safe-kids-join-prevent-kids-swallowing-batteries", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9517730474472046, "token_count": 794, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "| || |\nDiseases and Conditions\nWhat Is It?\nA phobia is a persistent, excessive, unrealistic fear of an object, person, animal, activity or situation. It is a type of anxiety disorder. A person with a phobia either tries to avoid the thing that triggers the fear, or endures it with great anxiety and distress.\nSome phobias are very specific and limited. For example, a person may fear only spiders (arachnophobia) or cats (galeophobia). In this case, the person lives relatively free of anxiety by avoiding the thing he or she fears. Some phobias cause trouble in a wider variety of places or situations. For example, symptoms of acrophobia (fear of heights) can be triggered by looking out the window of an office building or by driving over a high bridge. The fear of confined spaces (claustrophobia) can be triggered by riding in an elevator or by using a small restroom. People with these phobias may need to alter their lives drastically. In extreme cases, the phobia may dictate the person's employment, job location, driving route, recreational and social activities, or home environment.\nThere are three major types of phobia:\n- Specific phobia (simple phobia). With this most common form of phobia, people may fear specific animals (such as dogs, cats, spiders, snakes), people (such as clowns, dentists, doctors), environments (such as dark places, thunderstorms, high places) or situations (such as flying in a plane, riding on a train, being in a confined space). These conditions are at least partly genetic (inherited) and seem to run in families.\n- Social phobia (social anxiety disorder). People with social phobia fear social situations where they may be humiliated, embarrassed or judged by others. They become particularly anxious when unfamiliar people are involved. The fear may be limited to performance, such as giving a lecture, concert or business presentation. Or it may be more generalized, so that the phobic person avoids many social situations, such as eating in public or using a public restroom. Social phobia seems to run in families. People who have been shy or solitary as children, or who have a history of unhappy or negative social experiences in childhood, seem more likely to develop this disorder.\n- Agoraphobia. Agoraphobia is a fear of being in public places where it would be difficult or embarrassing to make a sudden exit. A person with agoraphobia may avoid going to a movie or a concert, or traveling on a bus or a train. In many cases, he or she also has repeated, unexpected panic attacks (intense fear and a set of uncomfortable physical symptoms -- trembling, heart palpitations and sweating).\nChildhood phobias occur most commonly between the ages of 5 and 9, and tend to last a short while. Most longer-lasting phobias begin later in life, especially in people in their 20s. Adult phobias tend to last for many years, and they are less likely to go away on their own. Without proper treatment, phobia can increase an adult's risk of other types of psychiatric illness, especially other anxiety disorders, depression and substance abuse.\nThe symptoms of phobia are:\n- Excessive, unreasonable, persistent feelings of fear or anxiety that are triggered by a particular object, activity or situation. The feelings are either irrational or out of proportion to any actual threat. For example, while anyone may be afraid of an unrestrained, menacing dog, most people do not run away from a calm, quiet animal on a leash.\n- Anxiety-related physical symptoms. These can include tremors, palpitations, sweating, shortness of breath, dizziness, nausea or other symptoms that reflect the body's \"fight or flight\" response to danger.\n- Avoidance of the object, activity or situation that triggers the phobia. Because people who have phobias recognize that their fears are exaggerated, they are often ashamed or embarrassed about their symptoms. To prevent anxiety symptoms or embarrassment, they avoid the triggers for the phobia.\nA mental health professional is likely to ask about current symptoms and family history, particularly whether other family members have had phobias. You may want to report any experience or trauma that may have set off the phobia -- for example, a dog attack leading to a fear of dogs.\nIt may be helpful to discuss how you react -- your thoughts, feelings and physical symptoms -- when you are confronted with the thing you fear. Also, describe what you do to avoid fearful situations, and how the phobia affects your daily life, including your job and your personal relationships.\nYour doctor will ask about depression and substance use because many people with phobias have these problems as well.\nIn children, specific phobias can be short-term problems that disappear within a few months. In adults, about 80% of new phobias become chronic (long-term) conditions that do not go away without proper treatment.\nThere is no way to prevent a phobia from starting. However, treatment can reduce the negative impact of the disorder.\nTreatment usually includes some combination of psychotherapy and medication:\n- Specific phobia. Cognitive-behavioral therapy can help, especially a procedure called either desensitization therapy or exposure therapy. This technique involves gradually increasing your exposure to the thing you fear, at your own pace, under controlled circumstances. As you are exposed to the object, you are taught to master your fear through relaxation, breathing control or other anxiety-reducing strategies. For short-term treatment of phobias, your doctor may prescribe an antianxiety medication. If the phobia is confronted only occasionally, as in a fear of flying, the use of medication can be limited.\n- Social phobia. If your social phobia centers on one particular performance (for example, giving a lecture or playing in a concert), your doctor may prescribe a medication called a beta-blocker such as propranolol (Inderal). This medicine can be taken just prior to the performance. It dampens the physical effects of anxiety (pounding heart or trembling fingers), but usually does not affect the mental sharpness needed for speaking or the physical dexterity needed for playing an instrument. For more generalized or long-term forms of social phobia, your doctor may prescribe an antidepressant, usually an SSRI (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor) such as sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil) or fluoxetine (Prozac). If an SSRI is not effective, your doctor may prescribe an alternative antidepressant or antianxiety medication. Cognitive-behavioral therapy also works well for many people with social phobia, in both individual and group settings.\n- Agoraphobia. The treatment for this disorder is similar to the treatment for panic disorder. Drug treatment includes SSRI antidepressants or older antidepressants, such as clomipramine (Anafranil) and imipramine (Tofranil) and benzodiazepine antianxiety medications, such as clonazepam (Klonopin), diazepam (Valium) and lorazepam (Ativan). Psychotherapy is also helpful, particularly cognitive-behavioral therapy.\nWhen To Call a Professional\nMake an appointment to see your doctor as soon as possible if you are troubled by fears or anxieties that are disturbing your peace of mind; interfering with your personal relationships; or preventing you from functioning normally at home, school or work.\nThe outlook is very good for people with specific phobia or social phobia. According to the U.S. National Institute of Mental Health, about 75% of people with specific phobias overcome their fears through cognitive-behavioral therapy, while 80% of those with social phobia find relief from medication, cognitive-behavioral therapy or a combination.\nWhen agoraphobia occurs with panic disorder, the prognosis is also good. With appropriate treatment, 30% to 40% of patients become free of symptoms for extended periods, while another 50% continue to experience only mild symptoms that do not significantly affect daily life.\nAmerican Psychiatric Association\n1000 Wilson Blvd.\nArlington, VA 22209-3901\nNational Institute of Mental Health\nScience Writing, Press, and Dissemination Branch\n6001 Executive Blvd.\nRoom 8184, MSC 9663\nBethesda, MD 20892-9663\nTTY Toll-Free: 1-866-415-8051\nAmerican Psychological Association\n750 First St., NE\nWashington, DC 20002-4242\nNational Mental Health Association\n2000 N. Beauregard St., 6th Floor\nAlexandria, VA 22311\nLast updated February 17, 2011\nA phobia is a persistent, excessive, unrealistic fear of an object, person, animal, activity or situation.\nInteliHealth Medical Content\n8876, 9475, 10541, 31038, 31348,\nphobia,anxiety,mental health,agoraphobia,medication,psychiatry,antianxiety,psychiatric,antidepressant,anxiety disorder.,depression,drug,family health,heart,panic disorder,ssri", "id": "<urn:uuid:c9f4f058-36b1-441f-8b67-ce7582013fcd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/9339/31038.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9027588963508606, "token_count": 1928, "score": 3.5625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "User:Oh,how the sea calls\nIf you have questions ask on my talk page.\n Quick References for Common Japanese\n- a little bit on the Japanese Language to possibly act as a reference guide for the Wiki.\n- More verbs, Common Nouns, Asking Questions, and a little bit more order to follow soon.\n Important Particles\n'Ga' - subject marker. ex. - Sasuke ga Naruto o hanasu. Sasuke (Subject Marker) Naruto (D.O. Marker) hanasu (speaks).\n'O' - direct object marker. shows what the subject is doing the action to. ex. Sasuke ga Naruto o hanasu. Sasuke (Subject Marker) Naruto (Direct Object marker)hanasu (speaks).\n'No' - shows possession, or is as a modifying phrase. ex (possession)- Sora no Kiiburedo (Keyblade). Sora's Keyblade. ex (modifying phrase) - Nihongo (Japanese Language) no hon (book). Japanese language book.\n'Wa' - denotes the subject of the sentence. -clarifies what you are talking about. -add 'wa' after the topic of the sentence. -any noun can be the topic, if it is the D.O., replace 'o' with 'wa', and if it is the subject, replace 'ga' with 'wa.' ex. - Kinou wa (as for yesterday) sensei (teacher) ga (Subj. Mark) Jon (John) o (D.O. Marker) shikatta (scolded).\n'Ka' - lists choices like the English word 'or.' Ame ka yumi. (Rain or water).\n'To' - lists items, or specifies the co-agent. ex (lists items) - Ame to yumi (Rain and water). ex (specifies co-agent - Sasuke ga (Subj Mark.) Naruto to (co-agent specifier) tabeta (ate).\n- Always at the end of a sentence. - comes in four forms; the dictionary, negative, stem (I will post these forms later) and 'te' form (also, later). - info on past tense will follow with the 'te' form.\ndictionary - the one you would see if you looked it up in a dictionary. The present tense and affirmative form of the verb. ex - taberu - to eat\nnegative - the opposite of the dictionary form. ex - tabenai - to not eat\n Common Verbs\nDa - is (informal)\nDesu - is (formal)\nJa nai - is not (inf.)\nJa arimasen - is not (for.)\nDatta - was (inf.)\nDeshita - was (for.)\nJa nakatta - was not (inf.)\nJa arimasendeshita - was not (for.)\nAru - to exist/ to have. used by the Japanese to show possession of inanimate objects. (this one is a tad bit strange, as is it's counterpart, Iru) Nai (neg.) ex - Sora wa (Topic Marker) munni (munny) ga aru. As for Sora, munni exists. OR Sora has money.\nIru (dict.) - to exist/ to have. used by the Japanese to show possession of animate objects. Inai (neg.) ex - Sora wa (Topic Marker) tori (bird) o (D.O. Marker) aru (exists). As for Sora, a bird exists. OR Sora has a bird.\nTaberu (dict.) - to eat. Tabenai (neg.)\nHanasu (dict.) - to speak. Hanasanai (neg.)\nShinu (dict.) - to die. Shinanai (neg.)\nKaku (dict.) - to write. Kakanai (neg.)\nToru (dict.) - to take Toranai (neg.)\nKau (dict.) - to buy Kawanai (neg.)\nMiru (dict.) - to watch Minai (neg.)\nIku (dict.) - to go Ikanai (neg.)\nKuru (dict.) - to come Konai (neg.)\nSuru (dict.) - to do Shinai (neg.)\nYes / no and content questions to follow soon.\n Users I Consider to be Friends\n-Lapis Lazuli Scarib-\n(got to add to this list)\n Long Absence\nWorking on language and school. Hoping to help more that way-. Oh,how the sea calls 20:40, 19 April 2011 (EDT)\nTemplate:User Hollow Bastion\nTemplate:User Timeless River", "id": "<urn:uuid:ae117dd5-8eda-4be8-b8a2-29322274a647>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.khwiki.net/index.php?title=User:Oh,how_the_sea_calls&oldid=515603", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.832478940486908, "token_count": 1006, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tectonic Shoving Match Formed Caribbean Island Arc\nThe image shows how the Caribbean plate is pushed to the east relative to the South American plate, causing the Caribbean Islands' distinctive arc shape.\nCREDIT: Courtesy of Meghan Miller and Thorsten Becker\nThe movement of Earth's viscous mantle against South America has pushed the Caribbean islands east over the last 50 million years, according to a study published Monday (Aug. 20) in the journal Nature Geoscience.\nThe University of Southern California, in announcing the study, said the findings upend previous hypotheses of the seismic activity beneath the Caribbean Sea and provide an important new look at the unique tectonic interactions that are causing the Caribbean plate to tear away from South America.\nThe Caribbean plate is being pushed eastward due to a thick section of the South American plate called a \"cratonic keel.\" This section of crust is three times thicker than its surroundings.\nMeanwhile, part of the South American plate is being pushed beneath the Caribbean plate, a process called subduction. Intense heat and pressure gradually force water-containing magma to rise into the Earth's mantle and fuel the many active volcanoes in the region.\nAll of this pushing and pulling formed the distinctive arc shape of the Caribbean islands and has created a very complex system of faults between the two plates, in northern South America, according to the USC statement. The study mapped several of these strike-slip faults, which are similar to California's San Andreas Fault.\nRecent earthquakes in the area helped the two researchers develop an image of the Earth's deep interior. The earthquake waves move slower or quicker depending on the temperature and composition of the rock.\n\"Studying the deep earth interior provides insights into how the Earth has evolved into its present form,\" researcher Meghan S. Miller said in the statement.\nFor their study, the researchers used earthquake data to develop 176 computer models, USC said.\nMORE FROM LiveScience.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:c84113df-b291-44a1-8fb0-236e3d87ebfa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.livescience.com/22566-caribbean-arc-tectonics.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9292764663696289, "token_count": 401, "score": 4.09375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Mexican Revolution: a nation in flux - part 2\nVilla broke jail on Christmas Eve and was in El Paso when Huerta engineered the coup that overthrew Madero. In February 1913 Huerta staged a fake 10-day artillery duel with a fake rival, Felix D\u00edaz, nephew of the old dictator. The battle was phony only in the sense that Huerta and D\u00edaz were secretly in cahoots -- the loss of life to civilians was all too real. Purpose of the spurious engagement was to create a state of confusion in which Huerta could seize power from Madero. Madero was deposed on the 18th and four days later he and his vice-president, Jos\u00e9 Pino Suarez, were shot to death after being removed from their jail cells. Nobody believed Huerta's story that the two men had been killed in the crossfire when a rescue was attempted.\nA particularly sinister role in Madero's overthrow was played by the U.S. ambassador, Henry Lane Wilson. An aggressive advocate of dollar diplomacy who was temperamentally drawn to Huerta -- both were alcoholics -- Wilson detested Madero and was involved up to his neck in Huerta's consiracy to overthrow him.\nHuerta set himself up as a military dictator but soon faced a challenge from the north. His enemies were Pancho Villa, a former federal senator named Venustiano Carranza and an ambitious, iron-willed ex-schoolteacher from Sonora named Alvaro Obreg\u00f3n (link Obreg\u00f3n.) Adding to Huerta's troubles was the U.S. occupation of Veracruz. This action stemmed from Mexico's refusal to give a twenty-one gun salute as an apology for having arrested nine American bluejackets who allegedly entered a prohibited zone in Tampico. Throughout 1913-14 Huerta's forces were steadily driven back toward the capital. The campaign's most memorable engagement was the June 23, 1914 capture of Zacatecas by Villa's superbly equipped Divisi\u00f3n del Norte (\"Division of the North\"). Zacatecas finished Huerta. He resigned June 15 and two days later he was on a German freighter bound for Spain.\nVictory over Huerta did not bring peace but a new clash between revolutionary leaders that pitted Villa and Zapata against Carranza and Obreg\u00f3n. At first Villa-Zapata had the upper hand, with the leaders holding an epic December 4, 1914 meeting in Mexico City following an abortive convention in Aguascalientes. Then the tide began to turn. Carranza's forces, known as the Constitutionalists, had been bottled up in Veracruz but bit by bit, thanks mainly to the superb generalship of Obreg\u00f3n, they began to prevail against the Zapatistas and Villistas.\nBy April 1915 World War I had been raging for six months. Though Obreg\u00f3n was without formal military training, he studied the trench warfare tactics of the Western Front and used them to defeat Villa in two crucial battles at Celaya, Guanajuato. He then drove Villa north -- losing an arm in one engagement -- and by the end of 1915 Villa was reduced to pretty much what he'd been at the outset of the Revolution: a marauder prowling the Chihuahua sierra.\nAs for the Zapatistas, they really weren't interested in extending their domain outside their jungly and mountainous home state of Morelos. There the Revolution had been won. They seized Puebla but made no further move toward reducing Carranza's stronghold in Veracruz.\nThe Carranza-Obreg\u00f3n forces, which now controlled most of Mexico, received a big boost when the United States extended de facto recognition to Carranza on October 19, 1915. This infuriated Villa, who had always been friendly to the U.S., and led to the March 1916 villista raid on Columbus, New Mexico. The attack claimed the lives of eight American soldiers and ten civilians and resulted in the so-called Punitive Expedition of 1916-17, when American cavalry units under General \"Black Jack\" Pershing wandered through northern Mexico for ten months but completely failed in their attempt to capture Villa.\nCarranza, who had been ruling provisionally (he was known by followers as \"the First Chief\"), officially became president on March 11, 1917, in an election in which he won 797,305 votes against the 11,615 garnered by his closest rival. A month before, on February 5, the Constitution of 1917 was adopted. It was this charter, (link 1917 Constitution) that so infuriated Catholics with its anticlerical provisions.\nAlthough the 1917 Constitution also contained provisions to improve the lot of workers and peasant farmers, these were ignored by the Carranza government. Corruption was endemic and strikes were mercilessly broken. But Carranza did manage to rid himself of a major enemy: Emiliano Zapata. Zapata was slain April 10, 1919, being led into a trap by Col. Jes\u00fas Guajardo, a federal officer who set up the ambush by pretending to defect to the Zapatistas.\nObreg\u00f3n had gone into temporary retirement, returning to his native Sonora to raise chick peas. But on June 1, 1919, he declared his candidacy for the June 1920 presidential election. In the fall of 1919 Carranza announced that he would be supporting Ignacio Bonillas, then Mexican ambassador in Washington.\nIt was a disastrous choice. Bonillas, an M.I.T. graduate, had spent so little of his life in Mexico that political enemies claimed he had difficulty speaking the language of his ancestors. They derisively called him \"Meester\" Bonillas and the clever Obreg\u00f3n lost no time tapping into this sentiment. During the campaign pro-Obreg\u00f3n railroad workers kept Bonillas from making a scheduled appearance by derailing his train. Deliberately fabricated rumors then went out that Bonillas had canceled the appearance because it interfered with a Spanish lesson he was taking.\nCarranza retaliated with a reign of terror against Obreg\u00f3n campaign workers. Obreg\u00f3n, fearing that he was about to be arrested, fled Mexico City and took refuge in Chilpancingo, capital of Guerrero state. On April 20 he announced that he was giving up the presidential campaign and would take arms against Carranza.\nThe Carranza regime collapsed like a house of cards. While generals went over to Obreg\u00f3n en masse, Carranza and his corrupt followers loaded up an eight-car \"Golden Train\" with all the money and valuables they could lay their hands on and prepared to leave for Veracruz. During the journey, attacks on the \"Golden Train\" caused Carranza to abandon it in an attempt to escape on foot. On May 20, in a hut near the Puebla village of Tlaxcalantongo, he was treacherously murdered in his sleep by followers of a local bandit-turned-general named Rodolfo Herrero. Herrero had previously welcomed Carranza and promised him refuge.\nOn June 1 Governor Adolfo de la Huerta of Sonora was installed by Congress as interim president.\nIn the regular election, held October 26, 1920, Obreg\u00f3n defeated Alfredo Robles Dom\u00ednguez, a candidate backed by the Catholic Church, by a 1,131,751 to 47,442 margin. At midnight of November 30, Alvaro Obreg\u00f3n raised his remaining arm and took the oath of office.\nThe most tumultuous phase of the Mexican Revolution was now over. In a classic application of the natural selection process, the toughest, smartest, and most ambitious of Mexico's revolutionary leaders had successfully eliminated his rivals and was now alone at the top.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a3a4a685-7b12-45a4-a46f-d9a1dba6d798>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/294-the-mexican-revolution-a-nation-in-flux-part-2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9816999435424805, "token_count": 1612, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Courtesy of the Arkansas Secretary of State\u2019s Office\nBorn on August 10, 1837, in Maury County, Tennessee, Eagle moved with his family to Arkansas when he was only two years old. The Eagle family, descendants of German immigrants who had settled in Pennsylvania in the colonial era, farmed first in Pulaski County and later outside Lonoke.\nIn 1859, Eagle was elected deputy sheriff of Prairie County, a position he held when he enlisted in the Fifth Arkansas Mounted Rifles in June 1861. Entering the Confederate ranks as a private, he rose to the rank of captain and saw action at Hominy Creek and Pea Ridge and was taken prisoner at Murfreesboro, Tennessee. In May 1863, he returned to his unit as part of a prisoner exchange and fought in the battles at Jackson, Chickamauga, and Atlanta, where he was seriously wounded in the abdomen. Remarkably Eagle recovered and rejoined his troops after only two months.\nIt was said that men either found God or lost Him forever during the Civil War. Eagle was among the former. Following the war he studied for the ministry and was ordained as a Baptist preacher. At the same time he managed the family farm, turning it into one of the most prosperous in the state.\nIn 1872 friends placed Eagle's name in nomination for the state legislature and he was elected. He became actively involved in the Brooks-Baxter dispute in 1874, raising and commanding three companies in support of Elisha Baxter. Eagle married Mary Kavanaugh Oldham of Kentucky in 1882.\nEagle's reputation as a farmer and a minister served him well in politics and contributed to his nomination as the Democratic Party's gubernatorial candidate in 1888. That year the party faced a formidable challenge from a coalition of blacks, Republicans, the Knights of Labor, and agrarian reformers who belonged to the Agricultural Wheel. Eagle won what many regard as the most corrupt election in Arkansas history. His rival C.M. Norwood protested the election results but to no avail. Eagle was re-elected by a larger margin in 1890.\nIn Eagle's first term the legislature was little inclined to enact the more ambitious items in his agenda which included reforms in taxes, railroad regulation, education, roads, and prisons. His program fared a little better in his second term but the governor did manage over four years to restore a degree of harmony in the Democratic Party. In 1891 the legislature enacted a separate coach law requiring separate accommodations for blacks and whites traveling on public transportation. Eagle did not advocate such a measure, but allowed it to become law.\nNext: William M. Fishback", "id": "<urn:uuid:9c2f6bb6-ff7e-462a-aa6d-bc1cab06a60e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.oldstatehouse.com/exhibits/virtual/governors/the_redeemers/eagle.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9800818562507629, "token_count": 540, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Posted by Bruce Kahl on December 10, 1999\nIn Reply to: Re: \"Push the envelope\" posted by Arthur Smith on December 10, 1999\n: : I will accept the premise that \"push the envelope\"\n: : originated with airline pilots, but I would like to\n: : know in exactly what context: the actual practical\n: : mechanics of flying as in the use of the controls\n: : relative to a certain aspect of aircraft performance,\n: : the theory of flight as in aerodynamics or the\n: : efficiency with which the aircraft performs relative\n: : to outside forces, or some other practical\n: : explanation?\nThis expression comes out of the US Air Force test pilot program\nof the late 1940's.\nThe envelope refers to a plane's performance capabilities. The limits of the planes ability to fly at speeds and altitudes and under certain stresses define what is known as its performance envelope. It's an \"envelope\" in the sense that it contains the ranges of the plane's abilities.\n\"Pushing the envelope\" is a good example of how jargon -- the specialized or technical vocabulary of a group or profession -- gradually enters general usage. \"Pushing the envelope\" comes from the jargon of test pilots, and has actually been around since the end of the Second World War. The \"envelope\" involved is a sort of visual metaphor for the technical limits of a high-performance aircraft. A graph of such an aircraft's performance would appear as a rising slope as the craft approaches its limits of speed and stress, then fall off rapidly (putting it mildly) when the plane exceeds its capacity and the pilot loses control. Safety, relatively speaking, lies within these limits, or \"inside the envelope.\" A pilot who \"pushes the envelope\" and tries to exceed the known capabilities of the aircraft risks what engineers delicately term \"catastrophic system failure,\" otherwise known as a crash.\nBecause \"pushing the envelope\" had such a esoteric origin, it took a best-selling book -- Tom Wolfe's \"The Right Stuff\" in 1979 -- and later the popular movie \"Top Gun\" to introduce it to the general public. Since then it has begun to crop up in increasingly non-technical contexts, to the point where it is now a currently trendy metaphor for simply \"pushing it,\" or testing the limits of what is permissible in a given situation.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e1cbce41-4c01-4ba3-8601-e93ae30d4100>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.phrases.org.uk/bulletin_board/1/messages/2918.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9528945088386536, "token_count": 493, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "DNA typing is an invaluable forensic tool for associating biological evidence with its true source. Generally DNA technology affords the forensic scientist the ability to effectively eliminate individuals who have been falsely associated with a biological sample and to substantially reduce the number of potential contributors to a few (if not one) individuals. When it was initially developed, DNA typing was used predominately to compare an evidence profile directly with the profile from a reference sample(s). Many of these one-to-one comparisons have been extremely useful in assisting to solve crimes. More than a decade ago the capability of DNA typing was substantially expanded by the creation of DNA databases that contain profiles from convicted felons (and now arrestees as well) and profiles from evidence from unsolved cases(1)\n. The DNA profiles contained within the forensic indices can be compared, and candidate matches can be investigated further. Indeed, DNA database searching has become another routine way to develop new and often strong investigative leads. The success stories of DNA database search leads are well known for identifying suspects (ultimately perpetrators) and are being used increasingly in post-conviction exoneration cases.\nInitially, database searching was applied to direct profile comparisons to generate investigative leads. However, in 2003\u20132004 the Forensic Science Service demonstrated that the database searching capabilities could be expanded by employing indirect comparisons via an approach known as familial searching(3)\n. This type of search led to the identification of Craig Harman through an association with a first-order relative\u2019s DNA profile housed in the United Kingdom DNA Database. The crime involved the heart attack death of a motorist due to a brick thrown through the windshield of the victim\u2019s truck from a bridge above the roadway. A direct comparison of the DNA profile from the brick and profiles in the National Database did not result in any candidate matches. However, 25 similar DNA profiles were identified, and at the top position on the list of candidates was a relative of Craig Harman. Harman voluntarily submitted a reference sample, and his DNA profile was a direct match with that of the evidence. He subsequently pleaded guilty to manslaughter.\n\"There is good a priori reason to believe that familial searching would have some success. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional Populations in United States, 1996 report, at least 42.8% of inmates had close relatives who also have been incarcerated.\"\nAnecdotally, familial searching had been carried out previously to the Harman case for years in one-to-one comparison cases in which an evidence profile was sufficiently similar to the evidence. Such similarities often prompted the forensic scientist to suggest to investigators to look for a relative of the suspect. However, the Harman case was the first one in which a DNA database was used to develop the investigative lead. Today there are a number of documented cases where familial searching was successful in identifying the perpetrator(3)\nFamilial searching is based on the principle that first-order relatives, i.e., siblings, parents, and to a lesser degree even more distantly related relatives (e.g., uncles, aunts and cousins), will share features of their DNA profiles (i.e., alleles) on average more so than do unrelated individuals. While there may be no direct matches when comparing an evidence DNA profile with reference profiles in a DNA database, there can be \"near genetic matches\" (or better stated \"associations\") with convicted felon profiles, and one of these candidates may be a close relative of the true source of the crime scene evidence. Familial searching is another tool in the arsenal for developing investigative leads from DNA databases.\nThere is good a priori reason to believe that familial searching would have some success. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics Correctional Populations in United States, 1996 report(5)\n, at least 42.8% of inmates had close relatives (i.e., father, mother, brother, sister, child) who also have been incarcerated. Since DNA profiles of most inmates are entered in the CODIS system (and, for example, the UK Database), familial searching has a great potential to assist law enforcement by identifying an individual in CODIS who may be a close relative of the true source of a forensic sample. Typically, familial DNA database searches are best suited for identification of an individual who could be a sibling of the true source of the evidence sample and identification of an individual who could be the parent or offspring of the true source of the evidence.\nUse of familial searching can constitute a powerful law enforcement tool that should increase the number of suspects (and thus perpetrators) identified through forensic DNA technology, and advocates say it already is a legitimate way to develop investigative leads(3)\n. Anecdotally, it appears that the use of familial DNA searching in the UK that results in a conviction may be on a performance par with the use of CODIS to produce offender hits that result in conviction(3)\n. Bieber et al.(4)\nsuggested that familial search analysis could increase the cold hit rate up to 40%. Even with its success in identifying true perpetrators via indirect associations in a DNA database search, familial searching is not without its critics, who contend that familial searching simply is an invasion of privacy and merely a genetic fishing expedition by law enforcement. While those against familial searching acknowledge that convicted criminals should lose some privacy rights, they assert that relatives of convicted felons do not have an expectation of a reduced right to privacy. Critics claim that these searches are even more troubling since they constitute an increased discriminatory scrutiny of the low-income and ethnic groups that are overrepresented in the database(6)\nThe recent identification in California via familial searching of a serial killer suspect shows that this investigative tool could be beneficial to underprivileged groups(7)\n. For more than 30 years, a serial murderer\u2014the Grim Sleeper\u2014in Los Angeles remained unidentified. The majority of victims were young African American females (that clearly represented a low-income, minority population group). Yet familial searching linked Franklin via his son who was entered into the California database for a felony weapons charge in recent years. To ensure that the association was a viable lead, the DNA laboratory also typed the evidence and the son for Y STRs. Barring mutation, a father passes his Y STR chromosome intact to his son. Given the discrimination power afforded by current Y STR profiling kits is around 0.999, most false indirect associations can be eliminated(9)\n. Thus, when using a Y STR match threshold, rarely would an investigator be incorrect in following up the lead provided by the DNA association. The two Y STR profiles were the same, which strongly supports a paternal relationship between the source of the DNA evidence and Franklin's son. Franklin's DNA profile was a direct match to evidence in the murders over the past three decades. This is strong support of the power of Y STRs in this context.\nEven with this success story the debate on the use of familial searching will likely continue. Currently some countries and only two US states (California and Colorado) are openly conducting familial searching; few jurisdictions are moving towards conducting familial searching, and one state (Maryland) has prohibited familial searching of criminal databases. As the debate continues additional questions will likely arise, including:\n- Could one make a proportionality argument and that the seriousness of the crime warrants its use (for example in the Grim Sleeper case)?\n- Alternatively to the proportionality position, if it is acceptable under serial murder cases, should familial searching be appropriate in other \u201clesser\u201d crimes? After all there is evidence that a large portion of violent criminals start out by committing lesser crimes.\n- Should familial DNA searching be made available to a convicted person who has been afforded post-conviction DNA testing that has not yet \u201cexonerated\u201d him/her because the identity of the source of the forensic unknown DNA profile has not been established, even after a CODIS search?\n- Is familial searching any different than using partial information as is done in other settings?\n- Does the aura of DNA impede its use\u2014i.e., should DNA be treated differently than other forensic evidence?\n- Is a one-to-one comparison case in which a familial association is indicated any different than a familial association obtained by a database search?\n- Is legislation required prior to proceeding with a familial search?\n- Is there accountability if a CODIS manager or a laboratory analyst discovers a potential suspect who partially matches the evidence and does not report the finding?\n- Could the nonreported association constitute Brady material?\n- What about the next victim who would not have become a victim if the analyst provided the information?\n- Should database managers seek legal advice on what is proper action regarding partial matches or potential associations?\n- If a state or jurisdiction desires to implement familial searching, what are the best practices to apply?\nWith regard to the last question, software is needed that effectively searches databases based on the best-performing parameters. The proposed practices for identifying associations with their false-positive and false-negative rates should be understood(12)\n. When possible, Y STR typing should be performed (for male relatives)(11)\nIn conclusion, there is unequivocal evidence that familial searching will increase the cold hit rate and help solve more cases. Most states legislatively authorized CODIS to be utilized for \"criminal identification\" purposes. The means used to achieve that purpose are seldom specifically described in the empowering statutes. California and Colorado each implemented familial DNA searching without legislative assistance(3)\n. The \"Grim Sleeper\" case shows that familial DNA searching can be used solely for \"criminal identification\" purposes (see reference 20 for an extended discussion of this topic(14)\n). The prediction is that as more successes such as the Grim Sleeper case are reported, more laboratories will seek to use familial searching. If familial searching is to be implemented it should be performed in a well-thought-out, robust manner. There are some models to follow, and the laboratory should work closely with its legal counterparts to develop an effective plan.\nEditor's Note: Learn more about familial searches to solve crimes at the 21st International Symposium on Human Identification, which is being held October 11\u201314, 2010, in San Antonio, Texas. A panel discussion on October 14 will explore the details of familial searching and focus on the controversy behind the policy. Panelists will include Bruce Budowle, Institute of Investigative Genetics; Rockne Harmon, Alameda County District Attorney\u2019s Office (retired); Jennifer Luttman, Federal Bureau of Investigation; Chris Maguire, Forensic Science Service; and Sonia Suter, George Washington Law School.", "id": "<urn:uuid:eab9981a-efda-44e6-86fc-01cd6f743736>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.promega.sg/resources/articles/profiles-in-dna/familial-searching-extending-the-investigative-lead-potential-of-dna-typing/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9403428435325623, "token_count": 2172, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "May 19, 2008 A vaccine created by University of Rochester Medical Center scientists prevents the development of Alzheimer's disease-like pathology in mice without causing inflammation or significant side effects.\nVaccinated mice generated an immune response to the protein known as amyloid-beta peptide, which accumulates in what are called \"amyloid plaques\" in brains of people with Alzheimer's. The vaccinated mice demonstrated normal learning skills and functioning memory in spite of being genetically designed to develop an aggressive form of the disease.\nThe Rochester scientists reported the findings in an article in the May issue of Molecular Therapy, the journal of The American Society of Gene Therapy.\n\"Our study demonstrates that we can create a potent but safe version of a vaccine that utilizes the strategy of immune response shaping to prevent Alzheimer's-related pathologies and memory deficits,\" said William Bowers, associate professor of neurology and of microbiology and immunology at the Medical Center and lead author of the article. \"The vaccinated mice not only performed better, we found no evidence of signature amyloid plaque in their brains.\"\nAlzheimer's is a progressive neurodegenerative disease associated with dementia and a decline in performance of normal activities. Hallmarks of the disease include the accumulation of amyloid plaques in the brains of patients and the loss of normal functioning tau, a protein that stabilizes the transport networks in neurons. Abnormal tau function eventually leads to another classic hallmark of Alzheimer's, neurofibrillary tangle in nerve cells. After several decades of exposure to these insults, neurons ultimately succumb and die, leading to progressively damaged learning and memory centers in the brain.\nThe mice that received the vaccines were genetically engineered to express large amounts of amyloid beta protein. They also harbored a mutation that causes the tau-related tangle pathology. Prior to the start of the vaccine study, the mice were trained to navigate a maze using spatial clues. They were then tested periodically during the 10-month study on the amount of time and distance traveled to an escape pod and the number of errors made along the way.\n\"What we found exciting was that by targeting one pathology of Alzheimer's -- amyloid beta -- we were able to also prevent the transition of tau from its normal form to a form found in the disease state,\" Bowers said.\nThe goal of the vaccine is to prompt the immune system to recognize amyloid beta protein and remove it. To create the vaccine, Bowers and the research group use a herpes virus that is stripped of the viral genes that can cause disease or harm. They then load the virus container with the genetic code for amyloid beta and interleukin-4, a protein that stimulates immune responses involving type 2 T helper cells, which are lymphocytes that play an important role in the immune system.\nThe research group tested several versions of a vaccine. Mice were given three injections of empty virus alone, a vaccine carrying only the amyloid beta genetic code, or a vaccine encoding both amyloid beta and interlueikin-4, which was found to be the most effective.\n\"We have learned a great deal from this ongoing project,\" Bowers said. \"Importantly, it has demonstrated the combined strengths of the gene delivery platform and the immune shaping concept for the creation of customized vaccines for Alzheimer's disease, as well as a number of other diseases. We are currently working on strategies we believe can make the vaccine even safer.\"\nBowers expects the vaccine eventually to be tested in people, but due to the number of studies required to satisfy regulatory requirements, it could be three or more years before human trials testing this type of Alzheimer's vaccine occur.\nGrants from the National Institutes of Health supported the study. In addition to Bowers, authors of the Molecular Therapy article include Maria E. Frazer, Jennifer E. Hughes, Michael A. Mastrangelo and Jennifer Tibbens of the Medical Center and Howard J. Federoff of Georgetown University Medical Center.\nOther social bookmarking and sharing tools:\nNote: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above.\nNote: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4a34ff65-989d-4bfb-bcf0-5455e0502e15>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/05/080519105045.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.949608325958252, "token_count": 867, "score": 3.484375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What happens in week 3?\nThree weeks after fertilisation, the different parts of the embryo start to form. Three layers of cells form, out of which all the different organs of the body will develop. Two folds grow along the length of the embryo - these roll up to make the neural tube which eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord. The placenta - the embryo's life-support system - starts to work, delivering nourishment and taking waste products away.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3ca56062-3576-454b-83c5-f85a2d06731a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/WhoAmI/FindOutMore/Yourbody/Wheredidyoucomefrom/Howdoyougrowinthewomb/Whathappensinweek3.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9386254549026489, "token_count": 95, "score": 3.484375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Simaltaneously introduces the joys of treasure hunting and coin collecting\nThis kit will encourage users to not only find buried coins using a special child-sized metal detector, but also learn about the history of the treasure they unearth by researching them in the included child\u2019s coin guide. Set up a treasure hunt and let participants find, research, classify and store their coins using all the tools included in this kit.\nThis makes a nice small group activity for classroom use or independent study. Includes junior metal detector, child's coin guide, 2-in-1 magnifier, plastic trowel, 12-pocket coin wallet, small pouch and U.S. quarters coin folder.\nRequires two \u201c9-Volt\u201d batteries (not included).\nWARNING: CHOKING HAZARD \u2013 Small parts. Not for children under 3 years.\nRecommended for ages 8+.", "id": "<urn:uuid:02b91b74-656c-4214-8f33-6b1f241af5db>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scientificsonline.com/review/product/list/id/10898/category/424486/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8745895028114319, "token_count": 182, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Gone are the days when Fred Haise, of the Apollo 13 crew, could remark on how his urine looked as if a golden string of glittering stars as they passed out of the evacuation chamber of the space capsule in which he\u2019d just relieved himself. Or at least gone are the days when Bill Paxton in the character of Haise could say something like that in a movie and be accurate. These days our astronauts drink the water recycled from their pee \u2014 and find clever new uses for their poop too.\nOn the International Space Station, they use an automated system to remove extract water from waste for use once more. On the private Mars shot that will launch in 2018, Inspiration Mars, they will use a simpler, but perhaps more elegant, method: a technique called forward osmosis. Water likes to move to diffuse concentrations whenever possible from high to low, in an effort to even things out. So when it\u2019s confronted with a solution that contains a solution with a high concentration of salt, which has a high osmotic potential, this ticks water off and it will move toward that higher concentration to balance things out. So when urine, which contains lots of water, of course, is put into in a chamber it will pass through the membrane, leaving behind all of the other stuff that makes up urine, leaving the water purified and the salty solution diluted and ready to, yick, drink. I\u2019m sure that any remnant salty taste from the diluted solution will provide the astronauts plenty of reminder of where their water came from (their pee).\nThe forward osmosis method was tested on the last space shuttle flight, Atlantis in 2011. The problem is, the results showed that in microgravity osmosis worked at only about half the efficiency it does here on Earth, something the mission\u2019s engineers will have to work out. The Inspiration Mars people recently announced that these bags of water and waste will be used in an entirely novel way, to line the space capsule to protect it from cosmic rays.\nA quote from a mission member in a New Scientist article on the subject points out that nuclei block cosmic radiation and that water has about three times the amount of nuclei that are found in metals. And since the nuclei block rather than absorb radiated particles, the water won\u2019t become irradiated, keeping it safe to drink. So lining the capsule with bags of water that the crew can also drink should be an efficient and elegant solution to both staving off cosmic radiation and dehydration among the crew.\nBut what\u2019s more efficient than drinking the water extracted from your own urine? Nothing. When a bag of water is finished off by the husband/wife team that will serve as personnel on the mission, they will use said bag to deposit waste. The osmotic processes will then extract the water for reuse. In the meantime, that bag of waste will go back in the capsule lining to serve as a shield once more, this time filled with poop or pee. And one can only imagine how effective those are at reflecting cosmic rays.", "id": "<urn:uuid:623fbf29-1a7e-4207-b1a5-60e0c0a190ee>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.stuffyoushouldknow.com/blog/poop-pee-reflect-cosmic-rays-elegant-solution/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.963106632232666, "token_count": 629, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "elduce wrote:1. I don't understand 'futurum'. 'To be' can work actively but passively it doesn't make sense. What of the future active participle? is futururum correct?\nis the future participle actually. In this textbook, if a verb is intransitive but still has a future participle, then the future participle is given instead of the perfect passive participle as with other verbs. There are a couple other verbs in Wheelock's that have the future participle listed as the 4th principal part, such as fugio, fugere, fugi, fugiturum\n; you will know it is the future participle by the -ur- before the ending. The supine stem (4th principal part minus the -um/-us ending) always ends in T or S, so if it ends in R you should already know something is up.\nmultus, -a, -um\n2. How does the comparative for more, many, most work? Always use the Genitive in these instances? Thanks.\nplus, gen. pluris\nplurimus, -a, -um\nWith the comparative, plus\n, you use the partitive genitive to say \"more (of) ____\", or \"very many (of) ____\" if you prefer. This is because the form plus\nis really more a neuter noun or substantive adjective, like satis\n, etc. You will rarely see plus\nin the singular in any cases other than the nominative and accusative (which are indentical), and the dative singular does not exist in classical Latin. The genitive and rarely ablative are mostly restricted to expressions of value (unfortunately not covered in Wheelock's), e.g. ager multo pluris est\n\"the farm is of much more (worth)\".\nIn the plural, plures, plura\n, you just use it like a regular adjective without the partitive genitive.\nflebile nescio quid queritur lyra, flebile lingua murmurat exanimis, respondent flebile ripae", "id": "<urn:uuid:84e3a6a6-ff69-4f9c-8b28-a604161eea11>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.textkit.com/greek-latin-forum/viewtopic.php?f=19&t=3533&p=31214", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8979487419128418, "token_count": 453, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Exploring the field of cancer genomics can give a researcher without a sturdy footing in bioinformatics a bad case of information overload. But the potential payoff is high. Cancer researchers have been amassing data on small mutations, copy number variations, epigenetic changes, expression level differences, and clinical features for a number of cancer types since long before the first whole cancer genome sequence (of an acute myeloid leukemia) was completed in 2008. That means researchers diving into the fray today will have more\u2014and higher quality\u2014information at their fingertips than ever before. Yet navigating it won\u2019t be easy, says William Hahn, an associate professor of medicine who studies a number of cancers at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston. \u201cIt\u2019s a huge challenge to know what\u2019s out there and how to use it.\u201d\nMuch of the available genomic data comes from a handful of large international collaborations. The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), a project of the National Cancer Institute and the National Human Genome Research Institute, oversees the generation of genomic data from quality-controlled samples, most of which have been analyzed using multiple platforms. The UK Cancer Genome Project houses a data collection called COSMIC, the single most comprehensive catalog of somatic mutations in the world. Casting an even wider net, the International Cancer Genome Consortium (ICGC) is a one-stop-shopping portal through which you can access data from its 12 member countries, as well as from the TCGA and COSMIC databases.\nOnce you\u2019ve got the data, the trick is to know what they can and cannot tell you, says Hahn. But whatever type of data you search for, he cautions, your in silico analyses should be considered hypothesis-generating. At the end of the day, you have to go back to the lab or into the clinic to validate them.\nThe Scientist surveyed freely available data, visualization, and analysis portals for cancer genome information to bring you a start-up guide for integrating the approach into your work.\nIs my favorite gene mutated in cancer?\nA good starting point is to check for known mutations and other aberrations in your gene of interest. The ICGC Data Portal offers several search routes. Enter a gene name, NCBI accession number, or Ensembl gene ID in the Gene Search field, click through to the Gene Report, and under Mutation Summary you\u2019ll find the mutations and copy number changes detected and their frequency in the tumors analyzed to date. The COSMICsection just below lists somatic mutations, including point mutations, small deletions, and insertions, from the COSMIC database.\nAnother tack is to look for all the affected genes in a tumor type. In the ICGC Data Portal, you can accomplish this by clicking Genes under Database Search, and from there, selecting the type of cancer you\u2019re interested in as well as optional sub-parameters such as the pathway you\u2019d like to explore. Alternatively, in the TCGA\u2019s Data Portal, you can select Bulk Download from the Download Data menu and retrieve information on somatic mutations, or other data types such as copy number, DNA methylation, and gene expression, for a number of tumor types.\nBoth ICGC and TCGA data are publicly available, but note that they have already been processed: sequences have been confirmed by various techniques, and patient-identifying information, such as the presence of germline SNPs, has been removed. \u201cBy and large, the processed data is our best attempt to provide information that is accurate and has few false positives,\u201d says Lincoln Stein, director of informatics and biocomputing at the Ontario Institute for Cancer Research in Toronto. Researchers can request access to raw data through ICGC\u2019s Data Access Compliance Office if they would like to know the germline SNPs, which could be relevant in studies of cancer risk and cancer drug response.\nAlso, consider supplementing your ICGC search with an exploration of data sets from other centers, including TCGA\u2019s Data Portal. ICGC only updates the database every few months, whereas TCGA updates as new data become available. What\u2019s more, ICGC does not store TCGA\u2019s raw data\u2014to access it, submit a Data Access Request form to TCGA.\nAre the mutations in my favorite gene \u201cdrivers\u201d in this tumor type?\nFinding a gene mutation in tumor samples is just the beginning. The next step is differentiating the drivers that actually contribute to the cancer phenotype from the passenger mutations that many cancers pick up pell-mell because of their genomic instability.\nThe frequency of the mutation can provide some clues. \u201cIf it\u2019s mutated in 5 or 8 or 10 percent [or more] of cancers, then you say it\u2019s probably important,\u201d Hahn says. It\u2019s harder to judge for less frequently mutated genes, which can still be important to the biology and progression of tumors, he explains, adding that data from rare mutations may not be reliable if your gene has only been sequenced in a few samples. ICGC\u2019s Mutation Summary is one source of mutation frequency data. Another option is the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center\u2019s (MSKCC) cBio Cancer Genomics Portal, a user-friendly site for working with data from TCGA and other data sets. You can query this portal by entering the name of one or more genes. The output is a list of cancer studies of different tumor types; click on a study, and then on View Cancer Study Details, to call up a graphic\u2014referred to as an \u201concoprint\u201d\u2014that represents the frequency of genomic alterations.\nYou can also predict the functional impact (high, medium, low, or neutral) of missense mutations using a tool within MSKCC\u2019s portal called MutationAssessor. Like other methods, MutationAssessor looks at conservation across all the homologs of a protein, but, unlike others, it also takes into account the conservation within just the closest homologs, which is called \u201cspecificity.\u201d This gives the tool an advantage in predicting mutations that have a functional impact, particularly those that lead to a change in function rather than a loss or gain of function, says Boris Reva, who developed the tool with colleagues at MSKCC.\nIf you are in View Cancer Study Details in the MSKCC portal, clicking the Mutations tab takes you to a table with a column labeled Predicted Impact. Clicking on items in this column opens an output table summarizing information about the gene mutation you\u2019re looking at. To see how well conserved the mutated amino acid residue is, click on MSA (multiple sequence alignment) for a sequence alignment with the conservation and specificity score above each amino acid. Alternatively, because MutationAsssessor is also a stand-alone tool, you can enter your mutation of interest in the text box on its site to obtain a similar output table.\nWhat are the genes and pathways that are associated with a tumor type?\nMany cancer researchers are looking beyond individual genes to map gene networks. One way to do this is with Regulome Explorer, a set of tools developed by the Institute for Systems Biology in Seattle, Washington, and MD Anderson Cancer Center at the University of Texas in Houston that provides a wide-ranging view of connections between mutations, expression level changes, and clinical outcomes. The tool is currently loaded with three TCGA data sets, with plans to add more in the next 6 months. To explore networks in which a gene might be involved, select the first tool on the portal page, All Pairs Significance Tests, which looks for pairwise associations. The new window that opens shows a graphical representation of a breast cancer data set, but you can load one of the others by going to the Data menu and clicking Select. In the dialog box on the right, enter your gene of interest in the Label field under Feature 1. Under Feature 2, choose the type of genomic change and the gene for which you want to find associations, then click Filter. Or, you can leave both boxes in Feature 2blank, and view all the genomic associations; mousing over a line tells you the change associated with your gene of interest.\nYou can do the same analysis of data with a different list of cancer types in MSKCC\u2019s cBio Portal. Just enter your gene\u2014say, Trim2\u2014in the gray field, as before, and click Submit. After you select the tumor type and click View Cancer Study Details, you can review the network of known gene interactions and pathways involving the gene under the Network tab. You can mouse over a gene, represented as a node, to see a color-coded wheel summarizing its mutation, expression, and copy number status. (The color for each alteration is under the Legend tab.)\nOf course, many gene networks are unknown. A tool called Dendrix predicts whether genes share a pathway by using an algorithm that searches for genes mutated in a mutually exclusive pattern. To run Dendrix, upload two text files to a server at ccmbweb.ccv.brown.edu/dendrix\u2014one listing all the genes mutated in samples of a particular tumor type (for example, a TCGA data set), and the other listing just the genes you want to analyze. Leave out genes mutated at very high frequency, which skew the results, says Fabio Vandin, a bioinformatician who developed Dendrix with colleagues at Brown University. The completed analysis will be e-mailed to you, usually within a day, as a text file readable via a platform called Cytoscape.\nWhat are the clinical associations with genomic changes?\n\u201cWhen you submit to journals these days, there\u2019s quite a good chance the referees will say, \u2018What does this gene mutation do in the clinic to patients?\u2019\u201d says Markus Bredel of the University of Alabama at Birmingham, who studies gene mutations that correlate with short survival times for patients with glioblastoma.\nSeveral university-operated visualization tools can address this question. Oncoprints at MSKCC cBio Portal show survival curves associated with genomic alterations in the Survival tab. Alternatively, the University of California Santa Cruz Cancer Genomics Browser lets you probe associations between an array of clinical parameters and genomic data for many data sets. Click on Cancer Genomics Browser at the top of the menu on the left to be directed to the list of data sets. After choosing a data set, click on the Heatmap box in the tab that appears on the right to view genomic and clinical heat maps. You can explore associations between a clinical feature and genomic changes by clicking the Features button above the clinical heat map. This opens a window in which you can create two patient groups based on various differences, say, in age at diagnosis. Select Student\u2019s T-test from the Statistic drop-down menu and hit Generate Statistics to view all the statistically significant genomic differences between the groups: red bars and green bars indicate that genomic variation is more likely in group 1 or group 2, respectively. You can zoom in to get genomic data from individual samples, which are arranged vertically above the corresponding chromosomal position, says Jing Zhu, who manages the UCSC Cancer Genomics Browser. She encourages researchers who want more information about these clinical parameters to contact her team at firstname.lastname@example.org.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fc7a3fea-a8b4-43fb-ae75-ba4bea54849f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/31747/title/Combing-the-Cancer-Genome/flagPost/59038/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9147683382034302, "token_count": 2393, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Scotland and Wales are countries, and their parliament and assembly are acknowledgement of that fact. Northern Ireland is also recognised as a political and constitutional entity within the United Kingdom (UK) with its own assembly. For reasons not adequately explained, England is denied recognition as a country or as a political and constitutional entity and the people of England are denied the right to express their will through their own parliament.\nThe people of England have the same right to a parliament as do the people of Scotland, and they should be equally free to determine their own system of local and regional government. Devolution for England should start with an English Parliament.\nThe aim of the Campaign for an English Parliament (CEP) is to put the issue of a separately elected English Parliament, with its own Executive, on the political agenda.\nThe CEP\u2019s strategy is to assemble the most powerful coalition of expert and public opinion possible with a view to securing an English referendum on the question of establishing a Parliament and Executive.\nAn English Parliament will represent all those for whom England is their chosen or inherited home and who are legally entitled to vote. Read the full policy statement\nUltimately, an English Parliament cannot come about without the co-operation and agreement of the House of Commons. The CEP\u2019s role is working with academics, business groups, trades unions, think tanks and the media to create the conditions where MPs see that there is no alternative to holding a referendum.\nWe need an English Parliament\n- so that England can be recognised politically and constitutionally\n- to rebalance the Union!\n- to ensure the future existence of England\n- to ensure an equal voice in Westminster\n- to ensure an equal voice internationally\n- to ensure all citizens of the UK have equal representation and enfranchisement\n- to represent us when laws are imposed upon us\n- to ensure the accountability of MPs\n- to assure equality of funding\n- to assure equitable taxation\n- to allow us to control our own assets\n- to deliver government for England that is appropriate for England and of equal value to that of the rest of the UK\n- to support and protect English culture\n- to prevent the submersion of England into Britain and to separate an English identity from a British identity\n- to prevent conflict and to discourage discrimination on the grounds of nationhood.\n- because the people of England want it\n- because other proposals for England\u2019s future do not answer all the questions arising from the current imbalance.", "id": "<urn:uuid:839cd5b4-7429-4708-914b-de4134134cb3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thecep.org.uk/about/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9492718577384949, "token_count": 506, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Over 8,000 websites created by students around the world who have participated in a ThinkQuest Competition.\nCompete | FAQ | Contact Us\nThis concise introduction to the Internet covers the language of the online world : HTML, VRML Java, and CGI. Start with a history of the Internet and then learn about web style: what makes a web page readable, interactive, and worth looking at. The impressive selection of links take you to some of the leaders in web tool development.\nRahulThomas Jefferson High School For Science and Technology, Alexandria, VA, United States\nWrugRobinson Sec. School, Fairfax, VA, United States\n19 & under\nBasuki SinghAlcatel Data Network, Ashburn, VA, United States\nArun VedCentury Finance, Silver Spring, MD, United States\nComputers & the Internet > Programming\nComputers & the Internet > The Internet", "id": "<urn:uuid:db95364c-d969-468c-a247-883bc0145455>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thinkquest.org/pls/html/f?p=52300:100:1358208927471363::::P100_TEAM_ID:501568759", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7870191335678101, "token_count": 183, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1. Reduce our personal carbon footprint by 20 percent in the next year.\n2. Stop subsidizing fossil fuels.\n3. Mitigate politics and polarization.+\n4. Shift towards more vegetarian diets.\n5. Scientists better communicate the scientific facts underlying climate change.+\n6. Scientists and engineers develop cheap alternative energy sources to reduce dependence on fossil fuels.+\n7. Reduce waste water treatment costs.*\n8. Reduce costs to absorb CO2 from industrial activities.*\n9. Manage the timing, magnitude, and speed of reservoir drawdowns in order to mitigate methane releases to the atmosphere.^\n+ http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/591970/ ...\n* http://www.typicallyspanish.com/news/publish/ ...", "id": "<urn:uuid:ecdaa893-6065-4c28-8ac3-88c4ac418547>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.topix.net/forum/news/drought/TUGBRVERP7JUKITNE", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8008444905281067, "token_count": 163, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Information on Genital Herpes\nGeneral Information and Terminology\nThe herpes virus which causes both genital herpes and\ncold sores is the herpes simplex virus, abbreviated HSV.\nThere are two types of HSV: HSV-1 and HSV-2. Most oral (i.e,\ncold sores) and ocular infections are caused by HSV-1; most\ngenital infections are caused by HSV-2. However, either can\ncause infection anywhere on the body.\nThe other herpes viruses are the Epstein-Barr virus,\nwhich causes mononucleosis, and the varicella-zoster virus\nwhich causes chicken pox and shingles. Apparently shingles\nis an adult recurrence of chicken pox!\nIn addition, there is something ominous (and often\nfatal) called herpes encephalitis in which the herpes\nsimplex virus infects the brain and spinal cord. Genital and\npresumably oral, ocular, and other variants of herpes does\nNOT lead to herpes encephalitis.\nThe technical literature refers to infections as being\nprimary, initial, or recurrent. A primary infection is one\nwhere blood tests don't show antibodies for HSV-1 or HSV-2\nat the time that the infection is diagnosed; i.e., one has\nnot been previously exposed to the type of herpes for which\none will now be treated. An initial infection is one where\nno symptoms of infection have previously been noticed, but\nblood tests show antibodies for HSV-1 or HSV-2. A recurrent\ninfection is just that.\nWhat it's doing when it's doing it\n\"During a ... primary infection of either type 1 or\ntype 2, herpes simplex will multiply at the original site of\nskin exposure to cause the characteristic sores. Also, very\nearly in the course of the infection, some viruses will\nleave the sores to migrate up the sensory nerve that serves\nthe site of the sores. These viruses become inactive, or\nlatent, when they reach the nerve cell center, or ganglion.\nEven after the sores have healed, the virus remains in the\nganglia to form a permanent reservoir of infection.\" During\na recurrence, \"the virus becomes reactivated, probably\nreturns down the same nerve, and multiplies on the skin at\nor near the site of the original sore\". (5)\nSymptoms of a primary episode usually appear (if they\nappear) 2 to 20 days after exposure, and last an average of\n2 to 3 weeks. However, the first noticeable symptoms of\ninfection can also appear years after exposure.\n\"...Early symptoms can include a burning sensation,\npain in the legs, buttocks, or genital area, vaginal\ndischarge, or a feeling of pressure in the abdominal region.\nWithin a few days, sores (lesions) appear on the penis, on\nthe vulva or in the vagina, or around the anus. These small,\nred bumps, later develop into blisters or painful open\nsores. Over a period of days, the sores become crusted and\nSymptoms that often accompany a person's first\ninfection with herpes can include fever, headache, muscle\naches, painful or difficult urination, and swollen glands.\"\nGenerally, the first outbreak is the most severe and\nmost prolonged. Later outbreaks tend to be less severe, and\nthe intervals between recurrences tend to lengthen over\ntime. Sometimes there is no recurrence, but usually there\nReading between the lines, it would seem that most HSV\ninfections are asymptomatic. In one study of over 2,000\nindividuals only one-fourth of those with antibodies to HSV-\n2 had symptoms which by their own description seemed to the\nresearchers to be symptoms of herpes. In another group, 57%\nhad type 2 antibodies, but only 3% \"gave histories of any\nsyndrome compatible with genital herpes\". (4)\nTransmission - symptomatic and asymptomatic\nHerpes is definitely contagious from the time that the\nfirst symptoms of an outbreak occur (i.e., before the\nblisters appear) until the sores are completely healed. Once\nagain, the first outbreak is the most virulent; in\nrecurrences less virus is present in the sores.\n\"Herpes infections can be transmitted when any part of\nperson's body directly touches active herpes virus or sores\ncontaining active herpes simplex virus. Mucous membranes,\nsuch as those in the mouth or genital area, are very\nsusceptible to herpes invasion. Intact skin is usually\nresistant, but skin that is broken or damaged - for example\nby cuts, abrasions, burns, eczema, or infection - may easily\nbe infected by herpes simplex virus\" (5)\nAsymptomatic transmission is also possible, although\nthere doesn't seem to be any consensus about how common it\nis. Various statements on the subject are:\n\"Anywhere from 1 to 10 percent, depending on the\npopulation studied.\" (2)\n\"Three-fourths of source contacts known to patients\nwith documented primary infections gave no histories of\ngenital lesions at the time of contact.\" (4)\nAutoinoculation (spreading the infection from one part\nof ones own body to another part) is possible, though not\nlikely. Once again, it is most likely to occur during a\nWhen there is ANY sign of an outbreak, abstain. Any\nsigns means a suspicion of discomfort, not the appearance of\nsores. Abstain until the sores are healed and the scabs have\nWhile the virus is too large to pass through a condom,\nin \"real-life\" situations their protective value is\nuncertain.\" Possibly spermicidal jellies containing\nNonoxynol 9 have some deterrent effect. Oral acyclovir\nreduces virus shedding during an outbreak, and so may reduce\nrisk of transmission, but is not given as a prophylactic.\n(It's expensive, it hasn't yet been determined that it\nreduces shedding during asymptomatic phases, and the risks\nof long term use are not known).\nVaccines have been under development since the early\n80's (at least), but apparently it is extremely difficult to\ndevelop a vaccine against herpes which isn't excessively\nhard on whatever takes it. NO VACCINE IS CURRENTLY\nThe discomfort can be relieved to some extent by\nkeeping the infected area clean and dry, and by wearing\nloose fitting clothing. This may also help the sores to heal\nfaster. Obviously, avoid touching the sores, since they\ncontain active virus. Aspirin may provide symptomatic\nOral acyclovir reduces the severity and duration of\nprimary outbreaks, if taken early enough in the course of\nthe infection. Maintenance dosages reduce the frequency and\nduration of recurrences, but once treatment is stopped the\npreventative effect stops also. In recurrences, oral\nacyclovir reduces the duration of virus shedding, but has\nlittle effect on the symptoms.\nThe major hazard is to infants at the time of birth.\nAlso there is a danger of spontaneous abortion associated\nwith primary infections during pregnancy. Children delivered\nvaginally during the course of a herpes episode are at\nconsiderable risk (estimated 40 to 60 percent) of being\ninfected. Of the infected infants, more than half develop\nfatal diseases. In the presence of active infection, the\ninfant is generally delivered by C-section, which protects\nthe infant from infection. The infant cannot be infected\nthrough the mothers bloodstream.\nFor adults herpes (after the first outbreak) is\ngenerally more of a social catastrophe then a physical one,\nalthough infrequently adults are incapacitated by severe\nand/or frequent recurrences.\nHerpes is EXTREMELY common. Various statistics are:\n\"Affects an estimated 30 million Americans. Each year\nas many as 500,000 new cases are believed to occur.\" (1)\n\"The prevalence of HSV infections (Types 1 and 2) in\nthe general population is high. Estimates vary from 40 to\n100 percent based on random sampling of sera for HSV\n(1) The Search for Health. The National Institutes of\nHealth. Bethesda, Maryland. October, 1988\n(2) Herpes: Facts and Fallacies. American Journal of\nNursing. June, 1982\n(3) Oral Acyclovir for Treatment and Suppression of Genital\nHerpes Simplex Virus. Journal of the American Medical\nAssociation. April, 1986\n(4) Epidemiology of Genital Herpes Infections in the United\nStates - The Current Situation. Journal of Reproductive\nMedicine. May 1986.\n(5) Genital Herpes. U.S. Department of Health and Human\nServices. Sept. 1983.\nHerpes Resource Foundation. Provides information, therapy,\netc. Contact them at HELP, P.O. Box 100, Palo Alto, CA 94302\nor call (415) 328-7710 or (800) 227-8922.\nTechnical Information Services, Division of Sexually\nTransmitted Diseases, Center for Disease Control, Atlanta,\nGA, 30333. Written material available upon request.", "id": "<urn:uuid:42556eab-5b00-4ed8-a98e-a6cb129ce1e8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.totse2.com/totse/en/technology/science_technology/herpes_1.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9073209166526794, "token_count": 1993, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Taj Mahal stands on the bank of River Yamuna, which otherwise serves as a wide trench shielding the Great Red Fort of Agra, the centre of the Mughal Empire, until they moved their capital to Delhi in 1637. The Taj Mahal is one of the most beautiful masterpieces of architecture in the world. Agra, situated about 200 km south of New Delhi.\nTaj Mahal was under the Muslim Emperors who ruled Northern India between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Mughals were the descendents of two of the most skilled warriors in history, the Turks and the Mongols. The Mughal dynasty reached its highest strength and fame during the reign of their early Emperors, Akbar, Jehangir, and Shah Jehan.\nTaj Mahal Agra was built by the fifth Mughal emperor, Shah Jahan in 1631 in the remembrance of his second wife, Mumtaz Mahal, a Muslim Persian princess.\nShe passed while accompanying her husband in Behrampur in a campaign to crush an uprising, after giving birth to their 14th child. Her death firmed the emperor.\nWhen Mumtaz Mahal was alive, she requested the emperor, that he should build the Taj, should not marry again, be kind to their children and he should visit the tomb on her death anniversary. He kept the first and second promises.\nConstruction began in 1631 and was completed in 22 years. Twenty thousand people were positioned to work on it. It was designed by the Iranian architect Istad Usa and it is best appreciated when the architecture and its adornments are linked to the passion that inspired it.\nHaving buried her down at Behrampur, it was time to build a tomb there itself. It was virtually impossible to transfer all the marble there, as it would cost a fortune and a lifetime.\nSo, astoundingly her grave was uprooted and brought to Agra, be transferred to the monument, completed twenty two years later.\nThe architectural complex is comprised of five main elements: the Darwaza or main gateway, the Bageecha or garden, the Masjid or mosque, the Naqqar Khana or rest house, and the Rauza or the Taj Mahal mausoleum. The actual Tomb is situated inside the Taj.\nThe Taj rises on a high red sandstone base with a huge white marble terrace on which rests the dome flanked by four narrowing towers. Within the dome lies the jewel-inlaid cenotaph of the queen.\nMost impressive are the black and white chessboard marble floor, the four tall minarets at the corners of the structure, and the majestic dome in the middle. The impressive pietra dura artwork includes geometric elements, plants and flowers, mostly common in Islamic architecture\nThe only uneven object in the Taj is the chest of the emperor, which was built beside the queens, as a late addition.\nThe dome is made of white marble, and has a background that works its magic of colours through their reflection and transforms the view of the Taj.", "id": "<urn:uuid:53834901-df7b-4320-949b-434ed51d4d57>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.toursnorthindia.com/tour-to-taj-mahal/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9694685935974121, "token_count": 642, "score": 3.453125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "One of the big questions\u2014and there are many \u2014that occupy Killam Scholar and kinesiology researcher Walter Herzog is why a muscle generates more force after it is stretched than a muscle that has not changed length. At the heart of this question is the understanding of how our muscles work. If Herzog and his lab are correct, a new model may be needed.\nResearcher Tim Leonard is looking for answers. He\u2019s been part of Herzog\u2019s lab for most of his adult life. He started his undergraduate degree at the University of Calgary when he was 17. Since then, he\u2019s enjoyed a successful, productive and well-decorated academic career.\nLeonard is the only individual to win the Canadian Society of Biomechanics Award for his master\u2019s degree and for his PhD. He also won the Western Area Association of Grad Studies Award (an association of American and Canadian Universities from the prairies) and the University of Calgary\u2019s J.B. Hyne Research Innovation Award. These awards recognize innovative research as well as the innovative use of technology.\nTo study the question of stretched muscle force, Leonard had to devise a way to measure the contractile force of a single myofibril, the microscopic building blocks of our muscles. But how do you grab, stretch and measure the spring of something that is only a few microns long?\nThe challenge led Leonard to upstate New York and Cornell University, where he found the facilities necessary to construct his nanotechnology micro levers. \u201cIt\u2019s kind of one of these things you\u2019d see in a science fiction movie,\u201d says Leonard. \u201cYou've got people working in these super-clean rooms, dressed up in these puffy suits with slippers on their feet, and masks so they don\u2019t contaminate the air with their hair or skin cells.\u201d\nLeonard points out that he didn\u2019t invent the process he used to create his silicon-nitride cantilevers. The real genius was adapting the existing technology to fit his needs. \u201cI really just said, \u2018these should be what I need them to be\u2019 and for me it was really just a stepping stone to get to the actual science and so maybe that\u2019s what the awards were for.\u201d\nThe cantilevers are incredibly tiny and need to be stored and carried in a sealed case, since the force of wind created just by walking across the room would be enough to snap them instantly.\nOn the microscope slide, the levers become a powerful tool and helped to suggest that there is another actor at work in the stretched muscle contraction problem\u2014titin, the largest known natural protein.\nDespite its size, and the fact that we have a lot of it in our muscles, bio-mechanists aren't exactly sure what titin does. \u201cPeople have looked at it as a spring, or like a big Slinky, that helps keep the proteins lined up,\u201d say Leonard. \u201cBut over the last few years there\u2019s been evidence that titin is not just a passive molecular spring, but that it may actually contribute to active sources.\u201d\nLeonard thinks that titin could partially contribute to the increase in force in a stretched muscle. \u201cIf titin is actually producing a little bit of what we could call active force, that\u2019s quite novel.\u201d\n\u201cQuite novel\u201d is a polite way of saying that Leonard\u2019s award-winning research\u2014as part of Herzog\u2019s team\u2014will likely change or at least amend our understanding of how our muscles contract. \u201cI think we could argue that instead of muscle being a two-filament structure, that maybe there\u2019s a third filament, which is titin, and that titin plays a role that\u2019s not purely passive.\u201d\nUnderstanding the role that titin plays in active force production may one day further our understanding of how diseases like cerebral palsy can be more effectively treated, or how we can more effectively train our athletes to go faster, higher and stronger.", "id": "<urn:uuid:49ff3134-4146-4854-9270-4b49d71d67c9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.umag.ca/issue/spring-2012/article/clash-titin", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9694615006446838, "token_count": 859, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Prayer and Worship\n- Beliefs and Teachings\n- Issues and Action\n- Catholic Giving\n- About USCCB\nBy Jem Sullivan, Ph.D.\nWhat is your family\u2019s favorite meal? Is it a holiday recipe, a simple weeknight dinner, or a gourmet dessert treat?\nThe Second Vatican Council teaches that \u201cthe treasures of the Bible are to be opened more lavishly, so that richer fare may be provided for the faithful at the table of God\u2019s Word \u201c(Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, 51). Is the Bible a special table around which your family gathers, as if for a favorite meal?\nAs we consider ways to share the Old Testament in the family we discover that the Bible, whether prominently displayed or gathering dust on a shelf, offers rich spiritual nourishment for children, teenagers and adults in your home.\nIt is said that we live in the Age of Information. The information superhighway moves us through the high speed traffic of news conveyed through television, the Internet, blogs, and instant messaging. We may have instant and high speed access to information at our fingertips. But the search for human happiness and daily wisdom remains. What is the place of the Bible in this Information Age?\nThe Catechism tells us that, the books of the Old Testament \u201care a storehouse of sublime teaching on God and of sound wisdom on human life, as well as a wonderful treasury of prayers; in them, too, the mystery of our salvation is present in a hidden way.\u201d (CCC 122, quoting Dei Verbum 15)\nMuch of the Old Testament takes the form of stories. The way God teaches resounds with human imagination. Through the rich tapestry of biblical narratives we learn about God\u2019s love and fidelity in the face of human doubt, apathy and infidelity. In the drama of the biblical stories is reflected our own journeys of faith with our daily joys, struggles, and hopes.\nOld Testament stories are especially compelling for young children who, with their natural capacity for awe and wonder, marvel at the unfolding of God\u2019s saving action and living presence in the world. Biblical stories that reveal weakness and sin are opportunities to discuss, at age appropriate levels, our humanness in light of God\u2019s love and mercy. Through the biblical range of human experiences we learn God\u2019s ways and our response of faith.\nTo bring the Old Testament to life, assign family members to gather artistic images that depict biblical stories and themes. Let the painting, sculpture, stained glass, or piece of sacred music serve as a discussion starter for family reflection on God\u2019s word expressed in artistic forms.\nThe Psalms are a rich storehouse of prayers. In spite of overloaded family schedules taking brief moments to pray together the Liturgy of the Hours, whether Morning or Evening Prayer, connects your home to the Church\u2019s rhythm of praise, thanksgiving and intercession. Handy Catholic resources now available make daily praying of Morning and Evening Prayer simple and sustainable.\nFinally, lectio divina is another practical way to feast on the Old Testament in your home. This ancient Christian practice is being recovered in our time and strongly encouraged during the 2008 Bishops Synod on the Word of God and in Pope Benedict\u2019s Exhortation following the Synod. Through the steps of lectio divina - reading, meditation, prayer and contemplation - the wisdom of the Old Testament can bear rich fruit in your home and may even become your family\u2019s favorite spiritual food.\n- - -\nJem Sullivan, Ph.D., serves as staff to the USCCB Secretariat of Evangelization and Catechesis. She is the author of a Study Guide to the United States Adult Catholic Catechism and The Beauty of Faith: Christian Art and the Gospel published by Our Sunday Visitor, and writes on a variety of catechetical themes.\nBy accepting this message, you will be leaving the website of the\nUnited States Conference of Catholic Bishops. This link is provided\nsolely for the user's convenience. By providing this link, the United\nStates Conference of Catholic Bishops assumes no responsibility for,\nnor does it necessarily endorse, the website, its content, or", "id": "<urn:uuid:18e1ddb2-2f56-44c7-a492-4f79ccf0758e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.usccb.org/bible/understanding-the-bible/study-materials/articles/a-spiritual-feast-for-your-home-how-catholics-can-use-the-old-testament-in-the-family.cfm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9007465243339539, "token_count": 885, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Farmers in Wisconsin are constantly looking for ways to improve profitability and productivity of their farming systems while still protecting soil and water resources. Cover crops are one tool that can provide a wealth of benefits into our Wisconsin crop rotations. Cover crops can enhance soil quality by increasing soil organic matter, stimulating greater soil biological activity, reducing soil erosion and utilizing extra soil nutrients.\nThe University of Wisconsin - Discovery Farms Program has monitored on-farm water quality from crop fields since 2001. Data from several farms across the state show that a significant amount of annual nitrogen, phosphorus, and sediment losses occur either before vegetative canopy in the spring or in the fall after crop harvest. Cover crops can provide protection for the soil during critical times when cropland is more vulnerable to nutrient and sediment losses.\nBelow are factsheets and helpful resources when trying to decide how and when cover crops may fit into your management system.\nVideo courtesy of Sand County Foundation's YouTube page.\nMichigan State University's Cover Crops Education Page\nMidwest Cover Crops Council\nFrost Seeding Clover into Winter Wheat - Published by University of Wisconsin\nWinter Rye after Corn Silage - Published by University of Wisconsin\nAlso find articles of interest on cover crops in the following newsletters: January and May 2010, June 2009", "id": "<urn:uuid:7ad2660e-8017-4842-9035-548dc1a8d94a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.uwdiscoveryfarms.org/OurResearch/CroppingSystemsManagement/CoverCrops.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9276159405708313, "token_count": 258, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "SARASOTA, Fla. (AP) - A large red tide bloom that's about 12 miles long and six miles wide is lingering off the Charlotte-Sarasota County coastline and killing fish.\nThe Herald-Tribune (http://bit.ly/Pcv7WP) reports that September and October are the most common months for red tide blooms which are caused by toxic algae.\nArea hotel owners and tourism officials are hopeful that the problem won't worsen or spread.\nThe red tide effects are limited to southern Sarasota and Charlotte counties. No dead fish or bad air quality were reported on beaches north of Venice.\nRed tide naturally occurs in the Gulf of Mexico. The bloom is deadly for fish, marine mammals, sea turtles and other sea life.\nThe toxins also can become airborne and cause breathing problems for people with asthma or other respiratory diseases.\n(Copyright 2012 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:1605a294-3ef0-4921-a9b1-fa98089a261f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.winknews.com/Local-Florida/2012-10-04/Red-tide-spotted-in-Charlotte-Sarasota-counties", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9353008270263672, "token_count": 203, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "First we have the monarch\nbutterflies. These incredible creatures spend their summer\ndays in the northern parts and then migrate (leaving for another\nplace) to the south for the winter. They travel thousands of\nmiles - some almost 2900 km from Canada to Mexico. Just\nlooking at a map, you can see how far Canada is from Mexico, but\nthese little butterflies fly all the way to protect themselves\nfrom the cold winters. Traveling so much certainly does tire\nthem out, which is why some of them cannot make a return trip.\nThese butterflies have never been to these foreign places, but\nthey still make the trip successfully. How do they do it?\nA map showing the\nmonarch butterfly migration.\nThey travel from Canada to Mexico.\nThen there are the Green sea turtles\n(or the scientific term is chelonia mydas) who swim for months and\nmonths in the east direction to migrate from a sea in Brazil in South America\nto an island called Ascension Island, which is about 3200 km away.\nApparently these turtles were hatched on this island, and after they\ngrow up in South America, they return to their birthplace, the\nAscension Island, to hatch their own eggs.\nAnother example is that of some crabs\nthat are willing to walk about 240 km from deep water to shallow\nwater, just to lay their eggs.\nThese creatures have some kind of inborn\ncompass or instinct that tells them where to go and at\nwhat is the right time for migration. No one has taught them this, most\nof them have never been to the new place, but they still manage to\nmigrate safely. Scientists till today, cannot give good, complete\nexplanations for these migrations. It probably is just one of\nnature's powers and mysteries.....", "id": "<urn:uuid:dbcddb3e-9989-4206-871b-4ac752667ccb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wisedude.com/animals/animal_migration.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697380733/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516094300-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9621513485908508, "token_count": 381, "score": 3.65625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Health & Medicine - Overview\nThe Museum's collections of medical science artifacts represent nearly all aspects of health and medical practice. Highlights include early X-ray apparatuses, such as one of Wilhelm Roentgen's tubes, penicillin mold from Alexander Fleming\u2019s experiments, and Jonas Salk's original polio vaccine. More recent acquisitions include the first artificial heart implanted in a human, the earliest genetically engineered drugs, and materials related to David, the \"Bubble Boy.\" Other artifacts range from artificial limbs and implant devices to bloodletting and dental instruments, beauty products, and veterinary equipment. The contents of a medieval apothecary shop and an 1890s drugstore form part of the collections, along with patent and alternative medicines. The collections also document the many differing perspectives on health and medical issues, from patients, family members, doctors, nurses, medical students, and out-of-the-mainstream health practitioners.", "id": "<urn:uuid:15acca4c-0b01-4ed9-883a-d95ecdfbfe00>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object-groups/health-medicine?ogmt_page=overview&edan_start=0&edan_fq=name%253A%2522Abbott+Laboratories%2522", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9067660570144653, "token_count": 190, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Dr. Judy Theriot and the others at University of Louisville Pediatrics are busy.\n\"A lot of kids with the flu,\" she said. \"A lot of kids with other respiratory viruses.\"\nSo with up and down, roller coaster weather - record warm weather early in the week and then a 40-degree drop in 24 hours - you'd think they'd be expecting business to pick up as more people come down with illness. Dr. Theriot said you'd think wrong.\n\"It has nothing to do with how cold or hot it is or the changes or fluctuation in temperature,\" she said.\nDr. Theriot said you get colds and the flu because of viruses and viruses have nothing to do with the weather. They're spread through people.\n\"They cough in your face,\" she said. \"You're around them in closed spaces or you touch infected objects.\"\nSo why does the myth of winter colds persist? Dr. Theriot said it's all because of our environment. We're not outside as much, so we have more chances to spread our illnesses.\n\"They kind of cycle around the world and people catch rhinovirus more in the wintertime but again, it might be from our habits too,\" she said.\nMom and dad were right about a couple of things: wash your hands and get your flu shot. Dr. Theriot said that really will keep you from getting sick no matter the weather!", "id": "<urn:uuid:b961b626-36f3-4609-9112-653f3b0dc171>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://arkansasmatters.com/dr-david-fulltext/?nxd_id=634782", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9853004813194275, "token_count": 296, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Michael Cruz is a great example of someone that has fully embraced the benefits of putting technology to use in a classroom setting. For five years, he taught courses at San Jose State University\u2019s College of Business ranging from web marketing to entrepreneurship. He now focuses on technology and productivity.\n| Name: Michael Cruz\nEvernote is a great application for educators. It\u2019s usefulness can range from planning a course to delivering a lesson plan to capturing feedback after class. I experimented with using Evernote while I was teaching courses at San Jose State University. It proved to be an excellent classroom companion. Here are some ways to use Evernote to achieve your teaching goals.\nAs a teacher, my Evernote use falls into three categories:\n- Prior to class\n- During class\n- After class\nPrior to class\n- Plan and organize your classes with tags: Using tags is a great way to organize your classes on a week-to-week basis or on a class-by-class basis. For example, if you know that there is certain content that has to be taught during the second week of the school year, then for all related content you can use the tag \u201cweek 2\u2033. Once you\u2019ve created this system you can keep adding additional items throughout the year.\n- Standards database: Compile standards of achievements for your particular grade or subject. You can even share them with teachers, parents, administrators and students using Evernote\u2019s sharing features.\n- Professional development: If you use the summer break or vacations to improve your skills or continue your education, keep all your notes, resources, lessons and new ideas learned in Evernote. This also works well for teacher in-services, conferences, workshops and seminars that you attend.\n- Classroom templates: Templates are a great way to save time when grading and assessing your students. If you use templates such as grade sheets or student assessment forms, keep them in Evernote so you have them at your fingertips throughout the year.\n- Prepare for your absence: Use Evernote\u2019s shared notebooks as a way to keep your class up and running even if you aren\u2019t there. Evernote makes it easy to share a notebook with the substitute teacher. Consider sharing lesson plans, worksheets, answer keys and examples of completed work. This can ensure your class keeps moving even if you aren\u2019t there.\n- Share a notebook with your class: After you create a public notebook, share the URL with your class. This way anything you add can be viewed by your students (or their parents). Here\u2019s an example of a public notebook that I created for an entrepreneurship class.\n- Whiteboard photos: Taking snapshots of the whiteboard is a favorite use of mine. Take photographs of the whiteboard before the start of the class, and again at the end. This gives you an accurate time stamped snapshot of what you were working on, on any given date. You can title or tag each photo based on the lecture number to make searching for specific photos easier. Also, you can share the photos with students that miss a class, so that they have the day\u2019s notes.\n- Keep handouts handy: Keep all of the handouts, worksheets, templates, study guides and assignments that you frequently use in Evernote, where they are easily searchable and accessible.\n- Simplify grading: Scan graded tests, including scantrons and add them to Evernote. You can then enter them into your preferred grade-book or spreadsheet when you have time. This is also great if you have a teacher\u2019s assistant. You can share the notebook with them and have them help with the grading process.\n- Keep your extracurriculars in order: If you participate in any committees or coach a team, you can use Evernote to keep track of all the different research, notes and information associated with it. Again, shared notebooks are a great way to keep your committee on the same page and makes for an easy way to share collective knowledge about a project.\nTo get more productivity tips for teachers you can visit my website http://www.michaelcruz.com and sign up for my e-mail list.\nEvernote Education Series\n- Evernote at School: The Montclair Kimberley Academy\u2019s 1:1 Program, plus Q&A Webinar\n- How Evernote helped me through college\n- 10 Evernote Tips for School\n- How my students started using Evernote\nJoin the discussion about Evernote for Schools on our forum. Learn from educators and share your own experiences, best practices and tips.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ebc2c221-8dd2-4679-b2e0-a5e7a1c58f7b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.evernote.com/blog/2011/01/13/10-tips-for-teachers-using-evernote-education-series/comment-page-3/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9242103695869446, "token_count": 970, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "During the last decade the tile industry has reinvented the way ceramic tiles are decorated. With the advent of inkjet technology being incorporated into this process there is no longer a need for screen or roller printing methods, freeing the industry up to many different opportunities. As with screen and roller printing, the image of the design is first scanned, then modified on a computer. However, by utilizing the key advantages of digital imaging the design can be almost instantly transferred to the inkjet printing machine, which is fully equipped with the essential inks to print any design with any desired color.\nThe non-impact technology that the inkjet printer utilizes enables manufactures to decorate any type of tile, including relief tile, just as easy as traditional flat tile. This is done by using a print style called Drop on Demand (DoD) and by utilizing a special type of printing device called a piezoelectric printhead. These let the printer create an identical picture of the digital image by propelling tiny drops of ink (measured in picoliters) onto the tile. Because the inkjet machines fit perfectly into the manufacturing process, it is no wonder how they improve efficiency, yet allow for a higher degree of customization by allowing virtually an infinite possibility of design.\nWhat We Used Before\nIn the not too distant past the entire ceramic tile industry were slaves to screen and roller printing. While not bad, technology has since proven these methods to be rather inefficient. Not only are they more time consuming, but they can produce large amounts of waste.\nA key benefit of the inkjet printer is not just the fact that you can load an image of almost unlimited length, but at any time during the printing process you can change that image instantaneously. With the older methods your design capability is more limited, and changing designs can prove to be time consuming and expensive. The biggest hindrance of the older methods is that the production line needs to briefly stop while the design is applied to the tile. Because inkjet printing allows a seamless application of the image, it can speed up the production rate up to five times!\nYou must also consider the green benefit for embracing this new technology. Besides the screen and roller printers taking longer, they must also be replaced from time to time. You must also replace the film, adhesives, chemicals, and emulsion from the process as well, creating an unnecessary amount of waste.\nSimply put, an inkjet printer reproduces a digital image by propelling a continuous stream of ink droplets onto the tile. With virtually no setup time, this shortens the period from idea to product immensely. As mentioned earlier, this allows relief tile, as well as fragile tile, to be decorated without any additional effort other than programming in the design.\nAlthough standard inkjet printers are only equipped with enough memory to decorate about 30 12\u00d712 ceramic tiles, like most computers additional memory can be added to create a virtually limitless possibility of unique designs. Factor in the ability to easily adjust to any size and texture and it\u2019s easy to see how inkjet technology is revolutionizing the ceramic tile industry.\nAnother key factor is that all of your design information can be stored digitally. This allows the manufacturer to reproduce any image with a push of a button, with alterations to the design or size easily changeable.\nIn today\u2019s market the demand for stone tile is declining as it is now so simple to replicate these images, despite the fact they inherently fluctuate in their design. Not only do you get the same aesthetic cosmetic design, but because the engineered stone is actually technical porcelain it is not only stronger and more durable, but it is much easier on the environment.\nProducts such as StonePeak\u2019s Limestone Ebony combine the subtle beauty of a soft hue with the uniqueness of the limestone\u2019s design. By using engineered stones you not only receive the green benefits of manufacturing the tile instead of cutting it from a quarry, but Limestone Ebony contains 84% recycled material. Combine this with superior strength of porcelain and a through-body color you have an eco-friendly tile that will look spectacular for a lifetime.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a293b736-6e9b-47e1-a1c7-1a76c75d5763>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.stonepeakceramics.com/?p=677", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9364251494407654, "token_count": 847, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Invasion of Kuwait\nReasons for Invasion\nDespite close foreign relations during the Iran-Iraq War, the relationship between Iraq and Kuwait quickly deteriorated after the war. This happened for a number of reasons, many of which can be attributed to blunders and miscalculations by Saddam Hussein.\nKuwait loaned Iraq $8.2 billion during the Iran-Iraq war, a sum that Hussein did not think he would be expected to repay. When Kuwait refused to pardon the debt, the friendship between the two countries began to strain.\nMiscommunication with the United States\nOn July 25, 1990, the Iraqi High Command met with the U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, April Glaspie, to discuss the military activity of Iraq. In this meeting Glaspie stated that \"we have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait.\"\nOn the 2nd of August 1990, the Iraqi military invaded Kuwait. Kuwaiti forces resisted, but were quickly over-whelmed. In the air, Kuwaiti Mirage F1 and A-4 Skyhawk pilots claimed to have shot down several Iraqi helicopters, but none of these claims have been confirmed. Following five weeks of aerial bombardment from US and allied warplanes on targets in Iraq and Kuwait, a 4 day ground war started on 23 February 1991, and Kuwait was liberated.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6403dccf-a2c2-425d-993c-f6e88cef4922>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://conservapedia.com/Invasion_of_Kuwait", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9622819423675537, "token_count": 275, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\u2022 Whiteboard and whiteboard marker\n\u2022 Post it notes\n\u2022 Cut outs, print our characters and make body parts moveable\n\u2022 Foams letters or magnetic letters (Great for title sequence to add some interest)\n\u2022 Roll out modelling clay and use cookie cutters\n\u2022 Modelling clay (Make shapes or characters)\n\u2022 Toys eg. Legos, action figures\n\u2022 Objects eg. Stationery, cutlery, buttons, paddle pop sticks\n\u2022 Create a set out of a box.\n\u2022 Document change: Set the camera to take photos in intervals and document change eg. The sky, a plant growing etc.\nStudents have fabulous ideas and the best intentions, unfortunately their abilities can restrict the production of these ideas. Modelling clay characters can be difficult. I found these great people and bird add on pieces to push into clay. They make fabulous creatures without needing any modelling skills (and they are fun to make).\nHere are some scaffolding activities I use as an introduction to build confidence:\n\u2022 With a whiteboard, create the illusion of writing your name with your finger.\n\u2022 Make a piece of paper fold up and then unfold by itself. (Done by reversing slides)\n\u2022 Make buttons follow each other in a line\nHere are some ideas for animations:\n\u2022 Convert a fairytale, fable or nursery rhyme.\n\u2022 Adapt a movie story line\n\u2022 Create a Music Film clip\n\u2022 Convey a message \u2018Save the Environment'\n\u2022 Re-write history\n\u2022 Create characters from a novel students are reading\nHere are a few You Tube videos I like to show students to give provide inspiration:\nThe Animals Save the Planet - Energy Efficient Penguin\n(There are many others in this series)\nThere was a Time\nDeadline - Post it Stop Motion\nPing Pong Ball Stop Motion", "id": "<urn:uuid:b557fc75-bb65-4034-9b0a-f9963b693713>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://digitaltoolsforteachers.blogspot.com/2011/04/ideas-for-stop-motion-animation.html?showComment=1302312243289", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8711296319961548, "token_count": 379, "score": 3.8125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Unlike some of their American cousins, European cicadas make their appearance annually rather than once every thirteen or seventeen years. This means they are part of the fabric of rural life instead of an occasional noteworthy or horrendous occurrence. Perhaps nowhere are they more loved than in the south of France, in the area known as Provence.\nIf the rooster, or coq, to use his French title, is the animal kingdom member who is officially symbolic of France, then the cicada, or cigale, is the symbol of Provence. Jean de LaFountaine immortalized him in his \"Fables\". Most English-language fable collections carry the story of the Ants and the Grasshopper but in the French \"Fables de LaFountaine\" it is le cigale who passes the glorious days of summer in song.\nThe cigale is a creature of summertime. Appearing near the end of June in Provence, he is never heard after mid-September. His song (and only the males are heard) may sound monotonous to the uninitiated, but the strident rasp of this tiny lyrist is varied according to the circumstances. Like most male singing, it is a sexual call, sometimes reaching around 160 decibels. As a song of love it is languorous and deep. Alarmed, it becomes raucous and short. To hear this version, carefully catch a cigale and turn him over on his back. Stroke his belly with a blade of grass or a broom straw and he will immediately began to give voice.\n\u201dVoice\u201d is perhaps the wrong word to use, as no larynx action is involved. When you have a male on his back as described above, you can actually see the vibrations of the lower chest. This is not sound-producing but sound-modifying; the actual sound is produced in the hollow stomach of the male. It has been compared to the hollow interior of a guitar. The sound itself is produced by the rapid retraction (from 300 to 900 times a second) of a muscle on each side of the \"music box\". Below 22 degrees Centigrade, the resounding sections of this \"music box\" lose their elasticity. For this reason the males are silent during rain or after sundown.\nWhat is interesting about this strident creature is that it is completely deaf, having no tympanic features, i.e. no ears. It depends on its eyes to alert itself to the approach of enemies. If you walk into its field of vision it will immediately fall silent. And it has a very large field of vision : It has a pair of huge eyes with 14,000 facets as well as three small stemmed eyes on the top of its head. Males and females are alike in this respect, which leads to the assumption that the mating call is recognized by vibration in the atmosphere rather than by sound itself.\nRegardless of how the two sexes find each other, they do, and procreation is abundant. Each female lays between 300 and 400 eggs, depositing them in the dry twig of almost any type of plant after cutting a slit in the bark with a drill, or \"rostre\" carried on its lower body. Ten eggs are laid at each site.\nThe female dies soon after this, but the larvae later appear at the same slit in the bark by which the eggs were introduced. After tearing its protective envelope, each individual larva remains suspended until it dries in the sun and takes on a protective hardening of its exterior. It then drops to the ground and burrows into the soil. It will spend four years underground, digging long tunnels in search of roots, from which it sucks sap as nourishment. Both larvae and adults live exclusively on sap of various plants, which is extracted by means of a facial appendage resembling a large soda straw, functioning very much like a syringe.\nThe larvae undergo several metamorphisms during their time underground. In cold weather they curl up and remain dormant, in hot weather they grow bigger. At this point they are still blind. Finally, one fine day in June, they emerge, cling to small twigs while shedding the grub form, and wait for their wings to dry before starting an adult life of several weeks.\nFor the entomologist the cicada is a homopterous insect, having four transparent or nearly-transparent wings. The French say that these wings form a \"roof\" over the insect when they are folded in rest. The French also say (and I don\u2019t know if this is true or not) that cicadas of Provence are the only ones in the world who do not damage the plants they use for nourishment and egg-laying.\nAs said earlier, the people of Provence are very fond of their cigales. You will often see glazed orange, cream and black ceramic reproductions of the insect, many times life size, attached to the exterior walls of homes. I have several enameled lapel pins in the form of a cigale; unfortunately, outside of Provence, friends ask me why I have a cockroach on my jacket.\nPerhaps the true charm of the cigale is that it symbolizes summertime and the people of Provence are people of the sun. After a winter of blustery mistral, the wind that blows incessantly from the north-northwest, after perhaps a December with frost on the ground in the early mornings, perhaps even a January with one or two days of snow, what could be better than to spend a drowsy afternoon in July or August under a spreading plane tree, with the air around you hot and dry, vibrating with the melody of the cigales?", "id": "<urn:uuid:152da8ca-e458-4f93-9140-7d7f572b7cfc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://everything2.com/title/cicadas+in+Provence", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9678670167922974, "token_count": 1189, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is Geography?While the word geography is derived from Greek and literally means \"to write about the earth,\" the subject of geography is much more than describing \"foreign\" places or memorizing the names of capitals and countries. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks to understand the world - its human and physical features - through an understanding of place and location. Geographers study where things are and how they got there. My favorite definitions for geography are \"the bridge between the human and physical sciences\" and \"the mother of all sciences.\" Geography looks at the spatial connection between people, places, and the earth.\nHow is Geography Different from Geology?Many people have an idea of what a geologist does but don't have any idea of what a geographer does. While geography is commonly divided into human geography and physical geography, the difference between physical geography and geology is often confusing. Geographers tend to study the surface of the earth, its landscapes, its features, and why they are where they are. Geologists look deeper into the earth than do geographers and study its rocks, the internal processes of the earth (such as plate tectonics and volcanoes), and study periods of earth history many millions and even billions of years ago.\nHow Does One Become a Geographer?An undergraduate (college or university) education in geography is an important beginning to becoming a geographer. With a bachelor's degree in geography, a geography student can begin working in a variety of fields. While many students begin their career after achieving an undergraduate education, others continue on.\nA master's degree in geography is very helpful for the student who desires to teach at the high school or community college level, to be a cartographer or GIS specialist, of work in business or government.\nA doctorate in geography (Ph.D.) is necessary if one wishes to become a full professor at a university. Although, many Ph.D.s in geography continue on to form consulting firms, become administrators in government agencies, or attain high-level research positions in corporations or think-tanks.\nThe best resource for learning about colleges and universities that offer degrees in geography is the annual publication of the Association of American Geographers, the Guide to Programs in Geography in the United States and Canada.\nWhat Does a Geographer Do?Unfortunately, the job title of \"geographer\" is not often found in companies or government agencies (with the most notable exception of the U.S. Census Bureau). However, more and more companies are recognizing the skill that a geographically-trained individual brings to the table. You'll find many geographers working as planners, cartographers (map makers), GIS specialists, analysis, scientists, researchers, and many other positions. You'll also find many geographers working as instructors, professors, and researchers at schools, colleges, and universities.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7cd8e5b4-3698-4b97-b6f0-1812dc8755fe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://geography.about.com/od/studygeography/a/allaboutgeograp.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.96944659948349, "token_count": 589, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "According to the recently released annual survey by the Apiary Inspectors of America (AIA) and the Agricultural Research Service (ARS), more than a third of U.S. managed honeybee colonies\u2014those set up for intensified pollination of commercial crops\u2014failed to survive this past winter. Since 2006, the decline of the U.S.\u2019s estimated 2.4 million beehives\u2014commonly referred to as colony collapse disorder (CCD)\u2014has led to the disappearance of hundreds of thousands of colonies: Hives are found empty with honey, larvae, and the queen intact, but with no bees and no trail left behind. The cause remains unknown, but appears to be a combination of factors impacting bee health and increasing their susceptibility to disease. Heavy losses associated with CCD have been found mainly with larger migratory commercial beekeepers, some of whom have lost 50-90 percent of their colonies.\nA \u201ckeystone\u201d species\u2014one that has a disproportionate effect on the environment relative to its biomass\u2014bees are our key to global food security and a critical part of the food chain. Flowering plants that produce our food depend on insects for pollination. There are other pollinators\u2014butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and birds\u2014but the honeybee is the most effective, pollinating over 100 commercial crops nationwide, including most fruit, vegetables, and nuts, as well as alfalfa for cattle feed and cotton, with a value estimated between $15-$20 billion annually. As much as one of every three bites of food we eat comes from food pollinated by insects. Without honeybees, our diet would be mostly meatless, consisting of rice and cereals, and we would have no cotton for textiles. The entire ecosystem and the global food economy potentially rests on their wings.\nExperts now believe bees are heading for extinction and are racing to pinpoint the culprit, increasingly blaming pesticide usage. U.S. researchers have reported finding 121 different pesticides in samples of bees, wax, and pollen. New parasites, pathogens, fungi, and poor nutrition stemming from intensive farming methods are also part of the equation. Three years ago, U.S. scientists unraveled the genetic code of the honeybee and uncovered the DNA of a virus transmitted by the Varroa mite\u2014Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV)\u2014found in almost all of the hives impacted by CCD. Researchers have also found the fungus Nosema ceranae and other pathogens such as chalkbrood in some affected hives throughout the country. Other reported theories include the effects of shifting spring blooms and earlier nectar flow associated with broader global climate and temperature changes, the effects of feed supplements from genetically modified crops, such as high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS), and the effects of cell phone transmissions and radiation from power lines that may be interfering with a bee\u2019s navigational capabilities. (Last year, a study revealed that a contaminant from heat-exposed HFCS might be killing off the bees.) However, according to a recent congressional report on CCD, contributions of these possible factors have not been substantiated.\nThe industrial bee business and the demands of intensified food production could also be playing a role in the bees\u2019 demise. Widespread migratory stress brought about by increased needs for pollination could be weakening the bees\u2019 immune systems. Most pollination services are provided by commercial migratory beekeepers who travel from state to state and provide pollination services to crop producers. These operations are able to supply a large number of bee colonies during the critical phase of a crop\u2019s bloom cycle, when bees pollinate as they collect nectar. A hive might make five cross-country truck trips each year, chasing crops, and some beekeepers can lose up to 10 percent of their queens during one cross country trip. Bees are overworked and stressed out.\nCalifornia\u2019s almond crop is a prime example of our reliance on bees\u2019 industriousness for our agriculture success. The state grows 80 percent of the world\u2019s almonds, making it our largest agricultural export and bringing in a whopping $1.9 billion last year. The crop\u2014with nearly 740,000 acres of almond trees planted\u2014uses 1.3 million colonies of bees, approximately one half of all bees in the U.S., and is projected to grow to 1.5 million colonies. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is now predicting that Central Valley almond growers will produce about 1.53 billion pounds of almonds this year, up 8.5 percent last year. To meet the demand, bee colonies are trucked farther and more often than ever before and demand for bees has dramatically outstripped supply. Bee colonies, which a decade ago rented for $60, cost as much as $170 this February in California.\nFew organic beekeepers have reported bee losses, suggesting that natural and organic bee keeping methods may be the solution. In addition, organic farmers who maintain wildlife habitat around their farms are helping to encourage bees to pollinate their crops. \u201cThe main difference between our farm and our conventional neighbors is the amount of wildlife and insect habitat that we have around the edge of our farm,\u201d said Greg Massa, who manages Massa Organics, a fourth generation 90-acre certified organic rice farm near Chico. Massa started growing organic almonds six years ago, and works with a small, organic beekeeper in Oregon who brings in 30 hives to his farm. Massa\u2019s farm has a large wildlife corridor which has been revegetated with native plants and covered in mustard, wild radish, and vetch, a favorite of bees and also a good nitrogen source for his rice crop.\nTime might be running out for the bees, but there are simple actions we can take to make a difference. First, support organic farmers who don\u2019t use pesticides and whose growing methods work in harmony with the natural life of bees. In particular, buy organic almonds. Don\u2019t use pesticides in your home garden, especially at mid-day when bees most likely forage for nectar. You can also plant good nectar sources such as red clover, foxglove, bee balm, and other native plants to encourage bees to pollinate your garden. Provide clean water; even a simple bowl of water is beneficial. Buy local honey; it keeps small, diversified beekeepers in business, and beekeepers keep honeybees thriving. In addition, you can start keeping bees yourself. Backyard and urban beekeeping can actively help bring back our bees. Finally, you can work to preserve more open cropland and rangeland. Let\u2019s use our political voices to support smart land use, the impact of which will not only result in cleaner water, soil, and air, but also just might help save the humble honeybee.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9eea883c-e934-4f89-be93-372eec44d8ad>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://insidescoopsf.sfgate.com/blog/2010/05/21/beeline-to-extinction/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9528538584709167, "token_count": 1412, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to treat pain, fever, and inflammation. Traditional NSAIDs block COX-1 and COX-2 enzymes that the body uses to manufacture substances called prostaglandins. Since COX-1 prostaglandins are stomach-protective, blocking this enzyme is associated with gastrointestinal toxicity, a known side effect of these drugs. Newer NSAIDs (called COX-2 inhibitors) block primarily COX-2 prostaglandins associated with pain, fever, and inflammation, and might be less risky to the stomach. However, this is not proven, and some COX-2s have been taken off the market due to excess risk of heart attacks attributable to their use. Drugs in this family include:\n- Aspirin, alternatively called acetylsalicylic acid or ASA (Adprin-B, Anacin, Arthritis Foundation Aspirin, Ascriptin, Aspergum, Asprimox, Bayer, BC, Bufferin, Buffex, Cama, Cope, Easprin, Ecotrin, Empirin, Equagesic, Fiorinal, Fiorital, Halfprin, Heartline, Genprin, Lanorinal, Magnaprin, Measurin, Micrainin, Momentum, Norwich, St. Joseph, Zorprin)\n- Celecoxib (Celebrex)\n- Choline salicylate (Arthropan)\n- Choline salicylate/magnesium salicylate (Tricosal, Trilisate)\n- Diclofenac potassium (Cataflam, Voltaren Rapide)\n- Diclofenac sodium (Arthrotec, Voltaren, Voltaren SR, Voltaren-XR)\n- Diclofenac sodium/misoprostol (Arthrotec)\n- Diflunisal (Dolobid)\n- Etodolac (Lodine, Lodine XL)\n- Fenoprofen calcium (Nalfon)\n- Flurbiprofen (Ansaid)\n- Ibuprofen (Advil, Arthritis Foundation Ibuprofen, Bayer Select Ibuprofen, Dynafed IB, Genpril, Haltran, IBU, Ibuprin, Ibuprohm, Menadol, Midol IB, Motrin, Nuprin, Saleto)\n- Indomethacin (Indochron E-R, Indocin, Indocin SR, Indomethacin, Indomethacin SR, Novo-Methacin)\n- Ketoprofen (Actron, Orudis, Orudis KT, Oruvail)\n- Ketorolac tromethamine (Toradol)\n- Magnesium salicylate (Doan's, Magan, Mobidin, Backache Maximum Strength Relief, Bayer Select Maximum Strength Backache, Momentum Muscular Backache Formula, Nuprin Backache, Mobigesic, Magsal)\n- Meclofenamate sodium (Mecolfen, Meclomen)\n- Mefenamic acid (Ponstan, Ponstel)\n- Nabumetone (Relafen)\n- Naproxen (EC-Naprosyn, Napron X, Naprosyn)\n- Naproxen sodium (Aleve, Anaprox, Anaprox DS, Naprelan)\n- Oxaprozin (Daypro)\n- Piroxicam (Feldene)\n- Salsalate or salicylic acid (Amigesic, Argesic-SA, Arthra-G, Disalcid, Marthritic, Mono-Gesic, Salflex, Salgesic, Salsitab)\n- Sodium salicylate (Pabalate)\n- Sodium thiosalicylate (Rexolate)\n- Sulfasalazine (Azulfidine EN-tabs, Salazopyrin, SAS-500)\n- Sulindac (Clinoril)\n- Tolmetin sodium (Tolectin, Tolectin DS)\n- and others\nBesides reducing pain and inflammation, aspirin and, to a lesser extent, other NSAIDs interfere with cells in the blood called platelets, which facilitate clotting.\nArginine is an amino acid found in many foods, including dairy products, meat, poultry, and fish. Supplemental arginine has been proposed as a treatment for various conditions, including heart problems.\nArginine has been found to stimulate the body's production of gastrin, a hormone that increases stomach acid.\nBecause excessive acid can irritate the stomach, there are concerns that arginine could be harmful for individuals taking drugs that are also hard on the stomach (such as NSAIDs).\nIt may be best not to mix arginine with NSAIDs unless approved by your doctor.\nThe herb feverfew\nis primarily used for the prevention and treatment of migraine headaches.\nNSAIDs are also used for migraines, so there is a chance that some individuals might use both the herb and drug at once, a combination that may present risks.\nThe biggest concern with NSAIDs is that they can cause stomach ulcers, which may progress to bleeding or perforation without pain or other warning symptoms. This stomach damage is due to drug interference with the body's protective prostaglandins. Newer NSAIDs called COX-2 inhibitors may be less likely to produce this side effect.\nFeverfew also affects prostaglandins.\nThus, combining it with an NSAID might increase the risk of stomach problems.\nThe herb garlic\nis taken to lower cholesterol, among many other proposed uses.\nOne of the possible side effects of garlic is a decreased ability of the blood to clot, leading to an increased bleeding tendency.\nTherefore, you should not combine garlic and aspirin or other NSAIDs except under medical supervision.\nThe herb ginkgo is used to treat Alzheimer's disease and ordinary age-related memory loss, among many other uses. Some evidence suggests that ginkgo might also decrease the ability of the blood to clot, probably through effects on platelets.\nHowever, one double-blind study found that ginkgo does\nincrease the anticoagulant effects of aspirin;\nanother found that while it did not interact with the antiplatelet drug\n. But, the herb did interact slightly with the related drug cilostazol.\nTaken together, this evidence still suggests that one should not take ginkgo while using aspirin or other NSAIDs except under medical supervision.\nA sugarcane-derived form of the supplement policosanol is used to reduce cholesterol levels. It also interferes with platelet clumping, creating potential benefit as well as a risk of interactions with blood-thinning drugs.\nFor example, a 30-day, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 27 individuals with high cholesterol levels found that policosanol at 10 mg daily markedly reduced the ability of blood platelets to clump together.\nAnother double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 37 healthy volunteers found evidence that the blood-thinning effect of policosanol increased as the dose was increased\u2014the larger the policosanol dose, the greater the effect.\nYet another double-blind placebo-controlled study of 43 healthy volunteers compared the effects of policosanol (20 mg daily), aspirin (100 mg daily), and policosanol and aspirin combined at these same doses.\nThe results again showed that policosanol substantially reduced the ability of blood platelets to stick together, and that the combined therapy exhibited additive effects.\nBased on these findings, it would be advisable to avoid combining aspirin or other NSAIDs with sugarcane policosanol except under medical supervision.\n: Beeswax policosanol is substantially different from sugarcane policosanol, and is described separately\nPC-SPES is an herbal combination that has shown promise for the treatment of prostate cancer. One case report suggests that PC-SPES might increase risk of bleeding complications if combined with blood-thinning medications.\nSubsequent evidence has indicated that PC-SPES contains the strong prescription blood thinner warfarin, making this interaction inevitable.\nPotassium citrate and other forms of citrate (for example, calcium citrate, magnesium citrate) may be used to prevent kidney stones. These agents work by making the urine less acidic.\nThis effect on the urine may lead to decreased blood levels and therapeutic effects of several drugs, including aspirin and other salicylates (choline salicylate, magnesium salicylate, salsalate, sodium salicylate, sodium thiosalicylate).\nIt may be advisable to avoid these citrate compounds during therapy with aspirin or salicylates except under medical supervision.\nOne study suggests that reishi impairs platelet clumping.\nThis creates the potential for an interaction with any blood-thinning medication.\nDong QuaiSt. John's Wort\nSt. John's wort\nis primarily used to treat mild to moderate depression.\nThe herb dong quai\nis often recommended for menstrual disorders such as dysmenorrhea, PMS, and irregular menstruation.\nCertain NSAIDs, including most notably piroxicam, can cause increased sensitivity to the sun, amplifying the risk of sunburn or skin rash. Because St. John's wort and dong quai may also cause this problem, taking these herbal supplements during NSAID therapy might add to this risk.\nIt may be a good idea to wear a sunscreen or protective clothing during sun exposure if you take one of these herbs while using an NSAID.\nThe substance vinpocetine is sold as a dietary supplement for the treatment of age-related memory loss and impaired mental function.\nVinpocetine is thought to inhibit blood platelets from forming clots.\nFor this reason, it should not be combined with medications or natural substances that impair the blood\u2019s ability to clot normally, as this may lead to excessive bleeding. One study found only a minimal interaction between the blood-thinning drug warfarin (Coumadin) and vinpocetine, but prudence dictates caution anyway.\nVitamin E appears to add to aspirin's blood-thinning effects. One study suggests that the combination of aspirin and even relatively small amounts of vitamin E (50 mg daily) may lead to a significantly increased risk of bleeding.\nIn another study of 28,519 men, vitamin E supplementation at a low dose of about 50 IU (international units) daily was associated with an increase in fatal hemorrhagic strokes, the kind of stroke caused by bleeding within the brain.\nHowever, there was a reduced risk of the more common ischemic stroke, caused by obstruction of a blood vessel in the brain, and the two effects were found essentially to cancel each other out.\nWeak evidence from one animal study hints that vitamin E might reduce stomach inflammation caused by NSAIDs.\nThe bottom line: Seek medical advice before combining vitamin E and aspirin.\nThe herb white willow\n, also known as willow bark, is used to treat pain and fever.\nWhite willow contains a substance that is converted by the body into a salicylate similar to aspirin. It is therefore possible that taking NSAIDs and white willow could lead to increased risk of side effects, just as would occur if you combined NSAIDs with aspirin.\nBased on their known effects or constituents, the herbs\ndong quai(Angelica sinensis)\nhorse chestnut(Aesculus hippocastanum)\nred clover(Trifolium pratense)\n, and the substances\n(oligomeric proanthocyanidins) might conceivably present an increased risk of bleeding if combined with aspirin.\nPotassium citrate, sodium citrate, and potassium-magnesium citrate are sometimes used to prevent\n. These supplements reduce urinary acidity and can, therefore, lead to decreased blood levels and effectiveness of NSAIDs.\n) and other hot peppers used in chili and various dishes contain as their \"hot\" ingredient capsaicin, a substance that is thought to be stomach-protective.\nFor years, people have believed that spicy foods were a cause of stomach ulcers. However, preliminary evidence suggests that cayenne peppers might actually help protect the stomach against ulcers caused by aspirin and possibly other NSAIDs.\nIn a study involving 18 healthy human volunteers, one group received chili powder, water, and aspirin; the control group received only water and aspirin.\nChili powder was found to significantly protect the stomach against damage from aspirin, a known stomach irritant. It was suggested that this protective effect might result from capsaicin-induced stimulation of blood flow in the lining of the stomach.\nFurther support for this theory comes from a study in rats, which found that capsaicin protected the stomach against damage caused by aspirin, ethanol (drinking alcohol), and acid.\nIncreasing the dose of capsaicin brought even greater benefit, as did increasing the time between giving capsaicin and the other agents. An earlier study in rats found that capsaicin exerted similar protection against aspirin damage.\nSome researchers have used this data to advocate chili or capsaicin as treatment for peptic ulcer disease,\nbut check with your doctor before trying to self-treat this serious condition.\nColostrum is the fluid that new mothers' breasts produce during the first day or two after birth. It gives newborns a rich mixture of antibodies and growth factors that help them get a good start.\nAccording to one study involving rats, taking colostrum from cows (bovine colostrum) as a supplement might help protect against the ulcers caused by NSAIDs.\nFolate (also known as folic acid) is a B vitamin that plays an important role in many vital aspects of health, including preventing neural tube birth defects and possibly reducing the risk of heart disease. Because inadequate intake of folate is widespread, if you are taking any medication that depletes or impairs folate even slightly, you may need supplementation.\nThere is some evidence that NSAIDs might produce this effect. In test tube studies, many NSAIDs have been found to interfere with folate activity.\nIn addition, a study of 25 people with arthritis receiving the drug sulfasalazine found evidence of folate deficiency.\nIn another report, a woman taking 650 mg of aspirin every 4 hours for 3 days experienced a significant fall in blood levels of folate.\nBased on this preliminary evidence, folate supplementation may be warranted if you are taking drugs in the NSAID family.\nLicorice root (\n), a member of the pea family, has been used since ancient times as both food and medicine.\nPreliminary evidence suggests that a specific form of licorice called DGL (deglycyrrhizinated licorice) might help protect the stomach against damage caused by the use of aspirin and possibly other NSAIDs. (DGL is a modified version of licorice that is safer to use.)\nIn a double-blind study of 9 healthy human volunteers, participants were given aspirin alone (325 mg) or aspirin (325 mg) plus DGL (175 mg).\nStomach damage (as measured by blood loss) was found to be about 20% less when DGL was given with aspirin. As part of the same study, DGL was also found to reduce stomach damage caused by aspirin in rats, though the benefit was small. It is possible that larger doses of DGL might provide greater protection.\nTest tube studies suggest that aspirin promotes the loss of vitamin C through the urine,\nwhich could lead to tissue depletion of the vitamin. In addition, low vitamin C levels have been noted in individuals with rheumatoid arthritis, and this has been attributed to aspirin therapy taken for this condition.\nIf you take aspirin regularly, vitamin C supplementation may be advisable.\nThe supplement policosanol is a mixture of numerous related substances, and its exact composition varies with its source. Policosanol made from sugar cane appears to reduce cholesterol levels. Policosanol from beeswax may help protect the stomach from damage caused by NSAIDs. However, it is not clear whether beeswax policosanol might amplify the \"blood thinning\" effect of anti-inflammatory drugs in the same manner as sugarcane policosanol, as described\nBased on chondroitin\u2019s chemical similarity to the anticoagulant drug heparin, it has been suggested that chondroitin might have anticoagulant effects as well. There are no case reports of any problems relating to this, and studies suggest that chondroitin has at most a mild anticoagulant effect.\nNonetheless, prudence suggests that chondroitin should not be combined with NSAIDs except under physician supervision.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8a83afea-1f06-410a-8233-f726fa6faf23>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://medtropolis.com/your-health/?/21396/Salazopyrin", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9147337675094604, "token_count": 3577, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Socrates, an Athenian Greek of the second half of the fifth century bc, wrote no philosophical works but was uniquely influential in the later history of philosophy. His philosophical interests were restricted to ethics and the conduct of life, topics which thereafter became central to philosophy. He discussed these in public places in Athens, sometimes with other prominent intellectuals or political leaders, sometimes with young men, who gathered round him in large numbers, and other admirers. Among these young men was Plato. Socrates' philosophical ideas and - equally important for his philosophical influence - his personality and methods as a 'teacher' were handed on to posterity in the 'dialogues' that several of his friends wrote after his death, depicting such discussions. Only those of Xenophon (Memorabilia,Apology, Symposium) and the early dialogues of Plato survive (for example Euthyphro, Apology, Crito). Later Platonic dialogues such as Phaedo, Symposium and Republic do not present the historical Socrates' ideas; the 'Socrates' appearing in them is a spokesman for Plato's own ideas.\nSocrates' discussions took the form of face-to-face interrogations of another person. Most often they concerned the nature of some moral virtue, such as courage or justice. Socrates asked what the respondent thought these qualities of mind and character amounted to, what their value was, how they were acquired. He would then test their ideas for logical consistency with other highly plausible general views about morality and goodness that the respondent also agreed to accept, once Socrates presented them. He succeeded in showing, to his satisfaction and that of the respondent and any bystanders, that the respondent's ideas were not consistent. By this practice of 'elenchus' or refutation he was able to prove that politicians and others who claimed to have 'wisdom' about human affairs in fact lacked it, and to draw attention to at least apparent errors in their thinking. He wanted to encourage them and others to think harder and to improve their ideas about the virtues and about how to conduct a good human life. He never argued directly for ideas of his own, but always questioned those of others. None the less, one can infer, from the questions he asks and his attitudes to the answers he receives, something about his own views.\nSocrates was convinced that our souls - where virtues and vices are found - are vastly more important for our lives than our bodies or external circumstances. The quality of our souls determines the character of our lives, for better or for worse, much more than whether we are healthy or sick, or rich or poor. If we are to live well and happily, as he assumed we all want to do more than we want anything else, we must place the highest priority on the care of our souls. That means we must above all want to acquire the virtues, since they perfect our souls and enable them to direct our lives for the better. If only we could know what each of the virtues is we could then make an effort to obtain them. As to the nature of the virtues, Socrates seems to have held quite strict and, from the popular point of view, paradoxical views. Each virtue consists entirely in knowledge, of how it is best to act in some area of life, and why: additional 'emotional' aspects, such as the disciplining of our feelings and desires, he dismissed as of no importance. Weakness of will is not psychologically possible: if you act wrongly or badly, that is due to your ignorance of how you ought to act and why. He thought each of the apparently separate virtues amounts to the same single body of knowledge: the comprehensive knowledge of what is and is not good for a human being. Thus his quest was to acquire this single wisdom: all the particular virtues would follow automatically.\nAt the age of 70 Socrates was charged before an Athenian popular court with 'impiety' - with not believing in the Olympian gods and corrupting young men through his constant questioning of everything. He was found guilty and condemned to death. Plato's Apology, where Socrates gives a passionate defence of his life and philosophy, is one of the classics of Western literature. For different groups of later Greek philosophers he was the model both of a sceptical inquirer who never claims to know the truth, and of a 'sage' who knows the whole truth about human life and the human good. Among modern philosophers, the interpretations of his innermost meaning given by Montaigne, Hegel, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche are especially notable.\nSocrates, an Athenian citizen proud of his devotion to Athens, lived his adult life there engaging in open philosophical discussion and debate on fundamental questions of ethics, politics, religion and education. Going against the grain of the traditional education, he insisted that personal investigation and reasoned argument, rather than ancestral custom, or appeal to the authority of Homer, Hesiod and other respected poets, was the only proper basis for answering these questions. His emphasis on argument and logic and his opposition to unquestioning acceptance of tradition allied him with such Sophists of a generation earlier as Protagoras, Gorgias and Prodicus, none of whom was an Athenian, but all of whom spent time lecturing and teaching at Athens (see Sophists). Unlike these Sophists Socrates did not formally offer himself or accept pay as a teacher. But many upper-class young Athenian men gathered round him to hear and engage in his discussions, and he had an inspirational and educational effect upon them, heightening their powers of critical thought and encouraging them to take seriously their individual responsibility to think through and decide how to conduct their lives. Many of his contemporaries perceived this education as morally and socially destructive - it certainly involved subverting accepted beliefs - and he was tried in 399 bc before an Athenian popular court and condemned to death on a charge of 'impiety': that he did not believe in the Olympian gods, but in new ones instead, and corrupted the young. Scholars sometimes mention specifically political motives of revenge, based on guilt by association: a number of prominent Athenians who were with Socrates as young men or were close friends did turn against the Athenian democracy and collaborated with the Spartans in their victory over Athens in the Peloponnesian war. But an amnesty passed by the restored democracy in 403 bc prohibited prosecution for political offences before that date. The rhetorician Polycrates included Socrates' responsibility for these political crimes in his Accusation of Socrates (see Xenophon, Memorabilia I 2.12), a rhetorical exercise written at least five years after Socrates' death. But there is no evidence that, in contravention of the amnesty, Socrates' actual accusers covertly attacked him, or his jurors condemned him, on that ground. The defences Plato and Xenophon constructed for Socrates, each in his respective Apology, imply that it was his own questioning mind and what was perceived as the bad moral influence he had on his young men that led to his trial and condemnation.\nSocrates left no philosophical works, and apparently wrote none. His philosophy and personality were made known to later generations through the dialogues that several of his associates wrote with him as principal speaker (see Socratic dialogues). Only fragments survive of those by Aeschines of Sphettus and Antisthenes, both Athenians, and Phaedo of Elis (after whom Plato's dialogue Phaedo is named). Our own knowledge of Socrates depends primarily on the dialogues of Plato and the Socratic works of the military leader and historian Xenophon. Plato was a young associate of Socrates' during perhaps the last ten years of his life, and Xenophon knew him during that same period, though he was absent from Athens at the time of Socrates' death and for several years before and many years after.\nWe also have secondary evidence from the comic playwright Aristophanes and from Aristotle. Aristotle, although born fifteen years after Socrates' death, had access through Plato and others to first-hand information about the man and his philosophy. Aristophanes knew Socrates personally; his Clouds (first produced c.423 bc) pillories the 'new' education offered by Sophists and philosophers by showing Socrates at work in a 'thinkery', propounding outlandish physical theories and teaching young men how to argue cleverly in defence of their improper behaviour. It is significant that in 423, when Socrates was about 45 years old, he could plausibly be taken as a leading representative in Athens of the 'new' education. But one cannot expect a comic play making fun of a whole intellectual movement to contain an authentic account of Socrates' specific philosophical commitments.\nHowever, the literary genre to which Plato's and Xenophon's Socratic works belong (along with the other, lost dialogues) also permits the author much latitude; in his Poetics Aristotle counts such works as fictions of a certain kind, alongside epic poems and tragedies. They are by no means records of actual discussions (despite the fact that Xenophon explicitly so represents his). Each author was free to develop his own ideas behind the mask of Socrates, at least within the limits of what his personal experience had led him to believe was Socrates' basic philosophical and moral outlook. Especially in view of the many inconsistencies between Plato's and Xenophon's portraits (see \u00a77 below), it is a difficult question for historical-philosophical interpretation whether the philosophical and moral views the character Socrates puts forward in any of these dialogues can legitimately be attributed to the historical philosopher. The problem of interpretation is made more difficult by the fact that Socrates appears in many of Plato's dialogues - ones belonging to his middle and later periods (see Plato \u00a7\u00a710-16) - discussing and expounding views that we have good reason to believe resulted from Plato's own philosophical investigations into questions of metaphysics and epistemology, questions that were not entered into at all by the historical Socrates. To resolve this problem - what scholars call the 'Socratic problem' - most agree in preferring Plato to Xenophon as a witness. Xenophon is not thought to have been philosopher enough to have understood Socrates well or to have captured the depth of his views and his personality. As for Plato, most scholars accept only the philosophical interests and procedures, and the moral and philosophical views, of the Socrates of the early dialogues, and, more guardedly, the Socrates of 'transitional' ones such as Meno and Gorgias, as legitimate representations of the historical personage. These dialogues are the ones that predate the emergence of the metaphysical and epistemological inquiries just referred to. However, even Plato's early dialogues are philosophical works written to further Plato's own philosophical interests. That could produce distortions, also; and Xenophon's relative philosophical innocence could make his portrait in some respects more reliable. Moreover, it is possible, even probable, that in his efforts to help his young men improve themselves Socrates spoke differently to the philosophically more promising ones among them - including Plato - from the way he spoke to others, for example Xenophon. Both portraits could be true, but partial and needing to be combined (see \u00a77). The account of Socrates' philosophy given below follows Plato, with caution, while giving independent weight also to Xenophon and to Aristotle.\nXenophon's Apology of Socrates, Symposium and Memorabilia (or Memoirs) may well reflect knowledge of Plato's own Apology and some of his early and middle period dialogues, as well as lost dialogues of Antisthenes and others. Xenophon composed the Memorabilia over many years, beginning only some ten years after Socrates' death, avowedly in order to defend Socrates' reputation as a good man, a true Athenian gentleman, and a good influence upon his young men. The same intention motivated hisApology and Symposium. Anything these works contain about Socrates' philosophical opinions and procedures is ancillary to that apologetic purpose. Plato's Apology, of course, is similarly apologetic, but it and his other early dialogues are carefully constructed discussions, strongly focused upon questions of philosophical substance. Plato evidently thought Socrates' philosophical ideas and methods were central to his life and to his mission. Xenophon's and Plato's testimony are agreed that Socrates' discussions consistently concerned the aretai, the recognized 'virtues' or excellences of character (see Aret), such as justice, piety, self-control or moderation (sophrosyn), courage and wisdom; what these individual characteristics consist in and require of a person, what their value is, and how they are acquired, whether by teaching or in some other way. In his Apology and elsewhere Plato has Socrates insist that these discussions were always inquiries, efforts made to engage his fellow-discussants in coming jointly to an adequate understanding of the matters inquired into. He does not himself know, and therefore cannot teach anyone else - whether by means of these discussions or in some other way - either how to be virtuous or what virtue in general or any particular virtue is. Furthermore, given his general characterization of virtue (see \u00a7\u00a74-5), Plato's Socrates makes a point of suggesting the impossibility in principle of teaching virtue at all, by contrast with the Sophists who declared they could teach it. Virtue was not a matter of information about living or rote techniques of some sort to be handed on from teacher to pupil, but required an open-ended personal understanding that individuals could only come to for themselves. Xenophon, too, reports that Socrates denied he was a teacher of aret, but he pays no attention to such issues of philosophical principle. He does not hesitate to show Socrates speaking of himself as a teacher (see Apology 26, Memorabilia I 6.13-14), and describes him as accepting young men from their fathers as his pupils (but not for a fee), and teaching them the virtues by displaying his own virtues to them for emulation, as well as through conversation and precepts. Perhaps Socrates did not insist on holding to strict philosophical principles in dealing with people on whom their point would have been lost.\nIn his Apology Plato's Socrates traces his practice of spending his days discussing and inquiring about virtue to an oracle delivered at the shrine of Apollo at Delphi. Xenophon also mentions this oracle in his Apology. A friend of Socrates', Chaerephon, had asked the god whether anyone was wiser than Socrates; the priestess answered that no one was. Because he was sure he was not wise at all - only the gods, he suspected, could actually know how a human life ought to be led - Socrates cross-examined others at Athens with reputations for that kind of wisdom. He wanted to show that there were people wiser than he and thus discover the true meaning of the oracle - Apollo was known to speak in riddles requiring interpretation to reach their deeper meaning. In the event, it turned out that the people he examined were not wise, since they could not even give a self-consistent set of answers to his questions: obviously, true knowledge requires at least that one think and speak consistently on the subjects one professes to know. So he concluded that the priestess's reply had meant that of all those with reputations for wisdom only he came close to deserving it; he wisely did not profess to know these things that only gods can know, and that was wisdom enough for a human being. Because only he knew that he did not know, only he was ready earnestly to inquire into virtue and the other ingredients of the human good, in an effort to learn. He understood therefore that Apollo's true intention in the oracle had been to encourage him to continue his inquiries, to help others to realize that it is beyond human powers actually to know how to live - that is the prerogative of the gods - and to do his best to understand as far as a human being can how one ought to live. The life of philosophy, as led by him, was therefore something he was effectively ordered by Apollo to undertake.\nWe must remember that Socrates was on trial on a charge of 'impiety'. In tracing his philosophical vocation back to Apollo's oracle, and linking it to a humble recognition of human weakness and divine perfection, he was constructing a powerful rebuttal of the charges brought against him. But it cannot be literally true - if that is what he intended to say - that Socrates began his inquiries about virtue only after hearing of the oracle. Chaerephon's question to Apollo shows he had established a reputation in Athens for wisdom before that. That reputation cannot have rested on philosophical inquiries of another sort. In Plato's Phaedo Socrates says he had been interested as a young man in philosophical speculations about the structure and causes of the natural world, but he plainly did not take those interests very far; and in any event, his reputation was not for that kind of wisdom, but wisdom about how to lead a human life. In fact we do not hear of the duty to Apollo in Xenophon, or in other dialogues of Plato, where we might expect to find it if from the beginning Socrates thought Apollo had commanded his life of philosophizing. However, we need not think Socrates was false to the essential spirit of philosophy as he practised it if in looking back on his life under threat of condemnation for impiety he chose, inaccurately, to see it as initially imposed on him by Apollo's oracle.\nDespite its impressiveness, Socrates' speech failed to convince his jury of 501 male fellow citizens, and he died in the state prison by drinking hemlock as required by law. His speech evidently offended the majority of the jurors by its disdain for the charges and the proceedings; Xenophon explains his lofty behaviour, which he thinks would otherwise have been lunatic - and damaging to his reputation - by reporting that he had told friends in advance that as a 70-year-old still in possession of his health and faculties it was time for him to die anyhow, before senility set in. Furthermore, his 'divine sign' - the 'voice' he sometimes heard warning him for his own good against a contemplated course of action - had prevented him from spending time crafting a defence speech. (This voice seems to have been the basis for the charge of introducing 'new' gods.) So he would do nothing to soften his manner in order to win his freedom. Even if this story is true, Plato could be right that Socrates put on a spirited, deeply serious defence of his life and beliefs - one that he thought should have convinced the jurors of his innocence, if only they had judged him intelligently and fairly.\nIn cross-examining those with reputations for wisdom about human affairs and showing their lack of it, Socrates employed a special method of dialectical argument that he himself had perfected, the method of 'elenchus' - Greek for 'putting to the test' or 'refutation'. He gives an example at his trial when he cross-examines Meletus, one of his accusers (Plato, Apology 24d-27e). The respondent states a thesis, as something he knows to be true because he is wise about the matter in question. Socrates then asks questions, eliciting clarifications, qualifications and extensions of the thesis, and seeking further opinions of the respondent on related matters. He then argues, and the respondent sees no way not to grant, that the original thesis is logically inconsistent with something affirmed in these further responses. For Socrates, it follows at once that the respondent did not know what he was talking about in stating his original thesis: true knowledge would prevent one from such self-contradiction. So the respondent suffers a personal set-back; he is refuted - revealed as incompetent. Meletus, for example, does not have consistent ideas about the gods or what would show someone not to believe in them, and he does not have consistent ideas about who corrupts the young, and how; so he does not know what he is talking about, and no one should take his word for it that Socrates disbelieves in the gods or has corrupted his young men. In many of his early dialogues Plato shows Socrates using this method to examine the opinions of persons who claim to be wise in some matter: the religious expert Euthyphro on piety (Euthyphro), the generals Laches and Nicias on courage (Laches), the Sophist Protagoras on the distinctions among the virtues and whether virtue can be taught (Protagoras), the rhapsodist Ion on what is involved in knowing poetry (Ion), the budding politician Alcibiades on justice and other political values (Alcibiades), the Sophist Hippias on which was the better man, Odysseus or Achilles (Lesser Hippias), and on the nature of moral and aesthetic beauty (Greater Hippias). They are all refuted - shown to have mutually inconsistent ideas on the subject discussed (see Plato \u00a7\u00a74, 6, 8-9).\nBut Socrates is not content merely to demonstrate his interlocutor's lack of wisdom or knowledge. That might humiliate him into inquiring further or seeking by some other means the knowledge he has been shown to lack, instead of remaining puffed up with self-conceit. That would be a good thing. But Socrates often also indicates clearly that his cross-examination justifies him and the interlocutor in rejecting as false the interlocutor's original thesis. Logically, that is obviously wrong: if the interlocutor contradicts himself, at least one of the things he has said must be false (indeed, all of them could be), but the fact alone of self-contradiction does not show where the falsehood resides. For example, when Socrates leads Euthyphro to accept ideas that contradict his own definition of the pious as whatever pleases all the gods, Socrates concludes that that definition has been shown to be false (Euthyphro 10d-11a), and asks Euthyphro to come up with another one. He does not usually seem to consider that perhaps on further thought the additional ideas would seem faulty and so merit rejection instead.\nSocrates uses his elenctic method also in discussion with persons who are not puffed up with false pride, and are quite willing to admit their ignorance and to reason out the truth about these important matters. Examples are his discussions with his long-time friend Crito on whether he should escape prison and set aside the court's death sentence (Plato, Crito), and with the young men Charmides, on self-control (Charmides), and Lysis and Menexenus, on the nature of friendship (Lysis). Socrates examines Crito's proposal that he escape on the basis of principles that he presents to him for his approval, and he, together with Crito (however half-heartedly), rejects it when it fails to be consistent with them. And he examines the young men's successive ideas about these virtues, rejecting some of them and refining others, by relying on their own acceptance of further ideas that he puts to them. Again, he is confident that the inconsistencies brought to light in their ideas indicate the inadequacy of their successive proposals as to the nature of the moral virtue in question.\nIn many of his discussions, both with young men and the allegedly wise, Socrates seeks to know what some morally valuable property is - for example, piety, courage, self-control or friendship (see \u00a75). Rejecting the idea that one could learn this simply from attending to examples, he insisted on an articulated 'definition' of the item in question - some single account that would capture all at once the presumed common feature that would entitle anything to count as a legitimate instance. Such a definition, providing the essence of the thing defined, would give us a 'model' or 'paradigm' to use in judging whether or not some proposed action or person possesses the moral value so defined (Euthyphro 6d-e). Aristotle says (in Metaphysics I, 6) that Socrates was the first to interest himself in such 'universal definitions', and traces to his interest in them Plato's first impetus towards a theory of Forms, or 'separated' universals (see Plato \u00a710).\nIn none of his discussions in Plato's early works does Socrates profess to think an adequate final result has actually been established - about the nature of friendship, or self-control, or piety, or any of the other matters he inquires about. Indeed, on the contrary, these works regularly end with professions of profound ignorance about the matter under investigation. Knowledge is never attained, and further questions always remain to be considered. But Socrates does plainly think that progress towards reaching final understanding has taken place (even if only a god, and no human being, could ever actually attain it). Not only has one discovered some things that are definitely wrong to say; one has also achieved some positive insights that are worth holding onto in seeking further systematic understanding. Given that Socrates' method of discussion is elenctic throughout, what does he think justifies this optimism?\nOn balance, our evidence suggests that Socrates had worked out no elaborate theory to support him here. The ideas he was stimulated to propound in an elenctic examination which went against some initial thesis seemed to him, and usually also to the others present, so plausible, and so supportable by further considerations, that he and they felt content to reject the initial thesis. Until someone came up with arguments to neutralize their force, it seemed the thesis was doomed, as contrary to reason itself. Occasionally Socrates expresses himself in just those terms: however unpalatable the option might seem, it remains open to someone to challenge the grounds on which his conclusions rest (see Euthyphro 15c, Gorgias 461d-462a, 509a, Crito 54d). But until they do, he is satisfied to treat his and his interlocutor's agreement as a firm basis for thought and action. Later, when Plato himself became interested in questions of philosophical methodology in his Meno, this came to seem a philosophically unsatisfactory position; Plato's demand for justification for one's beliefs independent of what seemed on reflection most plausible led him to epistemological and metaphysical inquiries that went well beyond the self-imposed restriction of Socratic philosophy to ethical thought in the broadest sense. But Socrates did not raise these questions. In this respect more bound by traditional views than Plato, he had great implicit confidence in his and his interlocutors' capacity, after disciplined dialectical examination of the issues, to reach firm ground for constructing positive ideas about the virtues and about how best to lead a human life - even if these ideas never received the sort of final validation that a god, understanding fully the truth about human life, could give them.\nThe topics Socrates discussed were always ethical, and never included questions of physical theory or metaphysics or other branches of philosophical study. Moreover, he always conducted his discussions not as theoretical inquiries but as profoundly personal moral tests. Questioner and interlocutor were equally putting their ways of life to what Socrates thought was the most important test of all - their capacity to stand up to scrutiny in rational argument about how one ought to live. In speaking about human life, he wanted his respondents to indicate what they truly believed, and as questioner he was prepared to do the same, at least at crucial junctures. Those beliefs were assumed to express not theoretical ideas, but the very ones on which they themselves were conducting their lives. In losing an argument with Socrates you did not merely show yourself logically or argumentatively deficient, but also put into question the very basis on which you were living. Your way of life might ultimately prove defensible, but if you cannot now defend it successfully, you are not leading it with any such justification. In that case, according to Socrates' views, your way of life is morally deficient. Thus if Menexenus, Lysis and Socrates profess to value friendship among the most important things in life and profess to be one another's friends, but cannot satisfactorily explain under pressure of elenctic investigation what a friend is, that casts serious doubt on the quality of any 'friendship' they might form (Plato, Lysis 212a, 223b). Moral consistency and personal integrity, and not mere delight in argument and logical thought, should therefore lead you to repeated elenctic examination of your views, in an effort to render them coherent and at the same time defensible on all sides through appeal to plausible arguments. Or, if some of your views have been shown false, by conflicting with extremely plausible general principles, it behoves you to drop them - and so to cease living in a way that depends upon accepting them. In this way, philosophical inquiry via the elenchus is fundamentally a personal moral quest. It is a quest not just to understand adequately the basis on which one is actually living, and the personal and moral commitments that this contains. It is also a quest to change the way one lives as the results of argument show one ought to, so that, at the logical limit of inquiry, one's way of life would be completely vindicated. Accordingly, Socrates in Plato's dialogues regularly insists on the individual and personal character of his discussions. He wants to hear the views of the one person with whom he is speaking. He dismisses as of no interest what outsiders or most people may think - provided that is not what his discussant is personally convinced is true. The views of 'the many' may well not rest on thought or argument at all. Socrates insists that his discussant shoulder the responsibility to explain and defend rationally the views he holds, and follow the argument - reason - wherever it may lead.\nWe learn a good deal about Socrates' own principles from both Plato and Xenophon. Those were ones that had stood up well over a lifetime of frequent elenctic discussions and had, as he thought, a wealth of plausible arguments in their favour. Foremost is his conviction that the virtues - self-control, courage, justice, piety, wisdom and related qualities of mind and soul - are essential if anyone is to lead a good and happy life. They are good in themselves for a human being, and they guarantee a happy life, eudaimonia - something that he thought all human beings always wanted, and wanted more than anything else. The virtues belong to the soul - they are the condition of a soul that has been properly cared for and brought to its best state. The soul is vastly more important for happiness than are health and strength of the body or social and political power, wealth and other external circumstances of life; the goods of the soul, and pre-eminently the virtues, are worth far more than any quantity of bodily or external goods. Socrates seems to have thought these other goods are truly good, but they only do people good, and thereby contribute to their happiness, under the condition that they are chosen and used in accordance with virtues indwelling in their souls (see Plato, Apology 30b, Euthydemus 280d-282d, Meno 87d-89a).\nMore specific principles followed. Doing injustice is worse for oneself than being subjected to it (Gorgias 469c-522e): by acting unjustly you make your soul worse, and that affects for the worse the whole of your life, whereas one who treats you unjustly at most harms your body or your possessions but leaves your soul unaffected. On the same ground Socrates firmly rejected the deeply entrenched Greek precept to aid one's friends and harm one's enemies, and the accompanying principle of retaliation, which he equated with returning wrongs for wrongs done to oneself and one's friends (Crito 49a-d). Socrates' daily life gave witness to his principles. He was poor, shabbily dressed and unshod, and made do with whatever ordinary food came his way: such things matter little. Wealth, finery and delicacies for the palate are not worth panting after and exerting oneself to enjoy. However, Socrates was fully capable of relishing both refined and plain enjoyments as occasion warranted (see \u00a77).\nThe Greeks recognized a series of specially prized qualities of mind and character as aretai or virtues. Each was regarded as a distinct, separate quality: justice was one thing, concerned with treating other people fairly, courage quite another, showing itself in vigorous, correct behaviour in circumstances that normally cause people to be afraid; and self-control or moderation, piety and wisdom were yet others. Each of these ensured that its possessor would act in some specific ways, regularly and reliably over their lifetime, having the justified conviction that those are ways one ought to act - agathon (good) and kalon (fine, noble, admirable or beautiful) ways of acting. But each type of virtuous person acts rightly and well not only in regularly recurring, but also in unusual and unheralded, circumstances; the virtue involves always getting something right about how to live a good human life. Socrates thought these virtues were essential if one was to live happily (see \u00a74). But what exactly were they? What was it about someone that made them just, or courageous, or wise? If you did not know that, you would not know what to do in order to acquire those qualities. Furthermore, supposing you did possess a virtue, you would have to be able to explain and defend by argument the consequent ways in which you lived - otherwise your conviction that those are ways one ought to act would be shallow and unjustified. And in order to do that you would have to know what state of mind the virtue was, since that is essential to them (see Plato, Charmides 158e-159a). Consequently, in his discussions Socrates constantly asked for 'definitions' of various virtues: what is courage (Laches); what is self-control or moderation (Charmides), what is friendship (Lysis) and what is piety (Euthyphro). As this context shows, he was asking not for a 'dictionary definition', an account of the accepted linguistic understanding of a term, but for an ethically defensible account of an actual condition of mind or character to which the word in common use would be correctly applied. In later terminology, he was seeking a 'real' rather than a 'nominal' definition (see Definition; Plato \u00a7\u00a76-9).\nSocrates objected to definitions that make a virtue some external aspect of a virtuous action (such as the manner in which it is done - for example its 'quiet' or measured quality in the case of moderation, Charmides 160b-d), or simply the doing of specific types of action, described in terms of their external circumstances (such as, for courage, standing one's ground in battle; Laches 190e-191d). He also objected to more psychological definitions that located a virtue in some non-rational and non-cognitive aspect of the soul (for example, in the case of courage, the soul's endurance or strength of resistance) (Laches 192d-193e). For his own part, he regularly shows himself ready to accept only definitions that identify a virtue with some sort of knowledge or wisdom about what is valuable for a human being. That 'intellectualist' expectation about the nature of virtue, although never worked out to his satisfaction in any Platonic dialogue, is central to Socrates' philosophy.\nGiven that in his discussions he is always the questioner, probing the opinions of his respondent and not arguing for views of his own, we never find Socrates stating clearly what led him to this intellectualism. Probably, however, it was considerations drawn from the generally agreed premise that each virtue is a condition motivating certain voluntary actions, chosen because they are good and fine or noble. He took it that what lies behind and produces any voluntary action is the idea under which it is done, the conception of the action in the agent's mind that makes it seem the thing to do just then. If so, each virtue must be some state of the mind, the possessor of which constantly has certain distinctive general ideas about how one ought to behave. Furthermore, since virtues get this right, these are true ideas. And since a virtuous person acts well and correctly in a perfectly reliable way, they must be seated so deeply in the mind as to be ineradicable and unwaveringly present. The only state of mind that meets these conditions is knowledge: to know a subject is not just to be thoroughly convinced, but to have a deep, fully articulated understanding, being ready with explanations to fend off objections and apparent difficulties and to extend old principles into new situations, and being prepared to show with the full weight of reason precisely why each thing falling under it is and must be so. Each virtue, then, must be knowledge about how one ought to behave in some area of life, and why - a knowledge so deep and rationally secure that those who have it can be counted upon never to change their minds, never to be argued out of or otherwise persuaded away from, or to waver in, their conviction about how to act.\nIn Plato's Protagoras Socrates goes beyond this, and identifies himself with the position, rejected by Protagoras in their discussion, that the apparently separate virtues of justice, piety, self-control, courage and wisdom are somehow one and the same thing - some single knowledge (361a-b). Xenophon too confirms that Socrates held this view (Memorabilia III 9.5). Protagoras defends the position that each of the virtues is not only a distinct thing from each of the others, but so different in kind that a person could possess one of them without possessing the others (329d-e). In opposing him, Socrates sometimes speaks plainly of two allegedly distinct virtues being 'one' (333b). Given this unity of the virtues, it would follow that a person could not possess one without having them all. And in speaking of justice and piety in particular, Socrates seems to go further, to imply that every action produced by virtue is equally an instance of all the standardly recognized virtues: pious as well as just, wise and self-controlled and courageous also. Among his early dialogues, however, Plato's own philosophical interests show themselves particularly heavily in the Protagoras, so it is doubtful how far the details of his arguments are to be attributed to the historical Socrates. The issues raised by Socrates in the Protagoras were, none the less, vigorously pursued by subsequent 'Socratic' philosophers (as Plutarch's report in On Moral Virtue 2 demonstrates). And the positions apparently adopted by Plato's Socrates were taken up and ingeniously defended by the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus (see Stoicism \u00a716). As usual, because of his questioner's role, it is difficult to work out Socrates' grounds for holding to the unity of virtue; and it is difficult to tell whether, and if so how, he allowed that despite this unity there were some real differences between, say, justice and self-control, or courage and piety. Apparently he thought the same body of knowledge - knowledge of the whole of what is and is not good for human beings, and why it is so or not - must at least underlie the allegedly separate virtues. If you did not have that vast, comprehensive knowledge you could not be in the state of mind which is justice or in that which is courage, and so on; and if you did have it you would necessarily be in those states of mind. It seems doubtful whether Socrates himself progressed beyond that point. Efforts to do that were made by Chrysippus and the other philosophers referred to above. And despite denying that all virtues consist in knowledge, Plato in the Republic and Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics VI follow Socrates to the extent of holding, in different ways, that you need to have all the virtues in order to have any one.\nIn Plato's Protagoras Socrates also denies the possibility of weakness of will - being 'mastered' by some desire so as to act voluntarily in a way one knows is wrong or bad (see also Xenophon, Memorabilia III 9.4, IV 5.6.) All voluntary wrongdoing or bad action is due to ignorance of how one ought to act and why, and to nothing else. This would be easy to understand if Socrates were using 'knowing' quite strictly, to refer to the elevated and demanding sort of knowledge described in \u00a75 (sometimes called 'Socratic knowledge'). Someone could know an action was wrong or bad, with full 'Socratic knowledge', only if they were not just thoroughly convinced, but had a deep, fully articulated understanding, being ready with explanations to fend off objections and apparent difficulties, and prepared to show precisely why it was so. That would mean that these ideas were seated so deeply in the mind as to be ineradicable and unwaveringly present. Accordingly, a person with 'Socratic knowledge' could not come to hold even momentarily that the action in question would be the thing to do, and so they could never do it voluntarily.\nHowever, Plato's Socrates goes further. He explains his denial of weak-willed action by saying that a person cannot voluntarily do actions which, in doing them, they even believe to be a wrong or bad thing to do (Protagoras 358c-e). He gives a much-discussed, elaborate argument to establish this stronger conclusion, starting from assumptions identifying that which is pleasant with that which is good (352a-357e). These assumptions, however, he attributes only to ordinary people, the ones who say they believe in the possibility of weak-willed action; he makes it clear to the careful reader, if not to Protagoras, that his own view is simply that pleasure is a good thing, not 'the' good (351c-e; see 354b-d). Although some scholars have thought otherwise, Socrates himself does not adopt a hedonist analysis of the good in the Protagoras or elsewhere either in Plato or Xenophon; indeed, he speaks elsewhere against hedonist views (see Hedonism). The fundamental principle underlying his argument - a principle he thinks ordinary people will accept - is that voluntary action is always 'subjectively' rational, in the sense that an agent who acts to achieve some particular sort of value always acts with the idea that what they are doing achieves more of that value than alternatives then thought by them to be available would achieve. If someone performs an overall bad action because of some (lesser) good they think they will get from it, they cannot do it while believing it is bad overall. That would mean they thought they could have got more good by refraining, and their action would violate the principle just stated. Instead, at the time they acted (despite what they may have thought before or after acting), they believed (wrongly and ignorantly) that the action would be good overall for them to do. Thus ignorance, and only ignorance, is responsible for voluntary error. Weakness of will - knowingly pursuing the worse outcome - is psychologically impossible: 'No one does wrong willingly'.\nThe details of this argument may not represent explicit commitments of the historical Socrates. None the less, his denial of weakness of will, understood as presented in Plato's Protagoras, was the centre of a protracted debate in later times. First Plato himself, in Republic IV, then Aristotle in Nicomachean Ethics VII, argued against Socrates' conclusion, on the ground that he had overlooked the fact that human beings have other sources of motivation that can produce voluntary actions, besides their ideas about what is good or bad, or right or wrong to do. 'Appetites' and 'spirited desires' exist also, which can lead a person to act in fulfilment of them without having to adopt the idea, in their beliefs about what is best to do, that so acting would be a good thing (see Plato \u00a714; Aristotle \u00a720, 22-23). The Stoics, however, and especially Chrysippus, argued vigorously and ingeniously in defence of Socrates' analysis and against the Platonic-Aristotelian assumption of alternative sources of motivation that produce voluntary action on their own (see Stoicism \u00a719). In fact, during Hellenistic times it was the Socratic, 'unitary' psychology of action that carried the day; the Platonic-Aristotelian alternative, dominant in the 'common sense' and the philosophy of modern times, was a minority view. The issues Socrates raised about weakness of will continue to be debated today.\nSocrates drew to himself many of the brightest and most prominent people in Athens, securing their fascinated attention and their passionate friendship and support. His effectiveness as a philosopher, and the Socratic 'legend' itself, depended as much on the strength and interest of his personality as on the power of his mind. Plato's and Xenophon's portraits of Socrates as a person differ significantly, however. Plato's Socrates is aloof and often speaks ironically, although also with unusual and deeply held moral convictions; paradoxically, the depth and clarity of his convictions, maintained alongside the firm disclaimer to know what was true, could seem all the stronger testimony to their truth, and made them felt the more strongly as a rebuke to the superficiality of one's own way of living. In Xenophon, Socrates is also sometimes ironical and playful, especially in the Symposium, but his conversation is usually direct, even didactic, and often chummy in tone; his attitudes are for the most part conventional though earnest; and there is nothing to unsettle anyone or make them suspect hidden depths. It is much easier to believe that the Socrates of Plato's dialogues could have had such profound effects on the lives of the brightest of his contemporaries than did the character in Xenophon. That is one reason given for trusting Plato's more than Xenophon's portrait of the historical personage. But perhaps Socrates used the more kindly and genial manner and conventional approach depicted by Xenophon to draw out the best in some of his young men and his friends - ones who would have been put off by the Platonic subtleties. The historical Socrates may have been a more complex person than even Plato presents.\nPlato and Xenophon both represent Socrates as strongly attracted to good-looking young men in the 'bloom' of their middle to late teens, just the period when they were also coming of age morally and intellectually. In both he speaks of himself as unusually 'erotic' by temperament and constantly 'in love'. But he explains his 'erotic' attachments in terms of his desire to converse with bright and serious young men, to question them about virtue and how best to live a human life, and to draw out what was best in their minds and characters. In Xenophon he describes his love as love for their souls, not their bodies, and he vigorously condemns sexual relations with any young man: using him that way disgraces him and harms him by encouraging a loose attitude as regards physical pleasures Symposium 8). The overheated sexuality of Plato's own accounts (Symposium and Phaedrus) of eros, sexual love, for a young man's beauty as motivating an adult male to pursue philosophical truth into an eternal realm of Forms (see Plato \u00a712) is to be distinguished sharply from Socrates' ideas, as we can gather them from Xenophon and from Plato's own early dialogues.\nXenophon emphasizes Socrates' freedom from the strong appetites for food, drink, sex and physical comfort that dominate other people; his enkrateia or self-mastery is the first of the virtues that Xenophon claims for him (Memorabilia I 2.1). He was notorious for going barefoot even in winter and dressing always in a simple cloak. Socrates' self-mastery was at the centre of Antisthenes' portrayal, and is reflected also in several incidents reported in Plato, such as his serene dismissal of the young Alcibiades' efforts to seduce him sexually (Plato, Symposium 217b-219e), or, perhaps when engrossed in a philosophical problem, his standing in the open (during a break in the action while on military service) from morning to night, totally indifferent to everything around him (Symposium 220c-d). This 'ascetic' Socrates, especially as presented by Antisthenes - rejecting conventional comforts and conventional behaviour - became an inspiration for the 'Cynics' of later centuries (see Cynics).\nLooking back on the early history of philosophy, later philosophers traced to Socrates a major turn in its development. As Cicero puts it: 'Socrates was the first to call philosophy down from the heavens... and compel it to ask questions about life and morality' (Tusculan Disputations V 10-11). Previously it had been concerned with the origins and nature of the physical world and the explanation of celestial and other natural phenomena. Modern scholarship follows the ancients' lead in referring standardly to philosophers before Socrates collectively as 'Presocratics' (see Presocratic philosophy). This includes Democritus, in fact a slightly younger contemporary of Socrates; Cicero's verdict needs adjustment, in that Democritus, independently of Socrates, also investigated questions about ethics and morality. With the sole exception of Epicureanism, which developed separately out of Democritean origins, all the major movements of Greek philosophy after Socrates had roots in his teaching and example. This obviously applies to Plato, whose philosophical development began with a thorough reworking and assimilation of Socratic moral inquiry, and through him to Aristotle and his fellow members of Plato's Academy, Speusippus and Xenocrates and others, as well as to later Platonists. Among Socrates' inner circle were also Aristippus of Cyrene, who founded the hedonist Cyrenaic school (see Aristippus the Elder; Cyrenaics), and Antisthenes, an older rival of Plato's and major teacher in Athens of philosophical dialectic. Both of these figure in Xenophon's Memorabilia (Antisthenes also in his Symposium), where they are vividly characterized in conversation with Socrates. Another Socratic, Euclides, founded the Megarian school (see Megarian school). These 'Socratic schools' developed different themes already prominent in Socrates' own investigations, and competed in the claim to be his true philosophical heirs (see Socratic schools; Dialectical School).\nIn the third to first centuries bc, both the Stoics and their rivals the Academic sceptics claimed to be carrying forward the Socratic tradition. In both cases this was based upon a reading of Plato's dialogues and perhaps other eye-witness reconstructions of Socrates' philosophy. The Academic Arcesilaus interpreted the Platonic Socrates as a sceptical inquirer, avidly searching but never satisfied that the truth on any disputed question had been finally uncovered. He could point to much about Plato's Socrates in support: his modest but firm denial that he possessed any knowledge, and his constant practice of inquiring into the truth by examining others' opinions on the basis of ideas which they themselves accepted, without formally committing himself to these ideas even when he was the one to first suggest them. Arcesilaus, however, applied his sceptical Socratic dialectic to more than the questions of ethics and human life about which Socrates himself had argued, making it cover the whole range of philosophical topics being investigated in his day. The Stoics read the dialogues (especially the Euthydemus and Protagoras) quite differently. They found Socrates espousing a complete doctrine of ethics and the psychology of human action. He posed his questions on the basis of this doctrine, leaving the respondent (and the reader) to recover for themselves the philosophical considerations underlying it. They thus emphasized the conceptions of virtue as knowledge, of virtue as unified in wisdom, and of voluntary action as motivated always by an agent's beliefs about what is best to do, that emerged through Socrates' examination of Protagoras (see \u00a7\u00a76-7). They thought these constituted a positive, Socratic moral philosophy, and in their own moral theory they set out to revive and strengthen it with systematic arguments and with added metaphysical and physical speculations of their own. Later Stoics regularly referred to Socrates as a genuine wise man or 'sage', perhaps the only one who ever lived. He had brought to final, systematic perfection his knowledge, along Stoic lines, of what is good and bad for human beings, and what is not, and therefore possessed all the virtues and no vices, and lived unwaveringly the best, happy life, free from emotion and all other errors about human life. It is a tribute to the complexity and enigmatic character of Socrates that he could stand simultaneously as a paragon both of sceptical, non-committal inquiry and life led on that uncommitted basis, and of dogmatic knowledge of the final truth about all things human.\nThe figure of Socrates has continued to fascinate and to inspire ever-new interpretations of his innermost meaning. For Montaigne, he proved that human beings can convincingly and attractively order their own lives from their own resources of mind, without direction from God or religion or tradition. In the nineteenth century Kierkegaard and Nietzsche offered extensive interpretations of him, both heavily dependent upon Hegel's absolute-idealist analysis. Hegel interpreted Socrates as a quintessentially negative thinker, aiming at making people vacillate in their superficial moral beliefs and endorse none of them wholeheartedly, thus hinting that the truth, although universal and objective, lies deep within the freedom of their own subjectivity. For Kierkegaard he represents, on the contrary, the possibility of living wholeheartedly by occupying an unarticulated position somehow beyond the negative rejection but expressed through it: 'infinite absolute negativity'. In Die Geburt der Trag\u00f6die (The Birth of Tragedy) Nietzsche treats Socrates principally as having poisoned the 'tragic' attitude that made possible the great achievements of classical culture, by insisting that life should be grounded in rational understanding and justified by 'knowledge'; but his fascinated regard for Socrates led him to return to him repeatedly in his writings. Socrates was paradigmatically a philosopher whose thought, however taken up with logic and abstract argument, is inseparable from the search for self-understanding and from a deeply felt attachment to the concerns of human life. His power to fascinate and inspire is surely not exhausted.JOHN M. COOPER", "id": "<urn:uuid:50ef9d50-2a81-471d-b070-9d33b96d1771>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A108.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9764729738235474, "token_count": 11184, "score": 4.21875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Researchers at Disney Research, Z\u00fcrich, ETH Z\u00fcrich, and Cornell University have invented a system to digitize facial hair and skin. Capturing facial skin and geometry is a fundamental technology for a variety of computer-based special effects for movies. Conventional face capturing is well established and widely utilized in the entertainment industry to capture a three-dimensional model of an actor's face. However, up to now, no method was capable of reconstructing facial hair or even handling it appropriately. This omission is surprising as facial hair is an important component of our popular culture.\nThe system developed by the Disney Research Laboratory in Z\u00fcrich constitutes a significant technical breakthrough in the field of digitizing human faces and was presented at ACM SIGGRAPH, the International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques. \"Our method captures individual strands of facial hair and stores them separately from the actual human face. This approach allows us to 'shave' people with facial hair virtually with the computer.\" said Thabo Beeler, a computer scientist at Disney Research, Z\u00fcrich, who is the main inventor of the technology.\nThe system employs several consumer-grade photo cameras to capture a face in a fraction of a second. The method then automatically detects hairs in the captured images. These hairs are being tracked and followed in the input images, much like we follow a path on a map with our fingers. A mathematical method called multi-view stereo (MVS) reconstructs them in three dimensions. The trick the researchers applied is to remove the hair strands from the input images similar to an artist painting over parts of a picture. This process makes the 3D skin surface to look as if it were digitally shaved. The system was applied to a large variety of different facial hair styles, ranging from designer stubbles all the way to wild mustaches, to demonstrate its robustness. The produced results look very compelling.\nProf. Markus Gross, director of Disney Research, Z\u00fcrich, stated, \"The long-term goal of our research is to make facial animation and special effects more realistic and ultimately indistinguishable from reality. This method is going to be a very important step toward this long term goal\".\nExplore further: Researchers develop fast, economical method for high-definition video compositing\nMore information: For more information, please visit the web site at www.disneyresearch.com/research/projects/cv_reconFacialHair_drz.htm", "id": "<urn:uuid:06d8a4a5-e3c2-4f26-93ca-55eb384c9ca1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://phys.org/news/2012-08-d-reconstruction-sparse-facial-hair.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9378504753112793, "token_count": 498, "score": 3.25, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In Jena, Graph is an interface. It abstracts anything that looks like RDF - storage options, inference, other legacy data sources.\nThe main operations are\naddition, there are a number of getters to access handlers of various features\n(query, statistics, reification, bulk update, event manager) .\nHaving handlers, rather than directly including all the operations for each\nfeature reduces the size of the interface and makes it easier to provide default\nimplementations of each feature.\nImplementing a graph rarely needs to directly implement the interface.\nMore usually, an implementation starts by inheriting from the class GraphBase.\nA minimal (read-only) implementation just needs to implement\nWrapping legacy data often only makes sense as a read-only graph. To provide update operations, just implement the methods\nwhich are the methods called from the base implementations of\nThen for testing with JUnit, inherit\nfrom AbstractGraphTest (override tests that don't make sense in a particular circumstance)\nand provide the\ngetGraph operation to generate a graph instance to test.\nWhere the graph level is minimal and symmetric (e.g. literal as subjects, inclusion of named variables) for easy implementation, the RDF API enforces the RDF conditions and provides a wide variety of convenience operations so writing a program can be succinct, not requiring the application writer to write unnecessary boilerplate code sequences. The ontology API does the same for OWL. If you look at the javadoc, you'll see the APIs are large but the system level interface is small.\nA graph is turned into a Model by calling\nModelFactory.createModelForGraph(Graph). All the key application APIs\nare interface-based although it's rarely needed to do anything other that use the\nstandard Model-Graph bridge.\nData access to the graph all goes via find. All the read operations of application APIs, directly or indirectly, come down to calling Graph.find or a graph query handler. And the default graph query handler works by calling Graph.find, so once find is implemented everything (read-only) works. ARQ's query API, which includes a SPARQL implementation, included. It may not be the most efficient way but importantly all functionality is available and so the graph implementer can quickly get a first implementation up and running, then decide where and when to spend further development time - or whether that's needed at all.\nAn example of this is a prototype Jena-Mulgara bridge (work in progress as of Jan'08). This maps the Graph API to a Mulgara session object, which can be a local Mulgara database or a remote Mulgara server. The prototype is a single class together with a set of factory operations for more convenient creation of a bridge graph wrapped in all Jena's APIs.\nImplementing graph nodes, for IRIs and for literals is straight forward. Mulgara uses JRDF to represent these nodes and to represent triples. Mapping to and from Jena versions of the same is just the change in naming.\nBlank nodes are more interesting. A blank node in Jena has an internal label (which is not a URI in disguise). When working at the lowest level of Graph, the code is manipulating things at a concrete, syntactic level.\nA blank node in Mulgara has an internal id but it can change. It really is the internal node index as I found out by creating a blank node with id=1 and found it turned into rdf:type which was what was really at node slot 1. Paul has been (patiently!) explaining this to me on a Mulgara mailing list. The session interface is an interface onto the RDF data, not an interface to extend the graph details to the client. Both approaches are valid - it's just different levels of abstraction.\nIf the Jena application is careful about blank nodes (not assuming they are stable across transactions, and not deleting all triples involving some blank node, then creating triples involving that blank node) then it all works out. The most important case of reading data within a transaction is safe. Bulk loading is better down via the native Mulgara interfaces anyway. The Jena-Mulgara bridge enables a Jena application to access a Mulgara server through the same interfaces as any other RDF data.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4357bba8-8f33-427a-854e-0afa0f5e1dea>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://seaborne.blogspot.com/2008_01_01_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9049313068389893, "token_count": 909, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "News > Scientists reconstruct Red Sea parting\nResearchers at the US National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) have produced a computer simulation that demonstrates how the parting of the Red Sea described in the Book of Exodus could have been caused by strong winds.\nThe study, which is part of a larger project looking into the impact of winds on water depths, was published in the open-access journal Plos One. In it, researchers produced a reconstruction of the likely geography of the Nile Delta during the Old Testament period, which has changed considerably over the intervening centuries. The researchers have identified a stretch of the Nile where a strong east wind could conceivably have pushed the river back at a bend, opening up a walkway across the exposed mud flats and allowing the Israelites to flee the approaching Egyptians.\n\"The simulations match fairly closely with the account in Exodus,\" Carl Drews of the NCAR told the BBC. \"The parting of the waters can be understood through fluid dynamics. The wind moves the water in a way that's in accordance with physical laws, creating a safe passage with water on two sides and then abruptly allowing the water to rush back in.\"\nWith the burning bush also potentially linked to freak environmental conditions, it remains to be seen how much else of the bible story can be explained by meteorology.", "id": "<urn:uuid:61945547-f2cd-4b80-b43e-e7d82c52b051>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://theweatherclub.org.uk/news/article/scientists-reconstruct-red-sea-parting", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9522395133972168, "token_count": 264, "score": 4.09375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What are bitcoins, everybody asks. The usual answer is \u201cthey are a distributed, semi-anonymous, peer to peer, cryptographic digital currency\u201d or something along those lines, but there is another simpler way to look at bitcoins.\nBitcoins are a tech stock \u2013 tech because they solve a technological problem and have a technological use, and stock because they can be bought and sold on open market.\nImagine a startup arrived in silicon valley one day and said they were going to create a digital currency which would succeed. A digital currency that overcomes the many limitations and fatal flaws of all its predecessors. I wonder how we could quantify it\u2019s value in terms of VC funding, and once it reached a market cap of $300 Million, its value as an acquisition?\nLet\u2019s look at three start ups who received over $100million each in VC funding.\nDropbox has received over $250 Million in venture capital funding, for a service that essentially stores files. AirBnB, a space rental service (generally for holidays) has received $119 Million in funding. HomeAway, a vacation property booking services has raised over $500 Million.\nAnd let\u2019s look at a few startups that have sold for over $1billion.\nInstagram, a simple photo sharing platform, sold to Facebook for $1billion. Youtube, the video sharing site we all know and love, sold to Google for $1.6billion and Doubleclick for $3billion. Yahoo bought an internet radio service for $5.7billion, geocities (now defunct) for $3.6billion, Overture Services Inc for $1.6 Billion and various others. Microsoft purchased Visio software for $1.3 Billion, NaVision for $1.3 Billion, aQuantive for $6.3 Billion, Fast Search and Transfer for $1.1 Billion, Skype for $8.5 Billion and Yammer for $1.2 Billion\nIn the above examples I\u2019ve listed 12 companies that were sold for a total of $36,200,000,000. Just 12 Companies!\nAnd let\u2019s not even talk about the tech stocks which have floated on stock exchanges!\nAll of these companies have one thing in common, commerciality. Each requires a monetary transaction of some description to have been worth investing in or buying, in the first place. Now imagine a technology which facilitates the commerciality of all trade.\nThe current market cap of Bitcoins is around $300 Million. If bitcoins are a more commercial, more versatile and more readily traded tech stock (and they are), I don\u2019t think it\u2019s far fetched for bitcoin as a tech stock to be worth more than instagram. In that case their value should increase by 330%.\nIn fact I don\u2019t think its far fetched to suggest bitcoins are a more commercial, readily traded, versatile and also sustainable tech stock than all of the above combined, in which case they are under valued by 11900%. ie. They should be trading at $3284 per bitcoin.\nIn my mind it goes even further. Apple is a company that simply sells computers, phones and software, and its value peaked at around $650 Billion. I think this is a realistic market cap for Bitcoins to hit within 10 years, at a value per coin of $55,000 each.\nImagine again for a second that the general public could have invested and the ground level with each of the above companies, ala kick starter. With bitcoins they can, and what\u2019s more, this investment is more secure, more liquid, and more useful than any of the aforementioned investments could ever have been.\nBitcoins aren\u2019t just a digital currency, they are a tech stock", "id": "<urn:uuid:0aa35bd4-b0fb-4be5-8deb-f007f5e27676>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://vincesamios.com/bitcoins/bitcoins-are-a-tech-stock", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9589359164237976, "token_count": 780, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This page lists climate science and climate impact claims that have either not been proven, or have had the claim modified, moved, or expanded to protect the claimant from having to admit the original claim was wrong.\nThis will always be a work in progress. New items will be added as they are examined and will include:\n- The claim itself \u2013 what was stated as factual or predicted? A clear unambiguous statement, such as \u201c50 million climate refugees by 2010\u2033\n- Proof of the original claim \u2013 website, documents, photos, audio, video that clearly and unambiguously show the claim being made sometime in the past.\n- A test of the of the claim, and the results \u2013 website, documents, photos, audio, video that clearly and unambiguously show the claim not coming true or not meeting the claim.\n- Proof of change in the claim (if applicable) \u2013 often, when the claim fails to materialize, goalposts get moved, such as we saw with the \u201c50 million climate refugees\u201d story that was originally set with a due date of 2010, is now set for the year 2020.\nThe Claim: 50 million climate refugees will be produced by climate change by the year 2010. Especially hard hit will be river delta areas, and low lying islands in the Caribbean and Pacific. The UN 62nd General assembly in July 2008 said: \u2026it had been estimated that there would be between 50 million and 200 million environmental migrants by 2010.\nThe Test: Did population go down in these areas during that period, indicating climate refugees were on the move? The answer, no.\nThe Proof: Population actually gained in some Caribbean Island for which 2010 census figures were available. Then when challenged on these figures, the UN tried to hide the original claim from view. See: The UN \u201cdisappears\u201d 50 million climate refugees, then botches the disappearing attempt\nThe Change in claim: Now it is claimed that it will be 10 years into the future, and there will be 50 million refugees by the year 2020.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7a0bb173-9e03-4fcc-9bcf-ccc3aaa3e68a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wattsupwiththat.com/climate-fail-files/?like=1&source=post_flair&_wpnonce=8ef4095fcf", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9578114151954651, "token_count": 419, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Search for Certainty: A Philosophical Account of Foundations of Mathematics. Marcus Giaquinto. xii + 286 pp. Oxford University Press, 2002. $45.\nDavid Hilbert (1862\u20131943) was arguably the leading mathematician of his time. In struggles over how mathematics was to accommodate new understandings of the infinite, the Dutch mathematician L. E. J. Brouwer was his most fervent opponent. When Hilbert's favorite student, Hermann Weyl, went over to the enemy, saying \"Brouwer, that is the revolution,\" Hilbert was incensed. In a passionate address delivered in 1922, he proclaimed:\nWeyl and Brouwer . . . seek to provide a foundation for mathematics by pitching overboard whatever discomforts them and declaring an embargo. . . . But this would mean dismembering and mutilating our science, and, should we follow such reformers, we would run the risk of losing a large part of our most valued treasures. Weyl and Brouwer outlaw the general notion of irrational number, of function, even of number-theoretic function, Cantor's [ordinal] numbers of higher number classes, etc. The theorem that among infinitely many natural numbers there is always a least, and even the logical law of the excluded middle, e.g., in the assertion that either there are only finitely many prime numbers or there are infinitely many: these are examples of forbidden theorems and modes of inference. I believe that impotent as Kronecker was to abolish irrational numbers . . ., no less impotent will their efforts prove today. No! Brouwer's [program] is not as Weyl thinks, the revolution, but only a repetition of an attempted putsch with old methods, that in its day was undertaken with greater verve yet failed utterly. Especially today, when the state power is thoroughly armed and fortified by the work of Frege, Dedekind, and Cantor, these efforts are foredoomed to failure.\nA decade later Hilbert's own program for the foundations of mathematics lay in tatters, destroyed in an investigation by the young logician Kurt G\u00f6del, which had initially been undertaken in an effort to contribute to that very program. Today, passions have cooled, and working mathematicians show little interest in foundational matters. The infinitary set theoretic methods that occasioned such controversy are casually absorbed in passing by the beginning graduate student and used unhesitatingly.\nLike a military historian surveying the battlefield long after all the bodies have been cleared away, Marcus Giaquinto coolly revisits the controversies in The Search for Certainty. It all began with a necessary effort by mathematicians to put their house in order. Although the methods of the calculus had proved highly successful, their underlying logic had been in grave need of clarification. Calculus worked with numbers and functions, but no coherent theory of the so-called \"real\" numbers had been developed, and the notion of function had been stretched in the direction of a frightening arbitrariness. Richard Dedekind's elegant characterization of the real numbers in terms of \"cuts\" had a distinctly set-theoretic flavor, and Georg Cantor's new push into the \"actual\" infinite expanded the boundaries of the subject matter of mathematics into what Hilbert later characterized as \"Cantor's paradise.\" But Cantor's infinite was plagued by paradox. The kernel of at least one of these paradoxes could manifest itself in what seemed like everyday reasoning, as Bertrand Russell showed in his famous paradox: If we consider the set S of all those sets that are not members of themselves, then S is a member of itself if and only if it is not a member of itself. This was particularly bad news for Gottlob Frege, whose ambitious logical system for the foundations of mathematics proved vulnerable to Russell's paradox and was thus seen to be inconsistent.\nThe highly influential but rather baroque three-volume Principia Mathematica was Bertrand Russell's effort (with coauthor Alfred North Whitehead) to revive Frege's wrecked program. Paradoxes such as Russell's were to be avoided by slicing up the universe of mathematical discourse into discrete successive \"types,\" with set membership permitted only between adjacent types.\nMeanwhile, Ernst Zermelo, who never accepted the stringent syntactic demands of formal logical systems, proposed a set of axioms for set theory. By the 1920s, it was realized that Zermelo's axioms provided the basis of a formal system rivaling that of Principia. In an important paper appearing in 1930, Zermelo proposed what came to be called the iterative notion of set, in which a hierarchy of sets is built from some initial collection of things by iterating indefinitely the operation of forming the set of all subsets of a given set. He observed that his axioms could be construed as being about just this notion. A few years later, in an address on the foundations of mathematics, Kurt G\u00f6del emphasized that rather than being seen as a rival to Principia, when viewed from the perspective of the iterative notion of set Zermelo's system could be seen as the result of eliminating unnecessary complications and artificial restrictions from the Whitehead-Russell system. By the 1940s and '50s, set-theoretic methods had become a crucial part of the mathematician's toolbox.\nBack in the 1920s, when passions were aflame, Hilbert developed an ingenious strategy by which he intended to overcome his opponents. He would establish the legitimacy of methods that Brouwer and Weyl considered dubious by encapsulating those methods in formal systems whose consistency would then be proved using only methods of which they approved. In a revolutionary paper in 1931, the young G\u00f6del demonstrated not only that consistency could not be proved using only these restrictive methods, but also that the same negative conclusion held even if the entire panoply of methods encapsulated in the systems in question was brought to bear. After G\u00f6del, the foundations of mathematics were seen as inevitably open-ended, with more and more propositions becoming provable as ever more powerful methods were employed. G\u00f6del liked to emphasize that these more powerful methods could be thought of as being essentially a matter of venturing sufficiently far out in the iterative hierarchy of sets.\nGiaquinto has provided a careful and judicious discussion and analysis of these matters, supplying needed technical background for readers who are not mathematicians. Although foundational questions have ceased to be of much importance to most mathematicians, controversies among specialists continue. Readers of this book will be well prepared to follow the current literature on foundations of mathematics.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d0c3274e-596e-4fe9-aaf5-1f23b6006049>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/paradoxes-in-paradise", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9701634645462036, "token_count": 1360, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Mechanical engineers can visualize themselves easily in a buzzing power plant or by an old boiler, but how about flying in a sailboat or powerboat, ripping through gorgeous strands of blue sea? Boat design offers adventurous opportunities for those with a natural affinity for the water, to go along with critical thinking skills. William Lasher, professor of mechanical engineering at Pennsylvania State University, who has spent the last decade focused on sail dynamics, says this is a field that becomes passion as much as career.\n\"Yacht design, for example, puts you up against the structural issues of racing boats, focusing on incredibly complex loading conditions,\" Lasher explains. \"Show even a couple percent improvement in the speed and it's a major difference.\" Lasher utilizes finite element analysis, looking at areas such as hydrodynamic resistance of the boat in flat water versus performance in waves, or, for powerboats, the design of the propeller to correspond with the engine.\n\"When it comes to finite analysis, especially at the higher end of racing boats for structure, one of the places used a lot is in the design of keels,\" he says. \"They hang on the bottom of the boat and it serves the purpose of keeping it from slipping sideways but is made out of lead. Some more recent boats are using canting keels to swing the boat sidewise, shifting from one side to the other to get better stability while dealing with the loads on them. When you're doing that with tens of thousands of pounds, you need to get pretty exact.\"\nWhere It Begins\nLasher says design can often start with a blank sheet of paper. \"You're writing down the basic parameters of the boat: how long, wide, weight, how much sailing are you putting on it, what conditions are you sailing in,\" he says. A velocity prediction program is used to take these parameters and find an equilibrium balance between the forces on the sails and the forces on the hull.\nProfessor Lasher says that boat design can often start with a blank sheet of paper.\n\"The sails are trying to push it forward and sideways and the hull offers resistance,\" he says. \"And that's the most interesting thing about it\u2014how a very complex system interacts with everything else and it's hard to change one thing and not have it affect something else.\" It's the tradeoffs of constantly putting more sail on it, then needing more stability, he adds, or making the boat wider but then affecting the center of gravity. \"You're trying to improve the performance but dealing with the \u2018penalty of improvement.'\"\nFor cargo ships, Lasher says designing is adjusted more to the economic impact, trying to carry as much cargo as you can safely for the lifespan of the ship and safety of the passengers. \"These ships have tremendous loads and need to design a structure to support them; that's what's driving you when you consider the cost if your design is off,\" he says. \"I remember when I was a student we went to a Society of Naval Architects meeting and toured an SL7 (sealand ship) and went down below. You'd be just amazed by the six inch-thick metal plates, how much material goes into it \u2026 it's a lot to manage.\"\nWhere Do I Sign?\nBut how do you get involved? Lasher says a good way is to get a Master's degree in naval architecture as he did, feeling that combining this with a Bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering would give someone a good chance to pick up what boat designing requires. But you must also be committed to continuing to educate yourself long after the diplomas. \"There are a number of good books out that outline processes and techniques at various levels,\" he says. \"But the Bible is really Skene's Elements of Yacht Design revised by Kinney.\"\nFinally, Lasher says you'll need one more thing: patience. \"Someone once said to design a [large] ship you have to take the Empire State Building's structural issues, turn it on its side and run it through waves of 25 knots,\" he laughs. \"Now that's not an easy challenge!\"\nEric Butterman is an independent writer.\nSomeone once said to design a [large] ship you have to take the Empire State Building's structural issues, turn it on its side and run it through waves of 25 knots. Now that's not an easy challenge!\nWilliam Lasher, professor of mechanical engineering, Penn State University\nMore on this topic\nHerbert Mehnert, vice president of engineering for Thomas Built Buses, and Bruce Miles, an engineer for Blue Bird, give us insight into where buses ...\nImprovements in automotive design, alternative fuels, and IT and wireless technology, combined with stricter federal regulations, are driving research ...", "id": "<urn:uuid:3f58e2bd-e8ac-4b2b-849a-bb4d2470abb6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.asme.org/kb/news---articles/articles/transportation/boat-design--an-open-sea-for-mechanical-engineers", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9693748354911804, "token_count": 974, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Saint ZachariasArticle Free Pass\nSaint Zacharias, English Zachary (born , San Severino, duchy of Benevento [Italy]\u2014died March 14/22, 752, Rome; feast day March 15), pope from 741 to 752.\nThe last of the Greek popes, Zacharias was supposedly a Roman deacon when he succeeded Pope St. Gregory III in November/December 741. His pontificate was devoted to diplomatic relations with the Lombard and Frankish kingdoms and with the Byzantine Empire. He initiated a policy of conciliation with the Lombards while endeavouring to dissuade their rulers, Liutprand and Rachis, from conquering the Byzantine exarchate of Ravenna. Successful, he thus made peace with the Lombards. He maintained amiable relations with the Byzantine emperor Constantine V Copronymus, whom he advised to restore the veneration of icons.\nZacharias\u2019s relations with the Franks were similarly cordial, and his correspondence with St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, shows how great his influence was on contemporary events in the Frankish kingdom. In 741 he made Boniface legate and charged him with the reformation of the whole Frankish church. He supported the deposition (751\u2013752) of Childeric III, the last Merovingian king, and authorized the Frankish church to anoint Pippin III the Short as king of the Franks. Zacharias\u2019s action in the transference of the royal crown from the Merovingians to the house of Pippin (Carolingians) began a new era for church and state by establishing the Carolingian-papal alliance, which was to be of the greatest significance in future relations between pope and emperor and was of extreme importance to the theorists and controversialists of the Investiture Controversy (11th and 12th centuries). The latter dispute concerned secular rulers\u2019 right to invest bishops and abbots, which right became one of the paramount aspects in the struggle for power between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire.\nZacharias is known especially in the East for his Greek translation of the Dialogues of Pope St. Gregory I the Great.\nWhat made you want to look up \"Saint Zacharias\"? Please share what surprised you most...", "id": "<urn:uuid:ad845442-0f1d-4c4c-aa56-96d5ae240e38>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/655267/Saint-Zacharias", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9628714919090271, "token_count": 488, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "North American Dipteran Pollinators: Assessing Their Value and Conservation Status\nCarol Ann Kearns, University of Colorado at Boulder\nFull Text: HTML\nRecent attention to pollinator declines has focused largely on bees and vertebrates. However, few pollination systems are obligate, and pollinators that complement the role of bees may respond differently to environmental disturbance. The conservation status of North American fly pollinators remains undocumented. In this paper, methods for monitoring shifts in dipteran pollinator abundance are discussed. The need for further basic research into pollination by flies is addressed, and the significance of dipteran conservation is considered.\nanthophilous flies, anthropogenic disturbance, conservation, Diptera, Dipteran conservation, generalist pollinators, North America, pollination, pollinator declines, population fluctuation, redundant pollination systems\nEcology and Society. ISSN: 1708-3087", "id": "<urn:uuid:8e123884-c467-4f6b-ab9d-bbf9180b1741>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/issues/article.php/262", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8571256399154663, "token_count": 187, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "ECU faculty, students work to authenticate Wright brothers artifact\n(Apr. 22, 2008)\nWhen the Wright Brothers moved to Kitty Hawk to follow the wind more than a century ago, they brought limited household supplies. Their thoughts seemed to be focused more on glider materials at first than basic goods to get their \u201ccamp\u201d established.\nOne of the crates that shipped supplies to \u201cW. Wright, Elizabeth City, North Carolina\u201d is believed to have been recycled by the Wrights to create the top of a wooden kitchen table, which resurfaced last month in Kitty Hawk.\nA leading Wright brothers authority, Dr. Larry Tise, and several of his students at East Carolina University have worked since that time to analyze and authenticate the history of the small wooden table.\nThe table will be shown publicly for the first time April 24 at the Wright Brothers National Memorial site in Kill Devil Hills. It will be presented during a public program at 7 p.m., when Tise and his students will discuss their research and findings on the little known secret flights of the Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk in May 1908.\nTise, the Wilbur & Orville Wright Distinguished Professor of History in the Thomas Harriot College of Arts and Sciences, is author of the 2005 work, \u201cHidden Images: Discovering Details in the Wright Brothers\u2019 Kitty Hawk Photographs 1900-1911.\u201d In that book, Tise used modern computer technology to magnify and examine small areas of the black and white photos made by the Wright brothers to document their life and quest for flight while conducting experiments at Kitty Hawk.\nTise admitted he was skeptical when he was first contacted about the table by a Kill Devil Hills resident, but after close examination and further study, he said he is positive it is the same table shown in 1902 photographs of the Wright brothers\u2019 living quarters.\nHow Ron Ciarmello, an Outer Banks jeweler, came to own the table is almost unbelievable: He answered a classified ad earlier this year.\nA self-described aviation enthusiast, Ciarmello said he spotted the ad and called the telephone number. The person selling the table said her family had it for about a century and had used it through the years in the family laundry room and as a utility table in a family-operated barber shop. The family was moving and had decided to sell it. Ciarmello in his own research located a photo with the table in it on the Library of Congress Website.\nCiarmello contacted Tise after seeing his book at the Wright Brothers National Memorial gift shop and finding that the book contained a second image of the table.\nTise asked Ciarmello to send him digital images of the table. \u201cWhen I saw the photos, I was 70 percent sure it was the table, but I wanted to see it in person,\u201d Tise said.\nTise travelled to Kitty Hawk and met Ciarmello at the home of Bill Harris, whose grandfather welcomed the Wright brothers to the Outer Banks in 1900. \u201cBill has vast knowledge of the families in the area for the past century, which was quite helpful. We examined and studied the table for almost three hours. The more we looked, the more we decided this could not be a fluke,\u201d Tise said.\nThe table consists of three \u201cconvincing\u201d components: the legs are from a pre-existing writing table and the top is made from the sides of a shipping crate and two remnants of ash rib material used by the Wrights to build their gliders.\n\u201cThe different types of wood combined with the shipping label, a distinctive exposed nail that can be seen in the photos which is in the same place in the table, it was exciting to put all the evidence together,\u201d Tise said. The way the shipping crate has been addressed to Wilbur Wright was consistent with others that had been documented previously by Tise.\nAs for the future of the table, Ciarmello said he would like for it to be permanently displayed", "id": "<urn:uuid:89e9243b-37c9-4bda-9ebc-3c110a7619b1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ecu.edu/news/newsstory.cfm?ID=1341", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9687954187393188, "token_count": 834, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Everybody knows the most famous vacation destination in Europe. But Rimini, or better ancient Ariminum, is also a city of art with over 22 centuries of history.\nRimini is a Roman city and certainly not just any old city, but one of the most important of ancient Rome. The official date of its founding is 268 BC when the Senate of Rome sent 6000 colonists to establish a new settlement there which took the name of the river Marecchia (Ariminus).\nIn the beginning it was a strategic settlement. Then (90 BC) it became a \u201cmunicipium\u201d, and finally a blossoming city of the Roman empire, with a grand forum (piazza Tre Martiri), two central streets - the cardo maximus (via Garibaldi and IV Novembre) and the decumanus maximus (corso d\u2019Augusto) \u2013 and triumphal monuments: the Tiberus Bridge and Augustus\u2019s Arch. And let\u2019s not forget a rarity: the Surgeon\u2019s Domus, a unique medical clinic from the ancient Roman world, miraculously still intact in 2011 AD.\nAmong the great works decided upon by the Senate of Rome, there are the two Roman roads: the via Flaminia and the via Emilia. The first connects Rome to Rimini and ends at Augustus\u2019s Arch. The via Emilia starts at the Tiberus Bridge and runs 100 km to Piacenza.\nIt is a delight to walk among these historic places where cars are not allowed and every five minutes you run into a monument. To begin to get to know Roman Rimini, you must begin at Augustus\u2019s Arch, the most ancient of the surviving Roman arches. Located in a strategic position \u2013 marking the end of the via Flaminia \u2013 it was commissioned by Emperor Augustus in 27 BC.\nThe tour continues with the Tiberus Bridge. One of the most noteworthy Roman bridges still around, began by Augustus in 14 AD and completed by Tiberus in 21 AD, it is impressive because of its architectonic design, the size of its structures and the building technique used.\nNot many people know it, but this city also had a large amphitheater \u2013 only the Coliseum was larger \u2013 that was always crowded and held more than 12,000 spectators, with only 1800 seats not covered. Here a convent and other buildings were built. Today, only the ruins of the amphitheater on the side nearest the sea are visible. Guided tours of the site are organized by the City Museum.\nThe grand finale of the tour must not be missed: a stop in piazza Ferrari at the little Rimini Pompei, the archeological site called the Surgeon\u2019s Domus. This exceptional archeological find was discovered right here: it held the most complete surgical toolset from the Roman era found to date.\nFirst visitors will be astonished by the 700 square meter archeological area in which the working instruments of a surgeon who worked inside a house of Ariminum in the 3rd century, used in part for practicing medicine and as a pharmacy, were found.\nAn excavation that the architectonic work protects and emphasizes available for all passersby to see. The structure is set into the urban space around it, integrating itself into the garden of piazza Ferrari. On the inside there is a system of transparent walkways, suspended over the ancient structures, making it easier to visit them.\nLuck would have it that the Domus is located right next to the Museum, which makes up an important part of the tour of this site. The City Museum houses, in fact, the exceptional surgical instruments found in the domus.\nFor tourist information:", "id": "<urn:uuid:3c580d13-fbea-4304-8029-9459ca3b76ee>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.emiliaromagnaturismo.com/en/art-cities/roman-rimini.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9498595595359802, "token_count": 771, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Nephila jurassica: The biggest spider fossil ever found\nSpiders are small arthropods, famous for their elasticity, strength and web-making abilities. For some people, spiders are not welcome in the home; as soon as they see one crawling on the ceiling, the first thought that comes to mind is to swat it at once.\nBut spiders predate us humans by a long way. And while sometimes spiders are tiny creatures, a team of scientists has discovered the largest spider fossil ever in a layer of volcanic ash in Ningcheng County, Inner Mongolia, China. The research was carried out by Paleontologist Professor Paul Selden, of the University of Kansas, with his team.\nNamed Nephila jurassica, this 165-million-year-old fossil is 2.5 cm in length and has a leg span of almost 9 cm. It is currently the largest known fossilized spider, and is from the family known as Nephilidae, the largest web-weaving spiders alive today.\nAccording to research published online in the 20th April, 2011 issue of Biology Letters, this prehistoric spider was female and shows characteristics of the golden orb weaver. Widespread in warmer regions, the golden silk orb weavers are well-known for the fabulous webs they weave. Females of this family weave the largest orb webs known.\n\"When I first saw it, I immediately realized that it was very unique not only because of its size, but also because the preservation was excellent,\" said ChungKun Shih, study co-author, and a visiting professor at Capital Normal University in Beijing, China.\nAccording to a press release: \u201cThis fossil finding provides evidence that golden orb-webs were being woven and capturing medium to large insects in Jurassic times, and predation by these spiders would have played an important role in the natural selection of contemporaneous insects.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:ebf1e23a-64f0-4797-ad9b-c0061d55824d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/paleontology/news-nephila-jurassica-golden-orb-weaver-spider-middle-jurassic-discovered-china", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9730088710784912, "token_count": 390, "score": 3.640625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Egg Matrix\nCreating a Ubiquitous Information Architecture and Designing Across Devices\nThe Egg Matrix is a tool for planning content, features, and scenarios when creating an information architecture that will exist across multiple devices and touch points.\nWhere Did the Idea Come From?\nIn college, I had an environmental design professor who described the field as such:\nArchitecture is the profession that designs the shell or the structure of the built environment. Interior design is the profession that designs the interactions and spaces inside that built environment. Landscape architecture is the profession that designs the space outside this structure.\nEnvironmental design encompasses all three, studying our interactions with the built environment, how we move through it, how we move around it, how we integrate with the natural environment, and so on.\nI always had the idea of an egg in my head, in part because he described architecture as being like a shell of sorts, and partially because we talked a lot about animal habitats and homes.\nEnvironmental design is a human-centered design discipline that covers our physical surroundings. It considers the shared ecology between places and spaces, interiors and exteriors, the mechanic and the organic. Many of the same principles and ideals carry over into the digital space.\nWhen the Digital World Spills Over into the Physical World\nWhen we design for digital spaces today, it\u2019s no longer safe to assume that the majority of our users will access our information from a similar static setup in an office or home. Digital information travels freely now between devices, locations, and online and offline habitats. In fact, it\u2019s nearly impossible to know the context or situation that surrounds each of our users.\nIt also seems likely that even before we have mastered the art of designing across desktop and mobile platforms, we will find ourselves creating spaces in cars, kiosks, mirrors, table tops, refrigerators, and many other devices. There is no set of rules that tells us how to create the right mix of content and features so that our users will have a seamless experience whenever and wherever they access our information.\nThe Egg Matrix\nThe Egg Matrix is my attempt to create a tool for cataloging the different forces that should be considered when determining the architecture, features, and overall design of a multi-device experience. My hope is that it is flexible enough to be applicable to topical challenges, like designing for mobile vs desktop spaces, but that it also will encompass future needs, such as television or in-car apps.\nThe concept is simple. There is a subset of the experience (the egg) that you can directly control. You are responsible for the structure, the content, the messaging, and the interaction that goes into your design. There are also two equally important forces at play that contribute to the experience and overall success of what you\u2019ve designed. There is the internal composition of the user (the yolk) and the extrinsic environment that the experience takes place in (the nest). You might be able to influence certain aspects of both areas, and you might be able to design around certain scenarios, but you\u2019ll never be responsible for the creation of these realms.\nBy breaking each area down into individual factors, you\u2019ll be able to create a better model for your structure. I\u2019ve broken each field out into the initial factors that I thought were most crucial, but there is certainly room for expansion, refinement, and feedback.\nStart with a single node of content, and build out from there. What features are needed to interact with that content? How often is the content accessed by the user? What possible contexts might the user be in when accessing the content? What belief systems might he or she be bringing to the experience?\nThe breakdown currently is as follows:\nThe Nest covers environment, location, context, and locomotion.\nThe Egg covers message, content, task, frequency, urgency, privacy, intimacy, tracking, and measurement.\nThe Yolk covers motivations, needs, desires, and knowledge.\nYou may find yourself creating multiple columns for a single content node to cover the array of possible touch points or devices your users might encounter.\nI included a section called \u201cmessaging.\u201d This may relate to a marketing campaign, a company brand message, or a common slogan. It\u2019s important the spaces you design don\u2019t contradict the messaging being broadcast to users.\nI\u2019ve also included fields for noting tracking and measurements. These are for listing how you plan to measure the experience and what measurement points you\u2019re going to look for.\nHow Do You Know If The Model Is Working?\nLike any other model, it has to be put into action and tested. Fortunately, this \u201cmodel\u201d can be tested in several ways. You can gather feed and ask questions of users. You can create a prototype to test. When you\u2019re satisfied with the performance of a prototype, you can design the real deal, and then continue to make refinements with ongoing feedback.\nI\u2019ve listed the Egg Matrix worksheet here so that others can download it, play around with it, refine it, and provide feedback.", "id": "<urn:uuid:94adb4e6-6593-4668-8a02-dc3fa4c6afd2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.flatfrogblog.com/2011/05/25/egg-matrix/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9373095035552979, "token_count": 1060, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Provide the child with a special notebook just for homework assignments. Nothing else is to be written in this notebook.\n- When homework assignments are completed, the work is put into the special notebook so it can be turned in at school.\n- Ask teachers to send a note home with the homework assignmnet which parents must sign and return.\nIt is best to have the child do his/her homework at the same time every day. Meals and bedtime are at regular times, and giving homework the same consideration gives it equal importance. Work should usually come before play, especially is the child is having difficulty remembering or completing assignments. A half hour after arriving home from school gives children time for a snack, but not time to get involved in other activities.\nSTUDY HABITS BEGIN AT AN EARLY AGE\nGood study habits should begin in the first grade. Insist no radio or television be playing while the child is doing homework. Studies have repeatedly shown the most people learn better in a quiet atmosphere. Be willing to help, but don't do your child's work.\n- Use a homework notebook.\n- Set a regular time for doing homework.\n- Check and approve homework before the child goes out to play.", "id": "<urn:uuid:67117094-7cf7-4ac9-a0b5-ac8454f9fbeb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.forsythr3.k12.mo.us/cms/one.aspx?PortalId=220088&pageId=2845910", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9490578174591064, "token_count": 255, "score": 3.609375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "QUESTION: I ran a virus scan and my program turned up a bunch of things it labeled \"third-party\" cookies. What are these?\nANSWER: When you visit most websites, they place cookies on your browser. These are small bits of data that store your site settings for future visits. This is why you don't have to constantly log into Facebook any time you browse to a new Facebook page. Those are first-party cookies. Third-party cookies are when an advertiser or other third-party service on a site places a cookie. These can often be related to advertising tracking, so it's best to opt out of them in your browser. Try a service like SelectOut.\nQ: I bought a new computer to replace my 6-year-old desktop. Should I just throw out the old one?\nA: No, no and no! Computers contain hazardous materials that make it dangerous to just throw them out. Instead, you could try recycling it with help from a site like Earth911. It will tell you where you can take it and any special considerations. Of course, you could give it to a friend or family member that needs a PC, too. Just remember to completely wipe your personal information. .\nQ: I just gave my teenage daughter her first cell phone. What can I do to make sure she's not visiting any adult sites with it?\nA: If she does most of her surfing on the house's Wi-Fi, you can use OpenDNS. It filters content at your network router so it protects her from inappropriate sites no matter what gadget she surfs on. If she starts using her gadget's 3G or 4G connection to circumvent those blocks, you can download a filtering browser like Bsecure. On iPhones, however, Apple doesn't have an official way to change the default browser from Safari. You should have a chat with your daughter and make sure she knows what sites are appropriate.\nQ: I keep seeing online that people recommend buying solid-state hard drives instead of conventional drives. What's the point?\nA: A solid-state drive is a little brick of flash memory, like a large USB drive. SSDs can make a laptop faster, lighter and more energy efficient. The catch is they can raise the price of a laptop $200 to $300 and they usually don't offer a lot of storage. If you want a performance boost and don't store too many large files on your computer, it's a good upgrade. If you have a lot to store, or need a less expensive option, stick with a conventional drive.\nQ: Someone told me the photos I take on my smartphone are geotagged. What does this mean?\nA: Geotagging means your smartphone's GPS attaches a location to the photos you snap. Your photos are tagged with other revealing information, too. You can turn your smartphone's GPS off to stop this. However, that might mess with other useful location services work. If you don't want to keep turning location services on and off, you can use an app like Pixelgarde to strip the GPS data out of photos before you post them online.\nKim Komando hosts the nation's largest talk radio show about computers: www.komando.com/listen.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b669ce23-a0b7-43ec-b28d-777380a4e7b4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.freep.com/article/20130129/NEWS09/301290011/-1/7daysarchives/Kim-Komando-Computer-cookies-carry-ads-can-removed", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9542810916900635, "token_count": 673, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1852 Vuillemin Map of Spain and Portugal\nDescription: An uncommon and extremely attractive 1852 map of Iberia or Spain and Portugal by A. Vuillemin. The map covers all of Spain and Portugal from France to the Mediterranean Sea and includes the Balearic Islands of Ibiza, Majorca, and Minorca. Throughout, the map identifies various cities, towns, rivers and assortment of additional topographical details. As this map was drawn the Spanish prime minister Juan Bravo Murillo was dismissed form office . Liberal sentiments within Spain were growing rapidly, leading to the Progressive Biennium, in which the Progressive Party tried to replace the conservative liberalism of the Moderate Party and advocated radical liberalism. The map features a beautiful frame style border. Prepared by A. Vuillemin for publication as plate no. 16 in the 1852 Maison Basset edition of Atlas Illustre Destine a l'enseignement de la Geographie elementaire.\nDate: 1852 (undated)\nSource: Barbie du Bocage, J. D., Atlas Illustre Destine a l'Enseignement de la Geographie Elementaire, (Paris: Maison Basset) 1852.\nCartographer: Alexandre Vuillemin (1812-1880) was a cartographer and an book editor based in Paris, France. Despite a prolific cartographic career, much of Vuillemin's life is shrouded in mystery. What is known is that his studied under the prominent French Auguste Henri Dufour (1798-1865). Vuillemin's most important work his detailed, highly decorative large format Atlas Illustre de Geographie Commerciale et Industrielle. Click here for a list of rare maps from Alexandre Vuillemin.\nCartographer: Jean Denis Barbie du Bocage (1760 - 1825) and his son Jean-Guillaume Barbie du Bocage (1795 - 1848) were French cartographers and cosmographers active in Paris during late 18th and early 19th centuries. The elder Barbie du Bocage, Jean Denis, was trained as a cartographer and engraver in the workshops of mapmaking legend J. B. B. d'Anville. At some point Jean Denis held the post of Royal Librarian of France and it was through is associations with d'Anville that the d'Anville collection of nearly 9000 maps was acquired by French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The younger Barbie du Bocage, Jean-Guillaume, acquired a position shortly afterwards at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and, in time, became its head, with the title of Geographe du Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres. Click here for a list of rare maps by the Barbie du Bocage family.\nSize: Printed area measures 13 in height x 10 inches in width (33.02 x 25.4 centimeters)\nCondition: Very good. Blank on verso. Map exhibits some soiling and toning, especially to margins.\nCode: SpainPortugal-vuillemin-1852 (to order by phone call: 646-320-8650)\n\u00a9 Geographicus Rare Antique Maps, Kevin Brown, 22/5/2013", "id": "<urn:uuid:bb576c90-c829-439b-a50a-1ee52b18703d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.geographicus.com/mm5/merchant.mvc?Screen=PROD2&Store_Code=AntiqueMaps&Product_Code=SpainPortugal-vuillemin-1852", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8857452273368835, "token_count": 669, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "BERKELEY LAKE - The term \"summer camp\" usually conjures images of outdoor play and physical activity.\nHowever, these assumptions are false when it comes to Camp Invention, a summer day camp focused on hands-on education.\nThe nationally acclaimed camp is a weeklong program for rising first- through sixth-graders that combines science and creativity to open up kids' minds and broaden their horizons.\nCamp Invention uses hands-on activities that teach kids to use their imaginations to invent solutions to problems.\nThe camp consists of five modules to help accomplish this feat. These modules, or classes, encourage kids to take apart used appliances, and then recycle the different parts to create something new.\nEach module focuses on something different, and the focus ranges from transportation to alien invasion.\nThe unique idea for Camp Invention was developed by the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1990. The camp began as a summer program taking place in two elementary schools, but has since grown to reach more than 800 schools in 46 states.\nIn Georgia, Camp Invention takes place at several elementary schools throughout the summer.\nAt Berkeley Lake Elementary School, students and staff Friday finished a successful week at Camp Invention.\nDirector Kathy Bentley said the camp concentrates on bringing the participants creative, problem-solving experiences that don't involve homework, tests or worksheets.\n\"The kids think of things in different ways here,\" Bentley said. \"They have fun with the hands-on activities.\"\nIn the \"Wild Blue Y'Under\" module, campers created different modes of transportation.\nSixth-grader Parker Cutler, and her team, the \"Motorgirlz,\" were trying to invent a rolling car that would be faster than the other team's creations.\nTo make their car, the girls and their fellow campers were using supplies from a large table of appliance parts.\n\"We get to use our imagination for these projects,\" Cutler said.\nCutler's friend, fifth-grader Hayley Williams, agreed.\n\"You can create anything you want,\" Williams said. \"There are no limits.\"\nThe Motorgirlz collectively decided heavier cars rolled faster, so were determined to create a heavy, unique car.\n\"The teacher gives you a general idea about the project,\" Cutler said. \"But you get to make whatever you want.\"\nJust down the hall, in the \"I Can Invent Module,\" third-grader Olivia Johnson was surrounded by appliance parts as she concentrated on creating a robot.\n\"I want to make a robot that can cook,\" Johnson said. \"So he can help my mom cook when she is too tired.\"\nJohnson was using the cover pieces from a portable CD player for the robot's head, and the case of a graphic calculator as one of the robot's arms.\nJohnson said her favorite part of camp is taking appliances apart.\n\"You get to see things you never knew about,\" Johnson said.\nThird-grader Blake Davis was also working hard on his own invention. Davis was trying to create a shocking device.\nCamp Invention has stringent safety regulations, so none of the supplies Davis used in his device carry an electric charge.\nHowever, Davis used his imagination to overcome his creation's physical short comings.\n\"This is to shock annoying people,\" Davis said, as he described his invention.\nAt Camp Invention, participants also get a taste of forensic science as they investigate a pretend crime scene.\nIn the \"Solve It\" Module, campers are encouraged to be detectives and discover who stole an inventor's log.\n\"The kids get really serious and are very observant,\" Bentley said. \"They focus on putting information together.\"\nJack Kraus, a second-grader, said the crime scene investigation was his favorite part of Camp Invention.\n\"I like finding out different clues,\" Kraus said.\nWith it's unique approach, it's no surprise Camp Invention continues to grow and attract more campers.\n\"The program appeals to a wide range of kids,\" Bentley said. \"Everyone can be successful at Camp Invention.\"\nMost people don't expect summer camp to be a haven of knowledge and scientific discovery. But then again, most people don't usually expect science and learning to be so much fun.\nWhen asked about her favorite part of Camp Invention, fifth-grader Sarah Krix couldn't decide.\n\"I can't choose,\" Krix said. \"It's all fun and I like everything about it.\"\nCamp Invention is clearly breaking the mold for both science and summer camps alike.\nTodd Bentley, a staff member at Camp Invention, said he loves seeing the kids be inventive and create new things.\nWhen asked to describe Camp Invention, Todd Bentley smiled and said, \"It's educational fun in disguise.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:f2df17b0-4997-4d8d-b7b9-ad4ca32a1051>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.gwinnettdailypost.com/news/2007/jun/09/summer-camp-combines-science-creative-thinking/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9726802110671997, "token_count": 991, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cleopatra, queen of Egypt and lover of Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, takes her life following the defeat of her forces against Octavian, the future first emperor of Rome.\nCleopatra, born in 69 B.C., was made Cleopatra VII, queen of Egypt, upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII, in 51 B.C. Her brother was made King Ptolemy XIII at the same time, and the siblings ruled Egypt under the formal title of husband and wife. Cleopatra and Ptolemy were members of the Macedonian dynasty that governed Egypt since the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. Although Cleopatra had no Egyptian blood, she alone in her ruling house learned Egyptian. To further her influence over the Egyptian people, she was also proclaimed the daughter of Re, the Egyptian sun god. Cleopatra soon fell into dispute with her brother, and civil war erupted in 48 B.C.\nRome, the greatest power in the Western world, was also beset by civil war at the time. Just as Cleopatra was preparing to attack her brother with a large Arab army, the Roman civil war spilled into Egypt. Pompey the Great, defeated by Julius Caesar in Greece, fled to Egypt seeking solace but was immediately murdered by agents of Ptolemy XIII. Caesar arrived in Alexandria soon after and, finding his enemy dead, decided to restore order in Egypt.\nDuring the preceding century, Rome had exercised increasing control over the rich Egyptian kingdom, and Cleopatra sought to advance her political aims by winning the favor of Caesar. She traveled to the royal palace in Alexandria and was allegedly carried to Caesar rolled in a rug, which was offered as a gift. Cleopatra, beautiful and alluring, captivated the powerful Roman leader, and he agreed to intercede in the Egyptian civil war on her behalf.\nIn 47 B.C., Ptolemy XIII was killed after a defeat against Caesar's forces, and Cleopatra was made dual ruler with another brother, Ptolemy XIV. Julius and Cleopatra spent several amorous weeks together, and then Caesar departed for Asia Minor, where he declared \"Veni, vidi, vici\" (I came, I saw, I conquered), after putting down a rebellion. In June 47 B.C., Cleopatra bore a son, whom she claimed was Caesar's and named Caesarion, meaning \"little Caesar.\"\nUpon Caesar's triumphant return to Rome, Cleopatra and Caesarion joined him there. Under the auspices of negotiating a treaty with Rome, Cleopatra lived discretely in a villa that Caesar owned outside the capital. After Caesar was assassinated in March 44 B.C., she returned to Egypt. Soon after, Ptolemy XIV died, likely poisoned by Cleopatra, and the queen made her son co-ruler with her as Ptolemy XV Caesar.\nWith Julius Caesar's murder, Rome again fell into civil war, which was temporarily resolved in 43 B.C. with the formation of the second triumvirate, made up of Octavian, Caesar's great-nephew and chosen heir; Mark Antony, a powerful general; and Lepidus, a Roman statesman. Antony took up the administration of the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, and he summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus, in Asia Minor, to answer charges that she had aided his enemies.\nCleopatra sought to seduce Antony, as she had Caesar before him, and in 41 B.C. arrived in Tarsus on a magnificent river barge, dressed as Venus, the Roman god of love. Successful in her efforts, Antony returned with her to Alexandria, where they spent the winter in debauchery. In 40 B.C., Antony returned to Rome and married Octavian's sister Octavia in an effort to mend his strained alliance with Octavian. The triumvirate, however, continued to deteriorate. In 37 B.C., Antony separated from Octavia and traveled east, arranging for Cleopatra to join him in Syria. In their time apart, Cleopatra had borne him twins, a son and a daughter. According to Octavian's propagandists, the lovers were then married, which violated the Roman law restricting Romans from marrying foreigners.\nAntony's disastrous military campaign against Parthia in 36 B.C. further reduced his prestige, but in 34 B.C. he was more successful against Armenia. To celebrate the victory, he staged a triumphal procession through the streets of Alexandria, in which he and Cleopatra sat on golden thrones, and Caesarion and their children were given imposing royal titles. Many in Rome, spurred on by Octavian, interpreted the spectacle as a sign that Antony intended to deliver the Roman Empire into alien hands.\nAfter several more years of tension and propaganda attacks, Octavian declared war against Cleopatra, and therefore Antony, in 31 B.C. Enemies of Octavian rallied to Antony's side, but Octavian's brilliant military commanders gained early successes against his forces. On September 2, 31 B.C., their fleets clashed at Actium in Greece. After heavy fighting, Cleopatra broke from the engagement and set course for Egypt with 60 of her ships. Antony then broke through the enemy line and followed her. The disheartened fleet that remained surrendered to Octavian. One week later, Antony's land forces surrendered.\nAlthough they had suffered a decisive defeat, it was nearly a year before Octavian reached Alexandria and again defeated Antony. In the aftermath of the battle, Cleopatra took refuge in the mausoleum she had commissioned for herself. Antony, informed that Cleopatra was dead, stabbed himself with his sword. Before he died, another messenger arrived, saying Cleopatra still lived. Antony had himself carried to Cleopatra's retreat, where he died after bidding her to make her peace with Octavian. When the triumphant Roman arrived, she attempted to seduce him, but he resisted her charms. Rather than fall under Octavian's domination, Cleopatra committed suicide on August 30, 30 B.C., possibly by means of an asp, a poisonous Egyptian serpent and symbol of divine royalty.\nOctavian then executed her son Caesarion, annexed Egypt into the Roman Empire, and used Cleopatra's treasure to pay off his veterans. In 27 B.C., Octavian became Augustus, the first and arguably most successful of all Roman emperors. He ruled a peaceful, prosperous, and expanding Roman Empire until his death in 14 A.D. at the age of 75.", "id": "<urn:uuid:299ef7cb-3829-4f4b-87d9-ff022fe5d13d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/cleopatra-commits-suicide", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.977250337600708, "token_count": 1406, "score": 3.453125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Medical Foods Policy and Regulatory Developments\nGlobal Policy and Regulatory Medical Foods Developments\n- Codex Alimentarius was created by FAO and WHO in 1963 to develop food standards and guidelines, as well as related texts such as codes of practice under the Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme. The Codex Alimentarius Commission aims to protect consumer health, ensure fair trade practices, and promote coordination of all food standards work undertaken by international governmental and non-governmental organizations.\n- The Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses agreed to develop guidelines on labeling and claims for medical foods in 1980 and accepted the offer of the United States to prepare a set of proposed draft guidelines for consideration at the next session in 1982. Report of the Twelfth Session of Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 81/26.\n- The draft guidelines on labeling and claims for medical foods prepared by the United States were discussed at the 1982 meeting. Report of the Thirteenth Session of Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 83/26.\n- The draft guidelines on labeling and claims for medical foods prepared by the United States were also discussed at the 1985 meeting. Report of the Fourteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 85/26.\n- The Committee developed a standard instead of a guideline in 1987 and agreed to use \u201cfoods for special medical purposes\u201d instead of \u201cmedical foods.\u201d The Proposed Draft Standard was submitted for step 3 comment. Report of the Fifteenth Session of Codex Committee on Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 87/26.\n- The Proposed Draft Standard was submitted to the 1989 session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission for adoption as a draft standard. Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 89/26.\n- The Committee decided essential information for health professionals should be on the label but was not necessary for consumer labeling. Report of the Meeting of Intergovenmental Working Groups (CX/FSDU 87) and Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 89/26.\n- Medical foods were to be labeled in accordance with the Codex\u2019s \u201cGeneral Standard for the Labelling of and Claims for Foods for Special Dietary Uses.\u201d Codex Alimentarius Committee on Codex General Standard for Labeling of and Claims for Foods for Special Dietary Uses (1985).\n- Certain additional provisions were required for labeling medical foods. Specifically, medical foods must label the energy value and the content of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals, and if applicable, amino acids or essential fatty acids. Osmolality and acid-base balance, where appropriate, must also be on the label. Report of the Sixteenth Session of the Codex Committee on Nutrition and Foods for Special Dietary Uses, ALINORM 89/26.\nNational Policy and Regulatory Medical Foods Developments\n- Defines a \u201cfood for special dietary use\u201d as a food that has been specially processed or formulated to meet the particular requirements of a person: (a) in whom a physical or physiological condition exists as a result of a disease, disorder, or injury; or (b) for whom a particular effect, including but not limited to weight loss, is to be obtained by a controlled intake of food. 9.9 Foods for Special Dietary Use [Division 24, FDR]\n- Compiles European Union rulings and resources relating to foods for special medical purposes.\n- Vitamin-Mineral Amendments, Pub. L. No. 94-278 (1976)\n- Prohibited the FDA from classifying vitamin and mineral supplements as drugs based solely on their combinations or potency, unless drug claims were made. The legislation also incorporated FDA\u2019s 1941 definition of special dietary use into the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act.\n- Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, Pub. L. No. 75-717, \u00a7 201 (f), (g), 52 Stat. 1040, 1041 (1938), as amended 21 U.S.C \u00a7 321 (f), (g) (1982)\n- Medical foods were regulated as drugs prior to 1972 according to Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, 21 U.S.C.321(g)(1)(B).\n- Orphan Drug Act, Pub. Law. 97-114 (1983)\n- Congress amended Orphan Drug Act to formally define a medical food in 1988; reaffirmed in 1992, and again in 1996.\n- Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990 and subsequent amendments give the FDA authority to require nutrition labeling of most packaged foods regulated by FDA and requires all nutrient claims and health claims meet FDA regulations. The legislation incorporated the definition of medical foods from the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act and exempted medical foods from nutrition labeling, health and nutrient claim requirements, and identified five criteria characteristics of medical food (21 CFR 101.9(J)(8)). FDA incorporated the statutory medical food definition of this Act into 21 U.S.C.343. FDA provided guidance on medical foods indicating that Section 101.9(j)(8) exempted medical foods from nutrition labeling, nutrient content claims, and health claim regulations if the product is:\n- Specially formulated and processed product for the partial or exclusive feeding of a patient by means of oral intake or enteral feeding by tube;\n- Intended for the dietary management of a patient who, because of therapeutic or chronic medical needs, has limited or impaired capacity to ingest, digest, absorb, or metabolize ordinary foodstuffs or certain nutrients, or who has other special medically determined nutrient requirements, the dietary management of which cannot be achieved by the modification of the normal diet alone;\n- Provides nutritional support specifically modified for the management of the unique nutrient needs that result from the specific disease or condition as determined by medical evaluation;\n- Intended to be used under a medical physician\u2019s supervision; and\n- Intended only for a patient receiving active and ongoing medical supervision wherein the patient requires medical care on a recurring basis for, among other things, instructions on the use of the medical food.\n- Medical Foods Equity Act of 2011 (S.311 and H.1311) have been introduced and referred to Committee to provide coverage for medically necessary food under Federal health programs and private health insurance.\nUnited States Department of Health and Human Services\nFood and Drug Administration\n- FDA provided guidance on medical foods in 1997.\n- FDA announced a new proposed regulations (ANPR) in 1996 but withdrew a couple years later.\n- Exempted foods for the use solely under medical supervision to meet nutritional requirements for specific medical conditions from certain labeling requirements. 21 C.F.R. \u00a7\u00a7 101.9, 101.9 (h) (3),(4)\n- In 1991, FDA published in the Federal Register information on what a medical food is and the distinctive nutritional and medical supervision requirements of medical foods.\n- FDA contracted to develop enteral products with high nutritional efficacy to improve tissue repair and shorten convalescence during World War II and to address needs of the aerospace program for easily consumable, low residue, high calorie dietary products. Fisher K, et al. A review of foods for medical purposes. FDA Contract No. 223-75-2090 June 1977; as noted in Hattan DG & Mackey DR. A review of medical foods: Enterally administered formulations used in the treatment of diseases and disorders. Food Drug Cosm. L. J. 44;479-501(1989).\n- FDA implemented a compliance program for medical foods in 1988, requiring all products to be manufactured according to Current Good Manufacturing Practice regulations.\n- FDA expressed during rulemaking in 1973 on vitamin and mineral dietary supplements that the Commissioner recognized medical foods as foods. 38 Fed. Reg. at 2152.\n- FDA reclassified medical foods as \u201cfoods for special dietary use\u201d to encourage product development in 1972. 37 Fed Reg. at 18,230.\n- FDA defined foods for \u201cspecial dietary uses\u201d in 1941. 21 C.F.R. \u00a7 105.3\nNon-Government Developments & Reports", "id": "<urn:uuid:d075767d-76ee-4ebc-8bcf-03f09de48503>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ift.org/Knowledge-Center/Focus-Areas/Food-Health-and-Nutrition/Medical-Foods/Medical-Foods-Policy-and-Regulatory-Developments.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9181042313575745, "token_count": 1707, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Townships are a product of Indiana\u2019s early history, and Indiana is one of 20 states that currently has some form of township government. A township in the Indiana refers to a small geographic area, ranging in size from 6 to 54 square miles (15.6 km\u00b2 to 140.4 km\u00b2), with 36 square miles (93 km\u00b2) being the norm. A civil township is a unit of local government. Township government powers in Indiana have grown to the point that it is difficult to discern the differences between townships, cities and villages.\nThere are, however, significant differences that are important to the people charged with administering township affairs and deciding township policies. Townships and counties are statutory units of government, having only those powers expressly provided or fairly implied by state law. Cities and most villages are vested with home rule powers, meaning they can do almost anything not prohibited by law.\nState laws authorize townships to perform a wide variety of functions and state laws specify details for performing these functions.\nTownship trustees are elected officials, but many are volunteers, too, who help make their communities better places to live. By far the largest single group of elected officials in Indiana, Township Trustees govern 1,008 townships covering every part of the state. Like most elected officials, the Township Trustee serves a four-year term and many Township Trustees work at other jobs in addition to serving their constituents.\nAssisting the Township Trustee in managing this very localized form of government is a three-member Township Board. Among its duties are the adoption of the annual budget, serving as a board of finance, and approving township contracts.\nIndiana law requires that the Township Trustees provide essential services to the residents and businesses of the Township. Because of its \"grassroots\" structure, the Township Trustee system is designed specifically to quickly meet the needs of the individual in an emergency.\nThe ITA is the only township organization that provides legislative services to the 1008 townships. Our lobbyists meet with law makers on a daily basis while the legislature is in session. The ITA insures that all proposed legislation is studied to assess its impact township government. The ITA is the only association from local government that testifies on proposed bills that impact townships. Members of the state legislature come to the ITA when they have questions about township government.\n|< Prev||Next >|", "id": "<urn:uuid:d57f92a5-a398-4700-b6c2-68583b5ef8f8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.indianatownshipassoc.org/index.php/about-us-topmenu-38/ita-news/1-latest/14-townships-in-indiana", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.962462842464447, "token_count": 486, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "MINNETONKA, Minn. -- Backpacks are lighter this year for ninth graders at Minnetonka High School.\n\"I have most of my textbooks in iBooks,\" said 9th grader Rachel Marks.\nThat not only makes her load lighter, Marks can highlight text and digitally assemble all of her notes in an iBook, something she can't do in a school textbook.\nIt's just one aspect of a pilot program Minnetonka High School unveiled this year -- to put iPads in the hands of students.\n\"We've long believed in technology as an accelerator of learning,\" explained Julie Carter, Executive Director of Technology for Minnetonka Public Schools.\nThe district has been digitizing its curriculum for the past decade, and was looking for a way to put that information in the hands of students.\nLaptops had drawbacks, including price, so when the iPad came along, Minnetonka took notice, and developed a plan that hinged on a key requirement. \"Identifying a group of students that we could work with to have a controlled experiment where we could see, 'How does the technology change the learning experience for students?'\" said Carter.\nMinnetonka started by issuing iPads to half the 9th grade class, and using the other half of the class to compare. Teachers quickly noted some changes for the iPad group.\n\"Student engagement,\" said English teacher Sara Martinson. \"They seem to be more involved in what they are doing.\"\nThe district also saw fewer D's and F's in the iPad group, as well as fewer late and missing assignments. Armed with that information, the district proceeded to give iPads to the other half of the ninth grade.\nNow, teachers are incorporating the iPad into daily use. Science teacher Drew Danner says it doesn't work for everything, but many applications are proving useful for students, including one that allows students to take tests and have their results recorded in real time.\n\"Now they can go back on their practice tests or their quizzes and they can look at, 'Hey, I need to work on this certain set of problems,'\" said Danner.\nDanner is also able to plug important dates and assignments into students' Google calendars, which they can pull up on their iPads anytime they want.\nStudents' work is saved in \"the cloud\" so if an iPad should break, or be lost, the work is accessible from any computer or internet device. Carter says so far, there have been few issues of screens breaking, and no iPads have been lost.\nLooming in the future for Minnetonka, the need to purchase new textbooks for two core subjects. At $100 a pop for a traditional copy, Apple's recent announcement it will be offering more textbooks at $14.99 in iBooks could prove to be a real cost-saver for the district.\nIf this year's pilot project continues to go well, Minnetonka hopes to use iPads at the 10th grade level, and continue expanding from there.\nMinnetonka has created a series of tutorials for students and teachers to learn how to use and take care of their iPads. You can access that here.\n(Copyright 2012 by KARE. All Rights Reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:c8060fb2-34a1-4018-a00f-c154558cdde2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kare11.com/news/article/962250/16/iPads-take-over-9th-grade-at-Minnetonka-HS", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702100157737732, "token_count": 682, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ganglion (GANG-lee-on) cysts are the most common type of soft tissue mass that form under your skin. Most commonly, ganglions are seen on the backside of the wrist and fingers, but they can also develop on your shoulder, elbow, and knee. Ganglions form when tissues surrounding certain joints become inflamed and swell up with lubricating fluid. In some cases, cysts can increase in size when the tissue is irritated and often can disappear spontaneously. Although these masses, which can be painful or painless, sometimes grow, they're not tumors or cancerous. The cause of ganglions is not always clear, however, conditions such as rheumatoid (rue-MAH-toyd) arthritis (arth-RYE-tis) have been associated with these cysts. Occupational factors can also play a role in the development of ganglions. Those occupations that require you to overuse certain joints, such as your wrist and fingers, pose a risk for developing ganglion cysts. A physician recognizes most ganglion cysts during physical examinations, but sometimes X-rays are used to confirm the diagnosis. A procedure called 'aspiration,' or the draining of the contents of the cyst, may be required to distinguish the differences from other causes of swelling. Other treatments for cysts can consist of rest or splinting the affected joint. If the cyst continues to reoccur, a surgeon can remove it.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bf88f4ec-951b-4ac3-becc-197801191110>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kmtr.com/guides/health/sports/story/Ganglion-cysts/zw6NRg2r10y7u55N-jE6aw.cspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9660273790359497, "token_count": 305, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By Pure Matters\nDetailed information on pregnancy and childbirth, including information on birth statistics, pregnancy planning, preconception care, prenatal care, pregnancy discomforts, pregnancy tests, pregnancy risks, pregnancy warning signs, labor and delivery.\nA pregnancy is divided into three phases, called trimesters. Each trimester has its own significant milestones. The first trimester is the most fragile period, during which all major organs and systems are formed. Most birth defects and miscarriages occur during the first trimester. During the second and third trimester, the fetus is fully formed and grows and matures rapidly. The trimesters are divided as follows:\n- first trimester: 0 - 12 weeks\n- second trimester: 12 - 24 weeks\n- third trimester: 24 - 40 weeks\n(However, some authorities use the 42 weeks method divided by 3 trimesters with the 1st trimester, 0 - 13 weeks; the 2nd trimester, 14 - 28 weeks; and the 3rd trimester, 29 - 42 weeks.)\nListed in the directory below, you will find additional information regarding the three phases of pregnancy, for which we have provided a brief overview.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b2d97b6e-6b30-4d26-abd7-d28b13e4fb1c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kvia.com/Have-a-healthy-pregnancy/-/391190/18002724/-/dbm0y9z/-/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9379372000694275, "token_count": 242, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tour by Subject || Tour by Time Period || Introduction || Catalogue || Home\nChromolithography was developed in Germany in the 1840s but was not used much in bookbinding until the 1880s, when it became all the rage in England. Whether for entire book covers or only for onlays, many of these illustrations were printed on glazed paper so that the vibrant colors stood out. Childrens books have particularly good examples of this technique.\n|Tschantre, Gracia. Tin Tan Tales. London: Ernest Nister; New York: E. P. Dutton & Company, ca. 1895.|\nIntroduction || Tour by Time Period || Tour by Subject || Catalogue\nOn exhibit through September 30, 2000, Rare Book Room, fourth floor, University of North Texas Libraries,\nWeekdays 9:00 a.m. - 6:00 p.m.\nVictorian Bookbinding Home || Rare Book and Texana Collections || Exhibits || UNT Libraries\nExhibit by Kenneth Lavender. Web design by Gwen Smith.\nThis page was last modified on Thursday, July 08, 2004.\nUniversity of North Texas \u00a9 2000 - All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:34bd20a6-381b-414f-a105-3fe7a4ac39ce>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.library.unt.edu/rarebooks/exhibits/binding/chromo.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9476121068000793, "token_count": 243, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "AIDS dementia complex (ADC) can occur in people with\n. ADC results in changes in multiple neurologic areas:\nADC is a common nervous system complication of late-stage HIV infection.\nHIV destroys white blood cells vital to the immune system.\nCopyright \u00a9 Nucleus Medical Media, Inc.\nIt is not clearly understood how HIV infection causes ADC.\nRisk factors that increase your chances of having ADC include:\nSymptoms usually develop slowly and worsen over time. They are grouped into stages:\nWalking, balance, and coordination require a great deal of effort at this stage.\nIf you have any of these symptoms, do not assume they are due to ADC. These symptoms may be caused by other conditions.\nYour doctor will ask about your symptoms and medical history. A physical exam will be done.\nTests may include:\nTalk with your doctor about the best treatment plan for you. Treatment options include:\nAnti-HIV drugs are often used to treat ADC. Your doctor will create a medicine plan that is right for you. These drugs are often given in combination.\nOther medicines may be used along with antiretroviral therapy to treat symptoms of ADC. These may include:\nADC occurs in people with HIV. Ways to help reduce the risk of getting HIV include:\nAmerican Foundation for AIDS Researchhttp://www.amfar.org/\nNational Association of People with AIDShttp://www.napwa.org/\nAIDS Committee of Torontohttp://www.actoronto.org/\nCanadian AIDS Societyhttp://www.cdnaids.ca/\nAIDS dementia complex. EBSCO Patient Education Reference Center website. Available at:\n. Updated February 28, 2012. Accessed November 21, 2012.\nAIDS dementia complex. Project Inform website. Available at:\n. Updated January 2011. Accessed November 21, 2012.\nAIDS dementia complex. University of California at San Francisco website. Available at:\n. Accessed November 21, 2012.\nHIV-associated dementia. EBSCO DynaMed website. Available at:\n. Updated February 10, 2012. Accessed November 21, 2012.\nLuo X, Carlson KA, Wojna V, et al. Macrophage proteomic fingerprinting predicts HIV-1-associated cognitive impairment.\nMeehan RA, Brush JA. An overview of AIDS dementia complex.\nAm J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen.\nNicholas MK, Lukas R, van Besein K.\nTextbook of Neurological Surgery.\n6th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams, and Wilkins; 2011: chap 46.\nRoyal W. HIV-associated Dementia. In: Gilman S, ed.\nSan Diego, CA: MedLink Corp.\nStill have questions? Contact firstname.lastname@example.org. We are happy to assist you!\nThe #1 daily resource for health and lifestyle news!\nYour daily resource for losing weight and staying fit.\nWe could all use some encouragement now and then - we're human!\nExplore your destiny as you discover what's written in your stars.\nThe latest news, tips and recipes for people with diabetes.\nHealthy food that tastes delicious too? No kidding.\nYoga for Back Pain\nPets HelpYour Heart\nAre YouMoney Smart?", "id": "<urn:uuid:720af6cc-04ef-40d9-8168-50f9b3b92f62>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.lifescript.com/health/a-z/conditions_a-z/conditions/a/aids_dementia_complex.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8574579358100891, "token_count": 699, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- a. Identify two constellations and the North Star in the night sky.\n- b. Make a pinhole planetarium and show three constellations.\n- c. Visit a planetarium.\n- d. Build a model of a rocket or space satellite.\n- e. Read and talk about at least one man-made satellite and one natural one.\n- f. Find a picture of another planet in our solar system. Explain how it is different from Earth.\nThis elective is also part of the World Conservation Award.\n- a. Learn how to read an outdoor thermometer. Put one outdoors and read it at the same time every day for two weeks. Keep a record of each day's temperature and a description of the weather each day (fair skies, rain, fog, snow, etc.).\n- b. Build a weather vane. Record wind direction every day at the same hour for two weeks. Keep a record of the weather for each day.\n- c. Make a rain gauge.\n- d. Find out what a barometer is and how it works. Tell your den about it. Tell what relative humidity means.\n- e. Learn to identify three different kinds of clouds. Estimate their heights.\n- f. Watch the weather forecast on TV every day for two weeks. Describe three different symbols used on weather maps. Keep a record of how many times the weather forecast is correct.\n- a. Build a crystal or diode radio. Check with your local craft or hobby shop or the nearest Scout shop that carries a crystal radio kit. It is all right to use a kit.\n- b. Make and operate a battery powered radio, following the directions with the kit.\n- a. Wire a buzzer or doorbell.\n- b. Make an electric buzzer game.\n- c. Make a simple bar or horseshoe electromagnet.\n- d. Use a simple electric motor.\n- e. Make a crane with an electromagnetic lift.\n- a. Help an adult rig and sail a real boat. (Wear your PFD.)\n- b. Help an adult repair a real boat or canoe.\n- c. Know the flag signals for storm warnings.\n- d. Help an adult repair a boat dock.\n- e. With an adult on board, and both wearing PFDs, row a boat around a 100-yard course that has at least two turns. Demonstrate forward strokes, turns to both sides, and backstrokes.\n- a. Identify five different kinds of aircraft, in flight if possible, or from models or photos.\n- b. Ride in a commercial airplane.\n- c. Explain how a hot-air balloon works.\n- d. Build and fly a model airplane. (You may use a kit. Every time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project.)\n- e. Sketch and label an airplane showing the direction of forces acting on it (lift, drag, and load).\n- f. Make a list of some of the things a helicopter can do that other kinds of airplanes can't. Draw or cut out a picture of a helicopter and label the parts.\n- g. Build and display a scale model airplane. You may use a kit or build it from plans.\n7. Things That Go\n- a. With an adult's help, make a scooter or a Cubmobile. Know the safety rules.\n- b. With an adult's help, make a windmill.\n- c. With an adult's help, make a waterwheel.\n- d. Make an invention of your own design that goes.\n8. Cub Scout Band\n- a. Make and play a homemade musical instrument - cigar-box banjo, washtub bull fiddle, a drum or rhythm set, tambourine, etc.\n- b. Learn to play two familiar tunes on any musical instrument.\n- c. Play in a den band using homemade or regular musical instruments. Play at a pack meeting.\n- d. Play two tunes on any recognized band or orchestra instrument.\n- a. Do an original art project and show it at a pack meeting. Every project you do counts as one requirement. Here are some ideas for art projects:Cub Scout Art Belt Loop #2, or Pin #2, #4, #5, #6, #7, #8, #9, #10, or #11\n- Mobile or wire sculpture\n- Acrylic painting\n- Watercolor painting\n- Clay sculpture\n- Silk screen picture\n- b. Visit an art museum or picture gallery with your den or family.Cub Scout Art Pin #1\n- c. Find a favorite outdoor location and draw or paint it.Cub Scout Art Belt Loop #2 or Pin #11\nCub Scout Art Pin #11\n- a. Make a simple papier-m\u00e2ch\u00e9 mask.\n- b. Make an animal mask.\n- c. Make a clown mask.\nCub Scout Art Pin #7\n- a. Practice holding a camera still in one position. Learn to push the shutter button without moving the camera. Do this without film in the camera until you have learned how. Look through the viewfinder and see what your picture will look like. Make sure that everything you want in your picture is in the frame of your viewfinder.\n- b. Take five pictures of the same subject in different kinds of light.\n- 1. Subject in direct sun with direct light.\n- 2. Subject in direct sun with side light.\n- 3. Subject in direct sun with back light.\n- 4. Subject in shade on a sunny day.\n- 5. Subject on a cloudy day.\n- c. Put your pictures to use.\n- 1. Mount a picture on cardboard for display.\n- 2. Mount a picture on cardboard and give it to a friend.\n- 3. Make three pictures that show how something happened (tell a story) and write a one-sentence explanation for each.\n- d. Take a picture in your house.\n- 1. With available light\n- 2. Using a flash attachment or photoflood (bright light)\n12. Nature Crafts\nThis elective is also part of the World Conservation Award.\n- a. Make solar prints of three kinds of leaves.\n- b. Make a display of eight different animal tracks with an eraser print.\n- c. Collect, press, and label ten kinds of leaves.\n- d. Build a waterscope and identify five types of water life.\n- e. Collect eight kinds of plant seeds and label them.\n- f. Collect, mount, and label ten kinds of rocks or minerals.\n- g. Collect, mount, and label five kinds of shells.\n- h. Build and use a bird caller.\n- a. Learn and show three magic tricks.\n- b. With your den, put on a magic show for someone else.\n- c. Learn and show four puzzles.\n- d. Learn and show three rope tricks.\n- a. With an adult, help take care of your lawn or flower beds or help take care of the lawn or flower beds of a public building, school, or church. Seed bare spots. Get rid of weeds. Pick up litter. Agree ahead of time on what you will do.\n- b. Make a sketch of a landscape plan for the area right around your home. Talk it over with a parent or den leader. Show which trees, shrubs, and flowers you could plant to make the area look better.\n- c. Take part in a project with your family, den, or pack to make your neighborhood or community more beautiful. These might be having a cleanup party, painting, cleaning and painting trash barrels, and removing weeds. (Each time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project.)\n- d. Build a greenhouse and grow twenty plants from seed. You can use a package of garden seeds or use beans, pumpkin seeds, or watermelon seeds.\n15. Water and Soil Conservation\nThis elective is also part of the World Conservation Award.\n- a. Dig a hole or find an excavation project and describe the different layers of soil you see and feel. (Do not enter an excavation area alone or without permission.)\n- b. Explore three kinds of earth by conducting a soil experiment.\n- c. Visit a burned-out forest or prairie area, or a slide area, with your den or your family. Talk to a soil and water conservation officer or forest ranger about how the area will be planted and cared for so that it will grow to be the way it was before the fire or slide.\n- d. What is erosion? Find out the kinds of grasses, trees, or ground cover you should plant in your area to help limit erosion.\n- e. As a den, visit a lake, stream, river, or ocean (whichever is nearest where you live). Plan and do a den project to help clean up this important source of water. Name four kinds of water pollution.\n16. Farm Animals\n- a. Take care of a farm animal. Decide with your family the things you will do and how long you will do them.\n- b. Name and describe six kinds of farm animals and tell their common uses.\n- c. Read a book about farm animals and tell your den about it.\n- d. With your family or den, visit a livestock exhibit at a county or state fair.\n- a. With the help of an adult, fix an electrical plug or appliance.\n- b. Use glue or epoxy to repair something.\n- c. Remove and clean a drain trap.\n- d. Refinish or repaint something.\n- e. Agree with an adult in your family on some repair job to be done and do it. (Each time you do this differently, it counts as a completed project.)\n18. Backyard Gym\n- a. Build and use an outdoor gym with at least three items from this list:\n- 1. Balance board\n- 2. Trapeze\n- 3. Tire walk\n- 4. Tire swing\n- 5. Tetherball\n- 6. Climbing rope\n- 7. Running long jump area\n- b. Build three outdoor toss games.\n- c. Plan an outdoor game or gym day with your den. (This can be part of a pack activity). Put your plans on paper.\n- d. Hold an open house for your backyard gym.\nThere is something about this elective that is different from any other. That is this rule: Whenever you are working on the Swimming elective, you must have an adult with you who can swim.\n- a. Jump feetfirst into water over your head, swim 25 feet on the surface, stop, turn sharply, and swim back.\n- b. Swim on your back, using the elementary backstroke, for 30 feet.\n- c. Rest by floating on your back, using as little motion as possible, for at least one minute.\n- d. Tell what is meant by the buddy system. Know the basic rules of safe swimming.\n- e. Do a racing dive from edge of pool and swim 60 feet, using a racing stroke. (You might need to make a turn.)\n- a. In archery, know the safety rules and how to shoot correctly. Put six arrows into a 4-foot target at a distance of 15 feet. Make an arrow holder. (This can be done only at a district/council day or resident or family camp.)\n- b. In skiing, know the Skier's Safety and Courtesy Code. Demonstrate walking and kick turn, climbing with a side step or herringbone, a snowplow stop, a stem turn, four linked snowplow or stem turns, straight running in a downhill position or cross-country position, and how to recover from a fall.\n- c. In ice skating, know the safety rules. From a standing start, skate forward 150 feet; and come to a complete stop within 20 feet. Skate around a corner clockwise and counterclockwise without coasting. Show a turn from forward to backward. Skate backward 50 feet.\n- d. In track, show how to make a sprint start. Run the 50-yard dash in 10 seconds or less. Show how to do the standing long jump, the running long jump, or high jump. (Be sure to have a soft landing area.)\n- e. In roller skating (with conventional or in-line skates), know the safety rules. From a standing start, skate forward 150 feet and come to a complete stop within 20 feet. Skate around a corner clockwise and counterclockwise without coasting and show a turn from forward to backward. Skate backward 50 feet. Wear the proper protective clothing.\n- f. Earn a new Cub Scout Sports pin. (Repeat three times with different sports to earn up to three Arrow Points.)Cub Scout Badminton Pin\n- a. Take part in a council- or pack-sponsored, money-earning sales program. Keep track of the sales you make yourself. When the program is over, add up the sales you have made.\n- b. Help with a garage sale or rummage sale. This can be with your family or a neighbor, or it can be a church, school, or pack event.\n22. Collecting Things\n- a. Start a stamp collection. You can get information about stamp collecting at any U.S. post office.\n- b. Mount and display a collection of emblems, coins, or other items to show at a pack meeting. This can be any kind of collection. Every time you show a different kind of collection, it counts as one requirement.\n- c. Start your own library. Keep your own books and pamphlets in order by subject. List the title, author, and subject of each on an index card and keep the cards in a file box, or use a computer program to store the information.\n- a. Look up your state on a U.S. map. What other states touch its borders?\n- b. Find your city or town on a map of your state. How far do you live from the state capital?\n- c. In which time zone do you live? How many time zones are there in the U.S.?\n- d. Make a map showing the route from your home to your school or den meeting place.\n- e. Mark a map showing the way to a place you would like to visit that is at least 50 miles from your home.\n24. American Indian Life\n- a. American Indian people live in every part of what is now the continental United States. Find the name of the American Indian nation that lives or has lived where you live now. Learn about these people.\n- b. Learn, make equipment for, and play two American Indian or other native American games with members of your den. Be able to tell the rules, who won, and what the score was.\n- c. Learn what the American Indian people in your area (or another area) used for shelter before contact with the Europeans. Learn what American Indian people in that area used for shelter today. Make a model of one of these shelters, historic or modern. Compare the kind of shelter you made with the others made in your den.\n25. Let's Go Camping\n- a. Learn about the ten essential items you need for a hike or campout. Assemble your own kit of essential items. Explain why each item is \"essential.\"\n- b. Go on a short hike with your den, following the buddy system. Explain how the buddy system works and why it is important to you to follow it. Tell what to do if you are lost.\n- c. Participate with your den in front of the pack at a campfire.\n- d. Participate with your pack on an overnight campout. Help put up your tent and help set up the campsite.\n- e. Participate with your den in a religious service during an overnight campout or other Cub Scouting event.\n- f. Attend day camp in your area.\n- g. Attend resident camp in your area.\n- h. Earn the Cub Scout Leave No Trace Award.\n|| The official source for the information shown in this article or section is:|\nBear Handbook, 2003 Edition (BSA Supply No. 33451)\nThe text of these requirements is locked and can only be edited by an administrator.\nPlease note any errors found in the above requirements on this article's Talk Page.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b549d63d-e9e3-45f6-93fe-2a7f54d9d952>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.meritbadge.org/wiki/index.php/BEBL", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8732869029045105, "token_count": 3498, "score": 3.890625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Source: youtube channel funfunfunfunfunfive, wikipedia\n\"Paper Marbling is a method of aqueous surface design, which can produce patterns similar to smooth marble or other stone. The patterns are the result of color floated on either plain water or a viscous solution known as size, and then carefully transferred to an absorbent surface, such as paper or fabric. Through several centuries, people have applied marbled materials to a variety of surfaces. It is often employed as a writing surface for calligraphy, and especially book covers and endpapers in bookbinding and stationery. Part of its appeal is that each print is a unique monotype.\"\nThe history of Paper Marbling is said to originate in different parts of East Asia. Known to be used in China, Persia, Ottoman Turkey, in Islamic Empires then Europe.", "id": "<urn:uuid:348a35c7-50c9-4f64-a2cf-ab805f470814>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.moorishbrooklyn.com/2011/06/painting-on-water-also-known-as-paper.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9553755521774292, "token_count": 170, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When reference is made to the value of a property, generally fair market value is meant. Market price is what one might get from the sale of the property in terms of money. Sometimes value and price are the same, most particularly when there is no compulsion to buy or sell. Under other circumstances, there might be a wide difference between the market value of a property and the actual sale price. The appraiser must be careful to consider normal buyers and sellers attitudes for the type of property appraised. The appraiser is estimating actual market value not theoretical value.\nThe immobility of real estate makes it unique. Theoretically, there are no two parcels exactly alike and therefore no means of making a total comparison between properties. Circumstances of one buyer and one seller affect the sale price of a specific property, whereas the actions of many buyers and sellers of similar type properties determine the going rate for the sale or exchange of property on the open market.\nAmong the various types of value that have been designated from time to time are book value, tax value, market value, cash value, capital value, speculative value, par value, true value, exchange value, reproduction value, physical value, replacement value, insurance value, investment value, rental value, face value, depreciated value, leasehold value, sound value, sales value and cost value.\nThe real estate broker should be concerned mostly with the concept of Fair Market Value, or simply market value, for this is the basis upon which most property is generally bought and sold.", "id": "<urn:uuid:186d49af-fb72-40ba-8b4d-a8a66f0def62>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nemmar.com/real-estate-library/nret/rea/2297-rea-real-estate-appraiser-guidelines-value-vs-price", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.906969428062439, "token_count": 313, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "More and more people over the age of 50 are being diagnosed with sexually transmitted infections \u2014 a development that has a medical journal urging doctors to be more vigilant when treating older patients.\nThe Student BMJ, an international journal published for medical students, says doctors need to ensure that when they are diagnosing older individuals, they aren't ruling out sexually transmitted infections based on age alone.\n\"Sexually transmitted infections are not high on your list of differential diagnoses \u2014 but increasing evidence indicates that they should be,\" as cases of common infections have more than doubled in people aged 50 to 90 years old, the editorial says.\nAccording to one study, 80 per cent of the people in that age group are sexually active.\nOne of the authors of the editorial, Rachel von Simson, a medical student at King's College London, said in an email that despite the dramatic rise in infections, there isn't enough awareness and more education is necessary.\nVon Simson says that it shouldn't be more difficult to educate older adults.\n\"Whilst we have a huge evidence base on what works to educate young people about sex and sexually transmitted infections and we have had lots of campaigns over the years dedicated towards them, we don't have any evidence base on what will work with older adults,\" she said.\n\"If all the campaigns older adults see are targeted at young adults, it is not surprising that they might take from that that they are not at risk.\"\nAt the Calgary Sexual Health Centre a program called Seniors A GoGo is helping bring the message to older people in the city, according to the centre's spokeswoman.\nPam Krause said that through monologues on sexuality led by seniors and education seminars, Seniors A GoGo is able to educate people who may not have had sex ed when they were in school.\n\"The first year what was interesting was (the seniors) talked about sexuality in a really, really broad way about it being about relationships and love and not being lonely,\" Krause said. \"Then the seniors themselves said the second year, 'I think we actually need to kick it up a notch.' \"\nFrom there the sessions for Seniors A GoGo involved discussions about condoms and the dangers of unprotected sex.\n\"It's funny, but it is shocking sometimes how uncomfortable people when thinking about older adults and sexuality. So there's this immediate barrier,\" Krause said. \"You can talk to youth about a lot of stuff . . . but as soon as you address anything with older adults, for whatever reason our culture is ill prepared to deal with the fact that people over 50\" are still having sex, she said.\nKrause said that previously there were few resources for seniors making the transition after the death of a spouse or after moving into a seniors' home. Seniors A GoGo helps by opening up a conversation with experts and other seniors so they get the right information.\nPracticing safe sex is especially important for older people because of their general decline in immunity, von Simson said. If more seniors are aware of the consequences of STIs and more doctors are on the lookout for them, the infections can be caught earlier and are less likely to cause serious harm.\nVon Simson said that more research is required so that the medical community can get a better handle on STI rates in older people, and how they can be better educated.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6899942d-7d5d-4431-b554-ea254612d4d7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ottawacitizen.com/life/relationships/over+experts+older+lovers+need+avoid+STIs/6093612/story.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9783202409744263, "token_count": 691, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Life LineMade in United States, North and Central America\nWinslow Homer, American, 1836 - 1910\nOil on canvas\nE1924-4-15The George W. Elkins Collection, 1924\nLabelThe dramatic rescue from a foundering ship shown here was made possible by a recent innovation in lifesaving technology, the breeches buoy. Secured firmly to ship and shore, the device permitted the transfer of stranded passengers to safety by means of a pulley that was hauled back and forth by crews at either end. Cropped down to its essentials, Homer's composition thrusts us into the midst of the action with massive waves rolling past, drenching the semiconscious woman and her anonymous savior. The Life Line was immediately recognized by critics as a major contribution to American art, portraying a heroic, contemporary subject with both painterly virtuosity and detailed observation.\nSocial Tags [?]landscape [x] nhd 1861 to 1877 maritime [x] rescue [x] seascape [x] victorian [x] waves [x] [Add Your Own Tags]\n* Works in the collection are moved off view for many different reasons. Although gallery locations on the website are updated regularly, there is no guarantee that this object will be on display on the day of your visit.", "id": "<urn:uuid:005b1bd2-54f8-48a0-9e6e-c0062c2647d0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/102970.html?mulR=24214%7C11", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9423738121986389, "token_count": 269, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Coca-Cola System Announces New Global Targets for Water Conservation and Climate Protection in Partnership With WWF\nThe Coca-Cola Company, in partnership with World Wildlife Fund (WWF), today announced ambitious new targets to improve water efficiency and reduce carbon emissions within its system-wide operations, while promoting sustainable agricultural practices and helping to conserve the world\u2019s most important freshwater basins.\n\u201cOur sustainability as a business demands a relentless focus on efficiency in our use of natural resources. These performance targets are one way we are engaging to improve our management of water and energy,\u201d said Muhtar Kent, president and CEO of The Coca-Cola Company.\n\u201cIn this resource constrained world, successful businesses will find ways to achieve growth while using fewer resources,\u201d said Carter Roberts, president and CEO of WWF-US. \u201cThe Coca-Cola Company\u2019s commitment to conservation responds to the imperative to solve the global water and climate crisis.\u201d\nThe partnership, announced by WWF and The Coca-Cola Company in 2007 with $20 million in funding, has now been extended an additional two years (through 2012) with the Company providing $3.75 million in new funding.\nThe Coca-Cola Company also joined WWF\u2019s Climate Savers program in which leading corporations from around the world work with WWF to dramatically reduce their greenhouse gas emissions. By 2010, Climate Savers companies will collectively cut carbon emissions by 14 million tons annually \u2013 the equivalent to taking more than 3 million cars off the road each year.\nWater Efficiency \u2014 Saving 50 billion liters in 2012\nThe Coca-Cola system will improve its water efficiency 20 percent by 2012, compared to a baseline year 2004. While water use is expected to increase as the business grows, this water efficiency target will eliminate approximately 50 billion liters of that increase in 2012.\nTo support this efficiency target, The Coca-Cola Company and WWF have developed a Water Efficiency Toolkit to help reduce water consumption within bottling plants. This software-based instruction manual has been distributed to managers and operators throughout the Coca-Cola system, providing strategies to shrink the water footprint of their operations.\nClimate Protection \u2014 Preventing 2 million tons of CO(2) emissions\nThe Company has set two emissions reduction targets: 1) grow the business, not the carbon system-wide and 2) a 5 percent absolute reduction in Annex 1 (developed) countries. The emissions targets apply to manufacturing operations in the year 2015 compared to a baseline year of 2004.\nThe Coca-Cola Company and its bottlers anticipate substantial volume growth globally during this period, thus growing the business without growing the carbon is a significant commitment. Without intervention, emissions would grow proportional to volume and reach 7.3 million metric tons in 2015. Thus, the global commitment will prevent the release of more than 2 million metric tons of CO(2) in 2015 \u2013 the equivalent of planting 600,000 acres of trees.\nSupply Chain Sustainability\nThe Coca-Cola Company also will work with WWF to promote more sustainable agricultural practices in an effort to reduce the impact of its supply chain on water resources. This work will initially focus on sugarcane production. The Coca-Cola Company and WWF are working with the Better Sugarcane Initiative to establish standards, evaluate suppliers and set goals for the purchase of sugar. The Coca-Cola Company will identify two additional commodities on which to work in 2009.\nThe Coca-Cola system and WWF are working together to conserve some of the world\u2019s most important freshwater resources, including the Yangtze, Mekong, Danube, Rio Grande/Rio Bravo, Lakes Niassa and Chiuta, the Mesoamerican Reef catchments, and the rivers and streams in the southeastern region of the United States. More than a dozen production plants and/or bottlers in the areas surrounding these rivers are developing and implementing water stewardship plans to serve as models throughout the Coca-Cola system.\n\u201cWater and energy conservation are areas where we can truly make a difference. Last year, we set a goal to return to communities and to nature an amount of water equal to what we use in our beverages and their production. These targets support our work to achieve that goal,\u201d said Kent. \u201cThe expansion of our partnership with WWF demonstrates our shared dedication to achieving large-scale results, and a grounded understanding that collaboration is key if we are to help address the world\u2019s water challenges.\u201d\nTo learn more about the partnership, please visit www.thecoca-colacompany.com or www.worldwildlife.org.\nAbout The Coca-Cola Company\nThe Coca-Cola Company is the world\u2019s largest beverage company, refreshing consumers with more than 450 sparkling and still brands. Along with Coca-Cola, recognized as the world\u2019s most valuable brand, the Company\u2019s portfolio includes 12 other billion dollar brands, including Diet Coke, Fanta, Sprite, Coca-Cola Zero, vitaminwater, Powerade, Minute Maid and Georgia Coffee. Globally, we are the No.1 provider of sparkling beverages, juices and juice drinks and ready-to-drink teas and coffees. Through the world\u2019s largest beverage distribution system, consumers in more than 200 countries enjoy the Company\u2019s beverages at a rate of 1.5 billion servings a day. With an enduring commitment to building sustainable communities, our Company is focused on initiatives that protect the environment, conserve resources and enhance the economic development of the communities where we operate. For more information about our Company, please visit our Web site at www.thecoca-colacompany.com.\nAbout World Wildlife Fund\nWWF is the world\u2019s largest conservation organization, working in 100 countries for nearly half a century. With the support of almost 5 million members worldwide, WWF is dedicated to delivering science-based solutions to preserve the diversity and abundance of life on Earth, stop the degradation of the environment and combat climate change. Visit www.worldwildlife.org to learn more.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0a04b507-9ee2-4a9e-8102-aa69f8f44e4e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1595040/the_cocacola_system_announces_new_global_targets_for_water_conservation/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9180317521095276, "token_count": 1241, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "During the Star Wars years of the 1980s, Tom Paterson worked at a defense think tank creating elaborate mathematical models to help military commanders quickly decide which weapons to deploy to counter incoming missiles. Inputs from hundreds of sensors had to be combined to generate a consummate picture of events that would be unfolding in a matter of minutes, enabling the fateful choice about when to launch.\nWhen the cold war ended, Paterson, like many defense engineers, tried to find a way to apply his skills elsewhere. He ultimately took on a task that made shooting down missiles seem pedestrian. A challenge faced by engineers in the Star Wars program--designing software to pick out critical targets despite an overload of data--carried over to simulations of how drugs work in the metabolic and immune systems that drive the most complex machine we know.\nThis article was originally published with the title Reverse-Engineering Clinical Biology.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8c5268a3-fb7e-4809-b768-86b4ebe3e60c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=reverse-engineering-clini", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9649259448051453, "token_count": 180, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "From Abracadabra to Zombies | View All\nN'kisi & the N'kisi Project\nN'kisi (pronounced \u2018\u2018in-key-see\u2019\u2019) is a captive bred eight or nine-year-old hand raised African Grey Parrot whose owner, Aim\u00e9e Morgana, thinks uses language. She doesn't think he just sounds out words. She thinks he communicates with her in language, which would in effect make N'kisi a rational parrot. For example, N'kisi utters \"pretty smell medicine\" when he wants to describe the aromatherapy oils that Aim\u00e9e uses.* Furthermore, Aim\u00e9e says her parrot has a fine sense of humor and knows how to laugh. Imagine having conversations with a humorous parrot. Think of all the things you could talk and joke about, besides aromatherapy. You could discuss the fame that would come to anyone who had a parrot that can think and converse in intelligent discourse, like pretty smell medicine and look at my pretty naked body.* And when some nasty skeptic makes fun of you, the two of you can joke about it.\nI'm afraid that this story stretches the boundaries of reasonable credibility, though stories of rational parrots go back at least to the 17th century. John Locke, for example, relates a tale of a Portuguese-speaking parrot of some note in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding (II.xxvii.8). These cases are more likely cases of self-deception, delusion, and gullibility than of language-using parrots. Listen to this audio clip of N'kisi, Aim\u00e9e, and a toy that \"talks\" when a button is pushed. First listen without reading the transcript. Some of it is intelligible, especially after the fourth or fifth repetition, but it is difficult to understand the \"conversation,\" especially with the toy making its sounds as Aim\u00e9e stimulates her parrot. Some of the tape sounds like gibberish until you are told what to listen for. When you listen while reading the transcript something amazing happens: you can hear just what you're reading. Why is that? The same thing happens when you listen to audio tapes played backward. When you just listen without anyone telling you what to listen for, you usually don't understand anything intelligible. But as soon as someone shows or tells you what to listen for, you can hear the message. Such is the power of suggestion and the way of audio perception. Hearing is a constructive process, like vision, in that bits of sensory data are \"filled in\" by the brain to produce a visual or auditory perception that is clear and distinct, and in accord with your expectations. Consider the following from an interview with Dr. Irene Pepperberg, Morgana's inspiration, who has been studying Alex, an African Grey Parrot, for many years:\nWe were doing demos at the Media Lab [at MIT] for our corporate sponsors; we had a very small amount of time scheduled and the visitors wanted to see Alex work. So we put a number of differently colored letters on the tray that we use, put the tray in front of Alex, and asked, \"Alex, what sound is blue?\" He answers, \"Ssss.\" It was an \"s\", so we say \"Good birdie\" and he replies, \"Want a nut.\"\nWell, I don't want him sitting there using our limited amount of time to eat a nut, so I tell him to wait, and I ask, \"What sound is green?\" Alex answers, \"Ssshh.\" He's right, it's \"sh,\" and we go through the routine again: \"Good parrot.\" \"Want a nut.\" \"Alex, wait. What sound is orange?\" \"ch.\" \"Good bird!\" \"Want a nut.\" We're going on and on and Alex is clearly getting more and more frustrated. He finally gets very slitty-eyed and he looks at me and states, \"Want a nut. Nnn, uh, tuh.\"\nNot only could you imagine him thinking, \"Hey, stupid, do I have to spell it for you?\" but the point was that he had leaped over where we were and had begun sounding out the letters of the words for us. This was in a sense his way of saying to us, \"I know where you're headed! Let's get on with it,\" which gave us the feeling that we were on the right track with what we were doing.*\nDr. Pepperberg thinks the bird is responding cognitively to her questions rather than simply responding to a stimulus. She thinks the bird is getting frustrated, but she has stipulated earlier in the interview:\nI never claim that Alex has full-blown language; I never would. I'm not going to be able to put Alex on a \"T\" stand and have you interview him the way you interview me.\nSo, whereas you or I might say \"give me the nut or this interview is over\" were we parrots with intentionality and language, the parrot's movements and sounds have to be less direct and more complex, so that they have to be interpreted for us by Pepperberg. In her view, Alex is \"clearly getting more frustrated\" and his frustration culminates with a \"very slitty-eyed\" expression. But this is Pepperberg's interpretation, as is her hearing the bird sound out the letters of the word 'nut'. It could have been a stutter for all we know, but Pepperberg is facilitating Alex's communication by telling us what she hears. The final paragraph indicates that Pepperberg is having a hard time drawing the line between imagining what a parrot might be thinking and projecting those thoughts into the parrot's movements and sounds. She's also having a hard time getting grant money (NIH turned her down), so she started her own private foundation, the Alex Foundation.\nWhen news of N'kisi broke on the pages of BBC online, there was no mention in the article by Alex Kirby of the parrot having conversations with people other than Aim\u00e9e Morgana. (The story was originally told in USA Today in the February 12, 2001, edition.) Despite the headline \"Parrot's oratory stuns scientists,\" there was no evidence given that the parrot had stunned anyone during a conversation. It seems that Aim\u00e9e is to her parrot what the facilitator is to her client in facilitated communication, except that the parrot is actually providing data to interpret and is more like clever Hans, the horse that responded to unconscious movements of his master, than a disabled human who may not be providing any content or direction at all to the facilitator. It is Aim\u00e9e who gives intentionality to the parrot's sounds. She is the one who attributes 'laughter' to his shrieks and conscious awareness to his responses, though those responses could be due to any one of many stimuli, consciously or unconsciously provided by Aim\u00e9e or items in the immediate environment. Nevertheless, Dr. Jane Goodall, who studies chimpanzees, met N'kisi and said that he provides an \"outstanding example of interspecies communication.\" There is some evidence, however, that much of the work with language-using primates also mistakes subjective validation by scientists for complex linguistic abilities of their animal subjects (Wallman 1992).\nAccording to Mr. Kirby, N'kisi not only uses language but has been tested for telepathy and he passed the test with flying colors:\nIn an experiment, the bird and his owner were put in separate rooms and filmed as the artist opened random envelopes containing picture cards.\nAnalysis showed the parrot had used appropriate keywords three times more often than would be likely by chance.\nKirby doesn't provide any details about the experiment, so a reader might misinterpret this claim as implying that this parrot did about twice as well as people did in the ganzfeld telepathy experiments. In those experiments, subjects in separate rooms were monitored as one tried to telepathically send information from a picture or video to the other. Typically, there was a 20% chance of guessing what the item was but results as high as 38% were reported in some meta-analyses. If the parrot scored three times better than chance, then he would have gotten 60% correct. The odds of a parrot randomly blurting out words that match up 60% of the time with pictures being looked at simultaneously in another room are so high that there is virtually no way that this could happen by chance. However, as you might suspect, Kirby's claim is a bit misleading.\nI assume that Kirby was writing about an experiment that was part of the N'kisi project, a joint effort by Morgana and Rupert Sheldrake to test not only the parrot's language-using abilities but his telepathic talents as well. Sheldrake has already validated the telepathic abilities of a dog and thinks the \"findings [of this experiment] are consistent with the hypothesis that N'kisi was reacting telepathically to Aim\u00e9e's mental activity.\"*\nThe full text of Sheldrake's study published in the peer reviewed Journal of Scientific Exploration is available online. The title of the paper would send most journal editors to their grave, killed by laughter: \"Testing a Language-Using Parrot for Telepathy.\" Fortunately for Sheldrake and his associates there will always be a sympathetic editor for another story like that of J. B. Rhine and the telepathic horse, \"Lady Wonder.\" At least Sheldrake's protocols show some measure of sophistication, unlike Rhine's. Even so, as the editor at the Journal of Scientific Exploration commented: \"once again, we have suggestive results, a level of statistical significance that is less than compelling, and the devout wish that further work with refined protocols will ensue.\"* So, we'll just have to wait and see whether further study of N'kisi supports the telepathic hypothesis.\nAnyway, here is how Sheldrake set up the experiment. He first compiled a list of 30 words from the bird's vocabulary that \"could be represented by visual images.\" A package of 167 photos from a stock supplier was used for the test. Since only 20 of the photos corresponded to words on the list, the word list was reduced to 20. The word 'camera' was removed from the list because 'N\u2019kisi \"used it so frequently to comment on the cameras used in the tests themselves.\" Thus, they were left with 19 words.\nDuring the tests, N\u2019kisi remained in his cage in Aim\u00e9e\u2019s apartment in Manhattan, New York. There was no one in the room with him. Meanwhile, Aim\u00e9e went to a separate enclosed room on a different floor. N\u2019kisi could not see or hear her, and in any case, Aim\u00e9e said nothing, as confirmed by the audio track recorded on the camera that filmed her continuously. The distance between Aim\u00e9e and N\u2019kisi was about 55 feet. Aim\u00e9e could hear N\u2019kisi through a wireless baby monitor, which she used to gain \u2018\u2018feedback\u2019\u2019 to help her to adjust her mental state as image sender.\nBoth Aim\u00e9e and N\u2019kisi were filmed continuously throughout the test sessions by two synchronized cameras on time-coded videotape. The cameras were mounted on tripods and ran continuously without interruption throughout each session. N\u2019kisi was also recorded continuously on a separate audio tape recorder. (Sheldrake and Morgana 2003)\nAccording to Sheldrake:\nWe conducted a total of 147 two-minute trials. The recordings of N\u2019kisi during these trials were transcribed blind by three independent transcribers....He scored 23 hits: the key words he said corresponded to the target pictures....If N\u2019kisi said a key word that did not correspond to the photograph, that was counted as a miss, and if he said a key word corresponding to the photograph, that was a hit. (Sheldrake and Morgana 2003)\nHowever, sixty of the trials were discarded because in those trials N'kisi either was silent or uttered things that were not key words, i.e., showed no signs of telepathy. A few other trials were discarded because the transcribers did not agree on what N'kisi said. In short, Sheldrake's statistical conclusions are based on the results of 71 of the trials. I'll let the reader decide whether it was proper to omit 40% of the data because the parrot didn't utter a word on the key word list during those trials. Some might argue that those sessions should be counted as misses and that by ignoring so much data where the parrot clearly did not indicate any sign of telepathy is strong evidence that Sheldrake was more interested in confirming his biases than in getting at the truth.\nN'kisi's misses were listed at 94. Ten of the 23 hits were on the picture that corresponded to the word 'flower', which N'kisi uttered 23 times during the trials. The flower image, selected randomly, was used in 17 trials. The image corresponding to water was used in 10 of the trials. The bird said 'water' in twelve trials and got 2 hits. It seems oddly biased that almost one-third of the images and more than half the hits came from just 2 of the 19 pictures.\nOne of the peer reviewers thought that the fact that the flower word and picture played so heavy a role in the outcome that the paper's results were distorted and that the paper should not be published. The other reviewer accepted Sheldrake's observation that even if you throw out the flower data, you still get some sort of statistical significance. This may be true. However, since the bird allegedly had a vocabulary of some 950 words at the time of the test, omitting sessions where the bird said nothing or said something not on the key list, is unjustifiable. Furthermore, there is no evidence that it is reasonable to assume that when the parrot is by itself uttering words that it is trying to communicate telepathically with Morgana. Or are we to accept Sheldrake's assumption that the parrot turns his telepathic interest off and on, and it was on only when he uttered a word on the key list? That assumption is no more valid that Morgana's belief that the telepathy doesn't work as well when she makes an effort to send a telepathic message to her parrot. In any case, I wonder why Sheldrake didn't do a baseline study, where the parrot was videotaped for two-minutes at a time while Morgana was taking an aromatherapy bath or meditating or doing something unrelated to the key word pictures. Had he made several hundred such clips, he could then have randomly selected 71 and compared them to the 71 clips he used for his analysis. If there was no significant difference between the randomly selected clips and the ones that emerged during the experiment, then the telepathy hypothesis would not be supported. On the other hand, if he found a robust statistically significant difference, then the telepathy hypothesis would be supported. I suggest he do something along these lines when he attempts to replicate his parrot telepathy test.\nIn some trials, N\u2019kisi repeated a given key word. For example, in one trial N\u2019kisi said \u2018\u2018phone\u2019\u2019 three times, and in another he said \u2018\u2018flower\u2019\u2019 ten times, and in the tabulation of data the numbers of times he said these words are shown in parentheses as: phone (3); flower (10). For most of the statistical analyses, repetitions were ignored, but in one analysis the numbers of words that were said more than once in a given trial were compared statistically with those said only once for both hits and misses. For each trial, the key word or words represented in the photograph were tabulated. Some images had only one key word, but others had two or more. For example, a picture of a couple hugging in a pool of water involved two key words, \u2018\u2018water\u2019\u2019 and \u2018\u2018hug.\u2019\u2019 (Sheldrake and Morgana 2003)\nHe calculated 51 hits and 126 misses when repetitions were included. I'm not going to bother with any more detail because by now the overall picture should be clear. Once the statisticians went to work on the data, they were able to provide support for the claim that the data were consistent with the telepathic hypothesis. But nowhere in Sheldrake's paper can I find a claim that the parrot did three times better than expected by chance. In any case, I have to agree with the editor who published Sheldrake's parrot paper: the results have a statistical significance that is less than compelling. However, unlike that editor, my devout wish is that when such studies as these are published in the future, responsible journalists continue to ignore them and recognize them for the rubbish they are. On the other hand, if you happen to think your parrot is psychic, drop Dr. Sheldrake a line. He's set up a page just for you.\nSheldrake has responded to this article. His comments and my responses are posted here.\nbooks and articles\nnew Grey parrots use reasoning where monkeys and dogs can\u2019t \"Christian Schloegl and his team at the University of Vienna, let six parrots choose between two containers, one containing a nut. Both containers were shaken, one eliciting a rattling sound and the other nothing. The parrots preferred the container that rattled, even if only the empty container was shaken....Thus, grey parrots seem to possess ape-like reasoning skills....\" [/new]\nLast updated 16-Aug-2012", "id": "<urn:uuid:3c04e227-6238-4f75-ba68-f256ea5b9b66>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.skepdic.com/nkisi.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9773731231689453, "token_count": 3683, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Can You Train Your Pet Cat?\nYes, but it won't be easy.\nA border collie named Chaser has been trained to recognize and respond to 1,022 nouns, according to a New York Times profile published last Monday. The extent of Chaser's vocabulary is astonishing, but it's no surprise that a dog could be trained to sit, stay, or fetch particular objects from under the couch. What about a cat? Is it possible to train your Tabby?\nYes, but it's slightly more difficult. Cats were domesticated about 9,000 years ago, and were originally used to hunt mice. It's likely they were selected for their solitary hunting abilities, not for any particular social acuity or inclination to follow instructions. (Dogs, on the other hand, were selected for those very traits.) That doesn't mean you can't train a cat; it just means they won't always respond to the same rewards as dogs. While some dogs are content with a pat on the head and a \"good boy!\" in exchange for proper behavior, cats typically work for food and might be slower to pick up new tricks. Even so, both species can be trained with the same methods. (The most common are positive reinforcement, clicker training, and targeting.) Cats can be trained to use a toilet bowl instead of a litter box, follow their owners at a command, or perform a high-five.\nDogs dohave larger brains than cats, both in absolute terms and relative to the size of their bodies. That feature may have evolved to help them meet the social demands of living in a pack. And a heightened sociability could in turn make them better at reading and responding to human facial expressions and commands.\nIf it's possible to train cats, why don't we do it more often? Cats are less of a bother than dogs when they misbehave. While a hyperactive canine might rip up your curtains and your couch, a problematic cat tends to be disobedient in more subtle ways\u2014like waking you up at 5 a.m. for breakfast. Cats are also quieter and less likely to drool on your belongings or jump on strangers. When cats do develop behavioral problems, their owners are more likely to accept and ignore the issue, rather than embarking on a training protocol.\nGot a question about today's news? Ask the Explainer\nExplainer thanks, Christine Bellezza of the Cornell Feline Health Center, Nicholas Dodman of Tufts University, Sandra Sawchuk of the University of Wisconsin-Madison School of Veterinary Medicine, and Carlo Siracusa of the University of Pennsylvania Veterinary Hospital.\nPhotograph of a cat by Jupiterimages/Thinkstock.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ebfcf314-e3c5-4adf-b9aa-34f7cc01a3a5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/explainer/2011/01/can_you_train_your_pet_cat.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9578363299369812, "token_count": 547, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Culture has a special historical and social significance in Slovenia. It was primarily thanks to their culture and their common language of Slovene that the people of Slovenia were able to forge themselves into a nation and survive. Language and culture have for centuries compensated Slovenes for the lack of their own state and political institutions. Slovenia is one of those rare countries, if not the only country in the world, where a day of culture is a national holiday.\nIn honour of the poet\nSlovenia\u2019s national day of culture is 8 February, the anniversary of the death of its greatest poet, France Pre\u0161eren\n, whose wonderful works from the first half of the 19th century are a supreme example of European romanticism. One such work is A Toast\n, now Slovenia\u2019s national anthem. The relevance of Pre\u0161eren\u2019s poetry played a role in the creation of the first real national political programme, which helped to forge the Slovenian national identity. The annual Pre\u0161eren Prizes\nare the highest awards for the most important and momentous achievements in culture.\nCredit to the protestant\nOne of the most important foundations of Slovenian culture was established by another literary figure, the protestant pastor Primo\u017e Trubar\n, who published the first book in Slovene in 1550. It was then that Slovene officially joined the family of European literary languages.\nThe power of verse and the written word\nLiterature also held a special place in Slovenian culture in the 20th century, when the playwright Ivan Cankar\n, the poet Sre\u010dko Kosovel\n, contemporary poets like Ciril Zlobec, Kajetan Kovi\u010d, Toma\u017e \u0160alamun\nand Dane Zajc\nand the writers Vitomil Zupan, Drago Jan\u010dar, Boris Pahor\nand Lojze Kova\u010di\u010d\nall left their mark. Many of their works have been translated into multiple European languages.\nFurther evidence of the importance of books in Slovenian culture is that Slovenia is ranked at the top of European countries in terms of the number of books published per head. In 2010, Ljubljana was selected by Unesco to be the World Book Capital. In 2012, Maribor was the European Capital of Culture\nPillars of culture\nSlovenia has a very well-developed network of cultural institutions, organisations and associations, comparable with the wealthiest and most progressive countries in Europe. The Slovenian Philharmonic\nis one of the oldest orchestras in Europe, with a history of more than 300 years.\nThere are professional opera and ballet companies\nin Ljubljana and Maribor, and numerous professional theatre groups\n, including Drama (Slovenia\u2019s national theatre),\nthe Youth Theatre\nand the Puppet Theatre\nCultural life is rich and varied at the museums, galleries and cultural centres, pride of place among which is taken by Cankarjev Dom\nThere are a host of top festivals in Slovenia, particularly in the summer: the Ljubljana Festival\nat Kri\u017eanke, the festival of early music in Bre\u017eice\n, the Primorska Cultural Festival\nand a series of cultural events under the aegis of Imago Sloveniae\n. Maribor\u2019s Lent Festival\nis also a favourite.\nThere are 45 permanent galleries in Slovenia, and over 800 spaces where works of fine art are exhibited permanently or occasionally. The most important in Ljubljana are the Museum of Modern Art,\nwhich focuses on modern works, and the National Gallery,\nwhose collection consists of older works. Impressionism\nmade Slovenian painting known throughout Europe in the first half of the 20th century, while the Ljubljana graphic school\nwas renowned after the Second World War.\nThere are five professional orchestras\nin Slovenia, and a host of musicians who are famed outside the country. The largest concert halls are at the Cankarjev Dom\ncultural and conference centre, which holds close to a thousand events each year.\nSlovenia\u2019s own brand of polka music reached its peak in the accordion and ensemble of Slavko Avsenik\n, while the annual festival in Sti\u010dna is a feast of choral singing\n, and the France Marolt\nfolk group have performed their singing and dancing all over the world.\nThe contemporary thrill of classical music is the territory of the Slovenian Philharmonic, particularly its top musicians, flautist Irena Grafenauer\n, pianist Dubravka Tom\u0161i\u010d\nand soprano Marjana Lipov\u0161ek.\nLaibach have been a highly influential band in the last few decades in modern alternative music. The ethno-pop of Magnifico\nhas gained a rising international profile. The giants of Slovenian pop music are Vlado Kreslin\n, while Slovenian DJs are welcome on global dancefloors, most notably DJ Umek.\nArchitecture is also a vital part of Slovenian culture. The most famous native architect, Jo\u017ee Ple\u010dnik\n, was a pioneer of modern Slovenian and European architecture of the 20th century. Ljubljana is famed for his work. Many of Ple\u010dnik\u2019s students continued his legacy in the second half of the 20th century.\nInternational cultural events\nEach year Slovenia hosts a number of other events that are renowned further afield. To mention a few: the Exodos\ndance festival in Ljubljana, the Ana De\nsetnica festival of street theatre, the PEN meeting\nin Bled and the Vilenica\nliterary festival near Se\u017eana.\nIn short, the range of cultural events, festivals, concerts and exhibitions in Slovenia is enough to satisfy the most demanding of guests.\nThe small size of the market means that many artistic and cultural activities in Slovenia enjoy significant support and subsidies from the government (approximately two-thirds of the requisite funding), and funding from local authorities. It is remarkable that less than 10% of cultural activities\u2019 earnings come from the consumer, i.e. visitors to cultural events. The exception of course is the entertainment industry, notably pop and jazz, where the performers have to rely on their own ingenuity to earn their dues.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6256861b-7a63-4c8c-99ee-0ec6ecf88b8d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.slovenia.info/default.asp?umetniske_razstave=0&lng=2&viewscale=20&pages=1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1&tab=19", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9376397728919983, "token_count": 1336, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\"Brainstorming is a group creativity technique designed to generate a large number of ideas for the solution to a problem. The method was first popularized in the late 1930s by Alex Faickney Osborn, an advertising executive and one of the founders of BBDO, in a book called Applied Imagination. Osborn proposed that groups could double their creative output by using the method of brainstorming.\" -Wikipedia Article on Brainstorming\nPages in category \"Brainstorming\"\nThis category contains only the following page.", "id": "<urn:uuid:39ff2907-af02-4c2c-8a05-8f4674f18a6a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.teampedia.net/wiki/index.php?title=Category:Brainstorming", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9351347088813782, "token_count": 106, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A dramatic drop in the population of puffins at their main North Sea breeding site has alarmed scientists.\n- Global warming blamed for decline of puffins\n- Britain's oldest puffin resurfaces\n- British birds face potential eco-disaster\nAfter almost 40 years of breeding success puffin numbers on the Isle of May have plummeted by 30 per cent.\nIt is not known whether the sudden decline is merely a blip or whether the tiny iconic bird has joined the list of sea birds in long term decline in the North Sea.\nThe sudden drop in numbers was revealed in a survey carried out every five years on the island off Scotland's east coast by scientists from the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology.\nThe Isle of May is home to the largest colony of puffins in the North Sea and has been the centre of the UK science community's research into the bird for over three decades.\nNumbers have increased dramatically from a handful of pairs 50 years ago to more than 69,000 pairs at the time of the last count in 2003.\nScientists had expected numbers to soar to more than 100,000 pairs this year and are baffled by the loss of almost one in three birds.\nProfessor Mike Harris, Emeritus Research Fellow at the Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, who has studied puffins for 36 year, said: \"Something worrying appears to have happened over last winter and probably the one before.\n\"Puffins appear to be joining the ranks of other seabirds in the North Sea that are suffering reduced breeding success and decline in numbers.\"\nThe puffin (Fratercula arctica) is instantly recognisable by its bright red and black eye markings and vivid orange legs and is known as the clown of seabirds. But its comical looks and endearing traits has made it one of the world's favourite birds.\nAdults arrive back at their breeding colonies in the Shetland and Orkney Islands, Northumberland, Anglesey and the Isle of May in March and April and they leave again in mid-August. They nest in burrows on the cliff tops and rely mainly on sand eels to feed their young.\nThe disappearance of the sand eel due mainly to industrial fishing by factory ships in the North Sea is believed to be one of the main factors in the puffin's decline on May.\nBird numbers are assessed by carefully examining burrows for signs of occupation in late April after the birds have cleaned them out ready for breeding. In past surveys the occupancy rate was nearly 100 per cent, but this year it was down to only 70 per cent.\nScientists also noticed fewer birds than usual had returned to the island and those that did were underweight compared to previous years suggesting they may have had a difficult winter.\nUnusually high numbers of puffins, including some ringed on the island in previous years, were washed ashore dead during the last two winters.\nProfessor Harris said: \"We need to repeat the survey next year to check the unlikely possibility that a large numbers of puffins took a summer off from visiting the Island. We also need to widen the survey to include other colonies in the North Sea to measure to what extent the puffin population is declining in the area.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:1dcbd691-281d-4bb5-804c-a04bb8776ffd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3343460/Puffin-numbers-plummet-on-main-breeding-site.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9717697501182556, "token_count": 659, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fly ash isn't just filler in concrete. As a very fine-grained pozzolan, it reacts with the calcium hydroxide that is generated by the hydration reaction of cement and water to take on cementitious properties of its own. The reaction makes concrete stronger, less permeable, and reduces the alkalinity, which can reduce the danger of alkali-silica reactivity in the aggregate\u2014and the need in some parts of the country to import nonreactive aggregate from distant sources.\nFly ash concrete is more workable and pumpable. It also hydrates more slowly, which reduces the heat of hydration\u2014critical to reducing cracking in mass concrete placements. All of this makes fly ash concrete more durable than plain portland cement concrete. And concrete with fly ash costs less, because fly ash is typically less expensive than portland cement.\nDue to all these advantages, fly ash is used in about half the concrete placed today. NRMCA estimates that 15% of cementitious materials in concrete are replaced by fly ash and other supplementary cementitious materials. Typically specified as a percentage replacement for portland cement, both Class C and Class F ash is used at dosages as high as 50% (although 15% is more common).\nBut the percentage of fly ash use has been increasing. To achieve a more sustainable concrete, producers and engineers have been increasing replacement rates. One recent study used fly ash at replacement rates up to 30% with no adverse results on a hard-troweled concrete floor (see \u201cAdding Fly Ash to Concrete Mixes for Floor Construction\u201d CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION Special Floors Issue, November 2007).\nThere is a limit to how much fly ash our industry can use. First, not all fly ash is equal. \u201cEvery power plant has its idiosyncrasies\u201d says Morris \u201cSkip\u201d Huffman, former chairman of ACI Committee 232, Fly Ash, and division manager with Headwaters Resources, a marketer of fly ash. \u201cThe quality can vary, depending on exactly how the plant is being run. Some fly ashes have higher sulfur trioxide (SO3) contents and are not suitable for use in concrete. Some have problems with higher carbon content or they are too coarse. But the majority of ash, especially in the western U.S., is suitable for use in concrete and can go straight from the plant to the silo.\u201d\nAnd contractors often object to using fly ash concrete. These concerns include set time, air content, and strength gain. Some fly ash can retard hydration and lead to longer set times and slower strength gain. And some can lead to loss of entrained air. An experienced concrete producer can easily overcome these issues. In January 2006 CC, (Using High Volume Fly Ash Concrete), Lattimore Materials' Richard Szecsy notes that even at replacement rates as high as 50%, the set time and strength gain can be controlled using admixtures and proportioning.Why a hazardous waste?\nNo one argues that containment pond failures are acceptable\u2014they are not. And no one doubts that there should be tighter regulations governing their design, construction, and maintenance. But to many proponents supporting fly ash use in concrete, regulating final disposal methods is a completely separate matter than designating fly ash as a hazardous waste under Subtitle C.\nThe problem is that the EPA wants more authority than the current law allows. At the September 2009 meeting of the Environmental Council of the States (ECOS), Matt Hale, director of EPA's Office of Resource Conservation & Recovery, said that while he believes that regulating fly ash under Subtitle D would be sufficient to protect public health and the environment, it doesn't provide the EPA with the authority to enforce more stringent disposal requirements.\nInsideEPA.com reports that the agecy's current proposal is an unusual \u201chybrid\u201d approach: designating fly ash as hazardous if it's disposed of in a containment pond or landfill but not hazardous when recycled for \u201cbeneficial uses.\u201d This proposal could mean that producers and power plants would have to transport, store, and treat fly ash as a hazardous waste in its powder form, but not after it's incorporated into concrete.\nHowever well-intended, a hybrid approach to fly ash classification would cause our nation significant problems.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cc2c1d50-c53f-4f68-93da-cb8bc8fb7da3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.theconcreteproducer.com/concrete-materials-and-admixtures/the-fly-ash-threat_2.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9455239176750183, "token_count": 886, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The study involved the first-ever use on an infectious disease of a new research technique called chemical genetics. Every virus presents scientists with a new kind of genetic code\u2014the challenge is to figure out how to decipher it to gain a fuller understanding of how the virus works and how to combat it. In the past, such research was often slow and laborious. But thanks to chemical genetics\u2014which allows scientists to quickly test how a new virus reacts with thousands of different chemicals\u2014viruses that might have remained indecipherable for years can now be at least partially unlocked in months or even weeks. \"Instead of testing out keys in a lock one by one, it's like trying out 50,000 keys all at once,\" says Yuen.\nThe point of both chemical and classical genetic research is to figure out which genes do what\u2014in effect, to learn to read an organism's genetic language. In classical genetics, scientists usually mutate an organism, see how its functions have changed (a mutated virus might no longer be infectious) and then work back and identify which gene mutated. If a mutated virus loses its ability to infect a cell, then that gene probably has something to do with infectivity. In chemical genetics, explains Dr. Richard Kao, the lead researcher on the HKU study, scientists try do the same by testing thousands upon thousands of chemicals on virus samples. The vast majority won't have any effect, but a handful will. Researchers can then take those virus samples and use further tests to figure out which viral gene has been affected by which chemical. \"If we discover that interfering with a certain gene stops the virus from replicating, then we know that gene's function likely has to do with replication,\" says Kao, a biochemist who brought his passion for chemical genetics to HKU from Harvard University, where the process was first pioneered in the early 1990s.\nIn HKU's SARS study, Kao and his colleagues filled the tiny wells of a small, waffle-like board with samples of the coronavirus cultured in cell lines. Microscopic amounts of different chemical compounds were introduced into each separate well using a $180,000 machine called an automated high-throughput screening platform. Once the chemicals had time to interact with the virus, scientists could examine the results with an inverted microscope. The process was repeated until all 50,240 compounds in their chemical library had been tested, which took a few months. \"You'd think it'd be tedious work, but it's really not that bad,\" says Kao. If the chemical failed to interfere with the virus, as was the case with most of them, researchers would easily see evidence of unchecked infection in the cell lines. But about 1,000 compounds seemed to slow the virus, and 104 of those all but stopped infection. It stood to reason that those compounds were hitting the viral genetic pathways that were most important for infectivity.\nWith help from their collaborators at the Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center in New York, Kao and his colleagues discovered that one of 104 compounds inhibited a kind of viral processing inside the cell, six inhibited viral replication and 18 seemed to prevent the virus from entering the cell in the first place. (Kao says further work will be needed to figure out which viral genes the remaining 78 compounds affect. One of them seems to affect both processing and replication.) A number of these compounds could form the basis for promising anti-SARS drugs, and HKU plans to begin animal-testing some of the most effective compounds soon. But the real value of the study is the clearer picture it offers of the SARS virus and the blueprint it provides for research responses to any future emerging diseases, like avian flu. \"We can react more rapidly, and we can find new drugs that specifically target the disease,\" Kao says. \"If there's a new virus, we can jump onto this.\"\nAround HKU, that's a question of when, not if. HKU's work on SARS and bird flu has helped transform a regional university into a world player in disease research, and its staff understand that they are part of a vital bulwark. \"Hong Kong is a very strategic place to be for emerging-infectious-disease work,\" says Yuen. And when the next would-be superbug pops up, at least scientists will have one more arrow in their quiver.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c07b7935-d735-4897-8cc1-37ddf786f2c0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,702205,00.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.976779580116272, "token_count": 893, "score": 3.609375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Kindergarten Puzzle Games:\nK (5-6 yrs)\nAlphabet Crossword is a simple puzzle and vocabulary exercise for preschoolers. The game progresses from A to Z, teaching the child some common words associated with each alphabet. Kids have to fill the crossword puzzle by clicking and dropping the words in the corresponding blank spaces. Through this puzzle game, kids will build and expand their vocabulary as they learn new words, their spellings and their pronunciations.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e8878ee9-a172-4f39-bcaf-bcbe3f7db57e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.turtlediary.com/kindergarten-games/puzzle-games/abc-words.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.916523277759552, "token_count": 98, "score": 3.15625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Lauretta Underwood, 72, said she can clearly remember the day her mother told her she was about to witness history as she was dropped off at school.\nFollowing the landmark Supreme Court case Brown V. Board of Education, which made school segregation unconstitutional, Central High School and the state of Arkansas became a national symbol of integration resistance, according to the Arkansas Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture.\nThe school board complied with the law and adopted a plan to integrate, beginning at the high school level and working down to the lower grades starting in 1957, according to the website.\nOn Sept. 2, 1957, nine African American students who volunteered to attend Central High School were stopped by the Arkansas National Guard under the direction of Gov. Orval Faubus, who asserted the students\u2019 entrance to the school would cause violence, the website states.\nPresident Dwight Eisenhower brought in the U.S. Army\u2019s 101st Airborne Division to ensure the students were allowed to attend the school on Sept. 25.\nMrs. Underwood said mobs of people, many of whom were mothers, were protesting and the soldiers formed a perimeter around the school, but she was not afraid as she entered.\n\u201cIn a way, you felt safe because you knew they were there to keep things under control, and there were tanks and trucks everything \u2014 it was like a warzone,\u201d she said.\nShe said, before the airborne division came in, students flocked to the windows as an innocent black man was beaten and dragged down the street by a mob. From her vantage point, she wasn\u2019t exactly sure who stopped the violence, but it appeared the National Guard wasn\u2019t doing much.\n\u201cBest I can remember, he was just an innocent guy walking down the street, and there was a mob, and they were going to take it out on him,\u201d she said.\n\u201cThe people that were protesting the most were the mothers,\u201d she said. \u201cThe fathers were at work. (It was) not all of them, a minority were \u2026 protesting.\u201d\nSome mothers picked up their children from school that first day if they had a class with an African American student, and one of them addressed Earnest Green while he was in study hall, she said.\n\u201cMost of the mothers who came to get their kids were quiet and respectful, but one (that) came to the door when I was in study hall was not,\u201d she said. \u201cI won\u2019t (repeat) what she said, but it\u2019s still in my memory. He just put his head on his desk \u2014 never said a word.\u201d\nMrs. Underwood said study hall was the only class she had with Earnest, and speaking was not allowed in the class. She said, although they were never friends, she considered him to be very nice, polite and intelligent.\nThe two also shared a lunch period and after the resistance that day, Earnest ate lunch by himself.\n\u201cPart of me wanted to get up and join him,\u201d she said. \u201cI knew that was the right and Christian thing to do, however, I did not have the courage to do so, and no one else at my table would go with me.\u201d\nMrs. Underwood said after a few days, a group of boys found the courage to sit with Earnest and he gradually made friends at the school.\nDespite the initial resistance, most students did not go out of their way to make the nine student\u2019s lives difficult, she said.\n\u201cMost of the kids were pleasant to the nine, or at least ignored them, but there were some who were cruel and harassed them constantly,\u201d she said. \u201cThey were the minority. The majority were either nice to them or left them alone.\u201d\nMrs. Underwood said the ceremony was held outside in the school\u2019s stadium and Earnest was booed and jeered at as he walked across the stage during rehearsal.\nA strong police presence was at the actual ceremony, and Mrs. Underwood said she became anxious as Earnest\u2019s name was called out.\n\u201cI didn\u2019t want them to do that to him,\u201d she said. \u201cHe was such a nice guy, so when he called his name, I was holding my breath. There wasn\u2019t one sound, one jeer, one boo one anything \u2014 it was just quiet.\u201d\nLooking back on the historical year, Mrs. Underwood said she had one regret.\n\u201cI know as a Christian I felt really bad for not befriending Earnest, but I\u2019m happy to see hearts have melted and race relations have improved,\u201d she said. \u201cI pray they will continue to get better.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:ca576d8c-c061-4acb-8920-f81d7c4d8795>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.tylerpaper.com/article/20130218/NEWS08/130219808/0/FEATURES06", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9937354326248169, "token_count": 1011, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1865 Born in Bombay, where his father was a Professor of Architectural Sculpture at the Bombay School of Art.\n1870 Rudyard and his younger sister are taken to England by his parents and placed in Calvinistic foster home were he is nagged, bullied and beaten.\n1876 Rudyard's mother returns to England and discovers the mistreatment that her children had endured. Rudyard is removed from the foster home and he is sent to a private school called the United Services College.\n1881 Schoolboy Lyrics published.\n1882 Rudyard leaves school to return to India. His father, who was then the curator of the museum at Lahore, gets him a job as assistant editor of the English paper, The Civil and Military Gazette, which was published in that city.\n1886 Departmental Ditties is published.\n1887 After five years as sub-editor of the Civil and Military Gazette, Rudyard is sent to Allahabad, several hundred miles to the south, to work on the much more important sister-paper, The Pioneer. The proprietors were starting a weekly edition for home, and he was given the editorship. He publishes Soldier Tales, Indian Tales, and Tales of the Opposite Sex. Among them were such powerful and grusome stories as The Mark of the Beast and The Return of Imray.\n1888 Publishes Plain Tales from the Hills his first work which explores the psychological and moral problems of the Anglo-Indians and their relationship with the people they had colonized. Also published are: Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black and White, Wee Wee Willie Winkie and Turn overs from \"The Civil and Military Gazette\"\n1889 Rudyard leaves India for England and settles down in Villiers Street, Strand.\n1890 The Courting of Dinah Shadd and Other Stories and The City of Dreadful Night are published.\n1891 The Light that Failed, Letters of Marque and Life's Handicap are published.\n1892 Barrack-Room Ballads, Rhymed Chapter Headings and The Naulahka are published. Rudyard marries Carolyn Balestier, the sister of Wolcott Balestier, who is an American. Because of his health breaking down, Rudyard and his wife settle down in Brattleboro, Vermont where his wife's family had long been established.\n1893 Many Inventions is published.\n1894 The Jungle Book is published.\n1895 The Second Jungle Book is published.\n1896 The Seven Seas and Soldier Tales is published.\n1897 After a violent arguement with his in-laws, Rudyard and his wife move back to England and settles on a country estate. Captains Courageous is published.\n1898 An Almanac of Twelve Sports,The Day's Work and A Fleet in Being are published.\n1899 Rudyard goes to South Africa, in the midst of the defeats of the Boer War. His eldest daughter Josephine dies of measles. Stalky and Co. and From Sea to Sea are published.\n1900 The Kipling Reader is published.\n1901 Kim and War's Brighter Side are published.\n1902 Just So Stories is published.\n1903 The Five Nations is published.\n1904 Traffics and Discoveries is published.\n1906 Puck of Pook's Hill is published.\n1907 Collected Verse is published. Rudyard Kipling becomes the first English author to recieve the Nobel Prize for Literature.\n1909 Actions and Reactions is published.\n1910 Rewards and Fairies is published.\n1911 A History of England is published.\n1912 Collected Verse (British edition) and ,Songs from Books is published.\n1914 Rudyard emerges from seclusion as the official writer-up of the new armed forces of the Crown.\n1915 The New Army in Training and France in War are published. \"Mary Postgate.\"\n1916 Rudyard's son is killed with the Irish Guards. Sea Warfare is published.\n1917 A Diversity of Creatures is published.\n1919 The Graves of the Fallen and The Years Between are published.\n1920 Horace Odes, Book V and Letters of Travel are published.\n1923 Elected Lord Rector of St. Andrews University. The Irish Guards in the Great War and Land and Sea are published.\n1924 Songs for Youth is published.\n1926 Sea and Sussex and Debits and Credits are published.\n1927 Songs of the Sea is published.\n1928 A Book of Words is published.\n1929 Poems, 1886-1929 is published.\n1930 Thy Servant A Dog is published.\n1932 Limits and Renewals is published.\n1934 Collected Dog Stories is published.\n1936 January 18th Rudyard Kipling dies of a perforated duodenum.\nLast modified 1988", "id": "<urn:uuid:d21edc41-c089-4799-a1e0-a9e9760d8853>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/kipling/rkchron.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701459211/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105059-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.97381591796875, "token_count": 1020, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The California Community Colleges\nThroughout the late 19th\ncentury and early 20th century, states established public\ncolleges and universities, funded enrollment expansion, and launched\nan experiment in social engineering. The result was a transformation\nof the scope and purpose of American higher education. California\ncan be seen as leading this transformation. California reflected the\nstruggle of most other states to coordinate their respective public\ninstitutions. Issues of governance, autonomy, funding,\nand accountability gained greater importance in local and statewide\npolitics. As the need of higher education in American society increased,\nthe number of public institutions grew. The cost to taxpayers advanced\nthese developments, but it differed in its early development of a\ncoherent organizational structure for public higher education. In\nthe Progressive Era, California established and funded a groundbreaking,\ngeographically dispersed system of public colleges and a multi-campus\nstate university . California Progressives created a\nsocial contract and an organizational structure that coupled the promise\nof broad access to public higher education with a desire to develop\ninstitutions of high academic quality\u2014an influential model that John\nDouglass, in his book The California Idea and American Higher Education:\n1850 to the 1960 Master Plans, calls \u201cThe California Idea.\u201d\nA Pivotal Role\nCalifornia played a pivotal\nrole in the development of community colleges and districts in America.\nLegislation in California produced some of the earliest community\ncolleges in the country. The district college soon became the model\nfor most public community colleges in the nation and other states\nmoved quickly to pass similar legislation.\nSocial, political, and\neconomic forces shaped public higher education in California. Its\nmajor personalities include David\nStarr Jordan, Benjamin\nIde Wheeler, Hiram\nWarren, and Clark\nThe first two-year colleges\nin California began with the recognition by local townspeople that\nmany young high school graduates, unable to take up residence at an\noften distant college or university (usually for financial reasons),\nmight benefit from college level studies. The founders of these institutions\ntended to be modest about their aspirations. They wanted to make it\nclear that they were in no sense proposing to compete with four-year\nGenerally, these colleges\nwere established by an existing high school district as just one more\nservice offered to the community by the democratic school system.\nIt was not long, however, before the \"post high school experience\"\ngrew into full-fledged junior colleges. Ultimately these institutions\nbecame today's \"comprehensive\" California Community Colleges.\nsome debate the origins of how the junior college came to California,\nevidence points to William Rainey Harper, President of the University\nof Chicago. Letters authored by Harper around 1900 noted that he was\nworking with three California Colleges on the junior college idea.\nHowever, it was David Starr Jordan, President of Stanford College,\nwho became the most important figure in the junior college movement\nin California. Jordan's friendship and exchanges with Harper, as well\nas his tenacious persuit of the separation from the university's lower\ndivision, made him one of the most important figures in California's\ntwo-year college movement.\nA California law adopted\nin 1907 (Upward Extension Law) allowed high schools to offer \"postgraduate\"\nclasses. Many historians have described this law as the beginning\nof the California junior college system. The historical record, however,\ndoes not support this view. Both extended high schools and two-year\ncolleges appear to have existed before the 1907 law. There is some\nhistorical evidence that many California high schools were already\noffering post diploma courses before the law was passed. William Rainey\nHarper noted in 1900 that five California colleges were already preparing\nto convert to junior colleges. These institutions may have converted\nbefore 1907 (Witt, p 53).\nThe first use of the Upward\nExtension Law in the state was Fresno High School around 1910. With\nthe assistance of universities Stanford and Berkeley, a principal\nand instructors were chosen for the first junior college in California.\nThe school provided courses primarily to prepare persons for work\nin agriculture or industry. In 1913, Bakersfield, Fullerton, and Long\nBeach founded junior colleges. Between 1915-1916, Azuza, Chaffey,\nRiverside, Sacramento, and Santa Ana followed suit. By the end of\nthe decade, California had created the most extensive junior college\nsystem in the nation (Witt, p. 53).\nThe Development of\nDistricts in California\nAnother piece of California\nlegislation passed in 1917, the Ballard Act, which provided state\nand county support for junior colleges. This Act followed the state\nfunding formula for high schools and provided funding to community\ncolleges on a per-student basis. In 1921, the District Junior College\nLaw amended the Ballard Act. This law allowed for the creation of\ncommunity college districts to fund and administer junior colleges\nin California (Witt, p. 52-53).\nWith the establishment\nof college district boards of education, freestanding institutions\nof higher education were controlled by the electorate, not by an academic\nelite. This combination of local control and public funding allowed\njunior colleges to adapt rapidly to the needs of their districts.\nLocal control also contributed to the rise of vocational education,\nadult education, evening classes, and other innovations that distinguish\ntoday's community colleges. This new law had an immediate effect as\nthree junior college districts formed soon after, including Modesto\nCollege in September 1921. Eight days later Riverside Junior College\nreorganized under a district plan, and two months later Sacramento\ncreated a college district. California had thirty-one public junior\ncolleges, fourteen of them districts, by 1928. The\n1920's and 1930's were a period of increased growth and interest in\nthe community college. By 1930, approximately 150,000 students were\nenrolled in the community college system (Witt, p 96-113). Most of\nthat growth took place in Illinois, Texas, and California.\nThe second world war created\na demand for vocational programs. Many junior colleges participated\nin the newly approved Civilian Pilot Training Program. The greatest\nconcentration of these programs was in California and Texas. This\ndefense effort provided a boon, increase in scope, and new acceptance\nfor junior college vocational programs. In addition, with students\nfacing military draft, junior colleges began offering accelerated\ndegree programs. For example, San Bernardino Junior College shortened\ntheir associate degree to three semesters (Witt, p.119). Throughout\nthe nation, despite the fact that the Selective Service Act of 1940\nexempted college and university students from the draft, enrollments\ndeclined and small private junior colleges closed. Conversely, California's\nbooming defense industry provided for an establishment of ten new\ncolleges during the war. By 1945, the state had fifty-seven junior\ncolleges (Witt, p. 125-128).\nFollowing World War II,\ncolleges were given a boost with the passage of the GI Bill. Under\nthe GI Bill, any honorably discharged veteran who had served ninety\ndays or was injured in the line of duty was entitled to a free college\neducation. The government would pay for tuition, books, and fees at\nany approved institution. After the decline in enrollments nationwide,\ncolleges scrambled to meet the demand. Once again, California blazed\nahead of the nation with the establishment of 18 new public junior\ncolleges in the first five years after the GI Bill passage (Witt,\nBy the end of the 1950's,\nas the baby boom generation was preparing to graduate from high school,\nCalifornia claimed the largest two-year college enrollment in America.\nNearly 300,000 students were part time or adult education students.\nAbout 91,000 were enrolled in full-time or certificate programs (Witt,\nThe history of California\npublic higher education from statehood to politics and economic forces\neventually resulted in the 1960 California Master Plan for Higher\nEducation. This plan, formulated by a commission headed by Clark\nKerr, then president of the University of California, remains the\ncontroversial basis of California Higher Education today. By the end\nof the decade nearly half the states in the nation had adopted similar\nplans. The controversial plan created a three-tiered system of higher\neducation and placed new restrictions on admissions to state colleges\nand universities. The upper 41 percent of graduates could enter other\nstate colleges and universities. The remaining students would be diverted\nto the state's junior colleges. Many complained that the poorest of\nstudents were being relegated to two-year colleges. Others felt that\nthe two-year college provided a nurturing environment where students,\neliminated from a state university, succeeded.\nDuring the 1970's, community\ncolleges nationwide faced a drop in enrollments. California's system\nfelt an enormous 9 percent decrease. In addition, on June 6th, 1978,\nnearly two-thirds of California's voters passed Proposition 13, reducing\nthe property tax by about 57%. Funding control shifted to the State,\nwith the Legislature increasingly involved in community college operations.\nA Priceless Treasure\nDue in part to a national\nrecession, two-year colleges experienced a resurgence after nearly\nfour years of stagnant enrollment. In addition, between 1980 and 1990\nminority groups fueled the growth in the nation and contributed to\nthe new wave of Americans entering colleges. Community colleges served\nas the gateway to higher education for this new wave of students,which\ncalled for the restructuring of missions and goals, shared governance,\nlearning styles, and faculty and staff diversity. Ironically, this\nresurgence was temporarily short lived as increased military spending\nand a long period of economic growth signaled another downturn in\nenrollments. Community colleges looked for new ways to reach out into\nuntapped sections of the community (high schools, senior citizen centers,\nand prisons). These efforts increased enrollments tremendously. During\nthe 1980's, two-year colleges gained increasing attention from the\nWhite House, as two-year colleges served more voters and existed in\nmost every congressional district. During an interview with a community\ncollege delegation, then President Ronald Reagan called community\ncolleges, \"a priceless treasure--close to our homes and work,\nproviding open doors for millions of our fellow citizens...the original\nhigher education melting pot (Witt, p. 264).\"\nTidal Wave II\nIn the 21st Century new\nchallenges face California Community Colleges. The importance, effectiveness,\nand role of community college education in the competitive California\neconomy is growing. In March of 2000, the State of California's Little\nHoover Commission undertook a study to determine how well community\ncolleges were meeting state goals. The Little Hoover Commission, formally\nknown as the Milton Marks \"Little Hoover\" Commission on California\nState Government Organization and Economy, is an independent state\noversight agency that was created in 1962. The Commission's mission\nis to investigate state government operations and, through reports,\nrecommendations and legislative proposals, promote efficiency, economy\nand improved service. According to the commission, the Department\nof Finance projects a 25 percent increase from 1996 enrollment. Access\nto and effectiveness of community colleges is under greater scrutiny\ndue to this projected increase.\nThe commission focused\non two issues: first, understanding the evolving mission of the community\ncolleges and the roles community colleges play in post-secondary education;\nsecond, reviewing whether community colleges successfully realize\ntheir mission. In short, one of the more significant commission findings\nwas that the success of the community colleges depends on the quality\nof teaching as well as true access to the educational services that\nindividual students need. The commission's findings and recommendations\nare presented in four sections:\n- Making Teaching Count:\nQuality teaching is not prioritized in hiring, professional development,\nor tenure decisions.\n- Ensuring Access and\nBenefit for All: Colleges fail to identify the potential students\nthey intend to serve, the barriers that prevent those populations\nfrom benefiting from the colleges, or how resource decisions can\nbest serve access goals.\n- Aligning Funding\nwith Purpose: Community college funding is baseline and enrollment\ndriven. Funding structures do little to encourage individual colleges\nor the colleges as a system to promote efficiency, cost effectiveness\n- Reinvigorating Governance:\nCommunity college leadership is bifurcated between state and\nlocal decision-makers, both of them bound by procedures intended\nto give all parties a seat at the table. In the absence of leadership\nthis muddled governance mutes responsibility and accountability\nfor the quality and the cost-effectiveness of services offered.\nWilliam Rainey Harper's\nplan to revolutionize higher education is still alive in the ever\nchanging California's community colleges.The associate degree has\nbecome an accepted standard of achievement, and millions of students\nwho would have otherwise been unserved find an open gateway in California's\non the Community College in America. It's History, Mission, and Management.\nEd. George A. Baker III. Greenwood Press, 1994.\nSidney W., and Myron Roberts. The California Community Colleges.\nField Educational Publications Incorporated, 1973.\nJ.A. The California Idea and American Higher Education: 1850 to\nthe 1960 Master Plan. Stanford University Press, 2000.\nDoors and Open Minds: Improving Access and Quality in California's\nCommunity Colleges. State of California Little Hoover Commission,\nMarch 2000. http://www.lhc.ca.gov/lhc.html\nAllen A., James L. Wattenbarger, James F. Gollattscheck, and Joseph\nE. Suppinger. America's Community Colleges: The First Century,\nCommunity College Press, 1994. (p. 34).", "id": "<urn:uuid:def5e8ce-4b43-4486-8eba-d352e0451e6e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://4faculty.org/includes/digdeeper/CCChistory.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9363389015197754, "token_count": 2911, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "VISAKHAPATNAM: Scores of indigenous plant species with medicinal value are vanishing from the Eastern Ghats and coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh as indiscriminate exploitation and unscientific method of extracting these plants is hampering their regeneration and resulting in escalation of costs of herbal medicines.\nBiodiversity in the region is being adversely affected by untrained locals extracting medicinal plants unscientifically, without planting and seeding, at the behest of middlemen who are associated with herbal product exporters or Ayurvedic drug manufacturers, point out experts.\n\"Plants like Saptarangi, one of the very few herbs used in anti-diabetic medicines that is found in the marshy lands, is becoming scarce and so is Sidacordisolia that is used for arthritis and rheumatic disorders and is found in the Eastern Ghats,\" said ayurvedic physician K Jayakrishna.\nV Susheela, an ayurvedic doctor from Sree Aurvedic Hospital, said, \"Plants such as Satavari used for curing gynaecological disorders, Sariba for skin ailments, Aswagandha for curing anxiety plus neurosis and sarpagandha for treating hypertension are in need of adequate conservation. The cost of herbal medicines has risen 4 to 5 times in the last 2 to 3 years due to the limited availability of certain herbs as well as the hike in prices of gold and mercury, which are important mineral ingredients for ayurvedic preparations. Proper inspection from the AYUSH (Ayurveda Yoga Unani Sidha and Homepathy) department is required to check the indiscriminate and unscientific exploitation and trafficking of rare herbal plants.\"\n\"Deforestation and unscientific extraction are rampant in Eastern Ghats and other coastal belts of AP, which is a treasure house of medicinal plants and herbs. The local tribes are given a few bucks by the middlemen employed by Ayurvedic companies who remove all the endemic plants at the same time without enabling propagation or sowing them elsewhere. These plant collectors don't have the required knowledge of chemistry, botany and Ayurveda and hence scarcity of various species of herbs is rising due to their unscientific activities. Training of these tribals in their local language is needed for scientific extraction of herbs,\" said Jayakrishna.\nZoologist and plant conservationist professor M Rama Murthy also emphasised on the buy-back policy by pharma companies to encourage conservation and propagation of herbal species. While plants such as podapatri to control sugar level and pashanabedhi to remove kidney stones are almost becoming extinct due to indiscriminate exploitation, there are also other useful herbs such as multi-vitamin greens, which are available in plenty but not exploited due to lack of awareness. A scientific approach towards herb collection is the need of the hour,\" he said.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6b7183a1-64d0-4774-9c11-1609565935c3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-12-26/visakhapatnam/36007253_1_medicinal-plants-herbal-medicines-satavari", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9501148462295532, "token_count": 594, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Five new names have been approved for Mars: Angustus Labyrinthus, Chronius Mons, Promethei Mons, Sisyphi Tholus, and Thyles Montes. The names Australis Patera, Angusta Patera, and Cavi Frigores have been marked as dropped in the database. New imagery has shown that the two paterae were named using the wrong descriptor term, and the area previously named Cavi Frigores has been incorporated into the adjacent Cavi Angusti.\nThe definition of the descriptor term labyrinthus has been expanded from \"Complex of intersecting valleys\" to \"Complex of intersecting valleys or ridges.\"\nSee the Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature for more information.", "id": "<urn:uuid:49cf180e-b094-466e-8bec-389e659861da>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/HotTopics/index.php?/archives/2006/09/14/C26.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9152868986129761, "token_count": 155, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This is the second book wrote by Lee Lehman and presents in a very detailed manner the astrological dignities. It was published in 1989 by Whitford Press.\nIn Chapter 1 - Two Unsung Revolutions in Astrology the author explains how the Copernican Revolution changed the way astrologers understand dignities. At page 18 one can find a table with traditional and modern essential dignities.\nChapter 2 - Using Traditional Rulerships\nHere you'll find many practical examples of charts analyzed using traditional dignities. There are presented five countries (Confederate States of America, Italy, Iran, Switzerland, USSR), five corporations (General Motors, Ford, Chrysler, Coca-Cola, Pepsi), five individuals (Jane Austen, Lewis Carroll, Doyle Arthur, Niccolo Machiavelli, Mark Twain) and one horary chart.\nOf course, it is always nice to see how the theory applies in practice, but I was expecting from these examples to emphasize the different results which appears when analyzing the charts with traditional and modern dignities. Unfortunately, this is not happening, the charts are analyzed using only traditional dignities.\nIn Chapter 3 - The Origin of Rulerships: A Botanical Interlude you can find out which planer or sign rules every planet. You'll see that onion is ruled by Mars, beans by Venus, holly by Saturn etc. Also, there is a table with the medicinal uses of Jupiter- ruled plants. I didn't test these, but it may be helpful.\nChapter 4 - Modern \u201cRulerships\u201d: Do They Work?\nThe author is trying to prove that modern rulerships aren't working well and to find arguments. She points out that:\n\u201cwhen modern astrologers discuss the modern rulerships the criterion appears to be: Which body (planet, asteroid or comet) has qualities which most resembles the sign in question?\u201d\nSo, modern rulerships are assigned counting if a planet qualities are similar with the sign qualities and not looking at the planet strength in a sign. See another quotation:\n\u201cWe haven't any evidence that the ancients thought that Pisces and Jupiter were synonymous. It was a question of the strength of Jupiter in Pisces, not the similarity of Jupiter and Pisces.\u201d\nNow, I think the idea is pretty clear. I must say that I totally agree with this point of view.\nThen the charts of Marie Curie, Jeddu Krishnamurti, Adolf Hitler and Death of Dracula are analyzed. This time, Lee Lehman makes an analogy between the charts interpretations with modern and traditional rulerships. The results are pretty good and the lecture enjoyable.\nOnly one problem, from my point of view. It is analyzed the chart \u201cDeath of Dracula\u201d, where Lee writes things like: \u201cI have been fascinated by charts of people who are, so to speak, energy sucks\u201d, \u201cScorpio Sun (life of the vampire)\u201d, etc. Hei, I am from Romania and I tell you there is no vampire. Dracula is just a myth assigned to a Romanian prince, Vlad III of Wallachia. It is true that he was cruel and liked to kill people by impaling them on a sharp pole, but everything else is imagination.\nChapter 5 \u2013 The Meaning of Each of the Essential Dignities\nIn this chapter you'll find some general characteristics for the five essential dignities: ruler, exaltation, triplicity, term and face. At page 127 is a table with key words associated with these dignities. Starting from these key words Lee Lehman gives many descriptive explanations for dignities, but it just seems to much! There are the same things explained over and over again, it seemed pretty boring to me.\nIn Chapter 6 \u2013 A Statistical Interlude the author is trying to determine the influence of terms (both Chaldean and Egyptian) making a few tests. She selected a number of charts from different categories (suicide, scientist, sport champions) and counted the terms for each planet.\nIn the final, we can see that the planet that rules the category (for example, Mars for sport champions) obtained more points that usually, on a normal pattern. Even the results apparently validates the importance of terms I won't give to much credit to such a test. Why? Because I don't see terms so important to determine a person belong to a category or another. For example, more points in the term of Saturn won't drive you to suicide because can be many other (not even major) aspects that can change this influence.\nProbably, I just don't believe terms are so important an if Lee Lehman is making those test it is clear that she also has doubts.\nChapter 7 \u2013 Detriment, Falls and Peregrines means several pages where you can find short descriptions for every planet detriment and fall.\nIn Chapter 8 \u2013 Conclusions there are the final words.\nMY EVALUATION: 6\nConclusion. If I would have to say quickly, at my first impression, some words about this book I think would be: \u201ctoo much noise for nothing\u201d. But, then, if you think for a moment you realize that you can't say \u201cfor nothing\u201d because dignities are a very important part in astrology and one could write a whole interesting book about this subject.\nSo, back to my reasoning, why this impression? Why \u201ctoo much noise for nothing?\u201d. Maybe, because this book presents shortly the five dignities associated with some main characteristics, ideas repeated in different chapters, but the rest of the book is somewhat near the subject.\nYou can read about history, botany, statistics, all connected with dignities, but the book doesn't seem to touch the essential points. It is a surface play. It doesn't have those clear, rational statements that gives you a better understanding of the subject.\nIf a medium astrologer reads this book I don't think will have much to learn and to integrate in his astrological system. Maybe I am a little too harsh, but it is my purpose here to criticize and to present a clear point of view about the astrological books I read. My evaluation is 6.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3a9f6d3f-436b-449d-865e-ed292dd45fc0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://astrologycritics.com/essential-dignities.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9541563987731934, "token_count": 1295, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Food and nutrients help to form strong teeth and bones, muscles and a healthy body. A balanced diet can also help to protect your child against illness. Children\u2019s need for energy and nutrients is high, but appetites are small and children can be fussy, so it can be a challenge to get your child\u2019s diet right especially when feeding them organic food. But there\u2019s quite a bit at stake because healthy eating aids early learning and childhood development.\nIt\u2019s useful to know that young children can usually regulate their own intake, so remember that pre-school children normally eat the amounts they want, even if it seems they\u2019re not taking in very much. At this age, children are often good at regulating their appetite. If they\u2019re not hungry, insisting on larger amounts of food can create a battle, which you\u2019re likely to lose.\nBase your child\u2019s intake on the following food groups to help ensure she\u2019s getting all the important nutrients. Make sure your child has a balanced diet, with food from each of the key food groups every day. The food pyramid helps kids to receive all the nutrients growing children need each day from the five food groups. These are:\nProtein \u2013 this includes lean meat, fish, poultry, eggs, nuts, legumes\nGrains \u2013 this includes bread, cereals, rice, pasta and noodles\nDairy \u2013 this includes milk, yoghurt, and cheese\nThey, and you, will need to eat a number of serves from each group depending on their age and how active they are. Growing children need the following number of serves from each group. Let Mindful Eating be a guiding principle. This table shows the suggested number of serves per day by age:\nAge in years\n3 \u2013 4\n4 \u2013 6\n4 \u2013 5\n1 \u2013 2\n1 \u2013 1.5\n4 \u2013 7\n5 \u2013 9\n3 \u2013 4\n3 \u2013 5\n1 \u2013 2\nSample serves from the Australian Guide to Healthy Eating.\nYoung children have small appetites, so fibre-rich carbohydrates can be bulky and inhibit the absorption of some minerals. A good mindful eating tip is to gradually introduce higher fibre carbohydrate foods, such as whole wheat pasta and brown rice, so that by the time children are five, they\u2019re eating the same fibre-rich foods as the rest of the family.\nGiving your baby a pure start to life really begins nine months before birth.\nIt\u2019s not so surprising really, given all that rapid and miraculous cell growth and division is fuelled by you. So what to eat when pregnant is a key issue because that truly is the real baby food!\nOn the other side of the coin, there are some things that are definitely not good. Alcohol, nicotine and other \u201crecreational chemicals\u201d need to be avoided, preferably before you conceive. Enough said on that score.\nThere is no \u201cmagic food\u201d to consume. As usual the answer is simple and logical. The best things to eat when you\u2019re pregnant are simply wholesome fresh foods. Plenty of fruits and vegetables, obviously, but choose a balanced diet from each of the five food groups. Although you\u2019re eating for two, remember its quality not quantity that you\u2019re after. Let Mindful Eating be a guiding principle. Just think about what\u2019s going in your mouth and eat what you should, not what you could, and make water you\u2019re preferred drink.\nThe interesting thing about this approach is that you\u2019re likely to feel a whole lot better, be healthier and possibly even shed some unwanted fat, even though that\u2019s not the objective. And remember it\u2019s not good to be dieting during pregnancy without the agreement and oversight of your doctor.\nMake sure too, that the foods you\u2019re eating contain enough of the key nutrients for pregnancy. Most of us get these through a balanced diet, but you might want to check out choline, usually grouped with the B-complex vitamins. Choline isn\u2019t technically a B vitamin, but it is often included in the B-vitamin family because it does work closely with other B vitamins, especially folic acid Vitamin B9) and cobalamin (Vitamin B12), to process fat and keep the heart and brain healthy. We\u2019ve blogged on choline recently.Pregnancy is a time when the body\u2019s demand for choline is highest. Choline is particularly used to support the fetus\u2019s developing nervous system. I mention it again because studies show intake is low and feedback to our previous blog shows that women don\u2019t know this particular \u201cvitamin\u201d, despite it being an essential nutrient. You can get it through eggs, by the way.\nObviously, as an organic baby food company we like to keep abreast of the latest findings on organic food. The University of Barcelona has just released a study that shows that organic tomatoes contain more polyphenolic compounds than conventionally produced tomatoes.\nPhenolic compounds are organic molecules found in many vegetables and have proven human health benefits. Polyphenols are natural antioxidants and are considered to be of great nutritional interest because their consumption is associated with reduced risk of cardiovascular and degenerative diseases. Most interesting is the researchers view of why this might be. Organic farming doesn\u2019t use nitrogenous fertilizers; as a result, plants respond by activating their own defense mechanisms, increasing the levels of all antioxidants. It seems that conventionally fertilised plants \u201cdon\u2019t have to try so hard\u201d and as a result their production of phenolic compounds is lower. Numerous scientific investigations show that the consumption of these antioxidants has a variety of health benefits. Researchers claim that more studies of clinical evidence are still needed to be able to state that organic products are truly better for our health than conventional ones.\nPregnancy is a wonderful time in any woman\u2019s life. A bit of a roller coaster, yes, but it\u2019s full of new feelings and new learning. Unlike many previous generations, first time mothers now have a clearer picture of what they need to know about nutrition when they\u2019re \u201ceating for two\u201d. Eating for two these days is about quality, not quantity, and new research is turning up all sorts of interesting information on some of the critical nutrients first time mothers, indeed all mums, should ensure form part of their dietary intake.\nThe most important nutrients to support pregnancy can be summarised as follows:\nBiotin \u2022 Choline\nFolate \u2022 Iodine\nIron \u2022 Vitamin A\nLet\u2019s take a quick look at choline. Choline is clearly important but it appears most pregnant women don\u2019t ingest the recommended daily dose.\nCholine is a chemical similar to the B-vitamins, and is often lumped in with them, although it is not (yet) an \u201cofficial\u201d B-vitamin. Although its entire mechanism of action, particularly how it interacts with other nutrients, is not completely understood, it seems too often work in concert with folate and an amino acid called methionine. Although the human body can make some choline it is generally recognised that it is important to get dietary choline as well.\nSo what does choline do? It\u2019s long been understood that choline helps in the development of the neural tube. In the developing baby, the neural tube is the embryo\u2019s very early central nervous system that comprises the brain and spinal cord. This really is early development because by four and a half weeks portions of the brain are already forming!\nCholine also has some other very important protective roles. It seems it helps in the prevention of miscarriage and stillbirth. It has been found that mothers in the bottom 25% for choline intake have a four times greater risks of having a child with neural tube defects compared with women in the highest 25% of intake.\nAlong with choline\u2019s brain development function it can also impact on your child\u2019s lifelong learning and memory capacity. But now we\u2019re finding out it does even more.\nResearchers at Cornell University, USA, found that increased choline intake during pregnancy could reduce stress levels in the child and lower the chances of it developing hypertension and diabetes later in life. Although adults may take choline, the amount of choline that one is exposed to while still in the womb has a stronger effect over time.\nWhat can you do?\nAustralian dietary guidelines recommend a minimum intake of 440mg/day of choline. Many women just don\u2019t get that much. Choline can be found in foods like eggs, beef liver and, you won\u2019t be surprised, breast milk!\nFor comparison 1 large whole egg contains about 112mg, a nice 100g serving of pan-fried calf\u2019s liver can deliver 418mg. 100gm of tofu will give about 28mg and a serve of cauliflower about twice that.\nOf course, you can take a good supplement designed for pregnant women, but be careful here. The Bellamy\u2019s team did a little checking and there is at least one very well known brand out there selling a pregnancy supplement that does not contain any choline! In fact, the only prenatal supplement we could find that contains choline is Zycia Natal Nutrients, available from pharmacies.\nUse Mindful Eating here, too, and don\u2019t take too much. You only need what\u2019s required. More won\u2019t help.\nIf you\u2019d like to know more about Bellamy\u2019s Organic and the certified organic baby foods we make, click on this link.\nThe Cornell paper on reducing stress levels can be found at:", "id": "<urn:uuid:d28d809b-73b3-4073-b1aa-925faf0b6bc7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://bellamysorganicnews.com.au/tag/nutrients/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9512060284614563, "token_count": 2027, "score": 3.65625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Mali has been engrossed in civil war since January 2012, when separatists in Mali\u2019s northern Azawad region began demanding independence from the southern, Bamako-based government. After forcing the Malian military from the north, however, the separatist forces soon became embroiled in a conflict of their own, between the original Mouvement National pour la Lib\u00e9ration de l\u2019Azawad (MNLA) and extremist Islamist splinter factions closely linked with Al-Qaeda. On 11 January 2013, France responded to Mali\u2019s urgent request for international assistance and initiated \u2018Operation Serval\u2019 to aid the recapture of Azawad and defeat the extremist group. From the 18th, West African states began reinforcing French forces with at least 3,300 extra troops.\nIn a BBC \u2019From Our Own Correspondent\u2019 editorial, Hugh Schofield wrote of \u2018la Francafrique\u2019, or France\u2019s considerable interests in West Africa held over from the end of formal empire. In fits and spurts, France has sought to extract itself from la Francafrique and to seek a new relationship with the continent. But in the complex world of post-colonial relationships, such a move is difficult. France retains strong economic, political, and social links with West Africa. Paris, Marseille, and Lyon are home to large expatriate African communities. Opinions at l\u2019Elyc\u00e9e Palace, too, have wildly shifted over the years. Jacques Chirac, at least according to Schofield, was \u2018a dyed-in-the-wool Guallist\u2019, and an ideological successor to a young Fran\u00e7ois Mitterand who, in 1954, defiantly pronounced that \u2018L\u2019Alg\u00e9rie, c\u2019est la France\u2019. Nicolas Sarkozy, on the other hand, dramatically distanced himself both from Chirac and from the la Francafrique role.\nThe problem is, at least in part, topographical in nature. West Africa\u2019s geography is dangerous, vast, and difficult to subordinate. On the eve of much of West Africa\u2019s independence from France in 1961, R J Harrison Church spoke of the so-called Dry Zone, the area running horizontally from southern Mauritania across central Mali and Niger, as the great \u201cpioneer fringe\u201d of the region\u2019s civilization. David Hilling, in his 1969 Geographical Journal examination, added that by \u201ctaming\u201d the Saharan interior, France gained an important strategic advantage over their British rivals in the early twentieth century, enjoying access to resources unavailable along the coast.\nBut, as A T Grove discussed in his 1978 review, \u201ccolonising\u201d West Africa was much easier said than done, and the French left a West Africa mired in dispute, open to incursions, and still heavily reliant on the former imperial power. The French relationship with the region\u2019s extreme geography was difficult at best; political boundaries were similar to those of the Arabian Peninsula and the Rub \u2018al-Khali in particular: fluid, ill-defined, and not always recognised by local peoples. European-set political boundaries only exacerbated tensions between indigenous constituencies who had little or no say in the border demarcations.\nFrench and African efforts to dam the Niger River, for instance, were hampered by high costs, arduous terrain, and political instability well into the 1960s. On independence, the French left what infrastructure they could, mostly in West Africa\u2019s capital and port cities; the vast interiors were often left to their own devices. As a result of these events, France has maintained a large military, economic, and social presence in the region ever since. The difficulty is that such areas under weak political control, such as the Malian, Somalian, and Sudanese deserts, have become havens for individuals who wish to operate outside international and national law.\nR J Harrison Church, 1961, \u2018Problems and Development of the Dry Zone of West Africa\u2018, The Geographical Journal 127 187-99.\nDavid Hilling, 1969, \u2018The Evolution of the Major Ports of West Africa\u2018, The Geographical Journal 135 365-78.\nA T Grove, 1978, \u2018Geographical Introduction to the Sahel\u2018, The Geographical Journal 144 407-15.\nIeuan Griffiths, 1986, \u2018The Scramble for Africa: Inherited Political Boundaries\u2018, The Geographical Journal 152 204-16.\n\u2018Le Mali attend le renfort des troupes ouest-africaines\u2018, Radio France Internationale, 19 January 2013, accessed 19 January 2013.\nHugh Schofield, \u2018France and Mali: An \u201cironic\u201d relationship\u2019, BBC News, 19 January 2013, accessed 19 January 2013.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e1a169c6-9906-46a6-bb7d-724095f8ebef>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.geographydirections.com/tag/france/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9332879781723022, "token_count": 1015, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Big Data is one of the hottest topics out there. Big data is a foundational element in IT\u2019s quartet of Next Big Things: Social, Mobile, Analytics and Cloud. But, as the real world keeps reminding us, it is possible to make bad predictions and decisions even if you use tons of big data to make them. The 9/11 attacks showed how even highly sophisticated intelligence agencies can fail to pick out highly relevant signals amidst the mountains of data being analyzed. Our recent financial crisis showed how even the best and brightest can fail to detect an approaching catastrophic storm. The failure of so many professional forecasters to accurately predict the 2012 presidential election shows that you can find almost any answer you want in all that big data.\nBig data is indeed incredibly useful in all kinds of endeavors, but only in the hands of talented professionals who know what they are doing and are aware of its pitfalls and limitations. What are some of these limitations? In thinking about this question over the last few years, I started to notice that a number of subtle, non-intuitive concepts that I learned many years ago as a physics student seem to apply to the world of big data and information-based predictions in highly complex systems. Let me explain.\nOver 300 years ago, Isaac Newton laid down the foundations of classical mechanics with the publication of his Laws of Motion. The elegant mathematical models of Newtonian physics depict a world in which objects exhibit deterministic behaviors, that is, the same objects, subject to the same forces, will always yield the same results. These models make perfect predictions within the accuracy of their human-scale measurements. Classical mechanics works exceptionally well for describing the behavior of objects that are more or less observable to the naked eye. It accurately predicts the motion of planets as well as the flight of a baseball.\nBut, the idea of scientific determinism, which would in principle enable us to predict the future behavior of any object in the universe, began to fall apart in the early 20th century. Classical mechanics could not explain the counter-intuitive and seemingly absurd behavior of energy and matter at atomic as well as cosmological scales. Once you start dealing with atoms, molecules, exotic subatomic particles, black holes and the Big Bang, you find yourself in a whole different world, with somewhat bizarre behaviors like the tunneling effect, which are governed by the laws of quantum mechanics and relativity. The orderly, deterministic world of classical physics gives way to a world of wave functions, probability distributions, uncertainty principles, and wave-particle dualities.\nInstead of a deterministic world, we now have a world based on probabilities. You cannot predict all the future states of an object or a particle based on its present state. You can map out its behavior, but only as probability distributions of all the possible states it could be at. Moreover, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells you that it is impossible to know the exact state of a particle. You cannot simultaneously determine its exact position and velocity with any great degree of accuracy no matter how good your measurement tools are. The world is intrinsically unpredictable.\nIn addition, there is no such thing as absolute reality. In classical mechanics something either has the properties of a particle, e.g., a planet, a baseball; or of a wave, e.g, light, sound. In quantum mechanics all objects exhibit both kinds of properties. The concept of wave-particle duality explains that reality depends on what question you are asking and what experiment you perform to answer the question. The very act of observing an object will change the object being observed. Any instruments used to measure its properties will invariable alter the properties being measured.\nThis transition, from a world view based on scientific determinism to one based on probability distributions, uncertainty principles and subjective reality is not intuitive and difficult to get used to. Even Albert Einstein had trouble accepting it, and famously said \u201cGod does not play dice with the universe.\u201d Stephen Hawking, one of world\u2019s top theoretical physicists, concluded in this brilliant lecture:\n\u201c . . .it seems Einstein was doubly wrong when he said, God does not play dice. Not only does God definitely play dice, but He sometimes confuses us by throwing them where they can\u2019t be seen. . . The universe does not behave according to our pre-conceived ideas. It continues to surprise us.\u201d\nBut, the worlds of the very small, as well as the very large, are not the only ones that exhibit counter-intuitive, seemingly magical behaviors. So is the world of highly complex systems, especially those systems whose components and interrelationships are themselves quite complex, as is the case with systems biology and evolution.\nSuch is also the case with organizational and sociotechnical systems whose main components are people. Even though these chaotic systems are in principle deterministic, their dynamic, non-linear nature renders them increasingly unpredictable and accounts for their emergent behavior. New terms, like long tails, Freakonomics and black swan theory, \u2013 every bit as fanciful as quarks, charm and strangeness, \u2013 have begun to enter our lexicon.\nArtificial Intelligence (AI) is an example of a discipline that has transitioned from its original classical, deterministic approach to an approach more suitable to a highly complex, inherently unpredictable topic like intelligence.\nAI was one of the hottest areas in computer sciences , in the 1960s and 1970s. Many of the AI leaders in those days were convinced that you could build a machine as intelligent as a human being based on logical deductions and the kind of step-by-step reasoning that humans use when solving puzzles or proving theorems. They obtained considerable government funding in the US, UK and Japan to implement their vision. But eventually it became clear that all these various projects had grossly underestimated the difficulties of developing any kind of AI system based on logic programming and deductive reasoning. The field went through a so-called AI winter in the 1980s.\nBut things started to change in the 1990s when AI switched paradigms and embraced data mining and information analytics, the precursors of today\u2019s Big Data. Instead of trying to program computers to act intelligently, AI embraced a statistical, brute force approach based on analyzing vast amounts of information using powerful computers and sophisticated algorithms.\nWe discovered that such a statistical, information-based approach produced something akin to intelligence or knowledge. Moreover, unlike the earlier programming-based projects, the statistical approaches scaled very nicely. The more information you had, the more powerful the supercomputers, the more sophisticated the algorithms, the better the results. Deep Blue IBM's chess playing supercomputer, demonstrated the power of such a statistical approach by beating then reigning chess champion Gary Kasparov in a celebrated match in May of 1997.\nSince that time, analyzing or searching large amounts of information has become increasingly important and commonplace in a wide variety of disciplines. Today, most of us use search engines as the primary mechanism for finding information in the World Wide Web. Researchers have been developing sophisticated question-answering systems, which can successfully analyze the nuances and context embedded in a complex, natural language question and come up with the right answer. Watson, IBM\u2019s Question Answering computer, which in February of 2011 won the Jeopardy! Challenge against the two best human Jeopardy! players, is an example of such a system.\nEconomics is another discipline that has had to make the transition from a world of relatively simple mathematical models to one governed by the sophisticated analysis of real world information. During the 1960s, a number of economists, most prominently those associated with the Chicago School of Economics, based their work on what NY Times columnist David Brooks referred to as \u201cthe era of economic scientism: the period when economists based their work on a crude vision of human nature (the perfectly rational, utility-maximizing autonomous individual) and then built elaborate models based on that creature.\u201d Paul Krugman called such models, an \u201cidealized vision of an economy in which rational individuals interact in perfect markets . . . gussied up with fancy equations\u201d in a 2009 NY Times Magazine article, How did Economists get it so Wrong?\nThe elegant, mathematic theories of economic scientism managed to convince a number of powerful government leaders that free markets could self-adjust to just about any problems, thus requiring a very limited, circumscribed role for government. Alan Greenspan, the Chairman of the Federal Reserve from 1987-2006, for example, was one of the believers in this well-behaved, self-adjusting economic order. Even when the financial system began to show signs of the coming crisis, Greenspan continued to hold on to his beliefs that derivatives and other financial instruments were extraordinarily useful in distributing risks, thus lessening the need for regulating the increasingly complex financial markets. It wasn\u2019t until October of 2008 that, in testimony before Congress, Greenspan finally acknowledged that perhaps he may have been partially wrong and was now in \u201ca state of shocked disbelief.\u201d\nA whole slew of new ideas is now sweeping the field of economics. The new breed of economists are creating a field that has much more in common with empirical sciences than with pure math. Following in the best tradition of physics, chemistry, biology and the social sciences, they are grounding economics on observation and experiments. Theories arise out of empirical analysis, and must reflect the realities, and therefore the inconsistencies and messiness of the real world they aim to explain. They are trying to take into account the social, cognitive and emotional factors that go into the economic decisions that people make.\nIn discipline after discipline, we are beginning to learn how to deal with the very messy world of big data and complex systems, and how to best apply our learning to make good decisions and good predictions. One of the hardest parts of that learning is the need to let go of our preconceived notions of scientific determinism and get used to living in a world of probabilities, uncertainties and subjective realities. God does indeed like to play games with the universe, but He leaves enough hints around so we too can play the game and keep moving forward.\nIrving Wladawsky-Berger is a former vice-president of technical strategy and innovation at IBM. He is a strategic advisor to Citigroup and is a regular contributor to CIO Journal.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9417a42f-32e3-43bb-a2e5-914406f9e3f6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blogs.wsj.com/cio/2012/12/07/big-data-complex-systems-and-quantum-mechanics/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.954137921333313, "token_count": 2121, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is Long-Term Care?\nIndividuals need long-term care when a chronic condition, trauma, or illness limits their ability to carry out basic self-care tasks, called activities of daily living (ADLs), (such as bathing, dressing or eating), or instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) (such as household chores, meal preparation, or managing money). Long-term care often involves the most intimate aspects of people\u2019s lives\u2014what and when they eat, personal hygiene, getting dressed, using the bathroom. Other less severe long-term care needs may involve household tasks such as preparing meals or using the telephone.\nA report prepared by the U.S. Senate Special Committee on Aging (February, 2000) described long-term care as follows:\nIt [long-term care] differs from other types of health care in that the goal of long-term care is not to cure an illness, but to allow an individual to attain and maintain an optimal level of functioning\u2026.\nLong-term care encompasses a wide array of medical, social, personal, and supportive and specialized housing services needed by individuals who have lost some capacity for self-care because of a chronic illness or disabling condition.1\nBecause long-term care needs and services are wide-ranging and complex, statistics may vary from study to study. Sources for the following information are cited at the conclusion of this Fact Sheet. For additional information, see the Family Caregiver Alliance Fact Sheet on Selected Caregiving Statistics.\nWho Needs Long-Term Care?\n- An estimated 10 million Americans needed long-term care in 2000.2\n- Most but not all persons in need of long-term care are elderly. Approximately 63% are persons aged 65 and older (6.3 million); the remaining 37% are 64 years of age and younger (3.7 million).3\n- The lifetime probability of becoming disabled in at least two activities of daily living or of being cognitively impaired is 68% for people age 65 and older.4\n- By 2050, the number of individuals using paid long-term care services in any setting (e.g., at home, residential care such as assisted living, or skilled nursing facilities) will likely double from the 13 million using services in 2000, to 27 million people. This estimate is influenced by growth in the population of older people in need of care.5\n- Of the older population with long-term care needs in the community, about 30% (1.5 million persons) have substantial long-term care needs (three or more ADL limitations). Of these, about 25% are 85 and older and 70% report they are in fair to poor health.6\n40% of the older population with long-term care needs are poor or near poor (with incomes below 150% of the federal poverty level).7\n- Between 1984 and 1994, the number of older persons receiving long-term care remained about the same at 5.5 million people, while the prevalence of long-term care use declined from 19.7% to 16.7% of the 65+ population. In comparison, 2.1%, or over 3.3 million, of the population aged 18\u201364 received long-term care in the community in 1994.8\n- While there was a decline in the proportion (i.e., prevalence) of the older population receiving long-term care, the level of disability and cognitive impairment among those who received assistance with daily tasks rose sharply. The proportion receiving help with three to six ADLs increased from 35.4% to 42.9% between 1984 and 1994. The proportion of cognitive impairment among the 65+ population rose from 34% to 40%.9\n- The prevalence of cognitive impairment among the older population increased over the past decade, while the prevalence of physical impairment remains unchanged.10\n- In 2002, the percentage of older persons with moderate or severe memory impairment ranged from about 5% among persons aged 65\u201369 to about 32% among persons aged 85 or older.11\n- Individuals 85 years and older, the oldest old, are one of the fastest growing segments of the population. In 2005, there are an estimated 5 million people 85+ in the United States.12 This figure is expected to increase to 19.4 million by 2050.13 This means that there could be an increase from 1.6 million to 6.2 million people age 85 or over with severe or moderate memory impairment in 2050.14\nWhere do People Receive Long-Term Care and from Whom?\nFamily and Informal Caregivers\nInformal caregiver and family caregiver are terms used to refer to unpaid individuals such as family members, partners, friends and neighbors who provide care. These persons can be primary (i.e. the person who spends the most time helping) or secondary caregivers, full time or part time, and can live with the person being cared for or live separately. Formal caregivers are volunteers or paid care providers associated with a service system.15,16\nEstimates vary on the number of family and informal caregivers in the U.S., depending on the definitions used for both caregiver and care recipient as well as types of care provided.\n- 52 million informal and family caregivers provide care to someone aged 20+ who is ill or disabled.17\n- 44.4 million caregivers (or one out of every five households ) are involved in caregiving to persons aged 18 or over.18\n- 34 million caregivers provide care for someone aged 50+.19\n- 27.3 million family caregivers provide personal assistance to adults (aged 15+) with a disability or chronic illness.20\n- 5.8 21 to 7 22 million people (family, friends and neighbors) provide care to a person (65+) who needs assistance with everyday activities.23\n- 8.9 million informal caregivers provide care to someone aged 50+ with dementia.24\nBy the year 2007, the number of caregiving households in the U.S. for persons aged 50+ could reach 39 million.25\n- Over three-quarters (78%) of adults living in the community and in need of long-term care depend on family and friends (i.e., informal caregivers) as their only source of help; 14% receive a combination of informal and formal care (i.e., paid help); only 8% used formal care or paid help only.26\n- Even among the most severely disabled older persons living in the community, about two-thirds rely solely on family members and other informal help, often resulting in great strain for the family caregivers.27\n- The use of informal care as the only type of assistance by older Americans aged 65 and over increased from 57% in 1994 to 66% in 1999. The growth in reliance upon informal care between 1994 and 1999 is accompanied by a decline in the use of a combination of informal and formal care from 36% in 1994 to 26% in 1999.28\n- 30% of persons caring for elderly long-term care users were themselves aged 65 or over; another 15% were between the age of 45\u201354.29\n- For the family caregiver forced to give up work to care for a family member or friend, the cost in lost wages and benefits is estimated to be $109 per day.30\nHome and Community-Based Care\n- Most people\u2014nearly 79%\u2014who need Long-Term Care live at home or in community settings, not in institutions.31\n- More than 13.2 million adults (over half younger than 65) living in the community received an average of 31.4 hours of personal assistance per week in 1995.32\n- Only 16% of the total hours were paid care (about $32 billion), leaving 84% of hours to be provided (unpaid labor) by informal caregivers.33\n- The trend towards community-based services as opposed to nursing home placement was formalized with the Olmstead Decision (July, 1999)\u2014a court case in which the Supreme Court upheld the right of individuals to receive care in the community as opposed to an institution whenever possible.\n- The proportion of Americans aged 65 and over with disabilities who rely entirely on formal care for their personal assistance needs has increased to 9% in 1999 from 5% in 1984.34\n- Between 2000 and 2002, the number of licensed assisted living and board and care facilities increased from 32,886 to 36,399 nationally, reflecting the trend towards community-based care as opposed to nursing homes.35 Most assisted living facilities, however, are unlicensed.\n- Most assisted living facilities (ALFs) discharge residents whose cognitive impairments become moderate or severe or who need help with transfers (e.g. moving from a wheelchair to a bed.) This limits the ability of these populations to find appropriate services outside of nursing homes or other institutions.36\nNursing Home Care\n- The risk of nursing home placement increases with age\u201431% of those who are severely impaired and between the ages of 65 and 70 receive care in a nursing home compared to 61% of those age 85 and older.37\n- In 2002, there were 1,458,000 people in nursing homes nationally.38\nOlder individuals living in nursing homes require and receive greater levels of care and assistance. In 1999, over three-quarters of individuals in nursing homes received assistance with four to six ADLs.39\n- Of the population aged 65 and over in 1999, 52% of the nursing home population was aged 85 or older compared to 35% aged 75\u201384, and 13% aged 65\u201374.40\n- Between 1985 and 1999 the number of adults 65 and older living in nursing homes increased from 1.3 million to 1.5 million. In 1999, almost three-quarters (1.1 million) of these older residents were women.41\nLong-Term Care Expenditures\n- Estimated public and private spending on long-term care services exceeded $180 billion in 2002. $37.2 billion, or 21%, was paid for out-of-pocket by individuals and families.42\n- In 2002, $103.2 billion dollars were spent on nursing home care compared to $36.1 billion dollars for care in the community.43\n- In 2000, the estimated economic value of informal (i.e., unpaid) caregiving is more than both community care and nursing home care combined\u2014$257 billion.44\n- Despite the trend toward community-based care as opposed to institutionalized care, only 18.2% of long-term care expenditures for the elderly are for community-based care.45\n- In 2002, 16.4 billion Medicaid dollars were spent for home and community-based services within long-term care. This figure has increased at a 25% rate annually since 1990.46\n- Expenditures for skilled nursing facility (SNF) care are much greater than care provided in other settings. Average expenses per older adult in a skilled nursing facility can be four times greater than average expenditures for that individual receiving paid care in the community.47\n- In 2003, Medicaid paid $83.8 billion dollars for long-term care services, roughly one-third of all Medicaid spending. 27.8 billion of these dollars were spent on community-based long-term care services. Home and community-based (HCBS) waivers accounted for roughly two-thirds of community-based long-term care expenditures.48\nIn 2000, spending for older adults aged 65 or older accounted for 57% of Medicaid dollars, with the remaining 43% spent on those under age 65.49\n- 31.9% of the annual estimated home care expenditures were paid for by Medicare in 2003, a little over 18% were paid for out-of-pocket or by private insurance, and approximately 13% were covered by Medicaid.50\n- Only 7% of residents receive Medicaid coverage for assisted living.51\n- Studies have shown that the delivery of home or community-based long-term care services is a cost-effective alternative to nursing homes. Care in the home or community\u2014not nursing home care\u2014is what most Americans would prefer.52,53\n- In 2004, the average daily rate for a private room in a skilled nursing facility was $192 for a private room or $70,080 annually, and $169 or $61,685 annually for a semi-private room. The hourly rate for a home health aide was $18.12.54\n- In 2000, annual cost estimates were $13,000 for adult day care and $25,300 for assisted living.55\n- Over two-thirds of the current health care dollar goes to treating chronic illness; for older persons the proportion rises to almost 95%.56\n- The aging of the population, especially those 85+\u2014the most in need of long-term care\u2014is expected to result in a tripling of long-term care expenditures, projected to climb from $115 billion in 1997 to $346 billion (adjusted for inflation) annually in 2040.57\n- Research suggests that if savings rates are not increased and government programs to assist the elderly are not strengthened, many retirees will face serious problems attaining needed health and long-term care services in the future. By 2030, many retirees will not have enough income and assets to cover basic expenditures or any expenses related to a nursing home stay or services from a home health provider.58\n- Shorter hospital stays and increased usage of outpatient procedures\u2014changes that have increased the effectiveness of medical care\u2014have shifted responsibility toward unpaid providers of care from paid providers, increasing burdens on family caregivers.59\n1 Special Committee on Aging. Developments in Aging: 1997 and 1998, Volume 1, Report 106-229. Washington, DC: United States Senate, 2000.\n2 Rogers, S., & H. Komisar. Who needs long-term care? Fact Sheet, Long-Term Care Financing Project. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2003.\n4 AARP. Beyond 50.2003: A Report to the Nation on Independent Living and Disability, 2003, <http://www.aarp.org/research/health/disabilities/aresearch-import-753.html> (11 Jan 2005).\n5 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, and U.S. Department of Labor. The future supply of long-term care workers in relation to the aging baby boom generation: Report to Congress. Washington, DC: Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, (2003). <http:aspe.hhs.gov/daltcp/reports/ltcwork.htm> (20 Jan 2005)\n6 The Henry J. Kaiser Foundation. Long-term Care: Medicaid\u2019s role and challenges [Publication #2172]. Washington, DC: Author, 1999.\n8 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. The Characteristics of Long-term Care Users. Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 2001.\n11 Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics. Older Americans 2004: Key indicators of well-being, Federal Interagency Forum on Aging-Related Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2004.\n12 U.S. Census Bureau. Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000, <http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/\n04statab/pop.pdf> (11 Jan 2005)\n14 The number is extrapolated by applying projected population estimates in 2050 to prevalence estimates of moderate to severe memory impairments in 2002.\n15 Fradkin, L.G., and A. Heath. Caregiving of older adults. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 1992.\n16 McConnell, S., J.A. Riggs. A public policy agenda: Supporting family caregiving, in M. A. Cantor (Ed.) Family Caregiving: Agenda for the Future. San Francisco: American Society on Aging, 1994.\n17 Health and Human Services. Informal caregiving: Compassion in action. Washington, DC: Author, 1998. Based on data from the 1987/1988 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), 2002.\n18 National Alliance for Caregiving and AARP. Caregiving in the U.S. Washington, DC: Author, 2004.\n20 Arno, P. S., Well Being of Caregivers: The Economic Issues of Caregivers, in T. McRae (Chair), New Caregiver Research. Symposium conducted at the annual meeting of the American Association of Geriatric Psychiatry. Orlando, FL. Data from 1987/1988 National Survey of Families and Households (NSFH), 2002.\n21 Spector, W. D. et al. The characteristics of long-term care users (AHRQ Publication No. 00-0049). Rockville: Agency for Healthcare Research and Policy, 2000.\n22 See note 17 above.\n23 Both of these reports used data from 1994 National Long-Term Care Survey. The Health and Human Services report also incorporated data from the 1982 National Long-Term Care Survey and the Informal Caregiver Supplement to the 1989 National Long-Term Care Survey.\n24 Alzheimer\u2019s Association and National Alliance for Caregiving. Families care: Alzheimer\u2019s caregiving in the United States 2004. Washington, DC: Author, 2004.\n25 National Alliance for Caregiving and AARP. Family caregiving in the U.S.: Findings from a national survey. Washington, DC: Author, 1997.\n26 Thompson, L. Long-term care: Support for family caregivers [Issue Brief]. Washington, DC: Georgetown University, 2004. Long-Term Care Financing Project.\n27 Ibid. Data based on analysis of data from the 1994 and 1995 National Health Interview Surveys on Disability by Health Policy Institute, Georgetown University.\n28 See note 11 above.\n29 See note 8 above.\n30 Stucki, B. R., and J. Mulver. Can aging baby boomers avoid the nursing home? Long-term care Insurance for Aging in Place. Washington, DC: American Council of Life Insurers, 2000.\n31 Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Long-term Care users range in age and most do not live in nursing homes: Research alert. Rockville: Author, 2000.\n32 LaPlante, M.P., C. Harrington, and T. Kang. 2002. Estimating paid and unpaid hours of personal assistance services in activities of daily living provided to adults living at home. Home Services Research 327(2), 397-415.\n34 See note 11 above.\n35 Mollica, R. State Assisted Living Policy: 2002. Portland: National Academy for State Health Policy, 2002.\n36 Hawes, R. M., & C.D. Phillips. A National Study of Assisted Living for the Frail Elderly: Results of a national survey of facilities. Beachwood: Myers Research Institute, 1999.\n37 Gabrel, C. S. Characteristics of Elderly Nursing Home Current Residents and Discharges: Data from the 1997 National Nursing Home Survey [Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics; No. 312]. Hyattsville: National Center for Health Statistics, 2000.\n38 National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2004. Hyattsville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2004.\n39 See note 11 above.\n40 National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2000. Hyattsville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000.\n41 See note 11 above.\n42 Komisar, H. & L. Thompson. Who Pays for Long-Term Care? Fact Sheet, Long-Term Care Financing Project. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2004.\n44 See note 20 above.\n45 Doty, P. Cost-effectiveness of Home and Community-based Long-term Care Services. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: Office of Disability, Aging and Long-Term Care Policy, 2000.\n46 O\u2019Brian, E., and R. Elias. Medicaid and long-term care. Washington, DC: Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, (2004, May) <http://www.kff.org/\nPageID=36296> (10 Jan 2004)\n47 U.S. General Accounting Office. 2002. Aging Baby Boom Generation Will Increase Demand and Burden on Federal and State budgets [GAO-02-544T]. <http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d02544t.pdf> (10 Jan 2004)\n48 Burwell, B., K. Sredl, and S. Eiken. Medicaid long-term care expenditures in FY 2003[Addendum]. Cambridge: The Medstat Group, 2004.\n49 See note 45 above.\n50 National Association for Home Care. Basic Statistics about Home Care. Washington, DC: Author. Findings based on Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, MSIS, 2004.\n51 See note 30 above.\n52 Kassner, E. Medicaid and Long-Term Services and Supports for Older People: Fact Sheet. Washington, DC: AARP Public Policy Institute, 2005.\n53 Miller, N.A., C. Harrington, E. Goldstein. 2002. Access to community-based long-term care: Medicaid\u2019s role. Journal of Aging and Health Volume 14, No. 1: 138-59.\n54 Metlife Market Survey of Nursing Home and Home Care Costs, 2004.\n55 See note 30 above.\n56 Hoffman, C., D. Rice and H.Y. Sung. 1996. Persons with Chronic Conditions: Their Prevalence and Costs. JAMA 276 (18), 1473-1479.\n57 Niefield, M., E. O\u2019Brien, and J. Feder. Long-term care: Medicaid\u2019s role and challenges. Washington, DC: Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 1999.\n58 VanDerhei, J., and C. Copeland. Can America Afford Tomorrow\u2019s Retirees: Results from the EBRI-ERF retirement security projection model [Issue brief # 263]. Washington DC: Employee Benefit Research Institute, 2003.\n59 O\u2019Brian, E., and R. Elias. Medicaid and long-term care. Washington, DC: Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured, 2004. <http://www.kff.org/medicaid/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/\nsecurity/getfile.cfm&PageID=36296> (10 Jan 2004)\nFamily Caregiver Alliance\n785 Market Street, Suite 750\nSan Francisco, CA 94103\n(415) 434-3388 phone\n(800) 445-8106 toll free\nWeb Site: www.caregiver.org\nFamily Caregiver Alliance (FCA) seeks to improve the quality of life for caregivers through education, services, research and advocacy.\nThrough its National Center on Caregiving, FCA offers information on current social, public policy and caregiving issues and provides assistance in the development of public and private programs for caregivers.\nFor residents of the greater San Francisco Bay Area, FCA provides direct family support services for caregivers of those with Alzheimer\u2019s disease, stroke, brain injury, Parkinson\u2019s and other debilitating cognitive disorders that strike adults.\nPrepared by Family Caregiver Alliance in cooperation with California\u2019s Caregiver Resource Centers and funded by the California Department of Mental Health. Original reviewed by Robert B. Friedland, Ph.D., Center on an Aging Society, Georgetown University. \u00a9 2001 Family Caregiver Alliance. Revised 2005. All rights reserved. FS-SLTC200506\nE-mail to a Friend", "id": "<urn:uuid:d09b5941-2201-4b45-be25-b3188193743a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://caregiver.org/caregiver/jsp/content_node.jsp?nodeid=440&expandnodeid=2559", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9201134443283081, "token_count": 4954, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Use the Archives and Special Collections finding aids to research rare books and manuscript collections. A finding aid is a descriptive tool that includes the contents and arrangement of materials in a collection. Finding aids can help you determine whether or not a collection is relevant to your research needs.\nFinding aids are detailed inventories, registers, indexes, and guides to describe collections of primary source materials. They provide a comprehensive overview of a collection's scope and contents. They define the conditions under which a collection may be accessed or copied, explain its provenance, and contain histories of individuals and organizations connected with the collection.\nPlease cite the collection number (e.g. SPEC. 003) and the box number (e.g. Boxes 1 and 2) to request specific materials.\nJohn Steinbeck Collections\n376th Bombardment Group Archive", "id": "<urn:uuid:ee37fde5-ff54-4d97-8d05-2f3070ffadcb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://cms.bsu.edu/Academics/Libraries/CollectionsAndDept/Archives/Collections/RareBooks/ResearchTools/FindingAids.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8425731062889099, "token_count": 168, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The fourth volume covers the period of Governor Johnston's administration, the longest known in the annals of North Carolina.\nGovernor Gabriel Johnston, the successor of Burrington, was a Scotchman by birth, and received his education in the University of St. Andrews. He also spent a few years in studying medicine, after which, still in early manhood, he was made professor of the oriental languages in St. Andrews. Later still, he removed to London, where he employed himself as a political writer with such effect that he was appointed Governor of North Carolina, Spence Compton, Baron of Wilmington, being his chief patron.\nHis administration began on the 2d November, 1734, when he took the oaths of office at Brunswick, and continued till his death, which occurred on 17th July, 1752.\nUnlike his immediate predecessors, Governor Johnston was neither a profane man nor a drunkard, and he has come down to us with the enviable reputation of having done more to promote the prosperity of the colony than perhaps all the other colonial governors put together.\nOne of our historians goes so far as to say that he deserved the gratitude of every citizen of North Carolina as a statesman, a scholar and a patriot. Another lauds him as a general benefactor of the province and its special patron of learning, declaring that he was so earnest in his efforts to advance the cause of education that he urged its importance upon every Legislature during his stay here. A still later writer says he was the ablest of all the colonial governors, not less distinguished for his energy and prudence than for his extensive classical and scientific attainments. Chalmers, who lived nearer to his time than any other historian, says \u201che was a man of sufficient knowledge and prudence, but whose experience degenerated a little into cunning.\u201d\nIt may well be doubted, however, in view of the facts now presented, whether his enviable reputation has a sure foundation. The fact that his brother was the founder of a distinguished and influential family, and that a noted fort and a prominent county in the State have borne his name, and the further fact that the province grew and thrived greatly during his administration, have doubtless had much to do with creating and perpetuating a favorable public opinion in regard to him. But the fact that a county was named after him proves nothing, unless it be that our ancestors were wise in their day and generation, for every royal Governor, save Burrington, was thus honored, just as in the days of the Proprietary Government, the Lords Proprietors were the recipients of such honors. At the breaking out of the Revolution there were four counties in North Carolina named after Royal Governors, viz: Johnston, Dobbs, Tryon and Martin. Wake county, too, may almost be put in the same list, for it was named after Esther Wake, a sister of Governor Tryon's wife. In the course of time, after the Revolutionary fever had reached its height, Dobbs and Tryon counties disappeared, Glasgow and Lenoir in the east and Lincoln and Rutherford in the west taking their places. Wake county came very near sharing the same fate, but when the proposition was made in the Legislature to change its name, it was replied that the county was named after a woman who was as charming in manner as lovely in person, and with one consent, our gallant ancestors declared the name should remain, and it is to be hoped it will ever remain as a memorial, not only of the beauty and attractions of Esther Wake, but of the gallantry of our forefathers.\nNeither does the fact that the province advanced rapidly and steadily during his administration prove anything, if it be remembered that the province had already entered upon and was well on the way in a career of prosperity before he landed upon our shores. And in the matter of his efforts to advance the cause of education, the truth seems to be that in all the years he was Governor of the province, Governor Johnston called the attention of the Legislature to the subject only one time\u2014an effort that, made shortly after his arrival, seems to have exhausted his interest in the subject.\nIndeed, so far as now appears, if he had any influence whatever upon the province it was to retard its growth. His intentions doubtless were good, and his motives pure enough, but he was exceedingly arbitrary, not to say unscrupulous, in his methods. In one case, according to his own admission, he sought to procure the passage of a bill he favored by calling the Legislature together at a time and place that would prevent its opponents from being present, and, he significantly adds, \u201csome of the most troublesome leading men were prevailed upon to be absent;\u201d but it was all in vain. At another time, using similar means in behalf of another measure, he was more successful, but the \u201cmanagement,\u201d as he called it, was so glaring that the Crown refused to accept the fruits of it, though much desired and much to its advantage.\nAt still another time, when he wished to move the seat of government from Brunswick to Newton, the place he afterwards named Wilmington, in honor of his patron, the Earl of Wilmington, his course was equally arbitrary, to call it by no harsher name. There were eight members of the Upper House, four of whom voted against the bill for the removal, and four, including the presiding officer, voted for it. The presiding officer, Chief Justice Smith, claimed the right to give a casting vote, and having done so, that is to say, having voted twice in favor of the bill, declared it had passed, and sent it to the Governor. The Governor, thereupon, formally gave his assent to the bill, and announced that he would regard all bills passed in that way as being legally enacted.\nAt still another time, when he wished to save Chief Justice Smith from impeachment and trial for malfeasance in office, he induced members of the Legislature to absent themselves, and then a quorum not being present he dissolved the Legislature for want of a quorum and sent the members home.\nIn spite of all his \u201cmanagement,\u201d however, he seems to have been but little if any more successful in controlling the Legislatures of his day than were his predecessors, and was in favor neither with the people in the province nor the government at home in England. One of his first acts as Governor was to initiate a bitter quarrel with the leading men of the Cape Fear on the subject of the Blank Patents, as they were called, in which he alleged that the grossest fraud had been perpetrated. Later,\nGovernor Johnston was doubtless well enough versed in the learning of the books, and doubtless, too, he was not unacquainted with the learning so easily to be acquired in London under Walpole's administration, as to the \u201cmanagement\u201d of legislative bodies. It not unfrequently happens, however, that a mere scholar is unfitted to grapple with the practical details of daily life. Especially is a mere theorist unfitted to solve the problems that constantly present themselves in frontier life. Had Johnston been a practical man, he would have seen the importance of answering the queries annually propounded to him by the Board of Trade as to the material condition of the province, its resources and development, and we would not have been left so much to conjecture in that regard. Had he been a man of practical business capacity, he would certainly have collected money enough to pay his own salary and the salary of the other officers of the Government. As it was, when he died his salary was thirteen years in arrears\u2014years during which the province had grown greatly in wealth and population. His salary was \u00a31,000 per annum, and he might have paid himself out of the Quit Renis under his Instructions if he had collected them. Had he been a practical man, he would have counted the cost, to say nothing of the chances of success, before entering upon a quarrel like that with the northern counties, the outcome of which he ought to have known would be confusion and anarchy, if not open insurrection, that he was helpless to suppress. But counting the cost and weighing chances of success, he seemed to think not worth considering. Sharp practice, intrigue, \u201cmanagement,\u201d as he termed it, and the manifold devices of a cunning nature, were much more to his taste. But they availed not\nBut what better could have been expected from a man who, going from the atmosphere of a Scotch University to that of a London political writer at a time when political writings were characterized by \u201cequal animosity and argument,\u201d was suddenly transplanted to the wilds of America and made Governor not because of his fitness for the place, but as a reward for his vigor or his zeal in the defence of his patron?\nIn a word, our present knowledge of the condition of the province during his administration does by no means justify the impression that he exerted any influence for good on its destinies. Nor does it increase our respect for him as a man, after bringing about a deplorable state of affairs, to find him complaining to the authorities in England, that without help from there he could not much longer maintain even the semblance of a government, a complaint that he had occasion to make more than once during his administration. Nor does it improve one's regard for his memory to find him abusing, as \u201cwild and barbarous,\u201d the people he could not mould to his will.\nIt is difficult to believe, too, that a man could have exercised a controlling influence in a province without leaving some record showing the fact. Governor Johnston left no such record. In none of the many papers he wrote during the eighteen years he was Governor is there anything by which we may form an estimate of the population of the province or its material growth. Happily, Burrington and Dobbs left us information by which its condition at the beginning and at the end of Johnston's administration may be known.\nOf his quarrel about the Blank Patents, that with the northern counties, that with McCulloh, and those about the currency, the King's Quit Rents, about the Chief Justice, about the removal from Brunswick to Wilmington, the records are full enough, but nowhere do we find a word from him to show the condition of the agricultural, commercial or manufacturing interest of the province, and but once any reference to the great tide of population that was so rapidly filling up the western section of the province. In this regard he was inferior to Burrington, and greatly inferior to both Dobbs and Tryon. It may be that, in the later years of his life,\nBut, perhaps after all, Governor Johnston's great fault was not that of the individual, but the fault of the age in which he lived, an age that regarded a province simply as a mine, to be worked solely for the profit of its owner, the King. Accordingly, never during his whole administration did he seem to think the colonist subjects had any rights that he, as the King's representative, was bound to respect, and so, when he found upon his arrival in the country that of all of the proprietary statutes only six had been confirmed by the Lords Proprietors, as had been required by a practically dead provision of the law, he proceeded to declare all of the unconfirmed laws to be null and void wherever, in his opinion, trenching upon the King's prerogative. To promote the interest of the King and to magnify his prerogative, seemed to have been the mainspring to every action during his administration. Many masters doubtless have had more discreet servants, but none one more zealous than was Johnston.\nIn 1735, was run the first or eastern part of the boundary line between North and South Carolina. It began at the mouth of Little River, on the seashore, thirty miles below the mouth of Cape Fear River, and was extended in a northwest direction 64\u00bd miles, to a point two miles northwest of one of the branches of Little Pedee. In 1737, the line was extended in the same direction 22 miles, to a stake in a meadow, erroneously supposed to be at the point of intersection with the 35th parallel of north latitude. The Commissioners on the part of North Carolina were Robert Halton, Eleazer Allen, Mathew Rowan, Edward Moseley and Roger Moore.\nIn 1738, the act was passed appointing sheriffs in the place of the marshal and his deputies in the province, directing the mode of choosing them and prescribing their duties, and providing that the precincts should be called counties.\nIn September, 1739, \u201cDugald McNeal, Col. McAlister and several other Scotch gentlemen,\u201d arrived with three hundred and fifty Scotch people, doubtless in the Cape Fear country, and, in 1740, at the ensuing\nResolved that the Persons mentioned in the said Petition, shall be free from payment of any Publick or County tax for ten years next ensueing their Arrival.\nResolved that towards their subsistance the sum of one thousand pounds be paid out of the Publick money, by his Excellency's warrant to be lodged with Duncan Campbell, Dugald McNeal, Daniel McNeal, Coll. McAlister and Neal McNeal Esqrs to be by them distributed among the several families in the said Petition mentioned.\nResolved that as an encouragement for Protestants to remove from Europe into this Province, to settle themselves in bodys or Townships, That all such as shall so remove into this Province, Provided they exceed forty persons in one body or Company, they shall be exempted from payment of any Publick or County tax for the space of Ten years, next ensueing their Arrival.\nResolved that an address be presented to his Excellency the Governor to desire him to use his Interest, in such manner, as he shall think most proper to obtain an Instruction for giveing encouragement to Protestants from foreign parts, to settle in Townships within this Province, to be set apart for that purpose after the manner, & with such priviledges and advantages, as is practised in South Carolina.\nThe Lower House concurred with the several resolves of the Upper House save that relating to the thousand pounds, which was held over till the next Assembly for consideration. This was on the 29th February, 1740. Further consideration was shown to the new comers on the next day by the appointment by the Governor and Council of Duncan Campbell, Dugald McNeil, Dan. McNeil, Col. McAlister and Neil McNeil as magistrates for the county of Bladen, being the first Scotch names that appear in the record of magistrates for Bladen county.\nAmong other charges brought against the Governor was an inordinate fondness for his brother Scotchmen, even Scotch rebels. His partiality\nIn 1740, England having declared war against Spain, over four hundred men were raised in the Colony, and distributed into four companies for service in the expedition against St. Augustine. Two hundred more could have been easily raised if it had been possible to negotiate bills of exchange so as to get ready money. The troops embarked, some at Cape Fear and some at Edenton. Three of the companies were raised in the northern counties. The Legislature appropriated \u00a31,200 sterling to aid in the expedition. Early in the following year these troops were transported from Florida to Jamaica, and there embarking on board the British fleet, under command of Admiral Vernon, sailed to the harbor of Carthagena, in South America, where they took part in the attack on Fort St. Lazarus.\nIn 1744, Lord Granville's one-eighth part of Carolina, under the original grants from King Charles, was set off to him by grant from King George, entirely in North Carolina, all that territory lying between the Virginia line on the north and the parallel of 35\u00b0 34\u2032 on the south, being thus set off to him. The line ran near or through the old town of Bath, the present towns of Snow Hill and Princeton, along the southern borders of the counties of Chatham, Randolph, Davidson and Rowan, a little below the southern border of Catawba county but not as low down as Lincolnton, and so on west to the Mississippi. In the winter of 1743-'44 the line was run from the coast to the town of Bath, and in the spring of 1746 from Bath to Peter Parker's house, on the west side of Cape Fear River, now the southeast corner of Chatham county. The reason given by the Commissioners for not continuing the line at that\nIn 1747, several small sloops and barcalonjos crept along the coast from St. Augustine, full of armed men, mostly mulattoes and negroes, their small draught securing them from the attacks of the only ship of war then on our coast. They landed at Ocacock, Core Sound, Bear Inlet and Cape Fear, where they killed several people, burned some ships and small vessels, carried off some negroes and slaughtered a great number of cattle and hogs. These practices were continued all the summer of 1747, and led to the erection of several forts along the coast, one of which, Fort Johnston, still survives.\nIn 1748, on the 29th September, Samuel Davis, Charles Robinson and Thomas Smith, in behalf of themselves and sundry other inhabitants of the Pedee, exhibited to the Governor and Council a petition setting forth in substance that the inhabitants on the river were some eight hundred to twelve hundred in number, and that the court house of Bladen was about 100 miles from the nearest inhabitant, and the roads at times very bad if not impracticable, and praying that a new county be erected to be called Anson county. The petition was granted and the new county erected, the boundary between it and Bladen being the Little Pedee river, to the head of the main branch of it, and thence a line equi-distant between Haw River and Great Pedee River.\nIn 1749, on the 11th July, died Colonel Edward Moseley. As has been well said of him,1 : \u201cOf all the men who watched and guarded the tottering footsteps of our infant State, there was not one who, in intellectual ability, in solid and polite learning, in scholarly cultivation and refinement, in courage and endurance, in high Christian morality, in generous consideration for the welfare of others, in all the true merit, in fine, which makes a man among men, could equal Edward Moseley.\u201d\nAnd yet it is to no one of these qualities, nor to all of them, that the great debt of gratitude North Carolina will ever owe to him is due, but to his undying love of free government, and his indomitable maintenance of the rights of the people. Doubtless no man ever more fully realized than he, that eternal vigilance is the price of liberty, nor was there ever upon any watchtower a more faithful sentinel than he. And to him, above all others, should North Carolina erect her first statue, for to him, above all others, is she indebted for stimulating that love of liberty regulated by law, and that hatred of arbitrary government that has ever characterized her people.\nIn him, arbitrary and oppressive government ever found a bold, prompt and effective opponent. Not a mere brawling demagogue, by any means, but a true patriot, who knew the rights of the people, who knew how to assert them and feared not to do it. Happily for our State, he came to the front in the formative period of her existence, and, so far as her records show, did more than any man ever within her borders to give shape and direction to the character of her people. It was under his lead that the Assembly, in 1716, in a formal resolve, told the Governor and his Council, \u201cthat the impressing of the inhabitants or their property under pretence of its being for the public service, without authority from the Assembly, was unwarrantable, and a great infringement of the liberty of the subject.\u201d The man who, at that early day, could formulate that resolve, and the people whose Assembly could fling it in the face of the government, were worthy of each other.\nHis first appearance upon the records that have come down to us is as a member of the Council in the year 1705, at the meeting at which the county of Bath was divided into three precincts. He was then a house-holder, and the Council met at his house. How long he had been a member of the Council does not appear, this being the first record of that body that has come down to us. From that time to the day of his death he was continuously in the public service, in some high office or employment.\nIn 1708, he was elected to the Assembly of that year, chosen to decide between the claims of Cary and Glover to the Governorship, and was made Speaker of that body. From that time until 1734, when he became a member of the Council by royal appointment, and as such a\nHe was also Surveyor General of the Colony, and for near twenty years one of the Commissioners in behalf of North Carolina in her famous controversy with Virginia about their boundary line. He was also one of the commissioners that ran the line between North and South Carolina, Chief Baron of the Exchequer, and Associate Justice of the General Court of the Province. He was also for many years Public Treasurer. Meanwhile, he was also the foremost lawyer in the Province, and an active member of the vestry in his Parish and ever a friend of learning. The list of books he gave to found a Provincial Library in Edenton is still extant. He was also one of the Commissioners that ran the line between Lord Granville's possessions and the King's domain in the province. His last public service was as a member of the commission to revise the laws of the Province.\nSurely, it is no mean tribute to his character that while he was so beloved by the people, that he received through life every possible mark of their regard and confidence, he was so respected by the Government, also, that upon all important occasions, when honesty, ability, and courage, were required, and the interests of the Province were to be subserved, it too, called his services into requisition.\nThe name of Moseley will never be without honor in North Carolina so long as time and gratitude shall live.\nIn October, 1749, the line between Virginia and North Carolina was extended from Peter's Creek, where it stopped in 1728, to Steep Rock Creek, a distance of 90 miles. William Churton and Daniel Weldon were the commissioners on the part of North Carolina, and Joshua Fry and Peter Jefferson on the part of Virginia. Governor Johnston says \u201cthey crossed a large branch of the Mississippi [New River] which runs between the ledges of the mountains, and nobody ever dreamt of before.\u201d It so happens, however, that no record of this survey has been preserved, and we are to-day without evidence, save from tradition, to ascertain the location of our boundary for ninety miles.\nIn 1750, by a statute of the British Parliament, the old method of computing time was abolished in all the King's dominions and the new style introduced, under which the years began on the 1st of January instead of the 25th of March. In 1752, the day after the 2d of September was counted the 14th of September, eleven days being omitted.\nIn 1752, appeared the first printed revisal of the Laws of the Province ever published. The revisal was the work principally of Samuel Swann, Edward Moseley, his colleague on the commission, having died before the completion of the work. The printing was done at New Bern by James Davis, who, in 1749, had carried there the first printing press ever in the province. This revisal was known in common talk in the province as \u201cThe Yellow Jacket,\u201d from the color of its covers.\nGovernor Johnston began the Quit Rent quarrel in less than ninety days after his arrival, by seeking to limit the number of places for the collection of quit rents. The importance of the question at issue will be appreciated when it is remembered that the people of the province did not own their lands in fee simple, as is now the case, but were mere tenants of the Crown, holding the lands upon payment of an annual rent per acre. The people contended that unless they agreed upon a different place, the rents were collectable only upon the land upon which they accrued, and were payable in certain products, or \u201ccommoditys,\u201d as they were called, at fixed prices. Governor Johnston held that, as the representative of the King, he had a right to fix not only the place of payment, but how it should be made, and the bill then pending was amended in the Upper House so as to reduce the number of places to four. The House of Burgesses refusing to agree to this view of the case, the bill fell through, and thereupon Governor Johnston issued a proclamation directing where the rents should be collected and the prices at which commodities should be received.\nAgainst this proclamation the House of Burgesses on the 26th February, 1735, made the following respectful protest:\n\u201cWe are very much concerned to see your Excellency's Proclamation commanding us to pay in Sterling Money or in bills at the difference that your Excellency and Council shall be pleased to assess which we\n\u201cWherefore we humbly pray your Excellency would be pleased to Issue out a proclamation directing the Officers who are appointed to Collect the quit rents to proceed in the said Collections according to the Laws and Customs of this Province and that no distress may be made upon his Majesties poor tenants contrary to the same untill a Law shall be passed directing some other method for collecting the said rents more agreeable to his Majesties Instructions and as much as may be for the ease of his Majesties Tenants which we were in hopes would have been done by the Bill We offered this Session and that your Excellency would be pleased to give a further time for the payment of arrears which does not become due by any default of the Tenants refusing to pay those rents but in the officers neglecting to collect the same.\u201d\nThe protest had no effect, however, and the Governor's officers proceeded to demand the rents as directed in the proclamation, and to distrain for them when not paid. Thereupon ensued what the Governor called \u201cgreat confusion and disorder.\u201d On the 7th October, 1736, the Legislature having again met, the House of Burgesses presented the following address to the Governor, viz.:\n\u201cWe the Members of the Lower House of Assembly humbly beg leave to lay before your Excellency the several grievances represented to us by the Committee appointed for that purpose which are in the words following (vizt)\n\u201cOn reading the Petition of Perquimons, Bertie and other Precincts and also several other informations complaining of the illegal Proceedings and methods of collecting & receiving the Quit rents, it appears to this Committee, that the Collectors or receivers, have compelled the Inhabitants of this Province, who hold their Land by Grants from the late Lords Proprietors, to carry their Quit rents to certain places appointed, tho' such rents were only demandable and payable on the Lands for which they were due, and had by custom time out of mind been received by the Collectors at the People's respective dwelling Houses; and that they\nThe Governor paying no attention to this respectful address, and his officers continuing to distrain for the rents, the Assembly ordered the officers into custody.\nThereupon, as the record states, \u201cHis Excellency being now come to the Upper House, and having sent a message to command the immediate attendance of the House of Burgesses, they not paying obedience thereto, His Excellency was pleased to send another message to them; but they still neglecting to give their attendance, His Excellency then by and with the advice and consent of His Majesty's Council, prorogued the General Assembly to the first day of March next, then to meet at Newbern.\u201d\nBut putting an end to the Legislature did not reconcile the people to the collection of the quit rents at unlawful places. Some months thereafter, in 1737, at the General Court at Edenton, a man was imprisoned for insulting the marshal in the execution of his office during the sitting of the Court, and the people of Bertie and Edgecombe precincts, hearing that he was imprisoned about his quit rents, rose in arms to the number of 500, and marched within five miles of the town, intending to rescue him by force, in the meantime cursing the King and uttering a great many rebellious speeches. By this time the man had made his peace with the Court, and the crowd learning the truth, dispersed without doing any mischief, threatening, however, \u201cthe most cruel usage to such persons as durst come to demand any quit rents of them for the future,\u201d and the Governor goes on to say further, \u201chow to quell them I cannot tell if they should attempt an insurrection against next collection. \u2217 \u2217 The people seem here to be persuaded that they may do what they please, and that they are below the notice of the King and his ministers, which makes them highly insolent. They never were of any service to the Lords Proprietors, and if something is not speedily done to convince them that his Majesty will not be so used, I am afraid they will be of as little profit to the Crown.\u201d\nThis state of things continued until 1739, when the Governor, having become convinced that the collection of the quit rents was impossible except in a way satisfactory to the people, a bill was permitted to pass the Legislature to which all parties agreed.\nFrom the Governor's representation regarding this bill, it would seem that it was also passed in part, at least, by \u201cmanagement,\u201d that is to say, in consideration of an abatement of his demands in the matter of Blank Patents set forth in the bill. He seems, too, to have thought he had overreached the Assembly in the prices at which the commodities agreed upon were rated; at least, he represented to the Board of Trade that the rates were fixed so much below their real value that none of them would be offered in payment. A great concession was that the bill contained a provision, whereby the power of fixing the value of paper money was given to a committee consisting of the Governor and Council and the Attorney General and Receiver General on the one side, and an equal number of the House of Burgesses on the other. Another great concession was as to the number of places at which payment might be made, which he said \u201cit could have been wished were fewer in number, but there was no possibility of avoiding it.\u201d The next year, 1740, the Crown disallowed the Act, on the ground that the vesting the power to regulate the price of money \u201cin any person whatsoever, might be of dangerous consequence, and highly prejudicial to the trade of the nation.\u201d\nIn 1741, an attempt was made to pass a new Quit Rent Law, but although, as the Governor said, \u201cthe Assembly was called in the most southern part of the Province on purpose to keep at home the Northern Members who were most numerous and from whom the greatest opposition was expected and some of the most troublesome leading men were prevailed upon to be absent,\u201d he was obliged to prorogue the Legislature without accomplishing anything.\nAt the next session of the Legislature, 1744, the Committee on Propositions and Grievances reported, on 29th November, the following resolution, in which the House concurred, viz.:\n\u201cResolved by this Committee that no produce of this province being accepted in payment of quit rents of late years nor the current bills at less than 10 for 1 which is equal to sterling money as this from the\nOn the 4th December the Governor prorogued the Legislature. In April of next year, 1745, the Legislature met again, but neither side was in better temper than when they parted. In his opening address, the Governor reviled the Assembly for having passed no bills at the last session, and informed them that he had \u201corders from His Majestie and Lord Carteret to insist on their passing a quit rent law.\u201d The Assembly replied that they had \u201cfrequently in former Assemblys had under their consideration matters of consequence recommended by his Excellency but had been unhappily prevented from doing anything therein with effect by unexpected dissolutions and prorogations,\u201d and no quit rent law was passed.\nIn 1746, in June, the Assembly again declared the refusal to receive \u201ccommoditys\u201d in payment of quit rents to be a very great grievance. After this session, the northern counties were not represented in the Legislature during Johnston's administration, and in April, 1749, the Governor succeeded in passing a quit rent law, but in the condition the province was from that time to the end of his administration, it could not have accomplished much.\nHis quarrel with the Albemarle or northern counties and its consequences deserve a more extended notice, if for no other reason, to show into what gross and unpardonable errors historians can fall upon the most important points. When Governor Johnston came to North Carolina, the precincts of Albemarle county sent five members each to the Lower House of the Legislature, while the precincts of Bath, that is to say, the newer precincts, sent only two. Of course, this gave the older counties controlling influence in the Assembly. Doubtless this was not an equitable representation, and ought to have been changed if possible, but in a legal and fair way. The Governor, however, determined to bring about the change in his own peculiar way, that is to say, in a manner neither legal nor fair. So he called a session of the Legislature to meet on the\nIn the meanwhile the northern counties sent agents to London to represent matters to the authorities there, and after a full investigation, the Crown disallowed the Act, on the ground that it had been improperly and unfairly obtained, and the order of repeal was brought over by Governor Dobbs. The unequal representation being restored, continued until the Provincial Assemblies of the Revolution came into existence, as appears from the records preserved here from that day to this. To these bodies each county sent five delegates, equality of representation doubtless being considered as a necessary preliminary step to united harmonious action, especially in view of the fact that the bulk of population was then in the west. In spite of the records, both here and in London, the historian Williamson, after reciting the main facts in the case,\nWhen Governor Johnston undertook forcibly and fraudulently to deprive the northern counties of the greater part of their representation in the Legislature, he had been Governor of the province for twelve years, and he must have studied the people over whom he ruled those twelve years to but little purpose if he supposed they would submit to a deprivation of their rights, either by force or by fraud. He must have known, too, that if they did not choose to submit, he was utterly without power to compel them to do so; but in spite of everything, and seemingly regardless of consequences, he pursued a policy that resulted in an open defiance of the law, that he dared not even to attempt to punish. Such a state of things probably never existed in any other province for such a length of time\u2014open, bold resistance and defiance of the constituted authorities for eight years, without an attempt even to enforce obedience.\nThe population of North Carolina at the beginning of Johnston's administration was near 50,000 in all, and at the close it was somewhere about 90,000, that is to say, just about double the number usually given. Of course this great addition was made up from immigration as well as from natural increase. This immigration came in part from adjacent Virginia counties, covering the northern border generally, west of the Chowan. These immigrants simply followed the tributaries of the Chowan and the Roanoke rivers in their search for \u201cbottom land;\u201d other immigrants came from the adjacent South Carolina counties,\nOn the 15th February, 1751, Governor Johnston wrote to the Board of Trade that inhabitants flocked in daily, mostly from Pennsylvania and other parts of America already overstocked with people, and some directly from Europe. Many thousand people, he said, had then come in, settling mainly in the west, so that they had nearly reached the mountains.\nOn the 28th June, 1753, President Rowan wrote, that in the year 1746 he was in the territory composing the counties of Anson, Orange and Rowan, and there were then not above one hundred fighting men in all that country; whereas, at the time he wrote, there were at least three thousand, mostly Irish Protestants and Germans, and their numbers were daily increasing. At these figures this new population must have numbered near twenty thousand. In 1776, their settlements had extended beyond the present State limits.\nThe route that these immigrants from Pennsylvania took to reach their future homes in North Carolina is plainly laid down on the maps of that day. On Jeffreys' map, a copy of which is in the Congressional Library at Washington City, there is plainly laid down a road called \u201cthe Great Road from the Yadkin River thro' Virginia to Philadelphia, distant 435 miles.\u201d It ran from Philadelphia through Lancaster and York to Winchester, thence up the Shenandoah Valley, crossing the Fluvanna River at Looney's Ferry, thence to Staunton River and down the river through the Blue Ridge, thence southward, crossing Dan River below the mouth of Mayo River, thence still southward near the Moravian Settlement to the Yadkin River, just above the mouth of Linville Creek and about ten miles above the mouth of Reedy Creek.\nRemembering the route General Lee took when he went into Pennsylvania on the memorable Gettysburg campaign, it will be seen that very many of the North Carolina boys, both of German and Scotch-Irish\nThe following is a brief statement of the condition of the currency of the province during Governor Johnston's administration:\nIn 1735, by act of Assembly, bills for \u00a340,000 to be exchanged for the bills issued in 1729. Not a legal tender at any rated exchange.\nIn the same year, bills for \u00a310,000 for the more immediate discharge of the public debts, not issued at any rated exchange, but for the payment of them a poll tax was laid. The rate of exchange in 1739 was 1000 per cent., and there was outstanding about \u00a350,000.\nThe above seem to have been redeemed by bills for \u00a321,350 issued in 1747, of which \u00a3189.13.3 in April, 1749, and \u00a3513.12.0 were burned in April, 1750, leaving in circulation \u00a320,646.14.0 proclamation money, equal to \u00a315,485.1.0 sterling money. These bills maintained the value they were issued at as late as 29th September, 1850.\nNo question seems to have arisen during Johnston's administration as to the right of the House of Burgesses to control the purse strings\u2014about the only trouble that he seems to have avoided. But that the people for eight years refused to recognize, in any way, the authority of the government under which they lived, because they were not represented in its Legislature, is evidence enough that even at that day they were fully inspired with the principles that underlaid the great American revolution, and foreshadowed plainly enough what their course would be in that great struggle.\n1 A Study in Colonial History. Hon. George Davis.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5c133086-4ec4-4c15-a1c0-432565de5358>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://docsouth.unc.edu/csr/index.html/document/csr04-es01", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9867274165153503, "token_count": 8280, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A-level Geography/AS OCR Geography/Investigation Paper\nSpearman's Rank \nThis is a concept to find the statistical significance of the correlation between the two variables. First, a null hypothesis needs to be made.\nMann-Whitney U Test \nMann-Whitney U test is a test for difference between 2 data sets. Using a critical values table, the level of confidence in the relationship can be established, and the null hypotheses can be accepted or rejected. There are both advantages and disadvantages which accompany this statistical test for analysis of statistical data. One advantage is that it can compare two data sets that are different sizes. This makes the test much more versatile, and can be applied to a range of different data sets. Secondly, the test is not based on observed values. This means that there are no assumptions made about the distribution of the data. This is particularly useful in geography because most of the data we collect will be either positively or negatively skewed. Finally, Mann-Whitney U uses non-parametric (non-grouped) data. This is an advantage because the trends in the data cannot be generalised, and thus producing a more statistically sound result.\nIt does however carry some disadvantages with it, one being the fact that it cannot be applied to more than 2 data sets at one time. This is because it is non-parametric data. If the test was done using parametric (grouped) data, you would be able to compare multiple data sets at once. An example of this is the student\u2019s \u201ct\u201d test. This is because parametric data provides a result in proportion to the data, and can therefore be contrasted with many data sets. Also, Mann-Whitney becomes increasingly less effective as the data sets get larger. This reduces its effectiveness because the calculation becomes too long-winded, and it takes a very long time to complete. It also reduces the precision of the result, as with a bigger sample size there is more margin for error.\nIn conclusion, despite the obvious flaws with the test, it is a very effective way of looking at the differences between 2 pairs of data sets.\nFive Sections of Investigation \nPragmatic = essentially safety and accessibility. For example, if a student is carrying out a river investigation they might use pragmatic sampling methods meaning only areas that were easily accessible and did not pose a risk would be studied. It is reliable and practical.\nRandom = Not as one might assume randomly selecting a site or throwing a quadrat, in order to use random sample methods either a calculator, grid or computer is needed to generate random statistics that have not been influenced by human decision.\nSystematic = This type of technique would be used if progressional change over distance or time was being studied. A transect would be measured and data recorded at regular intervals along said transect, so that change over time or distance could be observed. For example, if a student wished to study psammosere succession, a transect might be measured from the sea to the climax environment (woodland) and at every 25m or so measurements would be taken.\nStratified = To be completed by Magneto and River's landmass.\nStatistics: Mode \nMost = Mode The most frequent Sample number. This is the sample figure which occurs the most times e.g.7,8,9,5,4,3,5,6,7,5,5,5,5,3,5, 5=mode Comes from the French word \"la mode\" for fashion\nStatistics: Median \nThis is the middle sample when all the samples are placed in arithmetic Order. e.g. 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 5=median\nStatistic: Range \nThe area which the samples stretch from.\nStatistics: Standard Deviation \nTo describe the data regarding an infiltration rate statistically I would use the mean and the standard deviation as a measure of central tendency and dispersion. These two are always used together.\nThe mean is simply the sum of all values of x (infiltration rate) divided by n (total number of samples)\nThe standard deviation is more complicated and requires the use of the formula; where x is the individual infiltration rate and\nX bar is the mean of x\u2019s (as above)\nThis is simply done by listing the value of x on a table, and subtracting x bar from each. In the next column, square the subsequent result.\nThen add up all the values of (x-xbar) \u00b2 (\u03a3 (x-xbar) \u00b2. Divide this by n (100 IN THIS CASE), and then square root the answer.\nThese methods are the most powerful and sensitive, because they include all the values of all the data. They do not exclude any data. However, the data must be (nearly) normally distributed to use them.\nMode and range mealy state the most numerous value of x and the difference between the smallest and largest which is not very useful, as it ignores most of the data. Interquartile deviation and medium rely on the rank order of the data row do not engage with the size of the values for x, and ignore the extremes of the data set.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4bd37363-ded8-4476-b78c-3948b2fdd690>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/A-level_Geography/AS_OCR_Geography/Investigation_Paper", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9327972531318665, "token_count": 1101, "score": 3.859375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Join The Movement\n- Media & More\n- About Us\nTypes of Builds\nMillard Fuller used to say that a home is the foundation on which human development occurs. It is also an important, positive step in working on a safer, healthier and more responsible future. Many people struggling to put food on the table, pay bills, purchase school supplies and clothing and maintain transportation to work are not thinking about repairing their homes, even though those homes might be dangerous, literally crumbling around them and their children.\nThe Fuller Center is an organization devoted to partnership, renewed opportunity and providing a hand up instead of a hand out. The construction and rehabilitation of simple, decent houses are the two basic ways we do this.\nThe work of The Fuller Center allows the elderly to live out their rest of their days comfortably in their own homes, gives families a fresh start, enables the handicapped to maintain a level of independence in accessible homes and, in some cases, transforms entire neighborhoods.", "id": "<urn:uuid:94a71e57-efdc-4808-a7a6-e2284d9806dd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://fullercenter.org/types-of-builds", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9520335793495178, "token_count": 199, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Threat of Metabolic Syndrome\nMetabolic syndrome is a cluster of risk factors that greatly raises your risk for heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.\nIf you have three or more of these factors, you are said to have metabolic syndrome:\nA high level of triglycerides, or more than 150 mg/dL\nA low level of HDL (\"good\") cholesterol, or below 40 mg/dL for men or 50 mg/dL for women\nAbdominal obesity, or a waist circumference of greater than 40 for men, or greater than 35 for women\nHigh blood pressure, or 130/85 mmHg or greater\nHigh blood sugar that is classified as prediabetes, 100 mg to 125 mg/dL, or diabetes, 126 mg/dL or casual blood sugar greater than 200 mg/dL\nAccording to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, if you have metabolic syndrome, you are two times more likely to have develop heart disease. Your risk of developing type 2 diabetes is five times greater if you have metabolic syndrome.\nYet there's good news. Lifestyle changes can prevent or reverse some of these risk factors, if you are among the 35 percent of adults who already has metabolic syndrome.\nAlthough you can't change how genes contribute to your risk factors, you can do a lot to lower your risk. Eat a low-fat diet rich in fruits and vegetables, for instance, and most days get 30 minutes of moderate to vigorous exercise that raises your heart rate. Get to and maintain a healthy weight.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6f378b09-0dc5-40d9-ba4b-e6395260c663>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://healthcare.utah.edu/healthlibrary/library/wellness/dc/doc.php?type=1&id=2925", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9053014516830444, "token_count": 313, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "New Page Books | 2005-02-15 | ISBN: 1564147959 | 312 pages | PDF | 3,2 MBA handbook of Atlantean information for general readers and specialists alike!\nThis is an invaluable, one-of-a-kind reference. Unlike most other books on the subject, The Atlantis Encyclopedia offers fewer theories and more facts. Although it does not set out to prove the sunken capital actually existed, The Atlantis Encyclopedia musters so much evidence on its behalf, even skeptics may conclude that there must be at least something factual behind such an enduring, indeed global legend. You\u2019ll learn:\n* What was Atlantis? * Where was it located? * How long ago did it flourish? * How was it destroyed? * What became of its survivors? * Have any remains of Atlantis ever been found? * Will Atlantis ever be found? * Did Atlantis have any impact on America?", "id": "<urn:uuid:9e97887e-6f4b-4170-9443-4ab6658c0c31>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://huguiana.blogspot.com/2008/10/atlantis-encyclopedia.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9324750900268555, "token_count": 187, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Is Copy and Paste Programming Really a Problem?\nBut it\u2019s also a natural way to get stuff done \u2013 find something that already works, something that looks close to what you want to do, take a copy and use it as a starting point. Almost everybody has done in at some point. This is because there are times when copy and paste programming is not only convenient, but it might also be the right thing to do.\nFirst of all, let\u2019s be clear what I mean by copy and paste. This is not copying code examples off of the Internet, a practice that comes with its own advantages and problems. By copy and paste I mean when programmers take a shortcut in reuse \u2013 when they need to solve a problem that is similar to another problem in the system, they\u2019ll start by taking a copy of existing code and changing what they need to.\nEarly in design and development, copy and paste programming has no real advantage. The code and design are still plastic, this is your chance to come up with the right set of abstractions, routines and libraries to do what the system needs to do. And there\u2019s not a lot to copy from anyways. It\u2019s late in development when you already have a lot of code in place, and especially when you are maintaining large, long-lived systems, that the copy and paste argument gets much more complicated.\nWhy Copy and Paste?\nProgrammers copy and paste because it saves time. First, you have a starting point, code that you know works. All you have to do is figure out what needs to be changed or added. You can focus on the problem you are trying to solve, on what is different, and you only need to understand what you are going to actually use. You are more free to iterate and make changes to fit the problem in front of you \u2013 you can cleanup code when you need to, delete code that you don\u2019t need. All of this is important, because you may not know what you will need to keep, what you need to change, and what you don\u2019t need at all until you are deeper into solving the problem.\nCopy and paste programming also reduces risk. If you have to go back and change and extend existing code to do what it does today as well as to solve your new problem, you run the risk of breaking something that is already working. It is usually safer and less expensive (in the short term at least) to take a copy and work from there.\nWhat if you are building a new B2B customer interface that will be used by a new set of customers? It probably makes sense to take an existing interface as a starting point, reuse the scaffolding and plumbing and wiring at least and as much of the the business code as makes sense, and then see what you need to change. In the end, there will be common code used by both interfaces (after all, that\u2019s why you are taking a copy), but it could take a while before you know what this code is.\nFinding a common design, the right abstractions and variations to support different implementations and to handle exceptions can be difficult and time consuming. You may end up with code that is harder to understand and harder to maintain and change in the future \u2013 because the original design didn\u2019t anticipate the different exceptions and extensions, and refactoring can only take you so far. You may need a new design and implementation.\nChanging the existing code, refactoring or rewriting some of it to be general-purpose, shared and extendable, will add cost and risk to the work in front of you. You can\u2019t afford to create problems for existing customers and partners just because you want to bring some new customers online. You\u2019ll need to be extra careful, and you\u2019ll have to understand not only the details of what you are trying to do now (the new interface), but all of the details of the existing interface, its behavior and assumptions, so that you can preserve all of it.\nIt\u2019s na\u00efve to think that all of this behavior will be captured in your automated tests \u2013 assuming that you have a good set of automated tests. You\u2019ll need to go back and redo integration testing on the existing interface. Getting customers and partners who may have already spent weeks or months to test the software to retest it is difficult and expensive. They (justifiably) won\u2019t see the need to go through this time and expense because what they have is already working fine.\nCopying and pasting now, and making a plan to come back later to refactor or even redesign if necessary towards a common solution, is the right approach here.\nWhen Copy and Paste makes sense\nIn Making Software\u2019s chapter on \u201cCopy-Paste as a Principled Engineering Tool\u201d, Michael Godfrey and Cory Kapser explore the costs of copy and paste programming, and the cases where copy and paste make sense:\n- Forking \u2013 purposely creating variants for hardware or platform variation, or for exploratory reasons.\n- Templating \u2013some languages don\u2019t support libraries and shared functions well so it may be necessary to copy and paste to share code. Somewhere back in the beginning of time, the first COBOL programmer wrote a complete COBOL program \u2013 everybody else after that copied and pasted from each other.\n- Customizing \u2013 creating temporary workarounds \u2013 as long as it is temporary.\npractice of \u201cclone and own\u201d to solve problems in big development\norganizations. One team takes code from another group and customizes it\nor adapts it to their own purposes \u2013 now they own their copy. This is a\ncommon approach with open source code that is used as a foundation and\nneeds to be extended to solve a proprietary problem.\nWhen Copy and Paste becomes a Problem\nWhen to copy and paste, and how much of a problem it will become over time, depends on a few important factors.\nFirst, the quality of what you are copying \u2013 how understandable the code is, how stable it is, how many bugs it has in it. You don\u2019t want to start off by inheriting somebody else\u2019s problems.\nHow many copies have been made. A common rule of thumb from Fowler and Beck`s Refactoring book is \u201cthree strikes and you refactor\u201d. This rule comes from recognizing that by making a copy of something that is already working and changing the copy, you\u2019ve created a small maintenance problem. It may not be clear what this maintenance problem is yet or how best to clean it up, because only two cases are not always enough to understand what is common and what is special.\nBut the more copies that you make, the more of a maintenance problem that you create \u2013 the cost of making changes and fixes to multiple copies, and the risk of missing making a change or fix to all of the copies increases. By the time that you make a third copy, you should be able to see patterns \u2013 what\u2019s common between the code, and what isn\u2019t. And if you have to do something in three similar but different ways, there is a good chance that there will be a fourth implementation, and a fifth. By the third time, it\u2019s worthwhile to go back and restructure the code and come up with a more general-purpose solution.\nHow often you have to change the copied code and keep it in sync \u2013 particularly, how often you have to change or fix the same code in more than one place.\nHow well you know the code, do you know that there are clones and where to find them? How long it takes to find the copies, and how sure you are that you found them all. Tools can help with this. Source code analysis tools like clone detectors can help you find copy and paste code \u2013 outright copies and code that is not the same but similar (fuzzier matching with fuzzier results). Copied code is often fiddled with over time by different programmers, which makes it harder for tools to find all of the copies. Some programmers recommend leaving comments as markers in the code when you make a copy, highlighting where the copy was taken from, so that a maintenance programmer in the future making a fix will know to look for and check the other code.\nCopy and Paste programming doesn\u2019t come for free. But like a lot of other ideas and practices in software development, copy and paste programming isn\u2019t right or wrong. It\u2019s a tool that can be used properly, or abused.\nBrian Foote, one of the people who first recognized the Big Ball of Mud problem in software design, says that copy and paste programming is the one form of reuse that programmers actually follow, because it works.\nIt\u2019s important to recognize this. If we\u2019re going to Copy and Paste, let's do a responsible job of it.\n(Note: Opinions expressed in this article and its replies are the opinions of their respective authors and not those of DZone, Inc.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:5369c24e-168d-48c7-8b92-c49d00e68e2c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://java.dzone.com/articles/copy-and-paste-programming", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9561641216278076, "token_count": 1881, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sledding has been a winter ritual for generations. Anywhere there's snow and a hillside, you can find people sledding. Your grandparents probably did it, as did your parents, and someday your kids will do it, too. Why? It's tons of fun, and it doesn't require any special skills or equipment other than a sled and a helmet.\nBut sledding can also cause injuries, some of them pretty serious. To keep yourself safe, follow these tips.\nWhy Is Sledding Safety Important?\nThough it may seem like harmless fun, sledding injuries send tens of thousands of people to hospital emergency rooms each year. More than half of all sledding injuries are head injuries, which can be very serious and even deadly. Sledders are actually more likely to be injured in collisions than skiers or snowboarders.\nChoose the Right Hill\nWhen hills get coated with snow, they may all look like great locations for sledding. But not all hills are safe. Choose yours carefully. Here are a few guidelines to follow:\nSelect a hill that is not too steep and has a long flat area at the bottom for you to glide to a stop.\nAvoid hillsides that end near a street or parking lot.\nAvoid hillsides that end near ponds, trees, fences or other hazards.\nMake sure the hill is free of obstacles such as jumps, bumps, rocks, or trees before you begin sledding.\nChoose hills that are snowy rather than icy. If you fall off your sled, icy slopes make for hard landings.\nTry to sled during the daytime, when visibility is better. If you go sledding at night, make sure the hillside is well lit and all potential hazards are visible.\nDress for Success\nSince sledding involves playing in the snow outdoors during wintertime, chances are it's going to be cold. Frostbite and even hypothermia are potential dangers. So is hitting your head. Be sure to wear the proper clothing to stay warm and safe.\nWear sensible winter clothing \u2014 hats, gloves or mittens, snow pants, winter jacket, snow boots \u2014 that is waterproof and warm, and change into something dry if your clothes get wet.\nAvoid wearing scarves or any clothing that can get caught in a sled and pose a risk of strangulation.\nWear a helmet designed for winter sports. If you don't have a ski or winter sports helmet, at least wear the helmet you use for biking or skateboarding.\nThe best sleds can be steered by their riders and have brakes to slow them down. Avoid sleds that can't be steered, such as saucers or plastic toboggans, and never use a sled substitute like an inner tube, lunch tray, or cardboard box. Good sleds are relatively cheap to buy and are well worth the extra money.\nFollow These Simple Safety Rules\nYou've got the right kind of sled and a helmet, you're dressed warmly, and you've picked out a perfect hill. You're ready to go. Follow these rules to keep yourself and other sledders safe:\nDesignate a go-to adult. In the event someone gets injured, you'll want an adult on hand to administer first aid and, if necessary, take the injured sledder to the emergency room.\nAlways sit face-forward on your sled. Never sled down a hill backwards or while standing, and don't go down the hill face-first, as this greatly increases the risk of a head injury.\nYoung kids (5 and under) should sled with an adult, and kids under 12 should be actively watched at all times.\nGo down the hill one at a time and with only one person per sled (except for adults with young children). Piling more than one person on a sled just means there are more things on the hill that you can collide with.\nNever build an artificial jump or obstacle on a sledding hill.\nKeep your arms and legs within the sled at all times, and if you fall off the sled, move out of the way. If you find yourself on a sled that won't stop, roll off it and get away from it.\nWalk up the side of the hill and leave the middle open for other sledders.\nNever ride a sled that is being pulled by a moving vehicle.\nWhile it's unlikely that you'll be injured while sledding, the possibility definitely exists. Just take a little extra time to dress properly and make sure you're following these safety guidelines, and you'll have a better time knowing you have less to worry about. Sledding is supposed to be fun. Stay safe and warm, and you'll ensure that it is!", "id": "<urn:uuid:6075aecf-7325-4c32-b12d-91fc511b016b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=BlankChildrensHospital&lic=145&cat_id=20808&article_set=75545&ps=204", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9480139017105103, "token_count": 969, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(En espa\u00f1ol: Exhalar)\nPut one hand on your chest and take a deep breath . . . hold it! Now let the air out. Do you know why your chest seems to get smaller? It's called exhaling. This means you're pushing the air you breathed in out of your body. Your lungs are kind of like balloons, and when you breathe in (inhale), they get bigger. Then when you exhale and let that air back out, they get smaller. That's why your chest goes up and down when you breathe.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d0fa4fc3-4527-43a3-af42-46f0cb4dcc7a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=C_TownSupermarkets&lic=409&cat_id=20195&article_set=30562&ps=309", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9382790923118591, "token_count": 118, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Pub. date: 2008 | Online Pub. Date: May 28, 2008 | DOI: 10.4135/9781412963930 | Print ISBN: 9781412941655 | Online ISBN: 9781412963930| Publisher:SAGE Publications, Inc.About this encyclopedia\nImmigration, United States\nOften described as a nation of immigrants, the United States had a foreign-born population of 12.4 percent in 2005. Before the 19th century, however, people rarely used the term immigrant. Instead, the foreign-born came as settlers, pioneers, slaves, or indentured servants. The Naturalization Act of 1790 first established a centralized process for becoming a citizen, originally open to any free white individual who could demonstrate residence in the country for 2 years. In the mid-19th century, the short-lived Know-No thing movement emerged as a reaction to a surge in immigration, particularly of Irish Catholics after the potato famine of 1845\u20131851. No national legislation, however, was enacted in response. Immigration was, for the most part, welcomed as a route to national development until the late 19th century. This changed with the passing of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which barred Chinese from entering the country and excluded those already in ...", "id": "<urn:uuid:2e9bc665-a9f2-4e3f-ae8e-e2d36ae3b32c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://knowledge.sagepub.com/abstract/socialproblems/n282.xml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9427508115768433, "token_count": 265, "score": 3.625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "About this Base Converter\nBase-2 to base-62 are accepted. \"A\" stands for 10, \"Z\" for 35, \"a\" (lower-case) for 36 and \"z\" (lower-case) for 61. Decimals are supported. This is a custom function because PHP's base_convert() doesn't accept decimals and only goes up to base-36. It's only as precise as PHP is, so don't blindly copy the smallest decimal thinking it will always be correct.\nIs there any standard for displaying numbers higher than base-36? I've used lowercase letters to go up to base-62, but I couldn't find if that's what is commonly done. (Then again, I guess nothing is commonly done, since anything beyond base-16 doesn't really have much use, to my knowledge.)\nFun game: Enter your name and supply base-36 (or higher) as the starting base and see what number you get in another base. My first name in base-38 for instance returns EPKCO in base-42.\nWhat's this about?\nA base is the system with which numbers are displayed. If we talk about base-n, the system has n characters (including 0) available to display a number. Numbers are represented with digits which are smaller than n. Therefore, 3 in base-3 is 10: because that system doesn't have a \"3\", it starts over (1, 2, 10, 11, 12, 20, 21, 22, 100, etc.).\nThe base we usually use is base-10, because we have 10 (when including 0) digits until we start over again (8,9,10). In base-2 (binary), we only have 2 characters, i.e. 0 and 1, until we start over again. Following this example, the binary number 10 is 2 in our (base-10) system.\nDoes it make sense that a finite fraction (\"decimal\") is infinite in another base?\nIt totally does. If you want to convert 645 from base-8 to base-10, you do 6*82 + 4*81 + 5*80 = 421. After the comma you keep on decrementing the exponent, meaning that if you have 21.35 in base-7 you get to its base-10 equivalent by doing 2*71 + 1*70 + 3*7-1 + 5*7-2. 7-1 (= 1/7), however, is 0.142857... in base-10, while it's simply written as 0.1 in base-7.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ce241d9c-a5e7-42c3-95fb-ca084d804bf4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://korn19.ch/coding/base_converter.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9380693435668945, "token_count": 547, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Russia drills through 4 km of ice to reach \u2018mythical\u2019 subglacial lake\nA Russian team has succeeded in drilling through four kilometres of ice to the surface of a mythical subglacial Antarctic lake which could hold as yet unknown life forms, reports said Monday.\nLake Vostok is the largest subglacial lake in Antarctica and scientists want to study its eco-system which has been isolated for hundreds of thousands of years under the ice in the hope of finding previously unknown microbiological life forms.\n\u201cBecause the lower layer was formed 400,000 years ago, from the composition of the gas it is possible to judge the gas composition in the atmosphere 400,000 years ago and during the time that has passed since the formation of the lake,\u201d Sergei Lesenkov, spokesman for the Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute said.\n\u201cFrom there, it is possible to identify and forecast certain climatic changes in the future. This is very important.\u201d (Photo: AFP/Getty Images)", "id": "<urn:uuid:4dceafb7-527a-44f9-8a14-5004393f14c7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nationalpost.tumblr.com/post/17163484997/russia-drills-through-4-km-of-ice-to-reach", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9487501382827759, "token_count": 210, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The factors behind the calving process were not well understood\nUS researchers have come up with a way to predict the rate at which ice shelves break apart into icebergs.\nThese sometimes spectacular occurrences, called calving events, are a key step in the process by which climate change drives sea level rise.\nComputer models that simulate how ice sheets might behave in a warmer world do not describe the calving process in much detail, Science journal reports.\nUntil now, the factors controlling this process have not been well understood.\nIce sheets, such as those in Antarctica and Greenland, spread under their own weight and flow off land over the ocean water.\nIce shelves are the thick, floating lips of ice sheets or glaciers that extend out past the coastline.\nTimelapse footage of an iceberg breaking away from a glacier in July 2008. The event took approximately 15 minutes (Video: Fahnestock/UNH)\nThe Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica floats for as much as 800km (500 miles) over the ocean before the edges begin to break and create icebergs. But other ice shelves may only edge over the water for a few kilometres.\nA team led by Richard Alley at Pennsylvania State University, US, analysed factors such as thickness, calving rate and strain rate for 20 different ice shelves.\n\"The problem of when things break is a really hard problem because there is so much variability,\" said Professor Alley.\n\"Anyone who has dropped a coffee cup knows this. Sometimes the coffee cup breaks and sometimes it bounces.\"\nThe team's results show that the calving rate of an ice shelf is primarily determined by the rate at which the ice shelf is spreading away from the continent.\nThe researchers were also able to show that narrower shelves should calve more slowly than wider ones.\nIce cracking off into the ocean from Antarctica and Greenland could play a significant role in future sea level rise.\nFloating ice that melts does not of itself contribute to the height of waters (because it has already displaced its volume), but the shelf from which it comes acts as a brake to the land-ice behind. Removal of the shelf will allow glaciers heading to the ocean to accelerate - a phenomenon documented when the Larsen B shelf on the Antarctic Peninsula shattered in spectacular style in 2002. This would speed sea level rise.\nThe UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in its 2007 assessment forecast that seas could rise by 18 to 59 cm (7-23ins) this century. However, in giving those figures, it conceded that ice behaviour was poorly understood.\nThis page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. While you will be able to view the content of this page in your current browser, you will not be able to get the full visual experience. Please consider upgrading your browser software or enabling style sheets (CSS) if you are able to do so.", "id": "<urn:uuid:345a4045-6f1f-4b6d-b5c0-385afebb5719>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7753228.stm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9512532353401184, "token_count": 592, "score": 4.1875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Philippines is blessed with a very high biodiversity, including the plants living in its remaining forest cover. Trees alone comprise about 3500 species. Just to research on a species a day would take about 10 years to finish all of just the trees. Then there are still the shrubs, herbs, ferns etc. Through this blog we hope to introduce you to some important plants in the forest before they completely disappear because of habitat destruction.\nFriday, January 13, 2012\nAnother Katmon in Flower\nDillenia sibuyanensis in flower\nFlower is much smaller than a katmon's\nQuick Post: I was gifted by Wendy Regalado with a cutting of Dillenia sibuyanensis or katmon-sibuyan. In about 8 months it established itself then grew from 6 inches to about 2 feet. The other day I saw it in flower. It had a smaller flower compared to Dillenia philippinensis, but has an attractive yellow flower. It must be a delight to see a specimen heavily laden with the yellow blooms. For now I have to contented with the single flower, and at least I know my plant will be doing so someday.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5c968442-108e-4d70-b94d-675210605a1e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://pinoytrees.blogspot.com/2012/01/another-katmon-in-flower.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.95698082447052, "token_count": 247, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "During regular check-ups, your doctor will examine your child to see if he or she has any developmental delays. These well-child check-ups are typically scheduled for:\n- 9 months\n- 18 months\n- 24 or 30 months\nTo look for developmental delays, the doctor will focus on your child\u2019s social skills, language skills, and behavior. Your child's' doctor may talk to and play with your child. You will be asked questions about your child\u2019s development.\nThis is a good time for you to talk openly to your child's doctor. You may have concerns about how your child is growing and behaving. Tell the doctor if you think your child is not developing normally, or has regressed. It is very important to share these concerns.\nExamples of tests that are used to screen for developmental delays include:\n- Ages and Stages Questionnaire\n- Parents Evaluation of Developmental Status\nYour doctor may also give a screening test to check specifically for autism. These screening tools focus on the criteria for diagnosing autism. The criteria are based on the American Psychiatric Association\u2019s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual. These tests are required for screening use in some states.\nOne test that is used is called the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT). It is for children as young as 18 months. This is when autism is typically diagnosed. Some samples of the types of questions in CHAT include:\n- Does your child take interest in other children?\n- Does your child ever bring objects over to you to show you something?\n- Does your child sometimes stare at nothing or wander with no purpose?\nThe screening may show that your child has signs of autism. If so, the next step would be to work with a professional who specializes in the condition. This may be a child psychologist. The specialist will do further testing.\nIt is important to remember that if your child is in the high-risk category, your doctor will screen him or her sooner for developmental delays and autism. Your child is considered high-risk if he or she:\n- Had a low birth weight\n- Was premature\n- Has a sibling with a developmental delay or autism", "id": "<urn:uuid:52f1a657-1fb9-4418-b568-5c3ca5a1562f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://portsmouthhospital.com/your-health/?/19128/Treatments-for-Autism~Screening", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9563978910446167, "token_count": 448, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bringing a new baby home is one of the most exciting times for parents and grandparents. 9 months of planning and anticipation finally pays off when the new addition arrives safe and sound. However, there may be one person who isn't quite sure what all the fuss is about and what having a new child in the family is going to mean for them. The sibling.\nA new brother or sister may be thrilling to most of the family members, but a new baby who is getting all the attention can seem overwhelming to the first child, especially for very young siblings. Their very sense of security can feel threatened, leaving them feeling angry and acting out. So, before the little bundle of joy arrives, it's a good idea to prepare the older child for big changes ahead.\nYou can do that as early as when mom starts showing. Introduce the idea that mommy is pregnant. Being pregnant means that mom & dad are going to have another child, and that means a little brother or sister is going to be part of the family.\nOne good tip is to have a calendar on hand and circle the date when the baby is due. Have the older child start marking the days as they go by.\nIf you have a very young child you can say the baby will arrive in the summer, when the weather gets hot.Or in the fall, when all the leaves start to fall. Give them something they can identify with if they are too young to understand dates.\nOnce that's established, ask them if they have any questions about having a little brother or sister. Children may be so surprised that they don't have anything to ask right away. But as time goes on, they will have plenty of questions. Give answers that are age appropriate in a language that is easy to understand. Keep your answers simple but inclusive of how a new baby may affect their life. An example might be the baby will cry and may wake you up at night for a while. That's normal behavior for a new baby. We'll all be tired for a little while, but it will get better.\nYou can also bring out pictures or videos of when they were babies. Children love to hear stories about when they were little. Explain how much you loved them then and now. This little exercise in closeness can also help them understand the importance of babies and what a baby can bring to the family.\nAs the due date gets closer, try and keep everything as routine as possible. Avoid big transitions such as potty training, changing to a big girl or boy bed, getting rid of the pacifier or binky or anything that may separate the older sibling from the family. If the sibling must undergo some of these changes, start as early as possible so that they don't make a negative association between these changes and the baby.\nOne unavoidable change that might occur is that mom will be away for a few days when the baby is born. Prepare your child for your absence during the birth of the new baby (how long you will be gone, where your child will stay). If your child is going to stay with someone else for a few days, do a couple of practice stay-overs so they will see that you will come back and bring them home.\nFor toddlers, you might also consider role-playing with dolls. Let them use the doll to ask questions or talk about their fears or excitement about the baby.\nOnce the baby is born allow the sibling to come to the hospital and see the baby and that mom is ok. A cute tip is to have a gift from the new baby for the sibling.\nOnce baby is home, suppress any negative comparisons such as you cried a lot more, or he or she is a lot calmer than you were.\nOther things to keep in mind are:\n- Don't be alarmed if siblings don't express an interest in the new baby. Sibling relationships have a lifetime to develop.\n- Accept that some regression may occur; this is normal. Baby your big-boy/girl for a while, if that's what he/she seems to need.\n- Remind visitors to pay attention to your older kids and monitor gift-giving. It can be upsetting for sibling to see all of the presents that the newborn receives, especially when people don''t bring something for them.\n- Try not to blame the baby for your new limitations (Mommy can't play with you now because I have to feed the baby or Mommy needs to change the baby, so you need to read to yourself). Blaming new babies for decreased time spent with you can breed sibling resentment. Instead, involve siblings in child-care as helpers.\n- Create opportunities for older siblings to be participants and not competitors (e.g., getting a diaper ready, reading the baby a story, pushing the carriage).\n- Remind siblings of the things they can do because they are older (e.g., eating food, playing with toys, going to the playground).\n- Remember to give siblings private time with you and reinforce the idea that many of the things they are able to help out with (e.g., errand running, meal preparation, etc.), are because of their advanced abilities.\nWhile you are busy with a new baby, developmental changes are still going on with your older child. Kids that are two or under may have difficulty with a new addition because they still have strong needs as well. Stress in the family can make the sibling's adjustment more difficult. So remember to stay calm when you're with the children.\nOne more thing to be aware of is how rough a sibling may be with a new baby. They really don't understand how delicate the baby is and have to learn what kind of playing or interaction is too rough. They may also hug a little to hard. You'll have to guide them in the correct gentle behaviors. Focus on your older child's positive behaviors towards the new baby such as I like how you gently kiss your little brother or sister.\nHaving a new baby in the family is difficult, but don't despair. The first few months will be an adjustment for everyone. But before you know it, the new baby will feel like he or she has always been a part of the family.\nSource: Bronwyn Charlton, PhD, http://www.everydayhealth.com/kids-health/prepping-your-child-for-a-new-sibling.aspx", "id": "<urn:uuid:7c178d4b-6469-4f83-bf9e-45fab12d3944>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://rochesterhomepage.net/kidsdr-fulltext?nxd_id=34892&d=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9695926904678345, "token_count": 1312, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(l-r) ACES\u2019s Team Behaviorist Vince Rose, UCLA, PhD research student Marisa Tellez and Holy Cross manager Vernon Wilson.\nHoly Cross Croc Saved\nSubmitted by Marine Biologist Cherie Chenot-Rose, ACES/American Crocodile Education Sanctuary\nNorth of the cut on Ambergris Island, a five foot American Crocodile decided to take up residence in a shallow canal on the property of the managers of Holy Cross Anglican School, Francis and Vernon Wilson. Worried that the bold reptile would make a beloved pet its prey, the Wilson\u2019s decided it needed to be removed. With the word out that a nuisance crocodile needed to be relocated, a few locals stopped by and offered to \u2018off\u2019 the cute little bugger for a price. Not wishing to harm the juvenile croc, the Wilson\u2019s were put in contact with ACES / American Crocodile Education Sanctuary in Punta Gorda by wildlife advocate, Colette Kase. Being ACES is a non\u2010profit organization with limited funding, the Wilson\u2019s graciously put the ACES\u2019s Team up for the night, and the Holy Cross Anglican School donated funds to cover the costs of the crocodile\u2019s relocation.\nAmerican Crocodiles are not only protected under the Belize Wildlife Protection Act (Chapter 220); but are also currently considered \u2018Vulnerable\u2019 by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and on a global level are facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.\nACES\u2019s Team, Behaviorist Vince Rose, Biologist Cherie Chenot\u2010Rose and UCLA, PhD research student Marisa Tellez, arrived on the scene Tuesday, August 4th , at lunchtime and was fed a yummy, complimentary meal by the Holy Cross School. Setting up traps in the hot day\u2019s sun, the team caught the croc by 5:00 pm in a snare type trap; and then, collected scientific data pertinent to the conservation of Crocodilians in Belize.\nThe captured croc was a female and name Alice E. after Francis\u2019s mother. In the species Crocodylus acutus, American Crocodiles, the female is the more aggressive. This particular croc had taken up residence in the Wilson\u2019s canal because the contained water had a lower salinity than the surrounding canals.With fresher water to drink and ample food sources, from not only the birds and fish but from the nearby workers, the croc was protecting her little water hole with all she had. This was truly one of the feistiest little crocs I have ever encountered. And, even though this croc was successfully relocated to ACES in Punta Gorda where she will be used in educational lectures on how to safely co\u2010exist with crocs, another croc will most likely move into her now vacant water hole.\nIt is important to understand that removing all the problematic crocs is not an answer to Ambergris\u2019s ever growing problem of human\u2010croc conflicts. The answer to coexisting with these modern day dinosaurs is to recognize it is us, humans, who are the intruder and we need them more than they need us. The number one thing everyone can do to decrease the number of problem crocodiles is never discard food waste, especially chicken and fish scraps, into the waters. Everyone enjoys a free meal and will choose it over paying or expending extra energy.\nFeeding crocodiles directly or indirectly by this manner is the number one cause of croc attacks and is illegal in Belize.\nIf you have small pets or children and you are living on a canal or lagoon front, a sea wall will assure protection from crocodiles coming into your yard. At times of mating and when dry seasons are extra dry, crocs will seek waterholes with a lower salinity than the sea. Even though American Crocs are a saltwater species and can excrete salt through a specialized gland on their tongue and through their feces, high continual concentrations of salt can be stressful on them, especially the young and nesting females. Normally, these crocs will drink fresh water from the thin layer of rainwater that being less dense lays on the surface of the saltier sea. This year, with as dry as it has been, this layer at times does not exist and the crocs will seek out pools, puddles and contained water areas for their lower salinity.\nACES would like to thank Francis and Vernon for their hospitality and the Holy Cross Anglican School for funding the capture. We praise their decision in taking the extra mile to save this highly threatened apex predator. So many people do not seem to understand the importance of crocodiles in keeping Belize\u2019s ecosystems in balance. Not only do they feed upon small mammals and rodents that carry disease, such as raccoons, but they keep fish populations in balance and healthy as well. By reducing the numbers of apex predators, such as crocs, in an area, populations of their prey explode. This in turn leads to spread of disease and famines as prey consume all of the available food sources. In turn, the prey will eventually die off in mass numbers and habitats that once flourished with life will become vast wastelands. With only an estimated 10 to 20 thousand American crocodiles left world\u2010wide, ACES is making every effort to help preserve these magnificent reptiles for Belize\u2019s future generations and to hopefully save them from extinction.\nFor more information about ACES please visit our website at www.americancrocodilesanctuary.org.", "id": "<urn:uuid:be80bced-895f-4548-8c18-e2272ba74d28>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sanpedrosun.blogspot.com/2009_08_13_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9452795386314392, "token_count": 1171, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In the Advanced Learning work session there was a slide that showed the growth of AP and IB in the District. It is true that many more students are taking AP classes than ever before. But it doesn't necessarily mean what you think it means.\nTake, for example, Roosevelt High School. At Roosevelt about half of the 10th grade students used to take AP European History. This is typically the first AP available to students, one of the few open to 10th grade students on the typical pathway. The class is challenging for 10th grade students and the fact that about half of the students took it is a testament to Roosevelt's academic strength. The other half of the students took a history class similar to the one that students all across district and the state take in the 10th grade.\nSome folks at Roosevelt didn't like that. They didn't like the fact that about half of the students were self-selecting to take on the challenge and rigor of AP European History. Even more, they didn't like the fact that about half of the students were NOT self-selecting the class, the challenge, or the rigor. So they came up with a solution. Now every 10th grader at Roosevelt has to take AP Human Geography. Every one of them, both those who would have taken the regular history class and those who would have taken AP European History.\nAP Human Geography, although it is also an AP class, is not comparable to AP European History in rigor. It is intended to be a one semester class instead of a two semester class. At Roosevelt, it is stretched across two semesters. Moreover, the class is not taught as a college level class (as AP classes typically are), but with material with a ceiling at a 10th grade reading level. So, yes, more students are taking an AP class, but you could not say that students were taking more rigorous classes. Half of them maybe, half of them definitely not.\nYou might wonder why the school didn't simply substitute AP Human Geography for the old history class so that half of the students would still take the more rigorous AP European History and half would take the AP Human Geography. The answer is obvious. While that would have addressed the academic problem - lack of rigor for students in the old history class - it would not address the political problem of some students - primarily White and Asian middle class students - self-selecting more rigor while other students - disproportionately Black and Latino and FRE students - self-selecting less rigor. The politics trumped the academics.\nThis pattern is now repeating itself in other schools. Where high performing students self-selected challenge that option is being taken away from them and they are placed, along with every other student, in a less challenging class with a label that implies more challenge than the class represents.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b41ea485-6e16-4eb6-a6ec-c61915d37b59>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://saveseattleschools.blogspot.com/2010/06/growth-of-ap-sort-of.html?showComment=1277146018972", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9825295209884644, "token_count": 580, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Water contamination \u2013 special education edition: Fracking\nTo view hydraulic fracturing infograghics click on toggles.\nWikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.\nHydraulic fracturing is the propagation of fractures in a rock layer by a pressurized fluid. Some hydraulic fractures form naturally certain veins or dikes are examples\u2014and can create conduits along which gas and petroleum from source rocks may migrate to reservoir rocks. Induced hydraulic fracturing or hydrofracturing, commonly known as fracing, fraccing, or fracking, is a technique used to release petroleum, natural gas (including shale gas, tight gas, and coal seam gas), or other substances for extraction. This type of fracturing creates fractures from a wellbore drilled into reservoir rock formations.\nThe first use of hydraulic fracturing was in 1947. However, it was only in 1998 that modern fracturing technology, referred to as horizontal slickwater fracturing, made possible the economical extraction of shale gas; this new technology was first used in the Barnett Shale in Texas. The energy from the injection of a highly pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid creates new channels in the rock, which can increase the extraction rates and ultimate recovery of hydrocarbons.\nProponents of hydraulic fracturing point to the economic benefits from vast amounts of formerly inaccessible hydrocarbons the process can extract. Opponents point to potential environmental impacts, including contamination of ground water, risks to air quality, the migration of gases and hydraulic fracturing chemicals to the surface, surface contamination from spills and flowback and the health effects of these. For these reasons hydraulic fracturing has come under scrutiny internationally, with some countries suspending or banning it.\nFracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s. It was applied by oil producers in the US states of Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, and West Virginia by using liquid and later also solidified nitroglycerin. Later, the same method was applied to water and gas wells. The idea to use acid as a nonexplosive fluid for well stimulation was introduced in the 1930s. Due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely and therefore productivity was enhanced. The same phenomenon was discovered with water injection and squeeze cementing operations.\nThe relationship between well performance and treatment pressures was studied by Floyd Farris of Stanolind Oil and Gas Corporation. This study became a basis of the first hydraulic fracturing experiment, which was conducted in 1947 at the Hugoton gas field in Grant County of southwestern Kansas by Stanolind. For the well treatment 1,000 US gallons (3,800 l; 830 imp gal) of gelled gasoline and sand from the Arkansas River was injected into the gas-producing limestone formation at 2,400 feet (730 m).\nThe experiment was not very successful as deliverability of the well did not change appreciably. The process was further described by J.B. Clark of Stanolind in his paper published in 1948. A patent on this process was issued in 1949 and an exclusive license was granted to the Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company. On March 17, 1949, Halliburton performed the first two commercial hydraulic fracturing treatments in Stephens County, Oklahoma, and Archer County, Texas. Since then, hydraulic fracturing has been used to stimulate approximately a million oil and gas wells.\nIn the Soviet Union, the first hydraulic proppant fracturing was carried out in 1952. In Western Europe in 1977\u20131985, hydraulic fracturing was conducted at Rotliegend and Carboniferous gas-bearing sandstones in Germany, Netherlands onshore and offshore gas fields, and the United Kingdoms sector of the North Sea. Other countries in Europe and Northern Africa included Norway, the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Austria, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, Tunisia, and Algeria.\nDue to shale\u2019s high porosity and low permeability, technology research, development and demonstration were necessary before hydraulic fracturing could be commercially applied to shale gas deposits. In the 1970s the United States government initiated the Eastern Gas Shales Project, a set of dozens of public-private hydraulic fracturing pilot demonstration projects. During the same period, the Gas Research Institute, a gas industry research consortium, received approval for research and funding from the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.\nIn 1977, the Department of Energy pioneered massive hydraulic fracturing in tight sandstone formations. In 1997, based on earlier techniques used by Union Pacific Resources, now part of Anadarko Petroleum Corporation, Mitchell Energy, now part of Devon Energy, developed the hydraulic fracturing technique known as \u201cslickwater fracturing\u201d which involves adding chemicals to water to increase the fluid flow, that made the shale gas extraction economical.\nMethod A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping the fracturing fluid into the wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase pressure downhole to exceed that of the fracture gradient (pressure gradient) of the rock. The fracture gradient is defined as the pressure increase per unit of the depth due to its density and it is usually measured in pounds per square inch per foot or bars per meter. The rock cracks and the fracture fluid continues further into the rock, extending the crack still further, and so on.\nOperators typically try to maintain \u201cfracture width\u201d, or slow its decline, following treatment by introducing into the injected fluid a proppant \u2013 a material such as grains of sand, ceramic, or other particulates, that prevent the fractures from closing when the injection is stopped and the pressure of the fluid is reduced. Consideration of proppant strengths and prevention of proppant failure becomes more important at greater depths where pressure and stresses on fractures are higher. The propped fracture is permeable enough to allow the flow of formation fluids to the well. Formation fluids include gas, oil, salt water, fresh water and fluids introduced to the formation during completion of the well during fracturing.\nDuring the process fracturing fluid leakoff, loss of fracturing fluid from the fracture channel into the surrounding permeable rock occurs. If not controlled properly, it can exceed 70% of the injected volume. This may result in formation matrix damage, adverse formation fluid interactions, or altered fracture geometry and thereby decreased production efficiency.\nThe location of one or more fractures along the length of the borehole is strictly controlled by various methods that create or seal off holes in the side of the wellbore. Typically, hydraulic fracturing is performed in cased wellbores and the zones to be fractured are accessed by perforating the casing at those locations.\nHydraulic-fracturing equipment used in oil and natural gas fields usually consists of a slurry blender, one or more high-pressure, high-volume fracturing pumps (typically powerful triplex or quintuplex pumps) and a monitoring unit. Associated equipment includes fracturing tanks, one or more units for storage and handling of proppant, high-pressure treating iron, a chemical additive unit (used to accurately monitor chemical addition), low-pressure flexible hoses, and many gauges and meters for flow rate, fluid density, and treating pressure. Fracturing equipment operates over a range of pressures and injection rates, and can reach up to 100 megapascals (15,000 psi) and 265 litres per second (9.4 cu ft/s) (100 barrels per minute).\nProppants and fracking fluids and List of additives for hydraulic fracturing\nHigh-pressure fracture fluid is injected into the wellbore, with the pressure above the fracture gradient of the rock. The two main purposes of fracturing fluid is to extend fractures and to carry proppant into the formation, the purpose of which is to stay there without damaging the formation or production of the well. Two methods of transporting the proppant in the fluid are used \u2013 high-rate and high-viscosity. High-viscosity fracturing tends to cause large dominant fractures, while high-rate (slickwater) fracturing causes small spread-out micro-fractures.\nThis fracture fluid contains water-soluble gelling agents (such as guar gum) which increase viscosity and efficiently deliver the proppant into the formation.\nThe fluid injected into the rock is typically a slurry of water, proppants, and chemical additives. Additionally, gels, foams, and compressed gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air can be injected. Typically, of the fracturing fluid 90% is water and 9.5% is sand with the chemical additives accounting to about 0.5%.\nA proppant is a material that will keep an induced hydraulic fracture open, during or following a fracturing treatment, and can be gel, foam, or slickwater-based. Fluids make tradeoffs in such material properties as viscosity, where more viscous fluids can carry more concentrated proppant; the energy or pressure demands to maintain a certain flux pump rate (flow velocity) that will conduct the proppant appropriately; pH, various rheological factors, among others. Types of proppant include silica sand, resin-coated sand, and man-made ceramics.\nThese vary depending on the type of permeability or grain strength needed. The most commonly used proppant is silica sand, though proppants of uniform size and shape, such as a ceramic proppant, is believed to be more effective. Due to a higher porosity within the fracture, a greater amount of oil and natural gas is liberated.\nThe fracturing fluid varies in composition depending on the type of fracturing used, the conditions of the specific well being fractured, and the water characteristics. A typical fracture treatment uses between 3 and 12 additive chemicals. Although there may be unconventional fracturing fluids, the typical used chemical additives are:\n\u2022Acids\u2014hydrochloric acid (usually 28%-5%), or acetic acid is used in the pre-fracturing stage for cleaning the perforations and initiating fissure in the near-wellbore rock.\n\u2022Sodium chloride (salt)\u2014delays breakdown of the gel polymer chains.\n\u2022Polyacrylamide and other friction reducers\u2014minimizes the friction between fluid and pipe, thus allowing the pumps to pump at a higher rate without having greater pressure on the surface. Polyacrylamide are good suspension agents ensuring the proppant does not fall out.\n\u2022 Ethylene glycol\u2014prevents formation of scale deposits in the pipe.\n\u2022Borate salts\u2014used for maintaining fluid viscosity during the temperature increase.\n\u2022Sodium and potassium carbonates\u2014used for maintaining effectiveness of crosslinkers.\n\u2022Glutaraldehyde\u2014used as disinfectant of the water (bacteria elimination).\n\u2022Guar gum and other water-soluble gelling agents\u2014increases viscosity of the fracturing fluid to deliver more efficiently the proppant into the formation.\n\u2022Citric acid\u2014used for corrosion prevention.\n\u2022Isopropanol\u2014increases the viscosity of the fracture fluid.\nThe most common chemical used for hydraulic fracturing in the United States in 2005\u20132009 was methanol, while some other most widely used chemicals were isopropyl alcohol, 2-butoxyethanol, and ethylene glycol.\nTypical fluid types.\n\u2022 Conventional linear gels. These gels are cellulose derivatives (carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, carboxymethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, methyl hydroxyl ethyl cellulose), guar or its derivatives (hydroxypropyl guar, carboxymethyl hydroxypropyl guar) based, with other chemicals providing the necessary chemistry for the desired results.\n\u2022Borate-crosslinked fluids. These are guar-based fluids cross-linked with boron ions (from aqueous borax/boric acid solution). These gels have higher viscosity at pH 9 onwards and are used to carry proppants. After the fracturing job the pH is reduced to 3\u20134 so that the cross-links are broken and the gel is less viscous and can be pumped out.\n\u2022Organometallic-crosslinked fluids zirconium, chromium, antimony, titanium salts are known to crosslink the guar based gels. The crosslinking mechanism is not reversible. So once the proppant is pumped down along with the cross-linked gel, the fracturing part is done. The gels are broken down with appropriate breakers.\n\u2022Aluminium phosphate-ester oil gels. Aluminium phosphate and ester oils are slurried to form cross-linked gel. These are one of the first known gelling systems.\nFor slickwater it is common to include sweeps or a reduction in the proppant concentration temporarily to ensure the well is not overwhelmed with proppant causing a screen-off. As the fracturing process proceeds, viscosity reducing agents such as oxidizers and enzyme breakers are sometimes then added to the fracturing fluid to deactivate the gelling agents and encourage flowback. The oxidizer reacts with the gel to break it down, reducing the fluid\u2019s viscosity and ensuring that no proppant is pulled from the formation.\nAn enzyme acts as a catalyst for the breaking down of the gel. Sometimes pH modifiers are used to break down the crosslink at the end of a hydraulic fracturing job, since many require a pH buffer system to stay viscous. At the end of the job the well is commonly flushed with water (sometimes blended with a friction reducing chemical) under pressure.\nInjected fluid is to some degree recovered and is managed by several methods, such as underground injection control, treatment and discharge, recycling, or temporary storage in pits or containers while new technology is being continually being developed and improved to better handle waste water and improve re-usability.\nClick Here For Lake Peigneur Part One: Video \u2013 Lake Peigneur could be worse than Assumption sinkhole\nClick Here For Lake Peigneur Part Two: Largest man-made vortex \u2013 Lake Peigneur update \u2013 special report.\nClick Here For Grand Bayou sinkhole begins Part One: Bayou Corne \u2013 Grand Bayou sinkhole begins \u2013 can it end?\nClick Here For Grand Bayou sinkhole begins Part Two: 06/28/13\u201305/16/13\u2013facts about Grand Bayou sink hole.\nWHOLE WORLD Water seeks to prove that economic, social, and environmental progress are not mutually exclusive. Developed to end the global water and sanitation crisis, WHOLE WORLD Water works to engage the hospitality and tourism industry to filter, bottle, and sell its own water, and contribute 10% of the proceeds to the WHOLE WORLD Water Fund. 100% of the proceeds will go directly to clean and safe water initiatives worldwide.\nWater news archives \u2013 750 articles-March 2012~May 2013: updated daily \u2013 click here Support Save the Water\u2122 click here.\nSupporting the water research and education programs of Save the Water\u2122 is vital to our future generation\u2019s health, your funding is needed today.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5b857382-9686-46c3-8c8e-f472967c735d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://savethewater.org/tag/hydrofracking/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9224311709403992, "token_count": 3122, "score": 3.796875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Author: Nick Kanas\nSoftcover: 382 pages\nWith the construction of the International Space Station, and new plans for manned missions to the Moon, Mars and beyond, there is renewed interest in the heavens. An ever-increasing number of people are fascinated with the science of space and are becoming amateur astronomers.\nThe beauty and awe generated by the celestial void capture our imagination and delight our aesthetic sense. Antiquarian map societies are prospering, and celestial maps are now viewed as a specialty of map collecting.\nThis book traces the history of celestial cartography and relates this history to the changing ideas of man\u2019s place in the universe and to advances in map-making.\nReproductions of maps from antiquarian celestial atlases and prints, many previously unpublished in book form, enrich the text, and a legend accompanies each illustration to explain its astronomical and cartographic features.\nAlso included in the book are discussions of non-European celestial maps and chapters on early American influences and celestial map-collecting.\nThe book describes the development and relationships between different sky maps and atlases as well as demonstrating contemporary cosmological ideas, constellation representations, and cartographic advances.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6f6704e1-18bb-4763-8d1f-ea94b25bf0df>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://starizona.com/acb/Star-Maps-History-Artistry-and-Cartography-P2860C71.aspx?UserID=21352731", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9146391153335571, "token_count": 242, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "EDITOR\u2019S NOTE: We\u2019re proud to announce the launch of our newest state chapter \u2013 the Kentucky Tenth Amendment Center!\nby Michael Maharrey, Kentucky Tenth Amendment Center\nWelcome to the Kentucky chapter of the 10th Amendment Center.\nThe principle is simple. It is not radical or extremist, nor should it be controversial. The founders of the United States clearly intended a federal government with defined and limited power. The bulk of governance was meant to happen at the state and local level.\u00c2 The 10th Amendment in the Bill of Rights reaffirms this principle in the simplest of language.\n\u00e2\u20ac\u0153The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.\u00e2\u20ac\nSimple. Straight forward. No need for complicated exegesis or convoluted interpretation.\nJames Madison expanded the idea, writing in Federalist No. 45.\n\u00e2\u20ac\u0153The powers delegated by the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few and defined. Those which are to remain in the State governments are numerous and indefinite. The former will be exercised principally on external objects, as war, peace, negotiation and foreign commerce; with which the last the power of taxation will for the most part be connected. The powers reserved to the several States will extend to all objects which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives, liberties and properties of the people, and the internal order, improvement and prosperity of the State.\u00e2\u20ac\nThe foundation of our country was not laid on empty political theory. It was born from a deep understanding of the danger of concentrated power. As George Washington said, \u00e2\u20ac\u0153Government is not reason; it is not eloquent; it is force. Like fire, it is a dangerous servant and a fearful master.\u00e2\u20ac\nOr as Gerald Ford put it some 200 years later, \u00e2\u20ac\u0153A government big enough to give you everything you want is a government big enough to take from you everything you have.\u00e2\u20ac\nMost people intuitively understand that the danger of power increases at higher levels of government. Most citizens understand that state and local leaders are more accountable to those they represent at state and local levels. What does Nancy Pelosi care about the coal miner in eastern Kentucky? Kentuckians understand the potential tyranny of unbridled federal power. Our founders certainly understood and created a brilliant system to keep government power in check.\nIt takes only a quick scan of the news headlines to see that the current system of government in the United States bears little resemblance to what the framers of the Constitution intended.\nIn the 1990s, the American people cleaned house in Washington D.C. Republicans swept into power promising to limit government, slash spending, cut earmarks and reform government. Instead, \u00e2\u20ac\u0153We the People\u00e2\u20ac got more of the same. More big spending. More federal programs. More favors for special interests. More expanding bureaucracy.\nIn 2008, Pres. Obama took office promising \u00e2\u20ac\u0153hope and change.\u00e2\u20ac Instead, he and the Democrats in power doubled down.\nClearly, to solution doesn\u00e2\u20ac\u2122t lie in sending different breeds of politician to Washington. Yes, we want to elect candidates to federal office who respect the Constitutional limits of their power. But we the people of Kentucky must insist, through our state government, that we will not accept any more unconstitutional governance from the feds. We must use our power to nullify unconstitutional law and render impotent federal power grabs. We must wean ourselves from the federal trough and stop allowing Washington to control Frankfort via a carrot and stick approach.\nThe process won\u00e2\u20ac\u2122t be easy. The federal government has grown far beyond its intended role and years will likely pass before we can reestablish a proper balance. But we must start now. We must stand together as Kentuckians and fight for what\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s best for the Commonwealth of Kentucky. We must demand our liberties and stand up for the Constitution that unites us as a nation.\nIt is up to us. We the People. Government serves us, not the other way around.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c55d5a59-1893-4bd9-9946-0bcc5fff3281>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://tenthamendmentcenter.com/2010/08/02/it-is-up-to-us/comment-page-1/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9429659843444824, "token_count": 855, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A fossilised little finger discovered in a cave in the mountains of southern Siberia belonged to a young girl from an unknown group of archaic humans, scientists say.\nThe missing human relatives are thought to have inhabited much of Asia as recently as 30,000 years ago, and so shared the land with early modern humans and Neanderthals.\nThe finding paints a complex picture of human history in which our early ancestors left Africa 70,000 years ago to rub shoulders with other distant relatives in addition to the stocky, barrel-chested Neanderthals.\nThe new ancestors have been named \u201cDenisovans\u201d after the Denisova cave in the Altai mountains of southern Siberia where the finger bone was unearthed in 2008.\nA \u201cDenis\u201d is thus a member of an archaic human subspecies.", "id": "<urn:uuid:38ad9dd2-d03c-47fc-a526-aa6f85c9ab79>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://timworstall.com/2010/12/23/on-the-meaning-of-the-word-denis/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9533677697181702, "token_count": 167, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "All links within content go to MayoClinic.com\nVegetarian diet: A starter's guide to a plant-based diet\nSpecial to CNN.com\nAdopting a healthy vegetarian diet isn't as simple as scraping meat off your plate and eating what's left. You need to take extra steps to ensure you're meeting your daily nutritional needs.\nVegetarian diet planning\nA healthy vegetarian diet consists primarily of plant-based foods, such as fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts and seed. Because the emphasis is on nonmeat food sources, a vegetarian diet generally contains less fat and cholesterol, and typically includes more fiber.\nVegetarians fall into groups defined by the types of animal-derived foods they eat:\n- Vegans eliminate all foods from animals, including meat, poultry, fish, milk, eggs and cheese. They eat only plant-based foods.\n- Lacto-vegetarians consume milk and milk products along with plant-based foods. They omit eggs as well as meat, fish and poultry.\n- Lacto-ovo vegetarians omit red meat, fish and poultry but eat eggs, milk and milk products, such as cheese and yogurt, in addition to plant-based foods.\nTo keep your vegetarian diet on track, you may find using a vegetarian food pyramid helpful. This pyramid outlines various food groups and food choices that, if eaten in the right quantities, form the foundation of a healthy vegetarian diet.\nMeatless products, such as tofu dogs, soy burgers, nut loaves or texturized vegetable protein, add variety to your vegetarian diet. These products, found in many grocery stores and health food markets, simulate the taste and texture of meat and usually have less fat and fewer calories. Many of the meatless products, such as tofu or tempeh, are made from soybeans.\nIf you follow a vegan diet, you may need to find alternatives for eggs and dairy products. Try these suggestions when meal planning or cooking:\nEnsuring adequate nutrition\n- Milk. Drink fortified soymilk, rice milk or almond milk in place of cow's milk.\n- Butter. When sauteing, use olive oil, water, vegetable broth, wine or nonfat cooking spray instead of butter. In baked goods, use canola oil.\n- Cheese. Use soy cheese or nutritional yeast flakes, which are available in health food stores.\n- Eggs. In baked goods, try commercial egg replacers \u2014 a dry product made mostly of potato starch. Or you can use the following to replace one egg: 1/4 cup whipped tofu or 1 tablespoon milled flaxseed mixed with 3 tablespoons of water. For an egg-free omelet try using tofu instead of eggs.\nThe more restrictive a diet is, the more difficult it is to get all the nutrients your body needs. A vegan diet, for example, eliminates food sources of vitamin B-12, as well as milk products, which are a good source of calcium. Other nutrients, such as iron and zinc, are available in a meatless diet, but you need to make an extra effort to ensure they're in yours.\nHere are nutrients that may be deficient in a vegetarian diet and how you can get these nutrients from nonmeat sources:\n- Protein. Your body needs protein to maintain healthy skin, bones, muscles and organs. Vegetarians who eat eggs or dairy products have convenient sources of protein. Other sources of protein include soy products, meat substitutes, legumes, lentils, nuts, seeds and whole grains.\n- Calcium. This mineral helps build and maintain strong teeth and bones. Low-fat dairy foods and dark green vegetables, such as spinach, turnip and collard greens, kale, and broccoli are good sources of calcium. Tofu enriched with calcium and fortified soymilk and fruit juices are other options.\n- Vitamin B-12. Your body needs vitamin B-12 to produce red blood cells and prevent anemia. This vitamin is found almost exclusively in animal products, including milk, eggs and cheese. Vegans can get vitamin B-12 from some enriched cereals, fortified soy products or by taking a supplement that contains this vitamin.\n- Iron. Like vitamin B-12, iron is a crucial component of red blood cells. Dried beans and peas, lentils, enriched cereals, whole-grain products, dark, leafy green vegetables, and dried fruit are good sources of iron. To help your body absorb non-animal sources of iron, eat foods rich in vitamin C \u2014 such as strawberries, citrus fruits, tomatoes, cabbage and broccoli \u2014 at the same time you consume iron-containing foods.\n- Zinc. This mineral is an essential component of many enzymes and plays a role in cell division and in the formation of proteins. Good sources of zinc include whole grains, soy products, nuts and wheat germ.\nThe key to a healthy vegetarian diet \u2014 or any diet for that matter \u2014 is to enjoy a wide variety of foods. Since no single food provides all of the nutrients that your body needs, eating a wide variety helps ensure that you get the necessary nutrients and other substances that promote good health.\nStart with what you know\nIf you're thinking of switching to a vegetarian diet but aren't sure how to begin, start with what you already know. Make a list of meals you prepare on a regular basis. Some of these may already be meat-free, such as spaghetti or vegetable stir-fry. Next, pick out dishes that could easily become meat-free with a couple of substitutions. For example, you can make vegetarian chili by leaving out the ground beef and adding an extra can of black beans or soy crumbles. Or make fajitas using extra-firm tofu rather than chicken. You may be surprised to find that some dishes require only simple substitutions.\nOnce you have compiled a list of vegetarian meals, add new meal ideas. Buy or borrow vegetarian cookbooks. Scan the Internet for vegetarian menus or for tips about making meatless substitutions. Check out ethnic restaurants to sample new vegetarian cuisine. The more variety you bring to your vegetarian diet, the better the chance you'll meet all your nutritional needs.\nNo matter what your age or situation, a well-planned vegetarian diet can meet your nutritional needs. Even children and teenagers can do well on a plant-based diet, as can older people, and pregnant or breast-feeding women. If you're unsure whether a vegetarian diet is right for you, talk to your doctor or a registered dietitian.\nFlaxseed: Is ground or whole better?\nDietary fiber: An essential part of a healthy diet\nWhole grains: High in nutrition and fiber, yet low in fat\nHealthy diet decisions: Do you know what to eat?", "id": "<urn:uuid:295dd06c-ad0e-48bc-8cee-073da7b0d888>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www-cgi.cnn.com/HEALTH/library/HQ/01596.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9342201352119446, "token_count": 1398, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "December 1972 | Volume 24, Issue 1\nFor some men the only solution to the dilemma of blacks and whites together was for the blacks to go back where they came from\nWhen, on August 14, 1862, President Abraham Lincoln spoke to a visiting \u201ccommittee of colored men\u201d at the White House, it was already becoming clear that one result of the War Between the States would be the freeing of millions of slaves. Slavery was toppling under the blows of war, and in just another month the President would issue the preliminary version of the Emancipation Proclamation. The \u201ccolored men\u201d whom Lincoln addressed were free already; some of them had been free all their lives. The President, however, gave them no heartening affirmations of their equality. Instead, he proposed to them the resettling of American blacks, either in Africa or in Central or South America.\n\u201cYou are cut off,\u201d he reminded his visitors, \u201cfrom many of the advantages which the other race enjoy. The aspiration of men is to enjoy equality with the best when free, but on this broad continent, not a single man of your race is made the equal of a single man of ours.\u201d He felt it was \u201cbetter for us both \u2026 to be separated,\u201d that is, that the Negroes of America go elsewhere\u2014all of them.\nHe ruminated aloud about their going to Liberia, in Africa. Perhaps, he suggested, that was too far away: \u201c\u2026 some of you would rather remain within reach of the country of your nativity. I do not know how much attachment you may have toward our race. It does not strike me that you have the greatest reason to love them. But still you are attached to them at all events.\u201d So he had in mind the possibility of a colony in Central America, and he asked for \u201ca hundred tolerably intelligent men, with their wives and children,\u201d to be the pioneer colonists there, although he admitted he would be satisfied with a quarter that number.\nThus did the Great Emancipator propose voluntary exile for the nation\u2019s blacks. He was by no means the first, nor the last, to nourish such a solution to an agonizing American racial problem. Serious discussion of that prospect began as early as the 1770\u2019s with Samuel Hopkins, a Rhode Island Congregational minister; Hopkins proposed training black missionaries to begin a Negro return to Africa. Thomas Jefferson, in the Virginia Assembly, put forward a program that would emancipate the slaves as they became adults. Having been trained in various useful arts, they would be sent to a distant colony. Jefferson believed slavery was evil, both morally and politically. Yet deeper than his abhorrence of the institution was his fear that American freed Negroes would become so -numerous that race war would be inevitable.\nThe fear of a genocidal blood bath has been a persistent argument in favor of an absolute separation of the black and white races\u2014a proposal that has surfaced repeatedly in the nation\u2019s history. The presumed inevitability and incurable nature of race prejudice have likewise been advanced to justify total separation.\nSuch fears and attitudes have been most evident in periods of heightened racial tension, and it is at those times that Negro emigration has appeared to many to be a reasonable, perhaps the only, solution. The quarter century after Reconstruction, for example, a particularly desperate era for American blacks, saw the creation of such enterprises as the Liberian Exodus Joint Stock Steamship Company, the United Transatlantic Society, and the International Migration Society. Just after the First World War, when honorable service brought blacks no bettered status and little relief from violently enforced prejudices, a black messiah, Marcus Aurelius Garvey, arose with ambitious plans for building an African empire with black Americans. There was an African Nationalist Pioneer Movement in the 1930\u2019s, when the Depression compounded the problems confronting the Negro community. And in spite of improvement in the situation of Negroes since then, the still agonizingly slow advance of equality spawned a small frontier village of black \u201cHebrews\u201d in Liberia in the 1960\u2019s.\nThe resettlement idea thus appears to have had remarkable vitality. But it has never been particularly effective. Lincoln\u2019s plans for moving Negroes south of the border is illustrative. It came a cropper, specifically, on the greed of white promoters of proposed colonies and the opposition of Central American governments. But those stumbling blocks might have been hurdled had it not been for the more basic problem common to all such projects. Any resettlement program had to expose, had to carry with it like a disfiguring scar, painful conflicts and contradictions in the racial practices and pretensions of the American community. Nowhere are these better shown than in the rise and fall of the largest and longest-lived of the resettlement organizations, the American Colonization Society, founded in 1816.\nThe sole purpose of the society was stated in its formal title, The American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color in the United States. Free Negroes, as Henry Clay remarked to the society\u2019s first organizational meeting, \u201cneither enjoyed the immunities of freemen, nor were they subject to the incapacities of slaves.\u201d Prejudice, Clay said, worked to keep them a lower caste, and it was \u201cdesirable \u2026 both as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off.\u201d\nIn 1750 there had been only a few thousand free Negroes in the American colonies. But the numbers would soon rise, because the philosophy that legitimized the American Revolution also encouraged emancipation. Slaveholder Joseph Hill of Virginia, for one, writing his will in 1783, gave his bondsmen their freedom upon his death, explaining that \u201cafter full and deliberate consideration, and agreeable to our Bill of Rights,\u201d he was \u201cfully persuaded that freedom is the natural life of all mankind.\u201d Virginia law had closely restricted manumission until 1782. After the restrictions were removed, the number of free Negroes in the state rose from fewer than three thousand to nearly thirteen thousand by 1790. That year the number of free Negroes in the United States had grown to just under sixty thousand. Many northern states had abolished slavery or were about to, a process completely accomplished throughout the North by 1818. This further swelled the totals so that in 1820 the census would count more than 233,000 free Negroes.\nFree they were, but in no sense equal. They did not live well. Their rights in law were restricted and growing more so; with rare exceptions they could not testify against whites in court, and without exception they could not serve on juries. The punishments for blacks were often more severe than for whites who committed the same crimes. In Virginia, for example, after 1831, free Negroes guilty of many minor offenses received the same punishments\u2014including whippings\u2014as those meted out to slaves for identical misdemeanors. A few states conferred the legal right to vote, but some withdrew it later as the number of free blacks multiplied. And where law did not deny Negroes the vote, custom often did. Circumscriptions were beginning to be placed on the right of free Negroes to move from state to state, as no state particularly relished being a repository for newly emancipated slaves. Education was either not available or was segregated. The jobs open to free Negroes were limited. The result of all this was distilled in the words of the valedictorian of a Negro school in New York in 1819: Why should I strive hard and acquire all the constituents of a man, if the prevailing genius of the land admit me not as such, or but in an inferior degree! Pardon me if I feel insignificant and weak. \u2026 What are my prospects? To what shall I turn my hand? Shall I be a mechanic? No one will employ me; white boys won\u2019t work with me. Shall I be a merchant? No one will have me in his office; white clerks won\u2019t associate with me. Drudgery and servitude, then, are my prospective portion. Can you be surprised at my discouragement?\nThere was plenty of reason for the complaint. Nonetheless, free Negroes, instead of earning sympathy for their disadvantages, were often described in the terms traditionally used to excoriate the poor of any race: they lived \u201cthat way\u201d on purpose; they collected in horrid slums, bred disease and incredible numbers of children, committed all sorts of loathsome crimes, did no work unless it was absolutely necessary, were noted for drunkenness, and were, as Henry Clay put it, \u201ca useless and pernicious, if not dangerous portion\u201d of America\u2019s population. In the ante-bellum South it was often said that free Negroes taught slaves to steal and helped them dispose of stolen goods, that they acted as a powerful lure to freedom for slaves, that they inspired and assisted slave rebellion. And there was no point in wasting education on them, for that would only give them an appetite for privileges unreachable. \u201cThe more you improve the condition of these people,\u201d said a Washington lawyer (who was also chief clerk of the United States Supreme Court), \u201cthe more you cultivate their minds, the more miserable you make them.\u201d\nThey were in a trap, with every exit blocked; every exit, that is, but one. The Reverend Robert Finley, pastor of the Presbyterian church in Baskingridge, New Jersey, a community with 1,500 free Negroes, remarked in 1816 upon the depressed condition of those of his parishioners who were black. \u201cEvery thing connected with their condition, including their colour, is against them,\u201d he declared, \u201cnor is there much prospect that their state can ever be greatly ameliorated, while they continue among us.\u201d But he went on to propose a remedy. \u201cCould not,\u201d he suggested, \u201cthe rich and benevolent devise means to form a Colony on some part of the Coast of Africa \u2026 which might gradually induce many free blacks to go and settle, devising for them the means of getting there, and of protection and support till they were established.\u201d\nThe \u201crich and benevolent\u201d were much in evidence in that era between 1815 and the 1840\u2019s, supporting a flood of societies that promoted the Bible, peace, temperance, Christian missions, Sunday schools, and the welfare of various underprivileged segments of the community. As it happened, Finley could even point to an existing project similar to the very one he had in mind. The British had freed a number of slaves during the Revolution and transported them to Great Britain. Many had gravitated to the slums, and British philanthropists had undertaken to relocate them in Africa by starting a colony at Sierra Leone. The financing and government had not been well managed, and shortly the Crown had felt constrained to assume responsibility from the philanthropists, but Sierra Leone was now a going concern.\nAn American colony in Africa would also have to be financed at least in part by the government, Finley knew. But it would benefit the nation in many ways. It would remove a trodden-down minority from the people who were doing the treading; it would give America a commercial outpost in Africa; and by supplying a catchall for emancipated slaves it would encourage manumission in the South\u2014which Finley hoped would ultimately rid the nation of slavery. There was also an additional philanthropic attraction in the colony\u2019s potential for redeeming Africa, since it would act as a spiritual, educational, and mercantile lighthouse on the Dark Continent.\nEncouraged by the reception given the idea among his friends in New Jersey, Finley went to Washington at the end of 1816, and during the Christmas season the American Society for Colonizing the Free People of Color in the United States was formally established. Among the fifty or so leading lights who participated in its founding were Speaker of the House Henry Clay, representatives John Randolph of Virginia and Daniel Webster of New Hampshire, Secretary of the Treasury William Harris Crawford, Attorney General Richard Rush, the author of \u201cThe Star-Spangled Banner,\u201d Francis Scott Key, General Andrew Jackson, and the nephew of George Washington, Supreme Court Justice Bushrod Washington, who became the society\u2019s first president. It was an auspicious beginning.\nBushrod Washington memorialized Congress in January, 1817, asking legislative support for creating an African colony. But Congress did not respond favorably, and in hopes of becoming more convincing through the presentation of some solidly researched data on possibilities, the society sent out a two-man expedition to West Africa in the next year. The Reverend Samuel J. Mills and Professor Ebenezer Burgess visited Sierra Leone, Sherbro Island (a hundred miles southeast of the British colony), and a number of villages along the coast of Africa\u2019s \u201cshoulder,\u201d close to the Gulf of Guinea. The best that Mills and Burgess took away from their many parleys with black native leaders was a few hedged promises that land for colonists might be made available. Most of the local Negroes were hostile to the idea. But the visitors\u2019 impressions of what they saw and heard were strongly influenced by their hopes. When they headed home in May, 1818, they were highly optimistic, particularly about Sherbro Island as a location. Mills had been ill for much of their trip, and he died on the homeward voyage; but Professor Burgess communicated their joint enthusiasm to the society.\nWith the support of the colonizationists, a bill was now pushed through Congress to stiffen regulation of the African slave trade by making the federal government, rather than the states, responsible for suppressing it. The law gave President Monroe power to care for and relocate any slaves captured from the holds of slave ships by the government in its policing of the seas. It authorized him, moreover, to commit a naval squadron to the task and, most significantly from the society\u2019s point of view, to create a station on the coast of Africa for the landing of \u201ccontraband\u201d blacks rescued from their kidnappers. The colonizationists hoped that this might be the nucleus of their hoped-for colony. Monroe thought well of Negro resettlement, and he leaned toward such a liberal interpretation. But an adverse opinion from Secretary of State John Quincy Adams blocked the society\u2019s attempt to get the President to buy land for a colony under the new statute. Adams felt that neither the law nor the Constitution could be construed as permitting the nation to set up a colony anywhere. At length, Monroe and the colonizationists worked out a compromise: the society would buy the land, and the federal government would post two agents to Africa, along with a number of Negro volunteer colonists as workmen, to set up the African station. In January, 1820, eighty-six black \u201cworkmen,\u201d two thirds of whom were women and children, sailed for Sherbro Island aboard the merchant ship Elizabeth , with a sloop of war as convoy. The expedition was led by two federal agents, both nominated by the society, the Reverend Samuel Bacon and John P. Bankson. Also on board was the society\u2019s own agent, Samuel Crozer.\nOn Sherbro they found a rude camp waiting for them, built by a former American slave, John Kizell; he had been Mills\u2019s and Burgess\u2019 interpreter on the island two years earlier. Crozer went off to negotiate with the island leaders for a larger tract of land. They, as it turned out, wanted the colony as little as they had when Mills and Burgess had talked to them earlier. The thwarted colonists moved into KizelPs camp, and shortly \u201cAfrican fever\u201d began to strike them down. Crozer came back to find several of them dead. He himself fell ill and died. So did John Bankson. So did a Navy officer. And so, finally, did the last surviving agent, the Reverend Mr. Bacon. Crozer had turned over authority to one of the black colonists, the Reverend Daniel Coker of Baltimore, and Coker contended with a disunited and unhealthy colony for a while before giving it up and taking some of the survivors to a refuge on the mainland.\nNevertheless, despite this discouraging beginning, two more federal agents and two more colonization-society representatives were sent out, along with thirty-three more settlers, in 1821. Two of the four leaders died, but the team managed to work out arrangements for the use of forty square miles of land on the coast south of Sierra Leone. But the deal committed the society to an annual rent of three hundred dollars, and the society, when the issue was presented to it, refused to accept the agreement, considering the sum an unjustified tribute to the heathen king who controlled the land.\nWith all their difficulties, the colonizationists still had Monroe\u2019s support, and now they arranged for a physician, Eli Ayres, and a Navy lieutenant, Robert F. Stockton, to be posted by the government to Africa to continue the search for a suitable site. Ayres and Stockton headed for Cape Mesurado, a promontory thirty-six miles long and three miles wide, on the Grain Coast. Earlier agents had not been able to buy the cape from the local chief, King Peter, and the first attempt by Ayres and Stockton was also fruitless. After days of waiting for King Peter to palaver again, they marched inland to his village and at pistol point forced him to sell. The price for Cape Mesurado was less than three hundred dollars in clothes, guns, powder, rum, tobacco, and trinkets. This \u201cpurchase\u201d from an unwilling seller the American Colonization Society named Liberia\u2014\u201cfree land\u201d\u2014and the first settlement there, Monrovia.\nFor more than forty years the society got along with varying degrees of the sort of limited federal support that had helped found Liberia. This backing was augmented by contributions from individuals and occasionally from state legislatures. Agents of the society toured the country, spreading information about colonization, raising money, starting state and local auxiliaries. This effort was aided after 1825 by the publication of a monthly paper, the African Repository and Colonial Journal . Liberia grew. By the time of the Civil War, some eleven thousand free Negroes\u2014at least half of them newly emancipated slaves\u2014had been resettled there.\nThe managers of the society never gave up hope that the federal government would eventually commit itself to resettlement on a massive scale. But they soon found themselves in an insoluble dilemma over that question. They were determined to act as a national, unifying force, but there was no way for the society to bid for federal aid and yet to avoid being caught up in the growing sectional debate or to become itself a cause for debate. For one of the burning issues of the day was the very question of whether the federal government had any power to deal with slaves (or ex-slaves) in any fashion.\nSuch controversy made it inevitable that until the Civil War, help for colonization from the national government would be small. And meanwhile the hope of federal assistance on a grand scale acted as a damper on private contributions, and these were further reduced by the competition of many other enterprises in philanthropy.\nMoreover, the sheer size of the task to be performed was also defeating. Realistically, this was the sort of project that could not hope to succeed if left to private philanthropy. By 1830 the number of free Negroes in the United States was over 319,000; it had increased by nearly 86,000 in the preceding ten years. And in that ten-year span the American Colonization Society had raised $113,000 and resettled 1,430 free blacks.\nBut in spite of many obstacles and limited progress, the colonizationists remained confident that eventually the country would see things their way. Many respectable, influential men, of both North and South, belonged to the society or were in sympathy with the idea. Liberia had survived serious trials\u2014the ever-present malaria, small wars with the native population, the unreliability of supply shipments, the difficulties of administration at long distance, and rebellions by the colonists. Settlers now held appointive posts in the government, and a newspaper, the Liberia Herald , was being published.\nStill, the optimism of the society could not overcome a second paradox in its very nature. Just as they could not easily be healers of sectional strife while asking federal help for a program distrusted by many Southerners, so they could not avoid the fact that their program had both proslavery and antislavery implications, which conflicted with each other. Some indeed wanted emancipation and believed that if slave-holders were offered the prospect of getting rid of their bondsmen, they would be willing to sign the deeds of manumission. But others, especially in the South, wanted resettlement to be used simply to secure the peace and safety of the slave states by isolating the slaves from the contaminating influence of the free blacks. Even members of the society who were antislavery in principle had developed serious misgivings about emancipation unless it was accompanied by resettlement. As Francis Scott Key put it in 1838: I have emancipated seven of my slaves. They have done pretty well, and six of them, now alive, are supporting themselves comfortably and creditably. Yet I cannot but see that this is all they are doing now; and, when age and infirmity come upon them, they will probably suffer. \u2026 I am still a slaveholder, and could not, without the greatest inhumanity, be otherwise. \u2026 The laws of Maryland contain provisions\u2026 under which slaves, in certain circumstances, are entitled to petition the courts for their freedom. As a lawyer, I always undertook these cases with peculiar zeal, and have been thus instrumental in liberating several large families and many individuals. I cannot remember more than two instances, out of this large number, in which it did not appear that the freedom I so earnestly sought for them was their ruin. It has been so with a very large proportion of all others I have known emancipated.\nNor was this exclusively the view of a Southerner. John A. Dix of New York declared to a meeting of his state\u2019s colonization society in 1830, \u201cThe mass of crime committed by Africans is greater, in proportion to numbers, in the non-slaveholding than in the slaveholding States; and as a rule the degree of comfort enjoyed by them is inferior. This is not an argument in favor of slavery; but it is an unanswerable argument in favor of rendering emancipation and colonization co-extensive with each other.\u201d\nOfficially, the society took no line except advocating removal of free Negroes. But in the interests of \u201csound policy,\u201d as a modern defender of the society points out, the organization let its members make what they wished of that aim, depending on where they worked. With some fairness, colonization was criticized in the North as being the tool of slaveholders and in the South as a tool of the abolitionists\u2014as was bound to happen when it was depicted by its own members both as a way to eliminate and to guarantee slavery.\nBut the problems of trying to satisfy a northern and a southern membership were common to all organizations of the ante-bellum period, especially those seeking compromise. A much more serious handicap for the society was that it uncritically accepted the theory that blacks were inferior to whites. In this, of course, the members had the company of most of their contemporaries, for it was a belief deeply rooted in American life even though it ran against the grain of the official American credo. Both Jefferson and Lincoln had at least tentatively subscribed to it, and their support of resettlement proposals was motivated in part by it. The society did not conceal its prejudice. Negroes, said Ralph Gurley, secretary of the society and editor of the African Repository , were \u201ca people which are injurious and dangerous to our social interests, as they are ignorant, vicious, and unhappy.\u201d That was why it was necessary to send them to Africa.\nThe disparity of principles did not go unnoticed. \u201cThey can love and benefit [Negroes] four thousand miles off, but not at home,\u201d wrote William Lloyd Garrison to a friend in 1831. \u201cThey profess to be, and really believe that they are, actuated by the most philanthropic motives; and yet are cherishing the most unmanly and unchristian prejudices.\u201d\nGarrison had himself been a supporter of colonization\u2014had even spoken for it publicly in 1829. But he was struck by the racial bias that lay at the root of the colonization idea. It was entirely at odds with Christianity, he thought; and it was most certainly at odds with the American political philosophy that \u201call men are created equal.\u201d He prepared a long essay, Thoughts on African Colonization , which he published in 1832. Taking as his keynote the phrase \u201cout of thine own mouth will I condemn thee,\u201d he built his attack around quotations from the colonizationists. For instance, the president of Union College, the Reverend Eliphalet Nott, was one who spoke of free blacks in terms Garrison found offensive: \u201c We have endeavored [he quoted Nott], but endeavored in vain, to restore them either to self respect, or to the respect of others .\u201d It is painful to contradict so worthy an individual; but nothing is more certain than that this statement is altogether erroneous. We have derided, we have shunned, we have neglected them, in every possible manner. \u2026 Again: \u201c It is not our fault that we have failed . \u2026\u201d We are wholly and exclusively in fault. What have we done to raise them up from the earth? What have we not done to keep them down? Once more: \u201c It has resulted from a cause over which neither they, nor we, can ever have control .\u201d In other words, they have been made with skins \u201c not colored like our own, \u201d and therefore we cannot recognize them as fellow-countrymen, or treat them like rational beings! One sixth of our whole population must, FOR EVER , in this land, remain a wretched, ignorant, and degraded race,\u2014and yet nobody be culpable\u2014 none but the Creator who has made us incapable of doing unto others as we would have them do unto us! Horrible\u2014horrible! If this be not an impeachment of Infinite Goodness,\u2014I do not say intentionally but really ,\u2014I cannot define it.\nThat was the crux of the matter, the essential contradiction that defeated large-scale resettlement. Prejudice, Garrison pointed out, ought not to be countenanced in a country founded on an assurance of the inherent nobility of every man. To be true to itself the nation should be putting on armor and battling against racial bias. Furthermore, by grounding their appeal in a view of blacks that was derogatory\u2014however gentle and sympathetic it might sometimes be\u2014the colonizationists bore a heavy responsibility for keeping free Negroes in a depressed condition. As for the society\u2019s effect on slavery, it actually retarded the freeing of slaves, Garrison believed, since it concentrated on the slow process of voluntary emancipation and voluntary colonization\u2014which showed no honest promise of success anyway. As Negro abolitionist James Porten had put it in 1817, \u201cLet not a purpose be assisted which will stay the cause of the entire abolition of slavery.\u201d\nThe direct assault of Garrison\u2019s Thoughts proved disastrous to the society; for while Garrison was perhaps in a tiny minority, his views carried weight with the very humanitarians who might otherwise have unswervingly supported a high-minded organization like the society. But in addition, the society\u2019s most important opposition came from free Negroes themselves. The colonizationists operated on the assumption that of course Negroes would want to go \u201chome\u201d to Africa. But most did not. Black resistance to the colonization idea was evident as soon as the society was founded. A Philadelphia meeting in January, 1817, resolved: \u201cOur ancestors were, though not from choice, the first cultivators of the wilds of America, and we, their descendants, claim a right to share in the blessings of her luxuriant soil which their blood and sweat manured. We read with deep abhorrence the unmerited stigma, attempted to be cast on the reputation of the free people of color. \u2026 We declare that we will never be separated from the slave population of this country. \u2026\u201d\nOutright deportation of unwilling Negroes would not have been at all in keeping with the society\u2019s spirit of philanthropy; it would have represented too great a departure from its concept of Christian charity. Nonetheless, with the shadow of slavery behind it, the \u201coffer\u201d of deportation to the blacks had something of a threat about it. In any event, many of the manumitted slaves who were sent to Liberia were freed only on condition that they exile themselves there. Rarely did large numbers of free Negroes volunteer to go, and then only in times of extreme distress, as during the uproar that followed Nat Turner\u2019s rebellion, when their situation was especially uncomfortable. The repression of free Negroes by law was aimed in part at \u201cencouraging\u201d their emigration.\nThe contradictions between resettlement under pressure and human dignity, as well as the inextricable entanglement of the venture in the sectional quarrel, began to tell. Many disillusioned and discouraged colonizationists defected to the ranks of abolition. State auxiliaries went off in separate directions\u2014those of Maryland, Kentucky, Mississippi, New York, and Pennsylvania created their own settlements of Negroes in Liberia. Such losses multiplied the already serious financial difficulties of the national organization, which had been burdened all along with the cost of having to help support Liberia in addition to its normal organizational costs.\nIn 1847 Liberia was finally cut loose from the parental purse strings and given independence. The society continued to send out settlers\u2014nearly six thousand in the final thirteen years before the war. Relocation of Negroes still appealed to many Americans, but after decades of denunciation by both sides in the sectional quarrel, the American Colonization Society was in such bad odor it could not even get the federal government to recognize Liberia as a nation until 1862. And by then President Lincoln was considering various resettlement programs of his own and giving Liberia short shrift.\nThe society outlasted the war and the nineteenth century. In 1909 it had five surviving members, who bequeathed its records to the Library of Congress, and one of its recent historians relates that a \u201cskeletal organization\u201d received \u201ca small legacy\u201d as recently as 1959. Help was given to Negroes immigrating to Liberia until 1899. But long before that year, the nation had turned\u2014however haltingly\u2014to a solution more in keeping with America\u2019s best impulses. \u201c\u2026 [i]t is the purpose of God, I am fully persuaded,\u201d Garrison had declared, in a prophecy still not completely realized, \u201cto humble the pride of the American people by rendering the expulsion of our colored countrymen utterly impracticable, and the necessity for their admission to equal rights imperative. \u2026 I see them here, not in Africa, not bowed to the earth, or derided and persecuted as at present, not with a downcast air or an irresolute step, but standing erect as men destined heavenward, unembarrassed, untrammelled, with none to molest or make them afraid.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:086e6306-739b-4055-80d1-5bf084fdbd9d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.americanheritage.com/print/52815?page=show", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.978287935256958, "token_count": 6613, "score": 3.484375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Environmental Monitoring in Antarctica\nEnvironmental monitoring is essential in Antarctica to allow assessment of the impacts of human activities. Examples of the this monitoring work carried out by BAS are given below.\nSewage outfall monitoring, Rothera Station\nUntil 2003, untreated sewage was discharged into the sea from Rothera Station. Monitoring of the receiving water before and after installation of a biological treatment plant showed a dramatic reduction in the sewage plume as indicated by faecal coliforms.\nConcentrations of heavy metals in lichens and marine bivalves around Rothera Research Station.\nConcentrations of lead, zinc, cadmium and other heavy metals in lichens and marine bivalves are measured. The results are used to assess whether any observed pollution is due to station activities, and to determine the area of contamination.\nSkua Population breeding success\nThe impact of Rothera Research Station on the local South Polar Skua (Stercorarius maccormicki) population has been monitored for over 12 years. The monitoring programme has recently been expanded to include measurements such as chick weight, survival and egg dimensions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:57464506-f84d-40c7-9971-acbb34e72820>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/environment/bas/environmental_monitoring.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9393917322158813, "token_count": 232, "score": 3.3125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Battle Drill #1: Conduct Platoon Attack (7-3-D101)\nTASK. Conduct Platoon Attack (7-3-D101).\nCONDITIONS. An enemy squad has occupied defensive positions or is moving to the platoon front. The enemy has indirect fire and CAS capabilities. The platoon is attacking separately or as part of a larger unit. Plans, preparation, and movement to the objective have been accomplished. The platoon is directed to attack the enemy.\n1. The platoon main body is not surprised or fixed by the enemy.\n2. The platoon accomplishes its assigned task within the commander's intent. The platoon kills, captures, or forces the withdrawal of the enemy.\n3. The platoon maintains a sufficient fighting force to defeat the enemy's counterattack and continue operations.\n1. Action on Enemy Contact.\na. The platoon initiates contact. The platoon leader directs when and how his base of fire element will establish a base of fire. The element must be in position and briefed before it initiates contact. The base of fire squad leader (normally the weapons squad leader), upon the signal from the platoon leader, initiates contact with a high casualty-producing weapon. The squad marks the engagement area with ir illumination (MTETT dependent), while the squad leader uses his hand-held laser pointer and AN/PAQ-4 to designate enemy positions, crew-served weapons, and vehicles. Soldiers focus on the squad leader's laser as well as the team leader's tracers and AN/PAQ-4 to engage targets. If the platoon has not been detected, steps 1 and 2 consist of positioning the support element and identifying the enemy's positions.\nb. If the enemy initiates contact, the platoon takes the following actions:\n(1) The squad in contact reacts to contact (Battle Drill No. 2, React to Contact Platoon/Squad, 7-3/4-D103). It attempts to achieve suppressive fires with one fire team and maneuvers the other team to attack the enemy in the flank. The team providing suppressive fires marks its flanks by throwing ir chemlight bundles or ir flares and continues to use its AN/PVS-7B and AN/PAQ-4 to place well-aimed, accurate fires on the enemy. The squad employs M203 and hand-held ir smoke to screen the assaulting teams movement. The squad leader notifies the platoon leader of his actions.\n(2) The platoon leader, his RTO, the platoon FO, the squad leader of the next squad, and one machine gun team move forward to link up with the squad leader of the squad in contact.\n(3) The squad leader of the trail squad moves to the front of his lead fire team.\n(4) The platoon sergeant moves forward with the second machine gun team and the weapons squad leader and links up with the platoon leader. If directed, he assumes control of the base of fire element and positions the machine guns to add suppressive fire against the enemy. The platoon sergeant uses his hand-held laser to designate the left and right limits of fires while the weapons squad leader uses the pointer to designate targets.\n(5) The platoon leader assesses the situation. He follows the success of the squad's flank attack by leading the trail squads along the covered and concealed route taken by the assaulting fire team of the squad in contact. The base of fire element uses the AN/PVS-7B to monitor the movement of the assaulting element.\nc. If the squad in contact cannot achieve suppressive fire, the squad leader reports to the platoon leader.\n(1) The squad in contact establishes a base of fire.\n(a) The squad leader deploys his squad to provide effective, sustained fires on the enemy position. The squad leader continues to designate targets using the hand-held laser pointer and AN/PAQ-4 while soldiers SEE through their AN/PVS-7B and place accurate fires on the enemy with the AN/PAQ-4.\n(b) The squad leader reports his final position to the platoon leader. (2) The remaining squad (not in contact) takes up covered and concealed positions in place and uses the AN/PVS-7B to observe the flanks and rear of the platoon. (3) The platoon leader moves forward with his RTO, the platoon FO, the squad leader of the nearest squad, and one machine gun team.\n2. Locate the Enemy.\na. The squad leader of the squad in contact reports the enemy size, location, and any other information to the platoon leader. The platoon leader completes the squad leader's assessment of the situation.\nb. The squad continues to engage the enemy positions and mark the engagement area with ground ir flares, tracers, and AN/PAQ-4.\nc. The platoon sergeant moves forward with the weapons squad leader and the second machine gun team and links up with the platoon leader.\n3. Suppress the Enemy.\na. The platoon leader determines if the squad in contact can gain suppressive fire against the enemy, based on the volume and accuracy of the enemy's return fire. He SEEs through the AN/PVS-7B and makes the assessment by looking at the enemy's muzzle flashes and the strike of their rounds and tracers.\nb. If YES, he directs the squad (with one or both machine guns) to continue suppressing the enemy:\n(1) The squad in contact destroys or suppresses enemy weapons that are firing most effectively against it, normally crew-served weapons. The squad leader identifies the enemy crew-served by its muzzle flashes and rate of fire. He uses his hand-held laser pointer to designate priority targets for his squad.\n(2) In addition, the squad in contact continues to place ir screening smoke (if enemy has NODs) to prevent the enemy from seeing the maneuver element.\nc. If NO, the platoon leader deploys another squad and the machine gun team to suppress the enemy position. The second squad lead elements SEE the base of fire squad flank element's ir chemlights or flares through the AN/PVS-7B and links up either to the left or right flank of the base of fire squad as directed by the platoon leader. (The platoon leader may direct the platoon sergeant to position this squad and one or both of the machine gun teams in a better support-by-fire position.)\nd. The platoon leader again determines if the platoon can gain suppressive fire over the enemy.\ne. If YES, he continues to suppress the enemy with two squads and two machine guns.\n(1) The platoon sergeant assumes control of the base-of-fire element (squad in contact, the machine gun teams, and any other squad designated by the platoon leader). He uses his hand-held laser pointer to designate sectors of fire for the squads.\n(2) The machine gun team occupies a covered and concealed position and suppresses the enemy position. The gunners SEE through the AN/PVS-4 and identify the targets designated by the weapons squad leader's laser.\nf. The platoon FO calls for and adjusts fires, based on the platoon leader's directions. (The platoon leader does not wait for indirect fires before continuing with his actions.)\ng. If still NO, the platoon leader deploys the last squad to provide flank and rear security and guide the rest of the platoon forward as necessary, and reports the situation to the company commander. Normally, the platoon will become the base of fire element for the company and may deploy the last squad for suppressive fires. The platoon continues to suppress/fix the enemy with direct and indirect fire, and responds to orders from the company commander.\na. If the squad(s) in contact together with the machine gun can suppress the enemy, the platoon leader determines if the remaining squad(s) not in contact can maneuver. He makes the following assessment using his AN/PVS-7:\n(1) Location of enemy positions and obstacles.\n(2) Size of enemy force. (The number of enemy automatic weapons, presence of any vehicles, and employment of indirect fire are indicators of enemy strength.)\n(3) Vulnerable flank.\n(4) Covered and concealed flanking route to the enemy position.\nb. If yes, the squad leader maneuvers the squad(s) into the assault:\n(1) Once the platoon leader has ensured the base of fire squad is in position and providing suppressive fires, he leads the assaulting squad(s) to the assault position.\n(2) Once in position, the platoon leader gives the prearranged signal for the base of fire squad to lift or shift direct fires to the opposite flank of the enemy position. The signal is normally FM or an ir signaling device. The assault squad leader identifies the targets (enemy positions) that have been designated by the support by fire squad leader through his AN/PVS-7B. Simultaneously, at the platoon leader's command for the support by fire squad to lift or shift, the assault squad leader uses his hand-held laser pointer to point out the targets. Team leaders use AN/PAQ-4 to control fires. The assault squads MUST pick up and maintain effective fire throughout the assault. Handover of responsibility for direct fires from the base of fire squad to the assault squad is critical to prevent fratricide.\n(3) The platoon FO shifts indirect fires (including smoke) to suppress the enemy position.\n(4) The assaulting squad(s) fight through enemy positions using fire and maneuver.\n(5) The platoon leader controls the movement of his squads. He uses his hand-held laser pointer to assign specific objectives for each squad and designates the main effort or base maneuver element. (The base of fire squad must be able to identify the near flank of the assaulting squads.) Flanks are marked with ir chemlight bundles, ir flares, or phoenix beacons.\nNOTE: The use of the hand-held laser pointer requires moderation because it can cause confusion as well as identify friendly positions for an enemy with night-vision capabilities. The laser should not be on for a period greater than three seconds when used.\n(a) The squad leader determines the way in which he will move the elements of his squad based on the volume and accuracy of enemy fire against his squad and the amount of cover provided by terrain. In all cases, each soldier uses individual movement techniques as appropriate.\n(b) The squad leader designates one fire team to support the movement of the other fire team.\n(c) The squad leader designates a distance or direction for the team to move. He accompanies one of the fire teams.\n(d) Soldiers SEE with the AN/PVS-7B and maintain contact with team members and leaders.\n(e) Buddy teams time their firing and reloading to sustain their rate of fire.\n(f) The moving fire team proceeds to the next covered position, using the wedge formation.\n(g) The squad leader directs the next team to move using an ir signal.\n(h) When the squad leader or team leader determines that moving by teams is no longer feasible, fire teams continue forward in buddy teams. Soldiers continue to use AN/PVS-7B and AN/PAQ-4 to place accurate fires on the enemy as well as identify/point out targets previously identified by their team leaders.\n(1) Soldiers maintain contact with their buddies.\n(2) Soldiers fire from covered positions, SEE with the AN/PVS-7B and select the next covered position before moving. They either rush forward (no more than 5 seconds) or use the high crawl or low crawl techniques, based on terrain and enemy fires.\n(i) Fire team leaders maintain contact with the squad leaders and pass signals to team members.\nc. If NO, or the assaulting squads cannot continue to move, the platoon leader deploys the squad(s) to suppress the enemy and reports to the company commander.\n5. Consolidate and Reorganize.\na. For consolidating once squads have seized the enemy position, the platoon leader establishes local security. (The platoon must plan to defeat any enemy counterattack. At the conclusion of the assault, the platoon is most vulnerable.)\n(1) The platoon leader signals for the base of fire squad to move into designated positions.\n(2) The platoon leader assigns sectors of fire for each squad using his laser pointer.\n(3) The platoon leader positions key weapons to cover the most dangerous avenues of approach.\n(4) The platoon sergeant begins coordination for ammunition resupply.\n(5) Soldiers occupy hasty defensive positions.\n(6) The platoon leader and his FO develop a quick fire plan.\n(7) The squad leader places OPs to detect enemy counterattacks. When an armor or mounted threat is likely, use the AN/TAS-5A in OPs.\nb. To reorganize, the platoon performs the following tasks (only after it completes consolidation on the objective):\n(1) Re-establish chain of command.\n(2) Redistribute and resupply ammunition.\n(3) Man crew-served weapons first.\n(4) Redistribute critical equipment (radios, NBC, NVD, Laser Pointer).\n(5) Treat casualties and evacuate wounded.\n(6) Fill vacancies in key positions.\n(7) Search, silence, segregate, safeguard, and speed EPWs to collection points.\n(8) Collect and report enemy information and material.\nc. Squad leaders provide ammunition, casualty, and equipment (ACE) reports to the platoon leader.\nd. The platoon leader consolidates ACE reports and passes them to the company commander (or Executive Officer).\ne. The platoon continues the mission after receiving guidance from the company commander. The company follows the success of the platoon's flanking attack.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8900db3c-964e-4f94-8291-ec55eb661985>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.armystudyguide.com/content/EIB/EIB_Related_Battle_Drills/battle-drill-1-conduct-pl.shtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9229552745819092, "token_count": 2887, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ever return from a hike wanting to know more about the yellow-bellied Marmot, Golden Eagle, or American Dipper you saw along the trail? Typically that required consulting a reference book, or heading to the local library. But a new website called the Encyclopedia of Life\nwants to change that. Their goal is to create online reference pages for the 1.8 million species known to inhabit the Earth.\nLast week organizers unveiled the first 30,000 pages, including 25 exemplar pages\npacked with photos, videos, and detailed scientific information compiled and checked by experts. These feature-rich pages can teach you about the life history of the Peregrine falcon,eol.org/taxa/16990688\nor plot the distribution of the Yellow-fever mosquito.\nCreated with backing and expertise from Harvard University, the Smithsonian Institution, and the Field Museum of Chicago, the Encyclopedia of Life aims to create reference pages for the remaining 1,790,000 species by 2017. But if you\u2019re in a hurry to find out how long yellow-bellied marmots hibernate each winter, you can check out the Animal Diversity Web\n, an online database of species managed by the University of Michigan\u2019s Museum of Zoology. The answer: From September to May. \u2014Jason Stevenson", "id": "<urn:uuid:fafafc4b-419c-42d5-a978-b6e729e2ef71>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.backpacker.com/volcano_diving/blogs/daily_dirt/17", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8870279788970947, "token_count": 270, "score": 3.890625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Can Kaposi sarcoma be prevented?\nKaposi sarcoma (KS) is caused by the Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV). There are no vaccines at this time to protect people against KSHV. For now, preventing KS depends on reducing the chance of becoming infected with KSHV and reducing the chance that people who are infected with KSHV will develop KS.\nMost cases of KS in the United States occur in people with AIDS. Taking measures to avoid becoming infected with HIV could prevent most cases of KS in this country.\n- Since HIV can be spread through sex, avoiding unprotected sex with people infected with HIV could help prevent these infections. Many people with HIV don\u2019t know that they are infected, so many public health workers recommend using a condom during any sexual contact. (A condom may not be needed if both people are HIV-negative and are in a mutually monogamous relationship). Abstinence is the most effective protection.\n- HIV can also be spread through the use of contaminated (dirty) needles to inject recreational drugs. For people who inject drugs, the safest way to avoid HIV is to quit. However, some people are unable to quit on their own or get help in quitting, and they may not be able to stop using drugs right away. For these people, clean needles and injection supplies can help protect them. In some areas, there are programs to make sure that drug users can get clean needles and syringes.\n- HIV-infected mothers can pass the virus to their babies during pregnancy, delivery, or breastfeeding. Treating the mothers and infants with anti-HIV drugs and avoiding breastfeeding can greatly reduce the risk of these infections.\n- In the past, blood product transfusions and organ transplants were responsible for some HIV infections. As a result of improved testing for HIV, there is now a very low risk of HIV infection from blood products or organ transplants in the United States.\nFor people who are infected with HIV and KSHV, taking the right medicines can reduce the chance of developing KS.\n- Testing for HIV can identify people infected with this virus. People with HIV should get treatment to help strengthen their immune system, which usually includes highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). HAART reduces the risk that people with HIV will develop KS (and AIDS). Treating infections that commonly occur in people with weakened immunity also reduces the likelihood of developing problems with KS.\n- HIV-infected people who take drugs to treat herpesvirus infections (such as ganciclovir or foscarnet) are less likely to develop KS because these drugs also work against KSHV (which is a type of herpesvirus). Still, these drugs can have serious side effects, so they are only taken to treat certain infections, not to prevent KS.\nLast Medical Review: 02/20/2013\nLast Revised: 02/20/2013", "id": "<urn:uuid:34253ab1-f895-4716-a7ad-d27ff54e6eba>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cancer.org/cancer/kaposisarcoma/detailedguide/kaposi-sarcoma-prevention", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.956375777721405, "token_count": 605, "score": 3.703125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "If you download this publication you may also be interested in these:\nFacing an uncertain future\nHow forest and people can adapt to climate changeCenter for International Forestry Research (CIFOR)Bogor, Indonesia\nThe most prominent international responses to climate change focus on mitigation (reducing the accumulation of greenhouse gases) rather than adaptation (reducing the vulnerability of society and ecosystems). However, with climate change now inevitable, adaptation is gaining importance in the policy arena, and is an integral part of ongoing negotiations towards an international framework. This report presents the case for adaptation for tropical forests (reducing the impacts of climate change on forests and their ecosystem services) and tropical forests for adaptation (using forests to help local people and society in general to adapt to inevitable changes). Policies in the forest, climate change and other sectors need to address these issues and be integrated with each other\u2014such a cross-sectoral approach is essential if the benefits derived in one area are not to be lost or counteracted in another. Moreover, the institutions involved in policy development and implementation need themselves to be flexible and able to learn in the context of dynamic human and environmental systems. And all this needs to be done at all levels from the local community to the national government and international institutions. The report includes an appendix covering climate scenarios, concepts, and international policies and funds.", "id": "<urn:uuid:57106d23-5399-4426-a853-4136284a3a19>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cifor.org/online-library/browse/view-publication/publication/2600.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.92479008436203, "token_count": 272, "score": 2.859375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tips to Facilitate Workshops Effectively\nFacilitators play a very important role in the creation of a respectful, positive learning environment during a workshop. Here you will find some tips to facilitate workshops effectively.\n- Make sure everybody has a chance to participate. For example, through small group activities or direct questions to different participants. Help the group to avoid long discussions between two people who may isolate the rest of the/other participants. Promote the importance of sharing the space and listening to different voices and opinions.\n- Be prepared to make adjustments to the agenda \u2013 sometimes you have to cross out activities, but the most important thing is to achieve the general goals of the workshop.\n- Make every possible thing to have all the logistics ready beforehand to then be able to focus on the workshop\u2019s agenda.\n- Pay attention to the group\u2019s energy and motivation \u2013 Plan activities where everyone is able to participate and to stay active and engaged.\n- Provide space for the participants to be able to share their own experiences and knowledge. Remember that each one of us has a lot to learn and a lot to teach.\n- Relax and have fun! Be a part of the process \u2013 You are learning, too, so you don\u2019t have to know it all nor do everything perfect.\n- Be prepared for difficult questions. Get familiarized with the topic, know the content of the workshop but remember you don\u2019t have to know all the answers! You can ask other participants what they know about the topic, or you can find out the answers later and share them with the participants after the workshop.\n- Focus on giving general information \u2013 Avoid answering questions about specific cases. Usually, this can change the direction of the conversation and might be considered as providing legal advice without a license to do so.\n- Your work as facilitator is to help the group learn together, not necessarily to present all the information and be the \u201cexpert\u201d in the topic.\n- Try to be as clear as possible \u2013 especially when you are giving the exercises\u2019 instructions. Work as a team with the other facilitators during the whole workshop.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3cc8567f-f9b5-467a-83ca-12dffe3e6d1f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cpcwnc.org/resources/toolbox/tips-to-facilitate-workshops-effectively", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9388234615325928, "token_count": 441, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This Dawn FC (framing camera) image shows some of the undulating terrain in Vesta\u2019s southern hemisphere. This undulating terrain consists of linear, curving hills and depressions, which are most distinct in the right of the image. Many narrow, linear grooves run in various directions across this undulating terrain. There are some small, less than 1 kilometer (0.6 mile) diameter, craters in the bottom of the image. These contain bright material and have bright material surrounding them. There are fewer craters in this image than in images from Vesta\u2019s northern hemisphere; this is because Vesta\u2019s northern hemisphere is generally more cratered than the southern hemisphere.\nThis image is located in Vesta\u2019s Urbinia quadrangle and the center of the image is 63.0 degrees south latitude, 332.2 degrees east longitude. NASA\u2019s Dawn spacecraft obtained this image with its framing camera on Oct. 25, 2011. This image was taken through the camera\u2019s clear filter. The distance to the surface of Vesta is 700 kilometers (435 miles) and the image has a resolution of about 70 meters (230 feet) per pixel. This image was acquired during the HAMO (high-altitude mapping orbit) phase of the mission.\nThe Dawn mission to Vesta and Ceres is managed by NASA\u2019s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, for NASA\u2019s Science Mission Directorate, Washington D.C. UCLA is responsible for overall Dawn mission science. The Dawn framing cameras have been developed and built under the leadership of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany, with significant contributions by DLR German Aerospace Center, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, and in coordination with the Institute of Computer and Communication Network Engineering, Braunschweig. The Framing Camera project is funded by the Max Planck Society, DLR, and NASA/JPL.\nMore information about Dawn is online at http://dawn.jpl.nasa.gov.\nImage credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UCLA/MPS/DLR/IDA", "id": "<urn:uuid:070933fb-a8a3-406a-8b89-95e2d798f517>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dlr.de/pf/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-7725/13169_read-33346/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.909331738948822, "token_count": 459, "score": 3.265625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Colouring books and education cards for kids\nFriday, 23 September 2011\nPhD student and community nursing coordinator, Judith Blake, has designed a colouring book for kids that explains all about sun safety. It is a beautifully designed with loads of kid-friendly pictures ready for colouring. We deeply appreciate the time and effort that Judith donated on behalf of the ECU Melanoma Research.\nThe book is great for schools; only $5 / book\nWe also have information cards for sale that detail the difference between a mole and a freckle \u2013 also great for school kids and a valuable fundraiser for the ECU melanoma research group. These were designed by the ECU fundraising and marketing team.\nPlease contact Mel Ziman at email@example.com for more details.", "id": "<urn:uuid:273a2c2f-c3d1-48eb-add5-9bdb7aebfb97>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ecu.edu.au/faculties/computing-health-and-science/news-and-events/melanoma/2011/09/colouring-books-and-education-cards-for-kids", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9631423354148865, "token_count": 165, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The capital required to construct a tidal barrage has been the significant stumbling block too. It is not an attractive proposition to an investor due to long payback periods. This problem could be solved by government funding or large organisations getting involved with tidal power.\nIn terms of long term costs, once the construction of the barrage is complete, there are very low maintenance and operating costs and the turbines only need replacing once around every 30 years. The life of the plant is indefinite and for its entire life it will receive free fuel from the tide.\nFew tidal barrages have been constructed. The largest tidal power station in the world (and the only one in Europe) is in the Rance estuary in northern France. La Rance was completed in 1966 and has operated reliably ever since. So too has the barrage at The Bay of Fundy in Canada - though this had an adverse effect on Marine life.\nThere have been plans for a \"Severn Barrage\" from Brean Down in Somerset to Lavernock Point in Wales. Every now and again the idea gets proposed, but nothing has been built yet. It could have over 200 large turbines, and provide over 8,000 Megawatts of power (over 12 nuclear power station's worth).\nIt would take 7 years to build, and could provide 7% of the energy needs for England and Wales. There would be a number of benefits, including protecting a large stretch of coastline against damage from high storm tides, and providing a ready-made road bridge.\nHowever, the drastic changes to the currents in the estuary could have huge effects on the ecosystem so it is unlikely ever to be built due to the major environmental impact that it would cause.\nA major drawback of tidal power stations is that they can only generate when the tide is flowing in or out - in other words, only for 10 hours each day. However, tides are totally predictable, so we can plan to have other power stations generating at those times when the tidal station is out of action.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5c91a086-d4f8-47d4-8d7a-b6f2d086e12e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.floor-heating.co.uk/index.php?item=652", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9724892377853394, "token_count": 407, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Freshwater Mussels of the Upper Mississippi River System|\nMussel Conservation Activities\n2005 Highlights: Possible fish predation of subadult Higgins eye was observed in the Upper Mississippi River, Pools 2 and 4.\nSubadult Higgins eye pearlymussels (Lampsilis higginsii) from the Upper Mississippi River, Pools 2 and 4. Shell damage may be due to predation by fish (i.e. common carp or freshwater drum). Top photo by Mike Davis, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources; bottom photo by Gary Wege, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.\nSpecies Identification and Location \u2022 Threatened and Endangered Mussels \u2022 Life History \u2022 Ecology \u2022 Mussel Harvest on the River \u2022 Current Threats \u2022 Mussel Conservation Activities \u2022 Ongoing Studies and Projects \u2022 Multimedia \u2022 Teacher Resources \u2022 Frequently Asked Questions \u2022 Glossary \u2022 References \u2022 Links to Other Mussel Sites\nPrivacy \u2022 FOIA \u2022 FirstGov \u2022 Contact\nDepartment of the Interior \u2022 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service \u2022 U.S. Geological Survey\n|Last updated on\nDecember 21, 2006", "id": "<urn:uuid:931a73fa-5694-4b94-93fe-4dedcf039dcd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fws.gov/midwest/mussel/highlights/2005_highlight6.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.745841383934021, "token_count": 227, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In this article I will describe a basic aspect of homeopathy\u2019s spiritual understanding of health and disease: the view that disease arises from a fixed adaptation to a past situation that no longer exists in the present.\nHomeopaths view health and disease as states of being that are either appropriate for the situation (healthy) or inappropriate for the situation (unhealthy). The state of being that we adopt from moment to moment can be regarded a \u2018posture\u2019 that is either suitable or unsuitable for the present moment of existence. An unsuitable posture kept for too long manifests as chronic disease, whereas a short-lasting one causes acute symptoms or weakens the organism until it is susceptible to infectious influences.\nDisease arises from memory of a past state that no longer exists\nConventional medicine is based on a materialistic view of life. Health is compared to a well-functioning machine, while disease is viewed as a malfunction in some part of the machine.\nHomeopathy is based on a spiritual view of life. Health is the ability to respond freely and creatively to all situations encountered throughout life, whereas disease is any restriction on this ability.\nSamual Hahnemann, the originator of homeopathy, discovered through lifelong clinical observation that disease could often be traced to a \u2018mistunement\u2019 created during a past stressful episode in the life of the organism or its ancestors. He concluded that the memory of this past state was the real cause the suffering that we experienced through physical and psychological symptoms.\nHealth is the flexibility to successfully adapt to all life situations\nRajan Sankaran (author of The Spirit of Homoeopathy) describes disease as an \u201cunsuitable posture\u2026 adopted by the organism in order to survive in a perceived situation.\u201d\nWhat is a \u201cperceived situation\u201d? To answer this, let\u2019s first look at an example he gives of a real situation:\nIf you are lifting a heavy bag and you have to walk with that heavy weight, in order that your back does not break, you have to bend in the direction opposite to the bag. So, your body adopts a posture to survive in this situation. This posture is healthy, it is going to do you good, in this situation it is needed, and as long as the bag is heavy, the posture has to be maintained.\nHence, we see that posture is an adjustment. As long as this adjustment is in proportion to the existing situation, as long as it is suitable to this situation, and as long as the situation or exciting factor remains, this adjustment cannot and should not be corrected.\nLife can be viewed as a series of adaptations: one situation flows into another, and each time a different posture is adopted to suit the new situation. Health is the flexibility to correctly adapt to any situation that arises throughout our life journey.\nAn unhealthy posture arises from adaptation to a perceived situation that is not really present. This adaptation can be either inappropriate for the situation or appropriate for the situation but of disproportionate intensity. Sankaran illustrates these possibilities as follows:\nWhen a man is being chased by a lion, the posture of running fast, being afraid, etc. is appropriate since his survival depends upon it. However, if a man is in the same state without a lion chasing him, or he adopts the same posture even if a little dog chases him, or he is in such a pain that he cannot think (a reaction far in excess of what is needed in the situation) then this state is to be removed by treatment.\nThe unsuitable posture is hidden behind physical and psychological symptoms\nSo long as an unhealthy posture is held over from the past, the person is precluded from adopting an appropriate posture for the present situation. This is considered a state of disease in homeopathy, whether or not there are clear physical or psychological symptoms that warrant medical treatment. This means, on the one hand, that homeopathy is a powerful healing tool in cases where the patient feels distress yet there are no discernible medical abnormalities.\nOn the other hand, during the clinical encounter between patient and homeopath the disease state does not automatically reveal itself as an unhealthy posture. In most clinical situations the patient will present with vague discomfort or with one or more physical and psychological complaints. During the homeopathic intake the homeopath must therefore ask many questions in order to lead the patient to reveal the unsuitable posture that he or she continuously adopts in all life situations.\nThis posture, which most of us do not have a direct awareness of, is the underlying reason for the existence of the clinical complaint that induces people to seek homeopathic treatment in the first place.\nHow do unsuitable postures arise?\nAn unsuitable posture originates from an adaptation to a past situation that is maintained even though it is no longer applicable to the situation. This happens when the past situation has exceeded the organism\u2019s resilience. Such situations generally fall into one of the following categories:\n- a past traumatic event,\n- childhood or cultural habits that have powerfully impressed themselves on the organism, or\n- inherited spiritual impressions \u2014 known in homeopathy as \u201cmiasms\u201d \u2014 that long ago left their mark on one\u2019s parents or earlier ancestors.\nResilience can be understood by analogy with a steel spring: just as a steel spring can be bent and absorb many small shocks and still recover its original form, a person can absorb many stresses yet maintain his underlying state of health throughout the stressful period. But beyond a certain threshold, excessive stress deforms the spring and causes it to lose its elasticity. A person exposed to excessive stress will likewise carry the spiritual impression or \u2018deformation\u2019 due to the past stress and will no longer be fully \u2018elastic\u2019 and responsive to the present situation.\nHomeopathic treatment frees us from unsuitable postures\nWe all continually adopt postures in order to survive in different life situations or in an attempt to create a reality that we imagine to be desirable. But if we remain fixed in a posture that is no longer appropriate for the situation (for any of the reasons cited earlier) to the point that we are unable to respond appropriately to situations that arise in the present, we may then become aware of an uncomfortable sensation at the level of our spirit. If we do not free ourselves of the fixed posture eventually we experience more obvious psychological discomfort, physical symptoms, or both.\nIn Sankaran\u2019s words:\nDisease is thus seen as an affection of the whole person, as a posture adopted as a survival mechanism to suit a particular situation which does not exist at the moment. This posture makes us react to the present in an unsuitable way due to our false perception of it. Such an unsuitable and disproportionate reaction to the situation naturally causes a constant stress on the organism, and the stress aggravates the pathology or brings the tendency to a particular pathology into activity.\nHealth is the ability to feel OK in all situations. A posture is an adaptation for feeling OK under a specific situation. Unless one is able to switch postures freely from moment to moment, a person will only feel OK when the fixed posture happens to coincide with (be suitable for) the situation.\nIn terms of the model I\u2019ve just presented, homeopathic treatment releases the hold of the unsuitable posture that prevents free-flowing adaptation to the present moment. By raising awareness of the inappropriateness of the fixed posture to the point that a person can choose to abandon it in favour of another posture, homeopathic remedies assist in the release of inappropriate life habits that manifest physically or psychologically. Once this happens, full resilience is restored and the person is able to handle life as it comes \u2014 adopting appropriate postures as needed and shifting away from them as soon as the situation is over \u2014 without undue stress.\nRead related articles:\n- The 7 Essential Factors in Forecasting the Length of Homeopathic Treatment of Chronic Diseases\n- Medical Suppression of Symptoms and Its Homeopathic Cure\n- Diving Into \u201cThe Spirit of Homoeopathy\u201d\n- This is Why Homeopaths Emphasize Clinical Results over Theory\n- The Influence of Vitalism on Naturopathic Medicine\n- The Distinction Between Classical Homeopathy and Naturopathic Medicine\n- The How and What of Homeopathic Remedies\n- The Followup Appointments\n- Basics of the Homeopathic Prescription\n- Basics of Homeopathic Case Analysis", "id": "<urn:uuid:10e79966-e8e7-4886-ba9b-bef86c8e2d72>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.homeopathyzone.com/blog/article/health-disease-and-adaptation-to-the-present-moment", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9486882090568542, "token_count": 1738, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Invisible Gardener's\nNatural Pest Control Center\nClick here to hear Andy talk\nabout Organic and Natural Home Pest Controls on his radio shows.\nIf you decide not to use a raised bed\nthen you must prepare the area first.\nDraw a plan for what you want to grow in your raised\nbed. Keep the tallest on one side with the smallest to the opposite side. If you have more\nthen one raised decide which plants will grow where. Change this design\nevery year so as not to grow the same plants in the same place year after\nChoosing a location for your raised bed is very important. The\nlocation needs to be close to the kitchen to provide easy access for the\ncook. The location must provide at least 6 to 8 hrs direct sun,\nwith the more the better. Must have proper drainage. So take a\nwalk around your place and see if you can pick the perfect spot.\nAnother consideration is water, it must have a close source.\nNever use city water in your raised bed. Many\ncities have chlorine (or ?) in their city water. Chlorine kills\nbacteria, that is what it does best. However an organic garden requires\nnatural bacteria in order to function correctly. A garden filter will help\nkeep your garden alive! You will notice an increase in in\nworms and in the gardens overall health. You can make your own\ngarden filter by converting your shower filter. Info on a gardening filter\nis coming, ask me about it.\nPutting together the Raised Bed\nA good raised bed should be at least 4ft x 10 ft x 12 inches high x at\nleast 2 inches thick. Use non treated wood. The wood can\nbe screwed together for easy break down when needed. If you have\ngophers in your area, you will want to screen the bottom\nwith extra heavy chicken wire. The size of the bed depends on the\narea and amount of space you have to use. An ideal situation is to have two or\nmore raised beds. One 4ft x 12ft x 12 inches x 2 inches can produce enough food for\na family of four. More beds allow you to rotate the beds and allow one bed to grow\ngreen cover which can be turned over.\nFilling in the Raised Bed\nThe following should fit just right into the raised bed. You will have to use what you\nfind in your area. Start out with a good layer of old horse manure. To this I add either\nLLama pellets or Rabbit pellets (nature's time released fertilizer). Add 20 lbs of rock\ndust or any other trace mineral source. Add 20 lbs bone meal, 20 lbs alfalfa meal and 2\nbales aged wood. Mix well. Water well (water slowly to allow soil to absorb). To this\nmixture add 500 lbs compost (if you have it) other wise add enough old horse manure to fill\nup to 4 inches from the top. Add another 2 bales aged wood or KRA wood product or any\nlight soil. Add another 20 lbs rock dust, 20 lbs bone meal, 20 lbs alfalfa meal. The aged\nwood will insure the PH will be at the right place. A good PH for the garden is 6.5 to\n6.8. Blend everything in together, watering as you go. Finally add enough mulch to fill the\nraised bed up to the top. Remember that this soil will settle after a few days, so keep a\nfew bags of mulch handy to fill to top when needed.\nThe Invisible Gardener\nTell Em Andy Sent Ya!\nMarch 9, 2013\ndont panic its organic gardening", "id": "<urn:uuid:508d20c1-2404-4c25-96c7-7b4e24efa29b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.invisiblegardener.com/pests/laygardn.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9039930105209351, "token_count": 760, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Given that SAD is so tied to the seasons and to sunlight in particular, you might predict that people who live in places with cold, dark winters would be more likely than people living in sunny climes to experience SAD. You'd be right.\nFor example, the rate of SAD in New Hampshire has been estimated at 10%, whereas less than 2% of people living in Florida suffer with the condition. In fact, I've known many patients over the years who only developed SAD when they left places like Florida to live further north.\nIn this way, SAD is the quintessential environmental disorder -- no winter, no SAD. But that is not the whole story.\nLike all psychiatric conditions, SAD occurs at the intersection of genes and environment, of nature and nurture. This point has been brought home by several remarkable studies showing that people in Iceland have remarkably low rates of SAD, despite living in one of the darkest winter environments on earth.\nEven more remarkably, people of Icelandic descent living in the prairie provinces of Canada have far lower rates of SAD than their fellow non-Icelandic Canadians, which greatly strengthens the argument that Icelandic people carry an as-yet-undiscovered genetic factor that protects against SAD.\nWe don't know what causes SAD, although abnormalities in multiple brain regions have been repeatedly observed in studies. The neurotransmitter serotonin seems to be implicated, as does melatonin, one of the hormones most involved in the onset and offset of sleep. Perhaps most intriguingly, several studies suggest that the eyes themselves might contribute to the risk of developing SAD, given that the eyes of people with SAD respond differently to light.\nThere also seems to be a strong association between being affected by the seasons and having heightened creative abilities.\nI was a practicing psychiatrist before I fully admitted to myself that I suffered from mild SAD. In fact, I didn't really believe it until I bought my first light box and turned it on one fall.\nThe results were amazing. Thirty minutes in front of a bright light (10,000 lux to be exact) and my brain and body felt like they'd been transported back to summer. My mind knew it wasn't true, but that didn't matter; the melancholy was gone.\nOf course, my experience is hardly unique, and if you suffer from winter depression you really owe it to yourself to buy a light box and give it a try. You might also look into dawn simulators, which have also been shown to treat SAD.", "id": "<urn:uuid:94b99dd4-02db-488f-91d9-2eabf5fda078>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ketv.com/news/health/When-it-s-more-than-winter-blues/-/9674364/17574840/-/item/1/-/tjck56z/-/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9766677618026733, "token_count": 516, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Definition of Cires\n1. cire [n] - See also: cire\nClick the following link to bring up a new window with an automated collection of images related to the term: Cires Images\nLexicographical Neighbors of Cires\nLiterary usage of Cires\nBelow you will find example usage of this term as found in modern and/or classical literature:\n1. Letters on South America: Comprising Travels on the Banks of the Paran\u00e1 and (1843)\n\"... Martinez y cires\u2014Don Agustin Saenz and his polacca\u2014 Smuggling\u2014The way of endowing brides. THE population of Corrientes, in character and class, ...\"\n2. The Policy Paradox in Africa: Strengthening Links Between Economic Research by Elias Ayuk, Mohamed Ali Marouani (2007)\n\"To date, about 120 rural economy PhD-holders have been trained through this program and cires gained international recognition in research and training. ...\"\nOther Resources Relating to: Cires", "id": "<urn:uuid:86473a61-e69a-4876-b577-e55748690aa1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/cires", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8796707391738892, "token_count": 213, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Earth from Space: The Tibesti Mountains\nAbout this Image\nThe Tibesti Mountains, located mostly in Chad with the northern slopes extending into Libya, are captured in this image, acquired on March 4, 2012 by Envisat\u2019s MERIS instrument. The mountains\u2019 highest peak is Emi Koussi \u2013 pictured here as a circular structure in the lower-right portion of the dark area. The westernmost volcano is Toussid\u00e9. Our satellite view shows the dark peak with lava flows extending to the left. The white depression to the southeast gets its colour from the accumulation of carbonate salts, creating a soda lake. Surrounding the Tibesti Mountains, the sands of the Sahara appear like orange, yellow and white brushstrokes.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ffe4966e-48fa-43ff-afe9-575e8cb6c3db>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.livescience.com/25791-earth-from-space-the-tibesti-mountains.html?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Livesciencecom+%28LiveScience.com+Science+Headline+Feed%29", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9085602164268494, "token_count": 157, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Overcoming perceived GIS resource limitations\nThis module (Teaching with GIS) is designed to highlight GIS concepts that may be added to many geoscience topics and exercises. In particular, we focus on using GIS at the level of introductory geoscience; however, many of the exercises and concepts may be applied in upper level courses as well. We will attempt to answer the following questions:\nDo I need to be a GIS wizard to introduce GIS concepts in my courses?\nAnswer: No! There are numerous web-based mapping utilities, some of which are specifically designed for geoscience applications. In addition, consumer-grade GPS devices and mapping software are both cheaper and easier to learn than the professional GIS/GPS tools.\nMany students new to geoscience are unfamiliar with mapping concepts that we take for granted as professional scientists. Even simple geographic and cartographic concepts can help them understand more complex GIS tasks at a later stage. The introduction of hands-on map creation/interpretation exercises and the associated terminology can greatly enhance the learning experience of the students.\nAren't the hardware and software requirements of GIS prohibitive at the introductory level?\nAnswer: No! There are many options that may be pursued despite resource limitations or student difficulties with computer tasks. Below are some ideas on what can be accomplished with different levels of resource availability or student background. Keep in mind that this site is focused on how we can introduce GIS within existing introductory geoscience courses:\nHardware-limited options\u2014There is little or no access to computers/internet or GPS receivers by students and/or instructor within the classroom. The students often have access to computers and the internet in public labs or have personal computers. Faculty usually have access to the internet on their computers and may have access to some GIS software.\n- Instructor generates maps for exercises/labs utilizing online resources\n- Utilize traditional paper maps (e.g. geologic maps) to introduce concepts of data-driven maps\n- Assign homework exercises that access online resources from student-owned or campus computer labs\nSoftware-limited options\u2014Some access to computers/internet and GPS receivers, but little or no GIS software for student/instructor use in or out of the classroom.\n- Instructor generates maps for exercises/labs from online sources or GIS software. Note that there is GIS shareware available (e.g. GRASS (more info) ).\n- GPS use in lab exercises, particulary field labs\n- Shareware utilities to download GPS data to computer\n- MS Excel or other software used to analyze and plot data in x-y coordinates (convert from lat/lon in GPS software)\n- Manual digitization of data locations\n- Paper maps or using graphics editing software\nNo hardware/software limitations\u2014easy access to computers/internet, GPS receivers, and GIS software in and out of the classroom.\n- All of the more limited options listed above are possible\n- Student use of GIS hardware/software/data in classroom or lab\n- Possibilities limited only by time for GIS within the syllabus", "id": "<urn:uuid:ede441d0-6d33-41d1-965c-15c9d72a5544>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nagt.org/sp/library/gis/GIS_Barriers.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9092003107070923, "token_count": 647, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Pulmonary hypertension (PH) refers to a condition in which high blood pressure exists within the vessels of the lungs. Normally, venous (low oxygen) blood returns from the body to the right side of the heart where it is pumped to lungs via the pulmonary arteries. Breathing brings oxygen to venous blood in the lungs, turning it into arterial (high oxygen) blood. Arterial blood returns to the left side of the heart through the pulmonary veins where it is subsequently pumped to the rest of the body.\nHealthy pulmonary arteries of the lungs are elastic, expanding and contracting with each beat of the heart. In PH, arteries stiffen and thicken, leading to increased resistance to blood passing through the vessel thereby increasing pressure. Higher pulmonary pressure can lead to shortness of breath, low oxygen levels, chest pain, near-fainting/fainting, heart rhythm problems, and in its more advanced form, heart failure.\nPulmonary hypertension was previously classified as primary (without obvious cause, or idiopathic) or secondary (occurring as a result of another disease). Although this terminology is still referenced in medical text, the revised World Health Organization classification system does away with these definitions and instead divides PH into 5 different categories based upon mechanism of disease.\nPH can occur in isolation or, more commonly, with diseases of the lungs and heart. PH in the absence of other diseases is very rare and generally idiopathic or familial in nature. This kind of PH is referred as pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).\nPH is commonly associated with a variety of lung conditions characterized by low oxygen levels. These include emphysema, asthma, interstitial lung disease, chronic pulmonary blood clots or sleep apnea. When pulmonary hypertension arises from cardiac conditions such as heart failure, heart valve disease, or congenital heart disease, it is referred to a pulmonary venous hypertension.\nOther important disease states associated with PH include connective tissue diseases (scleroderma, lupus, rheumatoid arthritis), sarcoidosis, hyperthyroidism, liver disease, sickle cell disease and bone marrow disorders. Amphetamine use such as meth or the diet drug Fen-Phen has been linked to the development of PH. Oftentimes multiple causes of PH are present.", "id": "<urn:uuid:87f60be9-0d68-43ac-9c2b-b5bfc0daa439>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nationaljewish.org/healthinfo/conditions/pulmhypertension/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9262490272521973, "token_count": 474, "score": 3.703125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Conditional culture\n- F W Preece, Adelaide, 1938\nConditional culture is the manifesto of the Jindywoorobak position. Here, Ingamells saught to 'free Australian art from whatever alien inlfuences trammel it'. This involved a 'recognition of environmental values', a de-Europeanising of artistic language and an incorporation of Aboriginal cultural forms into the European-Australian understanding of land.\n'Commentary' by Ian Tilbrook follows Ingamell's essay.", "id": "<urn:uuid:703f9de2-776e-42b2-9326-c7f676b729bb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.reasoninrevolt.net.au/bib/PR0000176.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8210307359695435, "token_count": 108, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Adapting pediatric psychology interventions: lessons learned in treating families from the middle East.\nABSTRACT Pediatric psychologists are increasingly called upon to treat children from non-Western countries, whose cultures may contrast with a Western medical setting. Research on cultural adaptations of evidence-based treatments (EBTs), particularly for individuals from the Middle East, is sparse. To address this need, we discuss clinical issues encountered when working with patients from the Middle East.\nSynthesis of the literature regarding culturally adapted EBTs and common themes in Middle Eastern culture. Case vignettes illustrate possible EBT adaptations.\nIntegrating cultural values in treatment is an opportunity to join with patients and families to optimize care. Expectations for medical and psychological treatment vary, and collaborations with cultural liaisons are beneficial.\nCritical next steps include systematic development, testing, and training in culturally adapting EBTs in pediatric medical settings. Increased dialogue between clinicians, researchers, and cultural liaisons is needed to share knowledge and experiences to enhance patient care.", "id": "<urn:uuid:40f413fa-460f-4246-a4ec-7b7b03f8a57b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.researchgate.net/publication/51710152_Adapting_Pediatric_Psychology_Interventions_Lessons_Learned_in_Treating_Families_From_the_Middle_East", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9163848757743835, "token_count": 205, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Karuk Tribe: Learning from the First Californians for the Next California\nEditor's Note: This is part of series, Facing the Climate Gap, which looks at grassroots efforts in California low-income communities of color to address climate change and promote climate justice.\nThis article was published in collaboration with GlobalPossibilities.org.\nThe three sovereign entities in the United States are the federal government, the states and indigenous tribes, but according to Bill Tripp, a member of the Karuk Tribe in Northern California, many people are unaware of both the sovereign nature of tribes and the wisdom they possess when it comes to issues of climate change and natural resource management.\n\u201cA lot of people don\u2019t realize that tribes even exist in California, but we are stakeholders too, with the rights of indigenous peoples,\u201d says Tripp.\nTripp is an Eco-Cultural Restoration specialist at the Karuk Tribe Department of Natural Resources. In 2010, the tribe drafted an Eco-Cultural Resources Management Plan, which aims to manage and restore \u201cbalanced ecological processes utilizing Traditional Ecological Knowledge supported by Western Science.\u201d The plan addresses environmental issues that affect the health and culture of the Karuk tribe and outlines ways in which tribal practices can contribute to mitigating the effects of climate change.\nBefore climate change became a hot topic in the media, many indigenous and agrarian communities, because of their dependence upon and close relationship to the land, began to notice troubling shifts in the environment such as intense drought, frequent wildfires, scarcer fish flows and erratic rainfall.\nThere are over 100 government recognized tribes in California, which represent more than 700,000 people. The Karuk is the second largest Native American tribe in California and has over 3,200 members. Their tribal lands include over 1.48 million acres within and around the Klamath and Six Rivers National Forests in Northwest California.\nTribes like the Karuk are among the hardest hit by the effects of climate change, despite their traditionally low-carbon lifestyles. The Karuk, in particular have experienced dramatic environmental changes in their forestlands and fisheries as a result of both climate change and misguided Federal and regional policies.\nThe Karuk have long depended upon the forest to support their livelihood, cultural practices and nourishment. While wildfires have always been a natural aspect of the landscape, recent studies have shown that fires in northwestern California forests have risen dramatically in frequency and size due to climate related and human influences. According to the California Natural Resources Agency, fires in California are expected to increase 100 percent due to increased temperatures and longer dry seasons associated with climate change.\nSome of the other most damaging human influences to the Karuk include logging activities, which have depleted old growth forests, and fire suppression policies created by the U.S. Forest Service in the 1930s that have limited cultural burning practices. Tripp says these policies have been detrimental to tribal traditions and the forest environment.\n\u201cIt has been huge to just try to adapt to the past 100 years of policies that have led us to where we are today. We have already been forced to modify our traditional practices to fit the contemporary political context,\u201d says Tripp.\nFurther, the construction of dams along the Klamath River by PacifiCorp (a utility company) has impeded access to salmon and other fish that are central to the Karuk diet. Fishing regulations have also had a negative impact.\nThough the Karuk\u2019s dependence on the land has left them vulnerable to the projected effects of climate change, it has also given them and other indigenous groups incredible knowledge to impart to western climate science. Historically, though, tribes have been largely left out of policy processes and decisions. The Karuk decided to challenge this historical pattern of marginalization by formulating their own Eco-Cultural Resources Management Plan.\nThe Plan provides over twenty \u201cCultural Environmental Management Practices\u201d that are based on traditional ecological knowledge and the \u201cWorld Renewal\u201d philosophy, which emphasizes the interconnectedness of humans and the environment. Tripp says the Plan was created in the hopes that knowledge passed down from previous generations will help strengthen Karuk culture and teach the broader community to live in a more ecologically sound way.\n\u201cIt is designed to be a living document\u2026We are building a process of comparative learning, based on the principals and practices of traditional ecological knowledge to revitalize culturally relevant information as passed through oral transmission and intergenerational observations,\u201d says Tripp.\nOne of the highlights of the plan is to re-establish traditional burning practices in order to decrease fuel loads and the risk for more severe wildfires when they do happen. Traditional burning was used by the Karuk to burn off specific types of vegetation and promote continued diversity in the landscape. Tripp notes that these practices are an example of how humans can play a positive role in maintaining a sound ecological cycle in the forests.\n\u201cThe practice of utilizing fire to manage resources in a traditional way not only improves the use quality of forest resources, it also builds and maintains resiliency in the ecological process of entire landscapes\u201d explains Tripp.\nAnother crucial aspect of the Plan is the life cycle of fish, like salmon, that are central to Karuk food traditions and ecosystem health. Traditionally, the Karuk regulated fishing schedules to allow the first salmon to pass, ensuring that those most likely to survive made it to prime spawning grounds. There were also designated fishing periods and locations to promote successful reproduction. Tripp says regulatory agencies have established practices that are harmful this cycle.\n\u201cToday, regulatory agencies permit the harvest of fish that would otherwise be protected under traditional harvest management principles and close the harvest season when the fish least likely to reach the very upper river reaches are passing through,\u201d says Tripp.\nThe Karuk tribe is now working closely with researchers from universities such as University of California, Berkeley and the University of California, Davis as well as public agencies so that this traditional knowledge can one day be accepted by mainstream and academic circles dealing with climate change mitigation and adaptation practices.\nAccording to the Plan, these land management practices are more cost effective than those currently practiced by public agencies; and, if implemented, they will greatly reduce taxpayer cost burdens and create employment. The Karuk hope to create a workforce development program that will hire tribal members to implement the plan\u2019s goals, such as multi-site cultural burning practices.\nThe Plan has a long way to full realization and Federal recognition. According to the National Indian Forest Resources Management Act and the National Environmental Protection Act, it must go through a formal review process. Besides that, the Karuk Tribe is still solidifying funding to pursue its goals.\nThe work of California\u2019s environmental stewards will always be in demand, and the Karuk are taking the lead in showing how community wisdom can be used to generate an integrated approach to climate change. Such integrated and community engaged policy approaches are rare throughout the state but are emerging in other areas. In Oakland, for example, the Oakland Climate Action Coalition engaged community members and a diverse group of social justice, labor, environmental, and business organizations to develop an Energy and Climate Action Plan that outlines specific ways for the City to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and create a sustainable economy.\nIn the end, Tripp hopes the Karuk Plan will not only inspire others and address the global environmental plight, but also help to maintain the very core of his people. In his words: \u201cBeing adaptable to climate change is part of that, but primarily it is about enabling us to maintain our identity and the people in this place in perpetuity.\u201d\nDr. Manuel Pastor is Professor of Sociology and American Studies & Ethnicity at the University of Southern California where he also directs the Program for Environmental and Regional Equity and co-directs USC\u2019s Center for the Study of Immigrant Integration. His most recent books include Just Growth: Inclusion and Prosperity in America\u2019s Metropolitan Regions (Routledge 2012; co-authored with Chris Benner) Uncommon Common Ground: Race and America\u2019s Future (W.W. Norton 2010; co-authored with Angela Glover Blackwell and Stewart Kwoh), and This Could Be the Start of Something Big: How Social Movements for Regional Equity are Transforming Metropolitan America (Cornell 2009; co-authored with Chris Benner and Martha Matsuoka).", "id": "<urn:uuid:003baaf4-69c7-4ee7-b37f-468bf9b55842>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.resilience.org/stories/2012-10-19/karuk-tribe-learning-from-the-first-californians-for-the-next-california", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9458488821983337, "token_count": 1714, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "John Langley Howard was a revolutionary regionalist painter known for depicting labor and industry in California as well as his reverence for the natural world. Howard took a strong stance on social and environmental issues and used his art to communicate his strong emotional response toward each of his subjects.\nTable of Contents\nJohn Langley Howard was born in 1902 into a respected family of artists and architects. His father, John Galen Howard relocated the family to California in 1904 to become campus architect of the University of California, Berkeley. It was only after attending the very same campus his father helped to create, that Howard suddenly decided he wanted to pursue a career as an artist and not an engineer as previously planned. Following this decision, Howard enrolled in the California Guild of Arts and Crafts in Oakland and then transferred to the Arts Students\u2019 League in New York City.\nAt the school, he met Kenneth Hayes Miller who supported Howard\u2019s attitude because the \u201ctaught the bare rudiments of painting and composition, and stressed the cultivation of the ultra-sensitive, intuitive approach\u201d (Hailey 56). After saving his money, Howard travelled to Paris for six months to seek out his own artistic philosophy. However, it quickly became apparent to Howard that he placed more value on pure talent than professional training. In 1924, Howard left art school to pursue his career and marry his first wife, Adeline Day. He had his first one-person exhibition at the Modern Gallery in San Francisco in 1927. Shortly after, he attempted portraiture.\nFollowing the start of the Depression, Howard found himself appalled by the social conditions and began to follow \u201chis own brand of Marxism.\u201d Howard and his wife began to attend meetings of the Monterey John Reed Club, discussing politics and social concerns. Soon, the artist became determined to communicate society\u2019s needs for the betterment of the future. His landscapes began to include industry and its effects to the surrounding region. In 1934, Howard was hired through the New Deal Public Works Art Project to create a mural for the inside of Coit Tower on Telegraph Hill in San Francisco depicting California industry. The project called for twenty-seven artists to be hired to paint frescos inside the newly erected monument funded by philanthropist Lillie Hitchcock Coit. Each artist was to depict a scene central to California living, including industry, agriculture, law, and street scenes of San Francisco.\nHoward\u2019s completed fresco drew notorious attention for showing an unemployed worker reading Marxist materials, a gathered group of unemployed workers, and a man panning for gold while watching a wealthy couple outside of their limousine. In a nearby mural by Bernard Zakheim (1896-1985), Howard himself was used as a model. He is shown crumpling a newspaper and grabbing a Marxist book from a library shelf. This soon led to the artists being linked to a local group of striking dock workers. They were accused of attempting to lead a Communist revolution. Howard\u2019s murals as well as the work of Clifford Wight (1900-1960) and Zakheim became highly scrutinized, and the uproar over the works led to a delay in opening Coit Tower. In order to protect their work from being defaced or completely destroyed, the muralists chose to sleep outside the tower. The SF Art Commission ultimately cancelled the opening of Coit Tower as a result of the controversy and did not open it until months later.\nDuring this time, Howard relocated his family to Santa Fe, New Mexico citing his son\u2019s health concerns for almost two years before returning to Monterey in 1940. Following the onset of World War II, he had a renewed interest in landscape and soon ceased to include social commentary within his work, thus removing the human figure from his paintings. The artist divorced his first wife in 1949. In 1951, Howard\u2019s art took another turn when the artist painted The Rape of the Earth which rallied against the destruction of nature by technology, making Howard one of the first \u201ceco-artists.\u201d During the same year he also married sculptor Blanche Phillips (1908-1976). He began illustrating for Scientific American Magazine and used this medium to refine his technique.\nHoward\u2019s landscapes began turning to \u201cmagic realism\u201d or \u201cpoetic realism\u201d as Howard preferred to call it. This method is described as the use of naturalistic images and forms \u201cto suggest relationships that cannot always be directly described in words\u201d (Aldrich 184). His aim was to communicate a poetic and spiritual connection with the landscape depicted. Overall, Howard lived in more than 20 different locations during his career.\nIn 1997, Howard attended the dedication of Pioneer Park at Coit Tower and was the only surviving member of the twenty-seven muralists included in the original project. The murals were restored by the City of San Francisco in 1990 after water damage and age dictated the need for restoration. Howard died at the age of 97 in his sleep at his Potrero Hill home in 1999.\nII. AN ANALYSIS OF THE ARTIST'S WORK\n\u201cI think of painting as poetry and I think of myself as a representational poet. I want to describe my subject minutely, but I also way to describe my emotional response to it\u2026what I\u2019m doing is making a self-portrait in a peculiar kind of way.\u201d \u2013 John Langley Howard\nJohn Langley Howard was widely considered a wanderer and a free spirit. While Howard did receive academic training from the California Guild of Arts and Crafts in Oakland and the Arts Students\u2019 League in New York City, he chose to align himself with instructors whose opinions of art education matched his predetermined beliefs. These teachers included Kenneth Hayes Miller (1876-1952) who valued an analytical, bare bones approach to art instruction and supported greater personal development of intuitive talent. Howard expressed this viewpoint stating that:\n\u201cI want everything to be meaningful in a descriptive way. I want expression and at the same time I want to control it down to a gnat\u2019s eyebrow. I identify with my subject. I empathize with my subject\u201d (Moss 62).\nIn the 1920s, Howard became known as a Cezanne-influenced landscape artist and portraitist. Tempera, oil, and etching became his primary media while his subject matter turned to poetic and often spiritually infused imagery which would resurface later in his career. Earth tones and very small brushstrokes were utilized, allowing Howard to refine his images.\nHoward exhibited frequently with his brothers Charles Howard (1899-1978) and Robert Howard (1896-1983). Critic Jehanne Bietry wrote of their joint Galerie Beaux Arts show that: \u201cof (the Howard brothers), John Langley is the poet, the mystic and the most complex\u2026there predominates in his work a certain quality, an element of sentiment that escapes definition but is the unmistakable trait by which one recognizes deeper art\u201d (Hailey 60). It is significant that a critic would accurately take note of Howard artistic aims at such an early stage because what Bietry describes ultimately became the primary focus of Howard\u2019s career.\nHoward experienced a dramatic change in medium when he was commissioned to paint a mural for the Coit Tower WPA project in 1934. The project was Howard\u2019s first and only mural and provided the artist with an outlet for his newly discovered Marxist social beliefs. While Howard supported a political agenda rather explicitly in his image, his focus on deeper subject matter permeates throughout the work. Most important to Howard is \u201cthe idea of human conflict that [he] pictorializes and deplores \u2013 man\u2019s tragic flaw manifest again in this particular situation\u201d (Nash 79). Howard\u2019s work had progressed steadily into the realm of social realism until the backlash against the Coit Tower murals led him in a new direction.\nHoward abandoned explicit statements of social commentary and returned to his roots as a landscape painter. However, this did not prevent the artist from illustrating important issues because he then became one of the first \u201ceco-artists.\u201d Through his painting, Howard investigated the role of technology on the environment and used the San Francisco Bay Area as well as Monterey to demonstrate his point of view. He continued following his original artistic tendencies by delving into \u201cmagic realism\u201d or \u201cpoetic realism\u201d which utilized the spiritual connection that Howard sought to find within his work. Art critic Henrietta Shore recognized the balance that Howard achieved within his work, stating that he \u201cis modern in that he is progressive, yet his work proves that he does not discard the traditions from which all fine art has grown\u201d (Hailey 65). Overall, Howard\u2019s career presents a unique portrait of individual expression and spiritual exploration.\n1902 Born in Montclair, New Jersey\n1920 Enrolls as an Engineering major at UC Berkeley\n1922 Realizes he wants to be an artist\n1923-24 Attends Art Students\u2019 League in New York\n1924 Leaves art school\n1924 Marries first wife, Adeline Day\n1927 First one-person exhibition held at The Modern Gallery, San Francisco\n1928 First child, Samuel born\n1930 Daughter Anne born\n1934 Commissioned to Paint Coit Tower mural, San Francisco\n1940 Studies ship drafting and worked as a ship drafter during World War II\n1942 Serves as air raid warden in Mill Valley, CA\n1949 Divorces his first wife\n1950 Teaches at California School of Fine Arts, San Francisco\n1951 Marries second wife, sculptor Blanche Phillips\n1951 Moves to Mexico\n1951 Paints The Rape of the Earth communicating his eco-friendly stance\n1953-1965 Illustrates for Scientific American magazine\n1958 Teaches at Pratt Institute Art School, Brooklyn, NY\n1965 Moves to Hydra, Greece\n1967 Moves to London\n1970 Returns to California\n1979 Blanche Phillips dies\n1980 Marries Mary McMahon Williams\n1999 Died in his sleep at home San Francisco, California\nCalifornia Palace of the Legion of Honor, CA\nCity of San Francisco, CA\nIBM Building, New York, NY\nThe Oakland Museum, CA\nThe Phillips Collection, Washington D.C.\nSan Francisco Museum of Modern Art, CA\nSecurity Pacific National Bank Headquarters, Los Angeles, CA\nSpringfield Museum of Fine Arts\nUniversity of Utah, UT\n1927 Modern Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1928 Beaux Arts Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1928 East-West Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1928-51 San Franciso Art Association, CA\n1935 Paul Elder Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1936 Cincinnati Art Museum, OH\n1936 Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA\n1939 Golden Gate International Exposition, Department of Fine Arts, Treasure Island, CA\n1939 Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, CA\n1941 Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, PA\n1943 Corcoran Gallery, Washington D.C.\n1943 M. H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, CA\n1946-47 Whitney Museum, NY\n1947 Rotunda Gallery, City of Paris, San Francisco, CA\n1952 Carnegie Institute, Pittsburgh, PA\n1956 Santa Barbara Museum of Art, CA\n1973 Capricorn Asunder Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1974 Lawson Galleries, San Francisco, CA\n1976 de Saisset Art Gallery and Museum, CA\n1982 San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Rental Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1983 California Academy of Sciences, CA\n1983 Monterey Museum of Art, CA\n1986 Charles Campbell Gallery, San Francisco, CA\n1987 Martina Hamilton Gallery, NY\n1988 Oakland Museum, CA\n1989 Tobey C. Moss Gallery, CA\n1991 M. H. de Young Memorial Museum, San Francisco, CA\n1992 Tobey C. Moss Gallery, CA\n1993 Tobey C. Moss Gallery, CA\nCalifornia Society of Mural Painters\u2019 and Writers\u2019 and Artists\u2019 Union\nCarmel Art Association\nClub Beaux Arts\nSan Francisco Art Association\nSociety of Mural Painters\nMarin Society of Artists\nMonterey John Reed Club\nAnne Bremer Memorial Award for Painting, San Francisco Art Association\nFirst Prize, Pepsi-Cola Annual \u201cPortrait of America\u201d\nFirst Prize, San Francisco Art Association\nAward, City of San Francisco Art Festival\nCitation for Merit, Society of Illustrators, New York\n- 1. Aldrich, Linda. \u201cJohn Langley Howard.\u201d American Scene Painting: California, 1930s and 1940s. Irvine, Westphal Publishing: 1991.\n- 2. Hailey, Gene. \u201cJohn Langley Howard\u2026Biography and Works.\u201d California Art Research Monographs, v. 17, p.54-92. San Francisco: Works Progress Administration: 1936-1937.\n- 3. Moss, Stacey. The Howards, First Family of Bay Area Modernism. Oakland Museum: 1988.\n- 4. Nash, Steven A. Facing Eden: 100 Years of Landscape Art in Bay Area. University of California Press: 1995.\nIX. WORKS FOR SALE BY THIS ARTIST", "id": "<urn:uuid:b1ad8cf1-1721-4d74-824a-229b6b70a91b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sullivangoss.com/johnlangley_Howard/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9576796889305115, "token_count": 2757, "score": 3.625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Geological Perspective On Global Warming: A Debate\nDr Colin P. Summerhayes, Vice-President of the Geological Society of London\nDear Dr Peiser,\nIn the interest of contributing to the evidence-based debate on climate change I thought it would be constructive to draw to your attention the geological evidence regarding climate change, and what it means for the future. This evidence was published in November 2010 by the Geological Society of London in a document entitled \u201cClimate Change: Evidence from the Geological Record\u201d, which can be found on the Society\u2019s web page.\nA variety of techniques is now available to document past levels of CO2 in the atmosphere, past global temperatures, past sea levels, and past levels of acidity in the ocean. What the record shows is this. The Earth\u2019s climate has been cooling for the past 50 million years from 6-7\u00b0C above today\u2019s global average temperatures to what we see now. That cooling led to the formation of ice caps on Antarctica 34 million years ago and in the northern hemisphere around 2.6 million years ago. The cooling was directly associated with a decline in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere. In effect we moved from a warm \u201cgreenhouse climate\u201d when CO2, temperature and sea level were high, and there were no ice caps, to an \u201cicehouse climate\u201d in which CO2, temperature and sea level are low, and there are ice caps. The driver of that change is the balance between the emission of CO2 into the atmosphere from volcanoes, and the mopping up of CO2 from the atmosphere by the weathering of rocks, especially in mountains. There was more volcanic activity in the past and there are more mountains now.\nSuperimposed on this broad decline in CO2 and temperature are certain events. Around 55 million years ago there was a massive additional input of carbon into the atmosphere \u2013 about 4 times what humans have put there. It caused temperatures to rise by a further 6\u00b0C globally and 10\u00b0C at the poles. Sea level rose by some 15 metres. Deep ocean bottom waters became acid enough to dissolve carbonate sediments and kill off calcareous bottom dwelling organisms. It took over 100,000 years for the Earth to recover from this event. More recently, during the Pliocene, around 3 million years ago, CO2 rose to levels a little higher than today\u2019s, global temperature rose to 2-3\u00b0C above today\u2019s level, Antarctica\u2019s Ross Ice Shelf melted, and sea level rose by 10-25 metres.\nThe icehouse climate that characterised the past 2.6 million years averaged 9\u00b0C colder in the polar regions and 5\u00b0C colder globally. It was punctuated by short warm interglacial periods. We are living in one of these warm periods now \u2013 the Holocene \u2013 which started around 11,000 years ago. The glacial to interglacial variations are responses to slight changes in solar energy meeting the Earth\u2019s surface with changes in: our planet\u2019s orbit from circular to elliptical and back; the position of the Earth relative to the sun around the Earth\u2019s orbit; and the tilt of the Earth\u2019s axis. These changes recur on time scales of tens to hundreds of thousands of years. CO2 plays a key role in these changes. As the Earth begins to warm after a cold period, sea ice melts allowing CO2 to emerge from the ocean into the atmosphere. There it acts to further warm the planet through a process known as positive feedback. The same goes for another greenhouse gas, methane, which is given off from wetlands that grow as the world warms. As a result the Earth moves much more rapidly from cold to warm than it does from warm to cold. We are currently in a cooling phase of this cycle, so the Earth should be cooling slightly. Evidently it is not.\nThe Geological Society deduced that by adding CO2 to the atmosphere as we are now doing, we would be likely to replicate the conditions of those past times when natural emissions of CO2 warmed the world, melted ice in the polar regions, and caused sea level to rise and the oceans to become more acid. The numerical models of the climate system that are used by the meteorological community to predict the future give much the same result by considering modern climate variation alone. Thus we arrive at the same solution by two entirely independent methods. Under the circumstances the Society concluded that \u201cemitting further large amounts of CO2 into the atmosphere over time is likely to be unwise, uncomfortable though that fact may be.\u201d\nDr Colin P. Summerhayes\nVice-President Geological Society of London and Emeritus Associate Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge.\n8 February 2013\nProfessor Robert Carter and Professor Vincent Courtillot respond:\nDear Dr Peiser,\nThank you for your invitation on behalf of the Foundation to reply to Dr Summerhayes\u2019 letter about geological evidence in relation to the hypothesis of dangerous anthropogenic global warming (DAGW) that is favoured by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).\nWe are in agreement with many of Dr Summerhayes\u2019 preliminary remarks about the geological context of climate change. This reflects that a large measure of scientific agreement and shared interpretation exists amongst most scientists who consider the global warming issue.\nPoints of commonality in the climate discussion include:\n* that climate has always changed and always will,\n* that Earth has often been warmer than it is today, and that its present climatic condition is that of a warm interglacial during a punctuated icehouse world,\n* that carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and warms the lower atmosphere (though debate remains as to the magnitude and timescale of the warming),\n* that a portion of human emissions are accumulating in the atmosphere,\n* that a global warming of around 0.5\u00b0C occurred in the 20th century, but that there has been no global temperature rise over the last 16 years.\nThe first two points are rooted in geological evidence (as discussed in more detail by Dr Summerhayes), the third is based upon physical principle and the last three are mostly matters of instrumental measurement (i.e. observation). Despite the disparate scientific disciplines involved, all these points are relevant to achieving a quantitative understanding of climate change, together with several other disputed scientific matters such as those that we discuss below.\nOne of the disputed scientific matters is represented by Dr Summerhayes\u2019 assertion that cooling over the last 34 million years \u201cwas directly associated with a decline in the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere\u201d.\nThe word \u201cassociated\u201d is ambiguous. It may simply mean that temperature and CO2 were correlated, in the sense that their trends were parallel. But as everyone knows correlation is not causality and whether one drives the other, or the two are driven by a third forcing factor, or the correlation is the result of chance, requires careful analysis and argument. Though it may be true that a broad correlation exists between atmospheric CO2 content and global temperature, at least on some timescales, it remains unclear whether the primary effect is one of increasing CO2 causing warming (via the greenhouse effect) or of warming causing CO2 increase (via outgassing from the ocean). We are familiar with the argument that the currently decreasing carbon isotope ratio in the atmosphere is consistent with a fossil fuel source for incremental CO2 increases, and therefore with the first of these two possibilities, but do not find it compelling because other natural sources (soil carbon, vegetation) also contribute isotopically negative carbon to the atmosphere.\nA second area of uncertainty, related to the point just discussed, is the rate, scope and direction of the various feedbacks that apply during a natural glacial-interglacial climatic cycle. Dr Summerhayes provides a confident, and perhaps plausible, account as to how changing insolation (controlled by orbital change), melting sea-ice and increasing CO2 and CH4 jointly drive the asymmetrical glacial-interglacial cycles that have characterised recent planetary history. However, our knowledge of the climate system and its history currently remains incomplete; some of the forcing mechanisms and feedbacks may not be known accurately, or even at all. For example, we do not yet know whether clouds exert a net warming or cooling effect on the climate. Similarly, variations in ultraviolet radiation and high-energy particle emission from the Sun, in atmospheric electricity and in galactic cosmic rays may all play larger roles in controlling climate change than is currently assumed, yet these effects are absent from most of the current generation of deterministic computer models of the future climate. The temperature projections made by these models may well be affected by our ignorance of the magnitude, the sign, or even the existence of some of the forcings and feedbacks that are actually involved.\nThirdly, Dr Summerhayes also briefly discusses the issue of sea level change. He quotes an estimated increase of 15 m in sea level associated with a temperature increase of 6\u201310\u00b0C 55 million years ago. He then quotes a range of 10\u201325 m rise for a 2\u20133\u00b0C warming 3 million years ago. To this we might add the further examples of the 125 m sea level rise that has accompanied the 6\u00b0C temperature rise since the last glacial maximum, and the 0.2-m rise associated with the ~0.5\u00b0C 20th century warming. It appears from these examples that a 1\u00b0C temperature rise can be associated with a sea level rise of as little as 0.4 m or as much as 8 m, and all values in between! This indicates an uncertainty in our understanding of the temperature/CO2/sea-level connection that surely lessens its value for contributing to policy formulation.\nFigure 1. Temperature curve reconstructed from oxygen isotope measurements in a Greenland ice core over the last 10,000 years (Lappi 2010 after Alley,2000).\nFourth, and last, Dr Summerhayes says that because orbitally-forced climate periodicity is currently in a cooling phase \u201cthe Earth should be cooling slightly. Evidently it is not\u201d. The statement is tendentious, because whether Earth is seen to be cooling or warming depends upon the length of climate record that is considered. Trends over 1, 10, 100 or 1000 years are not the same thing, and their differences must be taken into account carefully. We reproduce two figures that may be used to demonstrate that Earth is currently not warming on either the longer-term millennial timescale (Figure 1) or the short-term decadal/meteorological timescale (Figure 2). We note also that on the intermediate centennial timescale (1850\u20132010) the temperature trend has been one of a slight (0.5\u00b0C) rise. In assessing which of these timescales is the \u201cproper\u201d one to consider in formulating climate policy, we observe that the results conveyed in Figure 2 have little scientific (and therefore policy) meaning unless they are assessed in the context of the data in Figure 1.\nFigure 2. Mean temperature of lower atmosphere: HadCRUT4 annual means 1997-2011\nWe acknowledge that the data in Figure 1, which are drawn from a Greenland ice core, represent regional rather than global climate. But a similar pattern of Holocene long-term cooling is seen in many other records from around the world, including from Antarctic ice cores. Also, evidence for a millenial solar cycle has been accumulating over the past years, and, representing that rhythm, the Medieval Warming (also called Medieval Climatic Optimum) appears to have been both global and also warmer than today\u2019s climate.\nRegarding Figure 2, the data demonstrate that no warming has occurred since 1997. In response, some leading IPCC scientists have already acknowledged that should the temperature plateau continue, or turn into a statistically significant cooling trend, then the mainstream IPCC view will need revision. It is noteworthy, too, that over the 16 years during which global temperature has remained unchanged (1997-2012), atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased by 8%, from 364 ppm to c.394 ppm. Given a mixing time for the atmosphere of about 1 year, these data would invalidate the hypothesis that human-related carbon dioxide emissions are causing dangerous global warming. In any case, observed global temperatures are currently more remote than ever from the most recent predictions set out in IPCC AR4.\nThe areas of uncertainty in the prevailing argument over DAGW are therefore not only geological but also instrumental and physical. Current debate, which needs to be resolved before climate policy is set, centres on the following three issues:\n* whether any definite evidence exists for dangerous warming of human causation over the last 50 years,\n* the amount of net warming that is, or will be, produced by human-related emissions (the climate sensitivity issue), and\n* whether the IPCC\u2019s computer models can provide accurate climate predictions 100 years into the future.\nIn assessing these issues, our null hypothesis is that the global climate changes that have occurred over the last 150 years (and continue to occur today) are mainly natural in origin. As summarised in the reports of the Nongovernmental International Panel on Climate Change (NIPCC), literally thousands of papers published in refereed journals contain facts or writings consistent with this null hypothesis, and plausible natural explanations exist for all the post-1850 global climatic changes that have been described so far. In contrast, no direct evidence exists, and nor does the Geological Society point to any, that a measurable part of the mild late 20th century warming was definitely caused by human-related carbon dioxide emissions.\nThe possibility of human-caused global warming nonetheless remains, because carbon dioxide is indubitably a greenhouse gas. The major unknown is the actual value of climate sensitivity, i.e. the amount of temperature increase that would result from doubling the atmospheric concentration of CO2 compared to pre-industrial levels. IPCC models estimate that water vapour increases the 1\u00b0C effect that would be seen in a dry atmosphere to 2.5-4.5\u00b0C, whereas widely cited papers by Lindzen & Choi (2011) and Spencer & Braswell (2010) both describe empirical data that is consistent with negative feedback, i.e. sensitivity less than 1\u00b0C. The conclusion that climate sensitivity is significantly less than argued by the IPCC is also supported by a range of other empirical or semi-empirical studies (e.g., Forster & Gregory, 2006; Aldrin et al., 2012; Ring et al., 2012).\nGathering these various thoughts together, we conclude that the risk of occurrence of damaging human-caused global warming is but a small one within the much greater and proven risks of dangerous natural climate-related events (not to mention earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, tsunamis and landslides, since we are dealing here with geological topics). Moreover, the property damage and loss of life that occurred in the floods in the UK in 2007; in the 2005 Katrina and 2012 Sandy storms in the USA; and in deadly bushfires in Australia in 2009 and 2013 all attest that even wealthy and technologically sophisticated nations are often inadequately prepared to deal with climate-related hazard.\nThe appropriate response to climate hazard is to treat it in the same way as other geological hazards. Which is to say that national policies are needed that are based on preparing for and adapting to all climate events as and when they happen, and irrespective of their presumed cause. Every country needs to develop its own understanding of, and plans to cope with, the unique combination of climate hazards that apply within its own boundaries. The planned responses should be based upon adaptation, with mitigation where appropriate to cushion citizens who are affected in an undesirable way.\nThe idea that there can be a one-size-fits-all global solution to deal with just one possible aspect of future climate hazard, as recommended by the IPCC, and apparently supported by Dr Summerhayes on behalf of the Geological Society, fails to deal with the real climate and climate-related hazards to which all parts of the world are episodically exposed.\nProfessor Robert (Bob) Carter\nProfessor Vincent Courtillot\n14 February 2013\nAldrin, M. et al. 2012. Bayesian estimation of climate sensitivity based on a simple climate model fitted to observations on hemispheric temperature and global ocean heat content. Environmetrics, doi:10.1002/env.2140.\nAlley, R.B. 2000. The Younger Dryas cold interval as viewed from central Greenland. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 213\u2013226\nForster, P.M. & Gregory, J.M. 2006. The climate sensitivity and its components diagnosed from Earth radiation budget data. Journal of Climate 19, 39-52.\nLappi, D. 2010. 65 million years of cooling\nLindzen, R.S. & Choi, Y-S. 2011. On the observational determination of climate sensitivity and its implications. Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences 47, 377-390.\nRing, M.J. et al. 2012. Causes of the global warming observed since the 19th century. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences 2, 401-415.\nSpencer R. W. & Braswell, W.D. 2010. On the diagnosis of radiative feedback in the presence of unknown radiative forcing. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, D16109.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f0965eb8-455d-443b-9cf9-720d790d4628>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thegwpf.org/geological-perspective-global-warming-debate/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.937974750995636, "token_count": 3605, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Chinese orbital docking starts long march to space station\nUS commie hunt jumpstarted taikonaut takeoff\nChina has successfully launched an unmanned capsule into orbit and is beginning to maneuver it into place for the nation\u2019s first orbital docking.\nState media reports that a Shenzhou-8 capsule successfully blasted off from China\u2019s launch platform in the Gobi desert atop an upgraded Long March-2F rocket, watched by Chinese vice premier Zhang Dejiang. It was successfully inserted into its planned orbit, and ground control is now beginning to shift it into position to dock with the Tiangong-1 \u2013 \"Heavenly Palace-1\" \u2013 module that has been in orbit since September.\nIf all goes to plan, the capsule will perform China\u2019s first space docking in two days\u2019 time, 343km above the planet\u2019s surface. After a number of practice docking maneuvers, the capsule will then return to earth for examination and testing.\nSuccessful docking will be crucial if China is to reach its goal of putting a space station into orbit by 2020. Under the plans that are currently public, the station will be a small affair in comparison to the International Space Station or the de-orbited Soviet Mir platform \u2013 but out of tiny acorns mighty oak trees grow.\nIn pure technology terms, the Chinese space program looks relatively unsophisticated. After all, US astronaut Neil Armstrong managed the first space docking in 1966 during the Gemini 8 mission. The Soviets managed it in 1969, and by 1975 the two countries were docking with each other\u2019s crafts. It wasn\u2019t until 1970 that China even got a satellite into orbit \u2013 although it\u2019s now been selling orbital delivery to other countries for over 25 years.\nThe Middle Kingdom wouldn\u2019t have made it this far if it hadn\u2019t been for the 1950s McCarthy-era panic over communist infiltration in America. Qian Xuesen, one of America\u2019s foremost rocket engineers in the 1930s and 1940s, and cofounder of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in the US, was arrested in the US after visiting his parents on mainland China in 1950. Accused on the flimsiest of evidence of being a communist, and despite the strong efforts of his university, Caltech, Qian was deported to China in 1955.\nQian, who died at the age of 98 in 2009, is hailed as the father of Chinese rocketry, and was his country's first \u2013 and originally only \u2013 rocket engineer. He built a group of engineers on his return to China, and helped develop a variety of military systems, including the Silkworm anti-ship missile, as well as building China\u2019s successful Long March boosters. \u00ae", "id": "<urn:uuid:ea5d5818-00a2-4cbc-92a5-5160e9c10972>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/11/01/chinese_launch_long_march_space_station/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9591385722160339, "token_count": 558, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Authorities in Japan have evacuated the area around a nuclear power plant after its reactor's cooling system failed following Friday's massive earthquake. Pressure began building overnight at the Fukushima Daiichi plant north of Tokyo, prompting officials to consider venting radioactive vapor on Saturday. The situation has prompted analysts to debate whether nuclear power is safe to use in earthquake-prone regions.\nJapan has 55 nuclear power plants that produce nearly one-third of the country\u2019s electrical output. Its also lies in one of the most seismically active zones in the world, known as the Pacific Ring of Fire.\nNuclear waste specialist Kevin Kamps at nuclear watchdog Beyond Nuclear says these two factors put Japan at a big risk. \"An earthquake that damages multiple levels of the safety systems can lead to a troubled situation very quickly.\"\nKamps said the worst case scenario for the Fukushima Daiichi plant would be what happened at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine in 1986, when the radioactivity escaped to the outside environment, causing environmental and health hazards across portions of Europe. He said Japan should consider other energy options.\n\"There are much safer sources of electricity; renewables, like wind and solar, could not suffer catastrophic disasters like this that endanger entire regions with hazardous radioactive releases.\"\nAnalyst Jeremy Gordon with the World Nuclear Association, however, said overall the situation is not one in which Japan would need to abandon this major source of electricity. He said Japan's nuclear plants are built with multiple safety layers and earthquakes in mind.\n\"The engineering standard goes so far beyond what you would ever expect, and the regulations go far beyond what you would ever expect. The end result is that the power plants are extremely robust.\"\nGordon said a powerful earthquake that struck the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa nuclear power plant in 2007 is an example of the effectiveness of nuclear power plant safety measures.\n\"They were hit really hard and there was damage within the plant and it took a long time to repair everything. But the safety system stayed in place and there was no nuclear risk from that earthquake.\"\nKamps said the Fukushima Daiichi situation, though, should be a wake-up call to the Japanese government and the world about the dangers of nuclear power plants. This can include radiological contamination of the environment and genetic damage, cancer and a wide spectrum of disease within people.\n\"A nuclear disaster anywhere is a nuclear disaster everywhere. We saw that at Chernobyl with significant nuclear fallout blanketing Europe in all directions for many hundreds of miles. We even saw fallout here in the United States,\" said Kamps.\nBut Gordon believes Japan has no other sustainable energy options. \"It's been using nuclear power since 1966 and its main reason for doing that is because it doesn\u2019t have any energy resources of its own at home. It doesn't have coal. It doesn't have gas. So it needs a sustainable and controllable domestic source of energy.\"\nGreenpeace nuclear policy analyst Jim Riccio says the consequences of nuclear power need to be considered. \"I think it's a good reminder, we've been focusing a lot lately on the downsides of nuclear in terms of its finances, there are other downsides beside the financial downside, potential for a meltdown and I think it should give people pause before they pursue new reactors here in the United States and around the world.\"\nThe International Atomic Energy Agency estimates that 20 percent of the world's nuclear reactors are in areas of significant seismic activity.", "id": "<urn:uuid:af7dba03-9d37-4267-aaf5-6c5d95c18f35>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.voanews.com/content/analysts-debate-the-safety-of-nuclear-power-plants-117839353/136341.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9596148133277893, "token_count": 703, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Volvo is working on an animal detection system to help make its cars safer in rural areas.\nThe new system uses the same radar and camera technology as Volvo's Pedestrian Detection with Full Auto Brake application, which is available on its:\n\u2022XC70 \u2022 S80\nA warning sounds if an animal is detected on the road ahead, and if the driver fails to act, the car\u2019 brakes are applied to either bring the vehicle to a halt or slow it down significantly.\nVolvo says that, in Sweden alone, more than 40,000 accidents involving wild animals are reported every year.\nMost collisions with animals happen at dawn, dusk, or during dark winter months, so the new system is being developed with full functionality in these conditions.\nVolvo\u2019 engineers also plan to 'teach' the system to recognise different animals. As part of the process, a team spent time at a safari park recording film sequences and the behavioural patterns of moose and deer. This is to help ensure the system responds to large animals \u2013 such as horses and deer \u2013 that pose the greatest risk to drivers and passengers.\nA launch date has yet to be confirmed.\nOur reviews are based on hard data and thorough testing in the real world.\nUp to the minute news from around the globe", "id": "<urn:uuid:6e9f2a9d-4a0d-458e-95c2-c845767951e8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.whatcar.com/car-news/volvo-works-on-animal-detection-system/257651", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9474014043807983, "token_count": 268, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Life depends on an essentially continuous exchange of\nmass and energy between living organisms and their environment.\nHuman impact on this vital exchange has occurred on a global or\nmacroclimate scale. Understanding the physical principles\ninvolved in heat transfer and absorption in the atmosphere is critical\nto understanding how these physical factors affect living\norganisms. The specific objectives of this section are to explain\nthe properties of heat transfer, and to describe laboratory activities\nthat can be used at a variety of academic levels with only slight\nDescribed below are three series of experiments performed in\nthe laboratory to address questions that emphasize the underlying\nprinciples of heat transfer. These hands-on experiments focused\non principles that relate to conduction and convection. The object was to identify the method of heat transfer\nthrough solids, liquids, gases, and between boundaries.\nUnderstanding these concepts gave us a better understanding of how heat\nis transferred between our environment and living\norganisms. These experiments were used as an integral part\nof the workshop, which consisted of reflections on redesigning or\nmodifying lab exercises to fit personal needs of workshop\nteachers. These exercises could be adapted for middle\nschool, high school, and college level courses.\nThe methods utilized for the three experiments involved increasing\nor decreasing the temperature of a solid or liquid, and where\napplicable, observing the motion of a dye caused by the changes in\ntemperature and density of the medium.\n|Modes of Heat Transfer:\n- Conduction: heat transfer resulting from direct contact\nbetween substances of different temperatures; heat is transferred\nfrom the high-temperature substance to the low by direct molecular\n- Convection: heat transport by a moving fluid (gas of\nliquid). The heat is first transferred to the fluid by\nconduction, but the fluid motion carries the heat away.\n- Radiative exchange: heat transfer via electromagnetic\nwaves, the amount of radiant energy emitted, transmitted, or\n(Figure from Microsoft Encarta)\nReturn to Top\nLaboratory Apparatus for Labs 1-3\n|Lab 1: Heating\nfrom Below: Convection\nIn this experiment, water was heated from below to produce\nconvection. Although the atmosphere is composed of air, this\nexperiment was relevant to atmospheric motion as well. The lower\natmosphere (troposphere) is mostly heated from below because the\noceans and continents absorb radiation from the sun and then transfer\nsome of the resulting heat energy to the lower atmosphere.\nIn Lab 1, a beaker was heated (see figure below). Thermometers were placed in 1/2 cm\nbelow water surface and 1/2 cm above the bottom of the beaker.\nThe temperature was recorded at 30 second intervals. Drops of\ndye were added to the bottom of the beaker between intervals.\nAfter three minutes the beaker was removed from the hot plate and\ntemperature reading recorded for another five minutes.\nConvection was visualized by observing the motion of the\nThe motion of the dye was circular from bottom to top and returning to\nthe bottom of the beaker. The energy from heating created a less\ndense liquid at the bottom, thus causing the upward motion of the\ndye. Upon reaching the surface, the dye was now in the denser\nmedium and therefore returned to the bottom. This motion is an\nexample of convection. This phenomenon is evident in the motion\nof wind. The difference in densities and kinetic movement of the\nwater molecules driven by temperature change resulted in the movement of\nair molecules. This lab can be used at lower levels to\ndemonstrate simple properties of heat transfer and convection.\nAt higher levels, this lab illustrates these basic principles, and\ncould be extended to address more complex applications related to\nconvection such as the Coriolis\n1. Explain the process by which the water is heated.\n2. Describe the motion of the water as made visible by the\n3. Why does convection occur?\n4. Did convection cease? When? Why?\nEnvironmental Applications of Principles\nof Radiative Exchange, Conduction and Convection (Figure from E. Zerba, Princeton University; email@example.com)\nReturn to Top\n|Lab 2: Conduction\nComparison of this experiment with the first illustrated the\ndifference between the rate of heat transfer by conduction and that of\nconvection. It also illustrated the difference in heat\ncapacities between water and the solid materials of the\nLab 2 was configured similarly to Lab 1, but looked at the effect of\nheating and cooling temperature difference using sand of equal weight\nas water used in experiment 1. No dye was used in this experiment, as convection was not a\nThe temperature difference between the top and bottom layers of sand\nindicated that sand heats and cools at a faster rate compared to\nwater. When the beaker was removed from the heat, the\ntemperature continued to increase via conduction from the bottom of the\nbeaker. This lab exercise is useful for demonstrating the concept of conduction to lower level students. Upper level\nstudents can use this lab to make the connections between conduction and\nheat capacity of various substances related to heat transfer that occurs between the\nearth's surfaces and the surface of living organisms.\n1. Is there any convection in the sand? Explain.\n2. Why did the temperature recorded by the lower thermometer\ncontinue to rise dramatically after the heating ceased?\n3. On the basis of heat capacity, explain why the temperature\nchanges for the sand and water were different.\n4. Using what you have observed in the two experiments, predict\nwhether a cold front will lower temperatures more at inland locations\nor on the coast. Explain your answer.\nReturn to Top\n|Lab 3: Cooling From Above\nIn lakes and oceans, convection is generally the result of cooling\nfrom above rather than heating from below. This was demonstrated\nby adding ice to the water.\nUsing an experimental setup that allowed\nmeasurement of temperature at the top and the bottom of a beaker of\nwater, ice was added to the top of the beaker. This experiment\nillustrated the concept that at 4 \u00b0C, water\nhas higher density and sinks. Convection was\nvisualized by the movement of dye added to the bottom of the beaker\nwhich was displaced by the cooler more dense water.\nThis lab demonstrates several physical principles associated with heat\ntransfer, including density, kinetic molecular theory, and\nconvection. On a larger scale, this laboratory exercise\ndemonstrates the process by which seasonal turnovers occur in ponds\nand lakes. At\nlower levels, teachers may choose to discuss physical principles of\nheat transfer only, while at upper levels, teachers may choose to\nintegrate this small-scale investigation with the study of climate\nprocesses and lake nutrient stratification and mixing.\n1. Why does ice float?\n2. Is there any evidence of convection? Why does or does\nit not occur?\n3. Draw a diagram to explain how seasonal turnover occurs in a\nReturn to Top\nto The Passerine Birds home", "id": "<urn:uuid:77831d47-ed83-47e1-aa8f-16bc431d8619>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/esi/2001/Princeton/Project/zerba/activities/activities.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.932496964931488, "token_count": 1507, "score": 4.0, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Introduction to Enzymes\nThe following has been excerpted from a very popular Worthington publication which was originally published in 1972 as the Manual of Clinical Enzyme Measurements. While some of the presentation may seem somewhat dated, the basic concepts are still helpful for researchers who must use enzymes but who have little background in enzymology.\nEnzyme Kinetics: Energy Levels\nChemists have known for almost a century that for most chemical reactions to proceed, some form of energy is needed. They have termed this quantity of energy, \"the energy of activation.\" It is the magnitude of the activation energy which determines just how fast the reaction will proceed. It is believed that enzymes lower the activation energy for the reaction they are catalyzing. Figure 3 illustrates this concept.\nThe enzyme is thought to reduce the \"path\" of the reaction. This shortened path would require less energy for each molecule of substrate converted to product. Given a total amount of available energy, more molecules of substrate would be converted when the enzyme is present (the shortened \"path\") than when it is absent. Hence, the reaction is said to go faster in a given period of time.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cb68bdbc-cf40-4d1b-ba86-741aa42fc245>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.worthington-biochem.com/introbiochem/energy.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9663266539573669, "token_count": 234, "score": 4.09375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Origin: Ger < dial. form of r\u00fccken, the back (see ridge) + sack < OHG sac (see sack)\nSee rucksack in American Heritage Dictionary 4\nOrigin: : dialectal Ruck, back (from Middle High German r\u00fcck, ruck, from Old High German hrukki; see sker-2 in Indo-European roots)\nOrigin: + Sack, sack (from Middle High German sac, from Old High German, from Latin saccus; see sack1).\nLearn more about rucksack", "id": "<urn:uuid:a6438ae4-5fa0-4fe1-898b-94a33628f259>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.yourdictionary.com/rucksack", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8017205595970154, "token_count": 117, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "AP U.S. History\nDoing the DBQ: In-class practice\nRead the directions at the top of the page and the question. Think about the question, then read it again. Pay attention to the language of the question and consider what it requires you to do.\nBEFORE READING THE DOCUMENTS, MAKE A LIST OF FACTS YOU KNOW THAT ARE RELEVANT TO THE QUESTION AND TIME PERIOD. This is your outside information.\nYou have fifteen minutes to read the documents. As you read, underline significant passages and make marginal notes, particularly including facts NOT in the documents but relevant to them and the question.\nAfter reading the documents, re-read the question and be sure you understand what it asks you to do. Go back to the question as often as necessary to keep the central issue or issues in mind.\nGroup the documents into as many as three groups or according to the criteria posed by the question. BE AWARE OF CHANGE OVER TIME. This may be an alternative to the organization suggested by the question. If you cannot categorize a document, omit it for the time being.\nBased on your understanding of the question and the documents, draft a thesis statement \u2013 just a statement with a framework \u2013 don\u2019t worry about background now.\nCreate an outline for the thesis, noting which documents you will use in each paragraph.\nAdd outside information from your notes to the outline in appropriate places. Each paragraph must have outside information. If you do not have enough outside information, think harder about the subject of the question, the time period and/or the documents.\nReconsider the documents you could not classify earlier; can you now fit them into the organizational system you have created for the question? If not, omit them.\nDraft a complete thesis paragraph for a potential essay. Include content- relevant background information.\nDraft a topic sentence for each paragraph and list the documents and outside information you would use in each. Be ready to explain your choices to the class tomorrow.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9ca5fa9e-1b1d-44a2-94b6-75bacac7f41f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www2.fultonschools.org/teacher/nance/Doing%20the%20DBQa.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9327866435050964, "token_count": 417, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Beer House\nHaving thus far cultivated the bog-trotter by washing and currying his person, forming his movements, refining his manners, and giving him some ideas of delicacy of behaviour, it now remained to introduce him in a knowledge of politics; and for this purpose, as he could not read the Gazettes, or other publications, it became necessary to give him the opportunity of oral information on political questions: and as attending the debates of congress, and hearing only in the galleries, would not put it in his power to join occasionally, in the debates, and exercise himself in speaking; the attending private clubs, or spending evenings occasionally at beer houses, seemed the more eligible means to be adopted Accordingly, an evening after this, the Captain taking him to a beer house, and occupying a bench, called for a mug of ale, and bade Teague attend to the conversations that were going forward.\nThe redemption of what are called certificates was at that time the subject of debate. It is well known to the readers of the present day in America, but which perhaps will not be so well understood when this work comes to be read an hundred years hence, that the United States, having incurred debts during the war with Great Britain, and being unable at that time to discharge them, could only give certificates of the respective sums due to the several creditors: these they did give to the soldiers of their army, to those from whom they had purchased articles, or who had rendered any service: The prospect not being immediate of the public being in a condition of taking up these, and the necessity of may of the holders pressing, they had transferred their right in the certificates for a fourth, fifth, or sixth of their nominal value; in some cases, at a much lower rate. --The question was, whether, under these circumstances, the original holder should be bound by the contract, and transferee ought to take the whole sum from the public.\nIt was stated on one side, that it was the folly of the holder to make the contract. There was no fraud or imposition in the case; what he did was with his eyes open. There was no undue advantage on the part of the purchaser, for he took no more than the place of the holder; and the bargain was fair and equal on both sides. The one had a present certainty which he preferred: the other an uncertainty of a greater sum, of which he chose to run the risk. The purchaser who gave credit to the bills of the states, stood in a better point of view than the holder, who distrusting payment, had parted with them.\nOn the other side it was contended, that the certificates being only the evidence of the debt, the receiving that was no payment; that real service was rendered, and real payment should be made; that the purchaser discovered a distrust of the credit of the government as well as the holder, in not giving the full value, and therefore stood on no better ground; that from the prevailing ideas under which these contracts were made, the holder did conceive himself parting with these securities at an under value, and the purchaser, as obtaining them at that rate, but neither had an idea that the loss on the one hand, or the advantage on the other, could be so great as on the principle of the provision made for the discharge of the public debt it had come to be; that for these and other reasons measures ought to have been adopted of a discrimination between the original holders and the transferees.\nTeague had listened attentively, and, contrary to the injunction of the Captain, with his mouth open. He would willingly have taken a part in the debates, but the Captain, thinking the subject too abstruse to begin with, did not seem to approve of it, and shaking his head, repressed the disposition of the bog-trotter.\nThe next topic of argument was that of the assumption of the state debts. In order to understand this, we must state, that, in carrying on the war against Great Britain, contracts were made, and debts incurred, on the faith of the confederate states, by their representatives in congress, and this was called the continental debt. At the same time, contracts were made and debts incurred, on the faith of individual states, by their representatives in the state legislature, and this was called the state debt. This whole debt, continental and state, had been thrown into one mass, and the payment assumed by the Congress. The policy of this measure was now canvassed. On the one side it was contended, that as the whole debt, continental or state, was payable by the United States, each state paying the quota apportioned by the resolves of the former congress, and having credit for what state debt contracted on account of the war, was over or beyond this quota, the question was no more than this, whether the ways and means of raising money for the discharge of its proportion of the state debt, should remain with any state, as was before in the case of furnishing its quota; or whether the United States, assuming the debt in the first instance, should take upon themselves to discharge the whole; that it came to the same thing, as the debt was payable by the whole, and the only question was, with whom it should lie to devise ways and means, to discharge it; that the system of finance became more simple, when the United States assumed the whole, and provided for the payment by ways and means of their own at once; that it would contribute to the energy and secure the establishment of the federal government, to have that government the immediate debtor of the whole amount.\nTo this was answered, that each state was a better judge of the ways and means, within itself, for the raising money to discharge its debt; and while the United States, now having command of the imposts, should necessarily take upon them to collect and provide for the discharge of the continental debt, properly so called; yet it might be left with each state as before, to collect and pay over what is called the state debt; receiving credit from the United States, and having a right to draw from thence, any overplus of that proportion which by the resolves of the former congress they ought to pay of the whole debt.\nThe Captain thinking this subject also above the comprehension of the Irishman, was not willing that he should speak yet.\nThe next topic was that of the incorporation of the bank of the United States, some contending that no power was given by the constitution to the general government to incorporate banks; others asserting, though not expressly, yet under the article of paying debts, &c. and making laws necessary for that purpose, it was by implication given.\nThe Captain thought this also above the reach of Teague, and obliged him to be silent.\nThe next subject of argument was the policy of the war carrying on against the Indians. By some it was contended that an Indian was a good creature, simple and inoffensive, like a young child; that you might put your finger in his mouth and he would not bite; that by speaking softly and kindly, and giving him victuals and drink, and leggins, and breech-clouts, and blankets, you might do what you please with him; that when you gave him ammunition and fire-arms, he would go out and kill turkies, and shoot down squirrels, and bring you in a deer now and then; and there was no such thing as an Indian stealing a horse, or burning a house, or taking a scalp, unless you had first stolen his horse, or burnt his house, or taken his scalp; that when you made a treaty with these people, they had such a love of Justice, such a sense of honour, such a perfect command of themselves, and their young men, that there was no danger of their departing from the treaty.\nOn the other hand it was advanced, that, as a savage differed little from a beast of prey; a wolf, or a panther of the woods; was rude, his passions violent, attached to no farm, cultivating no art; his only amusement or sense of honour war, or hunting, the image of war; his sense of Justice little, his sense of honour none at all; no government in his state of society; no security for individual or national engagements; that fear pervading the mass, by reaching the feelings, and apprehensions of each individual was the only principle by which they could be governed; that instead of giving goods, as heretofore, it became us to retaliate by a heavy war.\nSuch were the arguments on each side of this question; when the Captain looking at Teague, and observing that he was anxious to advance his opinion, assenting with a bow, or inclination of his head, he seemed to signify that he might speak.\nBut before we hear him, it will be necessary to observe, that during the preceding arguments, the company had taken notice of him, as he sat beside the Captain with a mug of beer before them; and had wondered in their own minds who he could be; for though he was a little brushed up by this time, as may be supposed, having been at the levee, and taught to dance, and received lessons of delicacy; nevertheless, there was still and uncouthness in his appearance that could not be all at once shaken off.\nHe therefore the more easily engaged attention, when raising his voice, he began as follows:\nPlase your anours, said he, I have heard of dese Indians, when I was tratting wid de Captain my master.-- I came acrass one odem, who affered a hundred dallars for my scoolp; he was going to a traty here abouts. But my good master de Captain took my part, and didnt let him take it aff; de vile savages! O! I have heard of dese Indians, plase your anours, dey come out of de woods, and stale shape, like de rabbers in Ireland, and burn houses, and take scoolps; trade wid dese! I would trate wid dem, wid a good shelelah, or tomahawk to break der heads. Give dem goods! by Shaint Patrick, I would give dem a good bullet hole in deir faces; or shoot dem trough de backside for deir pains. If I was in Cangress, and God love your shouls, I wish you would put me dere, I would make a law to coot dem aff, every one odem. O! if my uncle Phelim, and my cousins Dennis and Dermot, and my brother Murtock, and de oder boys was here, we would chase dem, as you would chase one of deir own shape; and keep dem aff de country, and send dem home to ate paratoes. God love your shouls, raise a good party and go out upon dem, and bring dem to de coort, and not let dem be staling shape, and taking scoolps from de poor people.\nYou tink to plase dem, by spaking good words to dem. Spake a good cudgel upon der heads, and bid dem be asy dear honies, and keep at deir homes, and plant paratoes, and be hangd in deir own country; plase your anours. Trate wid dem! Trate wid de wolves or de bears, dat roon troo de woods: I would trate wid a good knock in deir troat, and be doon wid dem.\nFrom the manner in which he spoke, of having been in danger of losing his scalp, and the Captain rescuing him, it was understood that he had been in a campaign against the Indians, and his fervour was excused, and thought natural. Those particularly who were for using force against the savages, thought the Irish gentleman had spoken very well.\nEncouraged with this success, the bog-trotter was confirmed in his opinion, that he was fit for any political appointment; and the Captain himself, began to entertain better hopes of his advances than he had yet done.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cc59dff9-0552-42c3-8bf6-0e7f04bd812b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER2/Chivalry/Part1/Book3/b3ch05.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368704713110/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516114513-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9874027967453003, "token_count": 2511, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Karst diagram courtesy of Vancouver Island University.\nAlthough the Cowling Arboretum does not exhibit any karst topography, much of Southern Minnesota does. Karst is a geological feature formed by the dissolution of soluble bedrock such as carbonates like limestone and dolostone. Karst formations lead to the formations of caves, disappearing streams, underground streams, sinkholes and other landforms in Southern Minnesota. The longest cave system in the world, the Mammoth-Flint Ridge Cave System in Kentucky was formed through the dissolution of carbonate rocks in its karst area.\nKarst country in Southern Minnesota coincides with the Driftless Area that covers Southeastern Minnesota, Northwestern Iowa and Western Wisconsin. Glacial drift no younger than 500,000 years old has been discovered in Southern Minnesota Driftless Area, meaning it has not been glaciated in that time. Other geologists believe that the Driftless Area has not been glaciated in at least 2 million years. However, the Driftless Area has been subject to glacial lake outburst floods when titanic lakes like proglacial Lake Duluth began to cataclysmically drain about 9,500 years ago.\nKarst forms when slightly acidic water meets a weakly soluble carbonate rock. Rainwater acidifies ever so slightly as it passes through the atmosphere and takes up CO2. As rainwater travels through the soil it picks up more CO2 and forms a weak carbonic acid solution, which readily dissolves carbonate rocks over time. Limestone is removed from the site in the form of calcium and bicarbonate.\nA good way to spot a karst sinkhole in Southern Minnesota is to look for a tree covered area in the middle of a farmer\u2019s field that she is wise not to plow.\n- Callum McCulloch '15, for the Cole Student Naturalists", "id": "<urn:uuid:0e553886-7f5e-4949-ab87-98b017803aba>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://apps.carleton.edu/campus/arb/programs/student_naturalists/arbtalk/?story_id=950716", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.938944935798645, "token_count": 380, "score": 4.09375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "April 23, 2013\nLast Monday, April 15, the National Museum of Natural History actually did come to life after hours. Not with mummies or miniature armies, of course, but with a small group of volunteers, a bunch of fancy-looking equipment and two guys at the forefront of museum digitization.\nAdam Metallo and Vince Rossi, of the 3D Lab in the Smithsonian\u2019s Digitization Program Office, work with laser scanners to create high resolution, three-dimensional digital models of objects and places around the Smithsonian Institution. Last week, they teamed up with curators at the Natural History Museum for the second of two nights of scanning the Dinosaur Hall, the museum\u2019s iconic galleries that house prehistoric fossils from the ancient seas through the Ice Age. The hall is scheduled to close in 2014 for a ground-up, multi-year renovation, so Metallo and Rossi, dubbed the \u201cLaser Cowboys\u201d by their colleagues, were brought in to capture the hall\u2019s present arrangement before all the fossils are removed.\n\u201cThe main purpose of 3D scanning an exhibit like this is to have an archive of what an exhibit of this era might have looked,\u201d Metallo says. \u201cThis is a documentation for folks in the future to know what a museum experience here was like.\u201d\nThe scanning has immediate uses as well. With accurate digital 3D models of T-Rex and his friends\u2019 skeletons, curators and designers will have a much easier time envisioning the exhibition\u2019s future iterations and testing out ideas for optimal arrangements. Paleontologists, too, will suddenly have access to fossils anytime, anywhere. \u201cThere\u2019s one specimen that\u2019s on display two stories up in the air,\u201d Metallo says. \u201cNow, instead of a researcher having to get up on a scissor lift to look at it, we can just email him the digital model.\u201d\nAnd if digital models aren\u2019t enough, 3D scanning might soon allow anyone interested in fossils to get even closer to the real thing. \u201cWe\u2019re seeing a real democratization of 3D printing along with 3D scanning,\u201d says Rossi. \u201cThere are apps for iPhones that allow you to use a camera as a 3D scanning device. Pretty much any museum visitor could create a pretty decent model of a museum object, and potentially take that through a 3D printer. There\u2019s still a fair amount of expertise required at the moment, but it\u2019s going to be a lot more user-friendly in the next two or three years.\u201d\nIn other words, it\u2019s not inconceivable that you could print out your own stegosaurus skeleton for your living room on your home 3D printer someday.\nUltimately, Rossi and Metallo dream of digitizing all 137 million of the objects in the Smithsonian\u2019s collections. Because only two percent of the objects are displayed in the Institution\u2019s museums at any time\u2014and many people never have the chance to see even those in person\u2014precise replicas could be printed and sent to local museums across the country, or viewed digitally on a computer screen anywhere in the world.\nAs for future of the Dino Hall, Matthew Carrano, the museum\u2019s curator of dinosauria, says his team is still in the early stages of planning exactly how the exhibit will look when it reopens in 2019, but that it definitely will strive to incorporate humans into the dinosaurs\u2019 story. \u201cThe biggest thing I hope for in the new hall is that a visitor comes here and is inspired, amazed and interested in the history of life on earth, and understands that this history is still relevant to them today, and to the world today,\u201d he explains. \u201cThere are problems we face as human beings that paleontology can help address. Dinosaurs didn\u2019t exist by themselves; they were part of environments and ecosystems just like we are today. And that connection is really important to everything we\u2019re going to show in this hall.\u201d\nTo learn more about 3D scanning and printing at Smithsonian, check out Metallo and Rossi\u2019s Facebook page, and follow them on twitter @3D_Digi_SI. To learn more about dinosaurs, check out the Natural History Museum\u2019s dinosaur page.\nMarch 29, 2013\nThousands of years old, the ceramics of Central America tell us a great deal about the societies who made them. Religious beliefs, gender dynamics, societal hierarchies\u2013all of this lies encoded in the sculptural and pictorial choices of the people who made the more than 160 objects that comprise the American Indian Museum\u2019s new exhibition, \u201cCer\u00e1mica de los Ancestros: Central America\u2019s Past Revealed,\u201d opening March 29 in Washington, D.C.\nSponsored by both the museum and the Smithsonian\u2019s Latino Center, the new bilingual exhibition is supported by more than two years of research and a thorough investigation of the American Indian Museum\u2019s archaeological collections, some 12,000 pieces from the region, many of which have never been displayed in public. The show seeks to display the diversity of not only the objects, but also the cultures of Central America, and showcases 160 works crafted from gold, jade, copper, marble, shell and stone and dating from 1,000 B.C. to the present.\nKevin Gover, the museum\u2019s director and Eduardo D\u00edaz, the director of the Latino Center, write that the materials, \u201ctestify to the complexity of long-lived governments and social systems, and to the importance and sophistication of the art and science in the communities where they were made. They speak of the patience, sensitivity, and innovation of their makers.\u201d\nThe exhibition will be open through February 1, 2015 at the American Indian Museum.\nMarch 8, 2013\nWhen Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon in 539 B.C., he encountered the same problem many political leaders face today: How do rulers keep the peace?\nCyrus, the King of Persia, was in the midst of building the largest empire that the world had ever seen. By his death in 530 B.C., his reign would extend from present-day Turkey to India.\nFor Cyrus, establishing control over vast miles of land with peoples of different cultures, languages and faiths created numerous obstacles in unifying his kingdom. The king sought order, not more war. \u201cIt is the first time anyone has had to address that challenge,\u201d says Neil MacGregor, director of London\u2019s British Museum.\n\u201cAs well as a transport system, as well as an economic system, as well as an administration, you need to have policy, an ideal of what you\u2019re trying to do to control this empire,\u201d he adds.\nCyrus\u2019s solution can be found today on a football-shaped cylinder of baked clay: give people the freedom to practice whatever religion they please.\nThe Cyrus Cylinder, one of the most significant archaeological artifacts in history, travels here from the British Museum and makes its United States debut on Saturday, March 9, 2013, at the Sackler Gallery. Inscribed with cuneiform, one of the earliest known scripts, the text denounces Nabonidus, the displaced Babylonian King, and boasts of liberating Cyrus\u2019s newly conquered people from religious persecution by restoring their temples, their temple goods and their ceremonial vessels; and sending prisoners and the enslaved home to worship their own gods. \u201d[I] returned [the people] to their settlements, and the gods of the land . . . I returned them unharmed to their cells, in the sanctuaries that make them happy,\u201d Cyrus declares in the text. \u201cI have enabled all the lands to live in peace.\u201d (See the full translation here.)\nCyrus\u2019s tolerant approach has had a lasting impact. According to MacGregor, \u201cFor Europeans and Americans in the 18th century, there is only one political problem: How do you avoid the wars of religion that had devastated Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries? How do you create a state where people don\u2019t kill each other for their faith? Everybody goes back to Cyrus.\u201d\nThe exhibition entitled, \u201cThe Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia,\u201d features quotes and historical artifacts that trace the generations of political thinkers inspired by Cyrus\u2019s philosophy. Thomas Jefferson studied the life of Cyrus; he owned two copies of a biography of the king.\nJulien Raby, director of the Sackler Gallery, hopes the exhibit will encourage visitors to appreciate how different cultures learn to value objects in different ways. \u201cThere isn\u2019t a single story,\u201d he explains. \u201cIt\u2019s actually about looking at the way in which we constantly reinterpret, the way that different eras and different agendas take objects and project onto them.\u201d\nMacGregor thinks Cyrus\u2019s legacy is particularly important today. \u201cWe are confronting in every one of our cities, in Europe and in America, a new kind of diversity\u2014people of different ethnicities, languages, faiths, traditions trying to live together,\u201d he says. \u201cWe don\u2019t really have a model for this. But we all know that somebody once did.\u201d\n\u201cThe Cyrus Cylinder and Ancient Persia\u201d is on view at the Sackler Gallery from March 9 to April 28, before making a nation-wide tour. For a list of locations and dates, visit the exhibition\u2019s website.\nTo learn more about the cylinder itself, watch MacGregor detail its history and significance in a 2011 TED talk, \u201c2,600 Years of History in One Object.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:b3be7119-61ca-49e1-af2f-dd9587ed393f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blogs.smithsonianmag.com/aroundthemall/category/archaeology-2/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9505154490470886, "token_count": 2049, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "for all who make decisions that affect the mathematics education of students in pre-kindergarten through grade 12\u201d (p. ix). NCTM is an organization of over 110,000 mathematics educators concerned with pre-K\u201312 mathematics education. This update of the NCTM's three previously developed sets of standards for curriculum, teaching, and assessment is intended to establish a curriculum framework to bring focus and coherence to K\u201312 mathematics. The document was developed through an extensive and inclusive process that engaged a wide spectrum of experts on issues concerning mathematics education. As such, Principles and Standards represents a negotiated position about appropriate content for school mathematics to which educators should give careful consideration.\nThe developers offer the standards as a guide for ensuring quality, developing goals, and promoting change by suggesting common language, examples, and recommendations to engage people at state, provincial and local levels in conversations about mathematics education. The document is intended to (p. 6):\nSet forth a comprehensive and coherent set of goals for mathematics for all students that will orient curricular, teaching, and assessment efforts.\nServe as a resource for teachers, education leaders, and policymakers to use in examining and improving the quality of mathematics instructional programs.\nGuide the development of curricular frameworks, assessments, and instructional materials.\nStimulate ideas and ongoing conversations about how best to help students gain a deep understanding of important mathematics.\nPrinciples and Standards is built on the following vision (p. 5):\nIn this changing world, those who understand and can do mathematics will have significantly enhanced opportunities and options for shaping their futures. Mathematical competence opens doors to productive futures. A lack of mathematical competence keeps those doors closed. NCTM challenges the assumption that mathematics is only for the select few. On the contrary, everyone needs to understand mathematics. All students should have the opportunity and the support necessary to learn significant mathematics with depth and understanding. There is no conflict between equity and excellence.\nTo fulfill this vision, the document describes what mathematics in pre-K\u201312 school programs should look like including how mathematical ideas should be developed across five content areas and five process domains. The standards present a deeper look at the mathematics within each of four grade-level bands, pre-K\u20132, 3\u20135, 6\u20138, and 9\u201312; they also suggest how mathematics should grow", "id": "<urn:uuid:6d644420-4db6-4a11-971d-1e4c1d92cdeb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=10268&page=6", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.943249523639679, "token_count": 477, "score": 3.953125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "from A Child\u2019s Garden of Verses by Robert Louis Stevenson\nGreat is the sun, and wide he goes\nThrough empty heaven with repose;\nAnd in the blue and glowing days\nMore thick than rain he showers his rays.\nThough closer still the blinds we pull\nTo keep the shady parlour cool,\nYet he will find a chink or two\nTo slip his golden fingers through.\nThe dusty attic spider-clad\nHe, through the keyhole, maketh glad;\nAnd through the broken edge of tiles\nInto the laddered hay-loft smiles.\nMeantime his golden face around\nHe bares to all the garden ground,\nAnd sheds a warm and glittering look\nAmong the ivy's inmost nook.\nAbove the hills, along the blue,\nRound the bright air with footing true,\nTo please the child, to paint the rose,\nThe gardener of the World, he goes.\nHelp your child make a picture of your family or friends and what you can do outside in the summer. Draw the pictures, color, or cut pictures from magazines.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3a0ea70f-3ae6-4bd0-84ee-622106582819>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://daybydayva.org/March/08", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8755531907081604, "token_count": 240, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How are HBSLs Used?\nConcentrations of contaminants in water are compared to human-health benchmarks in screening-level assessments to provide an initial perspective on the potential relevance of detected contaminants to human health and to help prioritize further investigations. Two human-health benchmarks are used in USGS screening-level assessments: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) and USGS's Health-Based Screening Levels (HBSLs). Concentrations of regulated contaminants (those with MCLs) are compared to their MCLs and concentrations of unregulated contaminants (those without MCLs) are compared to their HBSLs, when available. See \"Guidance\non Use of Benchmarks in Screening-Level Assessments\" and SIR 2007-5106 for more information.\nComparisons of measured contaminant concentrations in water to MCLs and HBSLs are useful for local, State, and Federal water-resource managers and others charged with protecting and managing drinking-water resources. For example, these comparisons can indicate when measured concentrations may be of potential human-health concern and can provide an early indication of when contaminant concentrations in ambient water resources may warrant further study or monitoring.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8c2ef1e3-eadd-411b-8455-acc79f3488a2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://infotrek.er.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=169:2:866256907273297::NO::P2_WHICH_SECTION:How_are_HBSLs_Used", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8847993016242981, "token_count": 261, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "June 22, 1976. North Atlantic. At 21:13 GMT a pale orange glow behind a bank of towering cumulus to the west was observed. Two minutes later a white disc was observed while the glow from behind the cloud persisted.\nHigh probability that this may have been caused by interferometry using 3-dimensional artificial scalar wave? Fourier expansions? as the interferers.\nMarine Observer. 47(256), Apr. 1977. p. 66-68.\n\"Unidentified phenomenon, off Barbados, West Indies.\"\nAugust 22, 1969. West Indies. Luminous area bearing 310 degrees grew in size and rose in altitude, then turned into an arch or crescent.\nHigh probability that this may have been caused by interferometry using artificial scalar wave? ((Fourier expansions.))\nMarine Observer. 40(229), July, 1970. p. 107-108.\n\"Optical phenomenon: Caribbean Sea; Western North Atlantic.\"\nMar. 20, 1969. Caribbean Sea and Western North Atlantic. At 23:15 GMT, a semicircle of bright, milky-white light became visible in the western sky and rapidly expanded upward and outward during the next 10 minutes, dimming as it expanded.\nHigh probability that this may be caused by interferometry using artificial scalar wave? Fourier expansions?.\nMarine Observer, 40(227), Jan. 1970. p.17; p. 17-18.\n7B.21 - Electricity\n13.06 - Triple Currents of Electricity\n14.35 - Teslas 3 6 and 9\n((16.04 - Nikola Nikola Tesla describing what electricity is))\n16.07 - Electricity is a Polar Exchange\n16.10 - Positive Electricity\n16.16 - Negative Electricity - Russell\n16.17 - Negative Electricity - Tesla\n16.29 - Triple Currents of Electricity\n((Figure 16.04.05 and Figure 16.04.06 - Nikola Nikola Tesla and Lord Kelvin))\nPart 16 - Electricity and Magnetism\nTesla - Electricity from Space\nWhat Electricity Is - Bloomfield Moore\nPage last modified on Wednesday 19 of May, 2010 05:23:05 MDT", "id": "<urn:uuid:5ff0ec8a-893b-4fc8-b51a-53a907c3402b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://pondscienceinstitute.on-rev.com/svpwiki/tiki-index.php?page=Tesla%20shield", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7993746399879456, "token_count": 452, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Mandelberg, John and Janson, Annick (2010) Technology to enhance learning with students with disabilities. In: shar-E-fest 2010, 27-28 September, 2010, Hamilton, New Zealand. (Unpublished)\nFull text not available from this repository.\nPresentation about Technology to enhance learning with students with disabilities eg. using video as a tool, dessemination and distribution.\n|Item Type:||Conference or Workshop Item (Speech)|\n|Keywords:||Technology, disabilities, YANIV, video, art, learning|\n|Subjects:||B Philosophy. Psychology. Religion > BF Psychology|\nB Philosophy. Psychology. Religion > BH Aesthetics\nL Education > LB Theory and practice of education > LB1028 Education Research\nN Fine Arts > N Visual arts (General) For photography, see TR\nP Language and Literature > PN Literature (General) > PN1993 Motion Pictures\n|Divisions:||Schools > School of Media Arts|\n|Deposited On:||22 Jan 2012 21:53|\n|Last Modified:||22 Jan 2012 21:53|\nRepository Staff Only: item control page", "id": "<urn:uuid:a4d70cea-af9d-4953-bd58-a8178500bbb8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://researcharchive.wintec.ac.nz/1618/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.687792181968689, "token_count": 248, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Rosecrans House: Home of\nCivil War General, William Starke\nThe sturdy thick-walled stone house on Lehman Road was built high on the hilltop in 1850 and its rear windows overlook the river. The stone used to build its three stories is believed to have been quarried from a nearby spot on Glenway Avenue. A tunnel running through the backyard and a sub-basement indicate that it was probably used as a station for the Underground Railroad, preceding the Civil War. During the war years it was headquarters for General William Starke Rosecrans (1819-1898), with Colonel Joseph Burke in command.\nW. S. Rosecrans (1819 -1898) was born in Delaware County, Ohio. His father was Dutch, and his mother traced back her descent to Timothy Hopkins, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. In Henry Howe\u2019s Historical Collections of Ohio in Two Volumes, published in 1907, it was noted that \u201cwhile other boys were at play, [the general and his brother, who later became a bishop] were noted for their studious habits.\u201d W. S. Rosecrans attended West Point at 15 and later served in the Army Engineer Corps. In 1853 he came to Cincinnati to take a civil engineering position and to make his home here.\nBarbara Pilaia of Delhi found a note to his wife\nbehind a photo of her great-great grandfather that she was given as\na child. It read: \u201cThis is a New Year\u2019s present.\nThe note behind the picture was very likely written shortly before the battle of Stone River; one of the bloodiest battles of the Civil War and was fought against General Bragg in Tennessee. Whether or not, General Rosecrans knew how difficult this battle would be, history doesn\u2019t say, but his note would indicate that he did. The fighting started December 31 and was over on January 3, 1863, but by the time it was over each side had lost one third of their man, and it took six months for Rosecrans\u2019 Army of the Cumberland to recover.\nBut Rosecrans was determined to pursue and finally defeat Bragg, as he had been ordered. Washington could not give him the additional troops, horses, and artillery he requested and badly needed, because Grant was in Vicksburg, and everything available was being sent there. However, the general had a real asset in his own men who admired him immensely and had dubbed him, \u201cOld Rosey\u201d. When he could finally advance, he skillfully maneuvered Bragg out of Tennessee and into Georgia, freely Chattanooga, which was the main artery of the Confederates provision lines. This was a real stroke of genius and Rosecrans was in hot pursuit of Bragg\u2019s troops in North Georgia. But the South would not allow this blow to be dealt and Lee instantly dispatched Longstreet\u2019s entire corps to aid Bragg. When Rosecrans realized that Bragg had been reinforced and was ready to strike back, he quickly re-grouped behind Chicamauga Creek. Immediately he sent Washington urgent telegrams explaining the dire situation and again begged for troops. This time Washington said yes, and asked General Grant to send two of his units. But Grant\u2019s troops never arrived. After being hit by Bragg and 75,000 Confederates, General Rosecrans was able to move what was left of his 40,000 men back to Chattanooga and hold it until finally, General Hooker and 20,000 reinforcements came to his aid.\nIt was at this time, that Grant was given command of the Union armies from the Alleghenies to the Mississippi and his first official act was to remove General Rosecrans, still under siege at Chattanooga, from his command.\nIn 1863, Rosecrans also became the commander of the Department of the Ohio and was reputed to live on Lehman Road. He opened the Sanitary Fair on December 21, 1863 in which exhibits, lectures, and other fund-raising activities raised about $250,000 from Cincinnatians for soldier Relief. He resigned from the Army in 1867.\nRosecrans served as Minister to Mexico from 1868 to1869, a Democratic member of Congress from California from 1881 to 1885, and the Register of the United States Treasury from 1885 to 1893. A special act of Congress re-appointed Rosecrans a brigadier general and placed him on the retired Army list.\nRecords of the Sisters of Charity show that in 1850, 37 nuns moved into it and established a combination Mother House and school for women-Mount St. Vincent Academy. The school was later was moved to Glenway Avenue as The Cedar Grove School which finally became known as Seton High School. The Mother House is now at the College of Mount St. Joseph.\nWilliam Rosecrans\u2019 brother, Sylvester Horton Rosecrans (1827-1878), was ordained a priest in Rome, Italy on June 5, 1853 and taught theology at the old Mount St. Mary\u2019s Seminary on Grand Avenue. He was appointed titular Bishop of Pompeiopolis and first auxiliary Bishop of Cincinnati on March 25, 1863. It is during this period that he is believed to have lived on Lehman Road. On October 31, 1878, Bishop Rosecrans was appointed the first Bishop of the then new diocese with its center in Columbus and was buried in that city.\nMrs. Hoffman bought the building in 1955 and during remodeling she entered the attic and discovered a small trove of civil war mementos hidden under the floorboards. According to a 1959 newspaper clip, confirmed with her family, she found papers dealing with the court martial proceedings of AWOL soldiers, as well as several medical certificates. One allowed a soldier to stay in the shade for 30 days because of an aversion to sunlight. Another excused a man from bathing. Also recovered was a receipt showing that the Army paid 6 \u00bd cents each for 600 bars of soap, and 18 cents each for 350 candles.*The above information was researched at the Price Hill Historical Society, 3640 Warsaw Avenue, 513-251-2888 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting 513-251-2888\n|Price Hill Will | Price Hill History|\nReturn to Rosecrans, Part 3, Civilian Inventor, Engineer", "id": "<urn:uuid:b20dddd3-1ea8-4f6a-89f3-4ff20e8efcb0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://rosecransheadquarters.org/History/WSR/Biblio/PriceHill.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9851425290107727, "token_count": 1326, "score": 3.421875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Stylistic origins||Rock and roll \u2022 folk \u2022 rockabilly \u2022 ska \u2022 surf rock \u2022 garage rock \u2022 glam rock \u2022 pub rock \u2022 protopunk|\n|Cultural origins||Mid-1970s, United States, United Kingdom, and Australia|\n|Typical instruments||Vocals \u2022 electric guitar \u2022 bass \u2022 drums \u2022 occasional use of other instruments|\n|Mainstream popularity||Topped charts in UK during late 1970s. International commercial success for pop punk and ska-punk, mid-1990s\u20132000s.|\n|Derivative forms||New Wave \u2022 post-punk \u2022 Gothic rock \u2022 alternative rock \u2022 grunge \u2022 emo|\n|Anarcho-punk \u2022 art punk \u2022 Christian punk \u2022 crust punk \u2022 garage punk \u2022 glam punk \u2022 hardcore punk \u2022 oi! \u2022 Riot Grrrl \u2022 skate punk|\n|2 Tone \u2022 anti-folk \u2022 avant-punk \u2022 Celtic punk \u2022 Chicano punk \u2022 cowpunk \u2022 folk punk \u2022 Gaelic punk \u2022 Gypsy punk \u2022 pop punk \u2022 psychobilly \u2022 punk blues \u2022 punk jazz \u2022 ska punk|\nPunk rock (or \"punk\") is a music genre related to rock music. It is often described as harder, louder, and cruder than other rock music. Many punk rock songs have lyrics (words) which tell angry stories or which use rude or controversial words.\nAbout punk rock[change]\nPunk rock is a style of music. Many musicians and punk rock music listeners (\"punk rockers\") want to protest or rebel against the norms or rules of society. Punks say that people should \"Do It Yourself\", which means that people should try to accomplish their goals using the materials in their own communities. Many punk bands make their own music recordings and distribute them without using a major record company.\nMany punks have strong political beliefs. Punk rock musicians are often mad at the government, the police, and laws. Many punk rock songs protest injustice, lies, and unfairness in countries. Almost all punks are leftists, who believe that a country should share the products and food that it produces with all the people in the country. Some punks are vegetarian or vegans, because they believe that animals should not be killed for food. Some punks are anarchists. Very few punks are conservative, libertarian, or Republican.\nPunk rock developed in New York City in the mid-1970s. Bands like The Ramones, Television, The Heartbreakers, Blondie, and Patti Smith played loud, angry songs. Many bands played at a club called CBGB's. The music soon spread to Australia and Britain, were bands started playing punk rock in 1976-1977. British bands like Buzzcocks, The Clash, The Damned, Generation X, The Jam, and Sex Pistols played punk rock music that was inspired by the music being played in New York, as well as by garage rock, pub rock, and other protopunk music.\nThese early \"punks\" rejected the excesses of mainstream 1970s rock. They created fast, hard-edged music, with short songs, stripped-down instrumentation, and often political, anti-establishment lyrics. They often did controversial things, such as saying bad words in public. Many newspapers wrote articles about the \"bad\" behavior of punk rock musicians.\nIn the 1980s, a new type of punk rock called \"hardcore punk\" or \"hardcore\" developed. Punk rock music began being mixed with Heavy Metal rock music. Many hardcore bands began playing in the United States.\nIn the 1990s, punk rock began being mixed with pop music to create a new lighter style of music called pop-punk. Pop-punk bands include Green Day and Good Charlotte. Some pop-punk bands mixed punk rock with ska music.\nPop-punk was still popular in the 2000s. Some people who like the 1970s-style punk rock criticize pop-punk because pop-punk is commercialized.\nSome people say that punk rock is dead. But that is not true, because the spirit lives on and many punk rockers are around today.\n- Bad Brains\n- Bad Religion\n- Black Flag\n- The Clash\n- Dead Kennedys\n- Green Day\n- Iggy Pop\n- Meat Puppets\n- Minor Threat\n- The Misfits\n- New York Dolls\n- The Offspring\n- The Sex Pistols\n- Social Distortion\n- \"punk rock\" (in English). Springfield: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. 2010. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/punk+rock. Retrieved 23 January 2010.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5d398941-7c48-41c8-881d-0116c00fde06>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9193038940429688, "token_count": 970, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bernini's Bust of Medusa\nGian Lorenzo Bernini, Bust of Medusa, marble, c. 1644-48 (Capitoline Museum)\nMedusa, one of the three Gorgons, daughter of Phorcys and Ceto. She was the only one of the Gorgons who was subject to mortality. She is celebrated for her personal charms and the beauty of her locks. Neptune became enamoured of her, and obtained her favours in the temple of Minerva. This violation of the sanctity of the temple provoked Minerva, and she changed the beautiful locks of Medusa, which had inspired Neptune\u2019s love to serpents.\nAccording to Apollodorus, Medusa and her sisters came into the world with snakes on their heads, instead of hair, with yellow wings and brazen hands. Their bodies were also covered with impenetrable scales, and their very looks had the power of killing or turning to stones. Perseus rendered his name immortal by his conquest of Medusa. He cut off her head, and the blood that dropped from the wound produced the innumerable serpents that infest Africa. The conqueror placed Medusa's head on the shield of Minerva, which he had used in his expedition. The head still retained the same petrifying power as before, as it was fatally known in the court of Cepheus. . . . Some suppose that the Gorgons were a nation of women, whom Perseus conquered. (From Lempri\u00e9re\u2019s Classical Dictionary of Proper names mentioned in Ancient Authors Writ Large. Ed. J. Lempri\u00e9re and F.A. Wright. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. As quoted by Modern American Poetry site, Department of English, University of Illinois)", "id": "<urn:uuid:db7b29de-b954-4605-ad01-a40ae2723bb4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://smarthistory.khanacademy.org/bust-of-medusa.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9729924201965332, "token_count": 368, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Freighter (or barge) was the term given to any spacecraft that was used to transport freight or cargo (such as parts and supplies). Both legitimate businesspersons and smugglers could be found captaining such transports. Freighters were needed from the time space travel began because of the need for supplies to all reaches of the galaxy. Freighters usually traveled with hyperdrives because people would often pay more for quick delivery.\nFor obvious reasons, freighters were used mainly for trade. Although very few fought in great battles, many freighters did see action. Smugglers and legitimate traders alike had some tangles now and then, but freighters were often armed and shielded so that they could resist attempts on their cargo.\nSmuggling was a very prominent criminal fringe activity in the galaxy that involved the transportation of contraband between planets. To do this, a freighter generally of small size such as the Millennium Falcon, was required to transport the contraband past planetary security forces. Some examples of contraband include spice, blasters and medical supplies.\nSmugglers often added upgrades to their ships so that they could beat competitors and outwit planetary security forces. Almost every smugglers vessel had improved light speed and sub-light speed drives for increased speed as well as boosted weapons systems to fight their way out of tough situations. Another of the most prevalent modifications to a smugglers freighter were numerous secret compartments to hide contraband from security checks while legitimate cargo occupied the cargo bays. On the Millennium Falcon, these consisted of removable floor plates.\nSome freighters became so heavily modified that the mess of cross wired and non traditional parts prevented starship mechanics from working on them effectively. The smugglers themselves were therefore required to have a detailed knowledge of freighter mechanics and electronics to be able to keep their vessels in working order. Most smugglers preferred it this way as they didn't trust anyone tampering with their prized possessions.\nMost smugglers freighters required a crew of more than one and as such most smugglers hired a copilot, such as Chewbacca on the Millennium Falcon or the droid LE-BO2D9 aboard the Outrider. To a smuggler, their freighter was everything; their job, their home, their lives. Many smugglers lived in their freighters as they had no terrestrial home.\n- Star Wars: The Old Republic\n- Tempest Feud\n- The Clone Wars: Decide Your Destiny: Crisis on Coruscant\n- \"The Heart\"\n- \"Maze Run\"\u2014Star Wars Insider 131\n- Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope (First appearance)\n- Choices of One\n- Star Wars: Empire at War\n- Star Wars: Empire at War: Forces of Corruption\n- \"Sandbound on Tatooine\" \u2014 Star Wars Galaxy 10\n- \"Slaying Dragons\"\u2014Star Wars Adventure Journal 9\n- Slave Ship\n- Hard Merchandise\n- The New Rebellion\n- Vision of the Future\n- Emissary of the Void\n- Force Heretic I: Remnant\n- X-Wing Miniatures Mission 4: Den of Thieves\nIn other languages\n- freighter on Wikipedia", "id": "<urn:uuid:7ade9f68-7002-4229-b36a-aff82cc72145>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://starwars.wikia.com/wiki/Freighter", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.969802737236023, "token_count": 637, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The name of the island is Lohachara not that many of us are going to remember it for long. We'll probably recall it as that little island off India, the first once inhabited island to disappear from the surface of the earth due to rising sea levels attributed to global warming.\nLohachara was a small island that supported a population of 10,000 in the Bay of Bengal near where the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers meet the sea. It is believed that other islands in the area will soon also be submerged displacing some 70,000 more islanders.\nSeveral uninhabited islands have disappeared in recent years, notably in the South Pacific. Lohachara is unique because it was inhabited.", "id": "<urn:uuid:803bd8f9-4427-468e-ab37-eada95ff6dd4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://the-mound-of-sound.blogspot.com/2006/12/global-warming-milestone.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9785166382789612, "token_count": 147, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "We all get stages in our life where we feel a bit low. These troughs can be triggered by a number of factors: relationship problems, feeling stuck in a job we don\u2019t like, not having enough time for relaxation and all kinds of other reasons. Such periods of low mood generally pass in time but there can be a danger that genuine clinical depression can develop and go undiagnosed.\n. Because depression is such a serious condition, with the very real risk of self-harm and suicide if left untreated, there is a great deal of mental health support on offer for sufferers. If you think someone you know has depression here are some things you can do to help.\n- Share The Load: One of the key symptoms of depression is a profound sense of isolation, which can lead the sufferer to withdraw from people, making them feel more isolated which feeds their feelings of anxiety and depression. Try and talk to them, and let them know you care about what is happening to them. Be as supportive as you can, and listen to what they are saying. Just being able to communicate how they feel to another person can be a huge help.\n- Keep Them Active: People suffering with depression often find their energy levels sapped, so the thought of doing something as simple as getting dressed can seem an exhausting ordeal. However, mental health support professionals know that exercise increases endorphin levels in the brain, which leads to an uplift in mood. Don\u2019t send them on a route march, but try and encourage them to go for a gentle walk, a swim or perhaps do something like yoga. Again, offer to go with them to keep them motivated.\n- Seek Professional Help: This may seem obvious, but encouraging them to talk to a professional will help immeasurably. The first step should be to see their GP, who can diagnose the severity of the depression and begin treatment. This may include referral for counseling and other psychological therapies, and prescription of anti-depressants for severe cases. There is a wide range of mental health support out there, from cognitive behaviour therapy to alternative methods such as arts therapies and they are all worth exploring.\nIf you\u2019re worried that you or someone you care about is suffering from depression then it\u2019s important to seek help now. A charity that specializes in mental health support can be a good place to start. Beating depression isn\u2019t easy, but by taking it one step at a time it can be overcome.\nFor more information go to: http://www.unitedresponse.org.uk/what-we-do/mental-health/", "id": "<urn:uuid:e2686c7c-a127-4924-b1b5-ceb7f08601a4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://theselfimprovementblog.com/self-improvement/featured/what-can-you-do-to-help-a-loved-one-struggling-with-depression/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9675756096839905, "token_count": 540, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(CNN) -- Human concepts of beauty are shaping conservation efforts, protecting good-looking plants and animals over ugly ones, a study suggests.\nThe report, \"The new Noah's Ark: beautiful and useful species only,\"has been published in the 2012 edition of the scientific journal, Biodiversity.\nIt describes how vulnerable species that overtly display characteristics human beings respect or find desirable -- such as beauty, strength, power or cuddliness -- are more likely to be the focus of concerted conservation programs than animals or plants that are less appealing to the eye.\n\"People have biases towards species that are glamorous,\" said Dr. Ernie Small, author of the study and taxonomist for Agriculture Canada.\n\"Animals that are beautiful, entertaining or that command respect due to their size or power are almost always given greater forms of conservation protection.\"\nThe study highlights charismatic mega-fauna such as whales, tigers and polar bears as animals more likely to be the focus of successful conservation programs, protective legislation and public funding drives.\nAs a result, the plight of less glamorous -- but no less ecologically important organisms, such as snakes, spiders and frogs -- are often ignored.\nSmall argues that this focus on large, spectacular species could have profound consequences for a wide variety of finely balanced ecosystems and food chains.\n\"When you concentrate on the preservation of selective species ... you do an inadequate job of protecting biodiversity as a whole,\" he said..\nHe adds that by employing such selective methods human beings could also be manufacturing nature to reflect their own image or the characteristics they admire.\n\"We find attractive in animals the same qualities that we find attractive largely in our own species. These are not always the most ecologically important species however,\" he added.\nFor those working on the front line of conservation, the concerns raised by Small and his study are very real.\nAccording to Dr Sybille Klenzendorf, director of World Wildlife Fund's species program, there is already a wide body of evidence that suggests people are most interested in vulnerable animals that most closely resemble human beings -- usually large mammals with forward-facing eyes.\nBut Klenzendorf argues that focusing conservation efforts on these vulnerable species can lead to the best conservation programs.\n\"These large, charismatic species are ... the ones that require the largest amount of wild habitat, and by preserving them we save the less impressive species too,\" said Klenzendorf.\n\"In order to ensure the survival of wild tigers, we not only have to protect vast amounts of natural forest, but we also need to ensure that the animals on which they prey, and the plants on which those animals depend, are all protected. The same is true for polar bears and elephants.\"\n\"By protecting those animals that we are the most attracted to, we are also influencing and supporting the survival of other species, as well protecting entire landscapes,\" she explained.\nBut while recognizing that these methods are \"not entirely without benefit,\" Small believes that more must be done to protect less appealing wildlife.\n\"Aesthetic standards have become one of the primary determinants of which species are deemed worthy for conservation and this has to be looked at,\" he said.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9104c211-db1a-41e5-b988-0cc317fcf702>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://us.cnn.com/2012/05/06/world/beautiful-ugly-animals/index.html?iid=article_sidebar", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9543413519859314, "token_count": 652, "score": 3.5625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Many birds bred in captivity are hand-reared. Hand-rearing allows a\ngreater number of birds to be reared (initial clutches may be removed and hand-reared,\nwith the birds re-laying). The abnormal rearing environment may, however adversely\naffect later behaviour. One potential problem is that birds reared in an abnormal\nenvironment may not themselves exhibit normal parental behaviour as adults.\n- A well-recognised problem, of more concern in some species than in\nothers, is that hand-reared birds may become imprinted on humans and not later recognise\ntheir conspecifics as appropriate mates. This is less likely to occur if the birds are\nreared alongside others of their own species. If reared together with chicks of another\nspecies, they may preferentially mate with that species.\n- Hand-reared birds may be less wary than parent-reared birds. This may be\nuseful or detrimental depending on the circumstances. It may increase vulnerability to\npredation in birds intended for release, but may be useful in producing birds which are\nless stressed in a captive situation, and therefore more likely to breed: this may be very\nimportant in breeding endangered species.\n- Hand-rearing also requires suitable equipment in the form of brooder\nboxes, runs, heat lamps etc. and requires a considerable input of time and effort. Not all\nspecies are easy to hand-rear and some require considerable experience and expertise.\n- Hand rearing has the advantages of allowing good control over temperature\nand food availability.\n- Success with rearing, particularly of duck species, may be greatly increased with\nhand-rearing. Losses due to predation and abandonment, in particular, may be decreased.\n- Once downies have hatched and dried, they should be transferred from the hatching\nincubator to a heated broody box. Broody boxes should have solid sides and a mesh top to\nprevent active birds from jumping or climbing out.\n- The most common method of providing heat is by an infra-red heat lamp. This is\nusually suspended over the brooder box by means of a chain, allowing the lamp to be raised\nor lowered as required to adjust the temperature inside the box. Incandescent bulbs may\nalso be used to provide heat, but are more vulnerable if knocked or splashed with water\n(and may shatter), and do not allow for a period of darkness, which is important for all\nexcept Arctic-breeding waterfowl.\n- A thermal gradient should be present from directly under the lamp (warmest) to\nthe far end of the box, allowing the downies to chose for themselves the most comfortable\narea. A sturdy thermometer may be placed inside the box to monitor the temperature, which\nshould initially be about 90-99F (32.2-37.2C) directly under the lamp, reducing to 65-70F\n(18.3-21.1C) (or ambient temperature if higher) by about three weeks old.\n- N.B. thermometer temperatures are a useful guide, but\nbehavioural monitoring should be used also: if the downies are all underneath the\nlamp and huddling together, they are too cold and the lamp needs to be lowered. If they\nare staying in the far corners of the box, as far away from the lamp as possible, panting\nand appearing stressed, they are too hot and the lamp needs to be raised.\nSubstrate and Cleaning:\n- Suitable substrates for young waterfowl should stay dry to avoid wetting and\nchilling and a non-slip surface is preferred to avoid splay-leg. Newspaper is not very\nsuitable as it quickly becomes sodden and is also slippery when dry. Towels may be used\ninitially but quickly become soiled and wet. Hay and straw should be avoided as they may\nbe a source of Aspergillus spp. spores. Wood shavings, hay, straw and paper might\nbe eaten, which may lead to Impaction.\nRubber mats with a stippled surface have been used successfully, as has synthetic turf.\nPlastic-covered weldmesh or stiff plastic mesh on a frame may be used and has the\nadvantage that spilled feed, water and droppings can fall though to a gutter area\nunderneath to be washed away. Good hygiene is very important and brooder boxes should be\ncleaned daily to avoid bacterial and fungal growth and associated diseases.\n- There are two main approaches to the provision of water for downy waterfowl.\nDownies may be kept with full access to water for swimming from the first or second day.\nIn such conditions it is important to watch the birds carefully for the first few days and\nensure they are kept warm and dry when out of the water, as there is a risk of the birds\nbecoming too wet with resultant Chilling. It\nis particularly important for the diving ducks (especially seaducks and stifftails) to\nhave access to water for swimming and diving from an early age (B29).\n- Alternatively, downies may be maintained with only drinking water, provided in\nsmall vessels or in shallow bowls partially filled with stones to prevent swimming; this\nmay be safer and requires less constant watching, and is often used for dabbling ducks and\ngeese, particularly for small delicate duck species. The amount of water is gradually\nincreased to allow paddling, and full access to water is allowed only after the first full\nplumage of contour feathers has grown.\n- If full water access is provided from an early age, a constant flow with\nsurface-level drainage should be used, and an area of stippled rubber matting or mesh must\nbe provided under the brooder lamp.\n- If waterfowl have been reared without full access to water they must be watched\ncarefully when first let onto water as they may become water-logged and sink (see:\nthey are also at greater risk of Chilling\nuntil the first plumage has become waterproof.\n- Food should be provided once the birds are out of the hatcher. For most species\nwhich normally peck at food, dry crumbs or small pellets may be provided in a bowl close\nto water. For species which would sieve their food, food should be finely ground and made\nup into a wet slurry. Initially, crumbs with a protein level of 19-20% may be given, with\nthis being changed to pellets of about 15-16% from two to three weeks old onwards. Fine\ngrit should also be provided.\n- Some waterfowl are difficult to get feeding initially, and may fail to gain\nweight and die, usually during their second week (see: Starveout). A\nvariety of techniques have been developed to encourage waterfowl downies to feed; see:\nStimulating Feeding of\n- N.B. It is important to ensure that downies are actually eating,\nnot just appearing to eat. Daily weighing is a useful indication, although weights\nnormally decreases in the first two or three days as the yolk sac is absorbed. Careful\nobservation is required to ensure that food is actually being ingested, and tube feeding\nmay be required for some very difficult birds which are slow to begin to feed.\n- For goslings and other grazing species access to growing grass (i.e. turf, not\njust cut grass) is important.\n- The number of hours of light provided should mimic the normal daylight hours of\nthe natural environment where the birds are reared. In the case or Arctic-breeding geese,\nthis would be constant daylight. Tropical species may be best maintained on a cycle of 13\nhours daylight, 11 hours dark, while temperate species require something in between, such\nas 16 hours of light, 8 hours dark. Temperate species given too many hours of daylight are\nprone to overfeeding, with the attendant risk of the development of Angel Wing.\n- Young waterfowl should be given access to an outside run in suitable weather as\nyoung as possible, and may normally be moved outside at least in daytime by as early as\none to two weeks old, depending on the weather.\n- The run should be placed on clean short grass in an area not used by waterfowl\n(adults or juveniles) the previous year.\n- Runs should provide sunny areas (weather permitting) and shade to avoid\nsunstroke/heatstroke, and should be designed to exclude mice. Thought should be given to\nthe fact that the direction of the sun moves during the day, so that a board giving\nadequate shade in the morning may need to be moved in order to continue to provide shade\nlater in the day.\n- The young birds should be shut away at night until the down is being replaced by\nthe first proper feathers. Depending on climate, some heat may be required at night at\n- Until birds are both fully feathered and waterproof it is advisable to ensure\nthat either the birds are shut in at night or the whole run is covered at night, to avoid\nthe risk of birds becoming soaked during a nightime downpour.\n- Once fully feathered, juveniles may be placed in larger pens, with a good-sized\npool. At this stage, birds which have previously been maintained off water must be watched\nand may need to be dried if they become to wet; waterproofing usually develops properly\nwithin a couple of days. These pens should provide sun, dry spots for resting and shelter\nfrom rain, as well as areas in sunshine.\n- Ideally, birds are raised in broods of the same age and species. Juveniles of\ndifferent species but the same age and size may be reared together also; however some\nbirds reared with a different species may be prone to choose a bird of the wrong species\nas a mate when adult. Every effort should be made to avoid rearing a youngster\nwithout other waterfowl for company (except for Biziura\nlobata - Musk duck ducklings).\nB7, B13.46.w1, B29,\nB41, B95, B97,", "id": "<urn:uuid:f9c5a0b7-e25a-449e-ad9a-5750e92f9e33>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wildpro.twycrosszoo.org/S/00Man/avianhusbandrytechniques/Rearing.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9312255382537842, "token_count": 2156, "score": 3.859375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Almost every teen has heard about the kissing disease. Though only about 5-10 percent of them actually come down with the symptoms of Mono, tales of this infection are well known in adolescent circles.\nWhen I see a teen in the clinic with the classic symptoms of fever, sore throat, fatigue and enlarged lymph nodes, I tell them it could be Mono. Many of them nod knowingly and flash an embarrassing smile because now they think their parents must know they\u2019re kissing someone.\nTruth is, while Mono can be commonly spread by sharing kisses, it\u2019s also spread by sharing eating or drinking utensils and by sexual contact. Coming into contact with the bodily fluids of someone currently infected with Mono increases your chances of catching it.\nWhat is Mono?\nMono is a viral infection caused by EBV (Epstein-Barr Virus). It\u2019s incredibly ubiquitous and most children are exposed to it prior to adolescence. The difference is children rarely come down with the symptoms of Mono. So, the illness is most common in 15- to 24-year-olds who were not exposed in childhood. Eventually 90-95 percent of the population becomes EBV positive.\nFatigue and sore throat are by far the most common and most severe complaints of Mono. Fever may occur early in the disease but is not the most significant symptom. It\u2019s often mistaken for strep throat or the flu since symptoms can greatly overlap. To confirm suspicions of Mono, many teens will need a blood test checking their white blood count and for presence of antibodies to EBV. A strep culture may also be done to rule out strep throat.\nCaution in Mono\nAbout 50-60 percent of teens with Mono will also have an enlarged spleen. Rupture of the spleen is rare but can be life threatening and for this reason, teens are not to participate in all sports activities for a minimum of 3 weeks. Contact sports, such as football, are definitely sidelined until 4 weeks after the onset of illness. Check with your child\u2019s doctor to know when your teen gets the green light.\nWhen can my teen return to school?\nOnce your teen is afebrile, sore throat is under control and fatigue has lifted then he/she is likely ready to return to school. There\u2019s no hard and fast rule on this since contagiousness starts before onset of symptoms and shedding of the virus continues long after initial infection.\nRemind your teens to not share eating or drinking utensils and to avoid intimate contact with someone else recently infected.\nDr. Mom's bottom line: The fatigue of Mono can linger for months. Make sure your teen is getting enough sleep (8.5 to 9 hours per night) and that any residual throat pain and/or swelling is addressed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b404f793-8258-4c76-ac8d-7d2a753bead2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.allparenting.com/my-family/articles/956797/teens-and-the-kissing-disease", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9574400782585144, "token_count": 573, "score": 3.296875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Constantinople AgreementArticle Free Pass\nConstantinople Agreement, (March 18, 1915), secret World War I agreement between Russia, Britain, and France for the postwar partition of the Ottoman Empire. It promised to satisfy Russia\u2019s long-standing designs on the Turkish Straits by giving Russia Constantinople (Istanbul), together with a portion of the hinterland on either coast in Thrace and Asia Minor. Constantinople, however, was to be a free port. In return, Russia consented to British and French plans for territories or for spheres of influence in new Muslim states in the Middle Eastern parts of the Ottoman Empire. This first of a series of secret treaties on the \u201cTurkish question\u201d was never carried out because the Dardanelles campaign failed and because, when the British navy finally did reach Istanbul in 1918, Russia had made a separate peace with Germany and declared itself the enemy of all bourgeois states, France and Britain prominent among them.\nWhat made you want to look up \"Constantinople Agreement\"? Please share what surprised you most...", "id": "<urn:uuid:cb21ac9a-71f0-4c47-9c59-b4e5c4063e47>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/134063/Constantinople-Agreement", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9357172846794128, "token_count": 219, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A new tool to identify the calls of bat species could help conservation efforts.\nBecause bats are nocturnal and difficult to observe or catch, the most effective way to study them is to monitor their echolocation calls. These sounds are emitted in order to hear the echo bouncing back from surfaces around the bats, allowing them to navigate, hunt and communicate.\nMany different measurements can be taken from each call, such as its minimum and maximum frequency, or how quickly the frequency changes during the call, and these measurements are used to help identify the species of bat.\nHowever, a paper by an international team of researchers, published in the Journal of Applied Ecology, asserts that poor standardisation of acoustic monitoring limits scientists\u2019 ability to collate data.\nKate Jones, chairwoman of the UK-based Bat Conservation Trust\ntold the BBC that \u201cwithout using the same identification methods everywhere, we cannot form reliable conclusions about how bat populations are doing and whether their distribution is changing.\n\"Because many bats migrate between different European countries, we need to monitor bats at a European - as well as country - scale.\u201d\nThe team selected 1,350 calls from 34 different European bat species from EchoBank, a global echolocation library containing more than 200,000 bat call recordings. This raw data has allowed them to develop the identification tool, iBatsID\n, which can identify 34 out of 45 species of bats.\nThis free online tool works anywhere in Europe, and its creators claim can identify most species correctly more than 80% of the time.\nThere are 18 species of bat residing in the UK, including the common pipistrelle and greater horseshoe bat.\nMonitoring bats is vital not just to this species, but also to the whole ecosystem. Bats are extremely sensitive to changes in their environment, so if bat populations are declining, it can be an indication that other species might be affected in the future.", "id": "<urn:uuid:293a002d-f152-4885-9293-13b158f7cec0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.countryfile.com/news/bats", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9368503093719482, "token_count": 398, "score": 4.46875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Quick Tips for Lowering Cholesterol\n6. Know Your Sources Of Trans Fat\nSince 2006, the FDA has required food manufacturers to list reportable amounts of trans fat on the nutrition facts label. What\u2019s considered reportable? Food manufacturers don\u2019t have to report the trans-fat content if it\u2019s less than 0.5 gram per serving. So check the ingredients list for hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils even if the nutrition facts label reports 0 grams of trans fat.\nNext: 7. Go Fish \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:7796e748-8b68-4850-a618-6762b3ad4484>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eatingwell.com/nutrition_health/cholesterol/cholesterol_quick_tips?page=7&quicktabs_1=3?page=7&quicktabs_1=3", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7664819955825806, "token_count": 111, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Methods Used in Air Pollution Prevention\nAir pollution is a major fear, particularly in very inhabited places around the world. The more traffic and people there is in some country the more air pollution that is registered. A little air pollution sums quite fast and with a crowded environment that has in mind in little time at all.\nThe consequences of air pollution can be really damaging to people and animals. It is really abusive to children and those with respiratory problems. Experiencing clean air is fundamental for a good quality of life and that is wherefore there is a major concentrate on air pollution prevention.\nAir Pollution Threats\nTransportation is the most evidential sphere that adds to air pollution. The air pollution induced by vehicles, airplanes, trains and other fashions of transportation is the biggest amount. Of course, air pollution can come from other sources.\nAir pollution can be from chemicals, waste material, oil production, nuclear weapons and another toxic substances. On a smaller level air pollution is as well caused by house appliances and cigaret smoking. An important point about air pollution is that even tiny amounts of pollution sum up when there is a heavily inhabited domain.\nThe Clean Air Act is a superb representation of the government\u2019s role in air pollution prevention. This act aids to influence and enforce laws that attempt to eliminate or dilute the causes of air pollution. The administration sets the standards and serve up to get everyone engaged for cleaner air.\nThe Environmental Protection Agency as well runs a significant role in air pollution prevention. The EPA is working hard to shape the discharges of vehicles. Standards are rigorously updated to ensure that the coming vehicles are to a greater extent environmentally friendly then those of the past times.\nIn the engagement for air pollution prevention the newest efforts have involved brand-new applied science and educational activity. Technologies like hybrid cars have been one of the greatest break throughs for the prevention of air pollution.\nVehicles contribute greatly to air pollution and through the use of hybrids that pollution level is greatly minimized. This is likewise being supplemented with ideas for innovative energy forms that can even allow a car to operate with no pollution being emitted.\nEducation of the public about air pollution and how to prevent it is evenly being found of the essence. The more people know about the damages of air pollution and what induces it, the better fit they are to do their portion. Air pollution prevention in truth is about everyone working together. Thus, everyone has to understand the situation and be armed with the necessary info so they can practice their part to prevent air pollution.\nEco Friendly Posts:\n- Air Pollution Prevention Information Brings Importance of Issue to Light\n- Freshwater Pollution Prevention: Clean Drinking Water For Everyone\n- The Link Between Al Gore and Pollution Prevention\n- Air Pollution Control Measures\n- Learning About the Air Quality Index", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ae9944b-05e3-49ee-9df7-f14966795223>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ecofriendlymind.com/methods-used-in-air-pollution-prevention/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9433816075325012, "token_count": 578, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "8. Scurrula buddleioides (Desrousseaux) G. Don, Gen. Hist. 3: 421. 1834.\n\u6ec7\u85cf\u68a8\u679c\u5bc4\u751f dian zang li guo ji sheng\nShrubs 0.5-2 m tall, young branchlets, leaves, and inflorescences with dense short grayish yellow, rarely brown, verticillate and stellate hairs. Branches brownish, glabrous, scattered lenticellate. Leaves opposite; petiole 4-12 mm, pilose; leaf blade ovate, ovate-oblong to oblong, 6-10 \u00d7 3.5-8 cm, papery or thinly leathery, abaxial surface minutely tomentose, adaxial surface glabrous, lateral veins 4 or 5 pairs, base obtuse to rounded, apex acute. Racemes 2-5-fascicled, axillary, sometimes at leafless nodes, 3-5(-7)-flowered; peduncle and rachis 1.5-5 mm, brownish or grayish yellow tomentose. Flowers densely alternate; bracts ovate, ca. 1 mm. Pedicel 1-1.5 mm. Calyx pyriform, 2-3 mm, limb annular, ciliate. Mature bud tubular, 1.5-2 cm, tip ellipsoid. Corolla red, slightly curved and inflated, tomentose, lobes lanceolate, ca. 5 mm, reflexed. Style red; stigma subcapitate. Berry pyriform, 8-10 \u00d7 3.5-4 mm, pilose, base tapering into stalk. Fl. and fr. Jan-Dec.\nForests, thickets, mountain slopes, valleys; 1100-2200 m. Sichuan, Xizang, Yunnan [India].\nRecorded hosts include species of Caprifoliaceae, Coriariaceae, Fagaceae, Moraceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae, and Tiliaceae.", "id": "<urn:uuid:36a75cf8-5ffa-426e-af7c-28604a6613d2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200006547", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.6815483570098877, "token_count": 447, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "PAO: Policy Activities \u00bb Briefing (November 2, 2011)\nUsing Science to Improve Flood Management\nOn November 2, 2011, ESA sponsored a congressional briefing: \u201cUsing Science to Improve Flood Management.\u201d Emily Stanley (University of Wisconsin, Madison) and Jeff Opperman (The Nature Conservancy, Ohio Field Office) addressed the function of floodplains and managing rivers as systems and for multiple benefits.\nEmily Stanley\u2019s presentation focused on the work of rivers and the function of floodplains. Industry, transportation, and recreation all constitute work done by rivers. Less well known and valued is the work done by floodplains, responsible for such desirable services such as flood attenuation, fish production, improved water quality and groundwater recharge. Stanley noted that aging US levee and other infrastructure provide an opportunity to move beyond structural flood control and take greater advantage of the functions of floodplains.\nJeff Opperman\u2019s presentation focused on the logic of managing rivers as a system and for multiple benefits. These include risk reduction for people and infrastructure as well as benefits such as water storage during droughts and increased fisheries production. Opperman said that because the Mississippi River is managed as a comprehensive system, the recent flood was far less damaging than that of 1927 even though a greater volume of water passed through the system in 2011. Opperman also pointed to the success story of California\u2019s Yolo Bypass, which has reduced flood risk while increasing goods and services.\nTo view the complete presentations, please click on the links below:", "id": "<urn:uuid:33f7423f-3d75-4ed6-a025-a3e344c8d8f3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.esa.org/pao/policyActivities/briefing11072011.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9485194683074951, "token_count": 316, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Rugby (pop. 63,000) is a market town sitting on the River Avon at the boundary of Warwickshire, Leicestershire and Northamptonshire. It is renowned for its prestigious Rugby School, one of the country's oldest public school (i.e. an expensive private school in the UK - see Eton), founded in 1567. Some of the famous people who attended Rugby School include Alice in Wonderland's author Lewis Carrol, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, and essayist Salman Rushdie.\nHowever, the town's main claim of fame is to have invented the sport that bears its name. The ball sport was first played by William Webb Ellis (1806-1872) in 1823, a student of Rugby School, who disrespecting the rules of football (AmE = soccer), took the ball into his hands and started running with it. The claim that he invented the game did not surface before 4 years after his death though.\nRugby School also educated the Australian Tom Wills, who in 1859 first codified the rules of Australian football.\nThe region of Rugby was settled since the Iron Age. The River Avon marked the boundary between the Dobunni and the Coritani Celtic tribes. The Roman founded Tripontium near present-day Rugby. Not until the 13th century did Rugby develop into a small town, after gaining a market charter.\n1567 marks the founding of Rugby School by Lawrence Sheriff, a local grocer who left money for the establishment of a school for local boys. Fee-paying pupils were soon accepted to pay the bills, and Rugby gradually became a largely fee-paying school.\nRugdy's population remained around 1,000 until the Oxford Canal (linking Oxford to Coventry via Rugby) opened in the 1770's. The town only came into prominence in the 1820's when the school's headmaster, Dr Thomas Arnold, pioneered new teaching methods and changed radically public school education in England. Most of the buildings in th centre of Rugby date from this period.\nAs the railway was developing throughout England in the 1830's, Rugby became a major junction. It became so congested that Charles Dickens satirized it in his short story Mugby Junction (1866).\nFrom the 1950s, Rugby gained a substantial Afro-Caribbean community, and a sizeable community from the Indian sub-continent, making Rugby a multi-cultural town (it even has a Hindu temple).\nThe town as it exists now is mostly Victorian in architecture, with a few older timber-framed houses. Rugby's town centre is said to have the highest concentration of pubs in England.\nThe 19th-century grandeur of Rugby School combined with the relaxing calm of Oxford Canal make for a pleasant stroll around the town.\nHow to get there\nRugby is located 24km south-east of Coventry, about half-way between Birmingham and Northampton.\nTrains link Rugby to London Euston (55min, \u00a319.90), Northampton\n(20min, \u00a33.30) and Birmingham\nNational Express has buses to Coventry (2h, \u00a313).\nTrain timetables & reservations", "id": "<urn:uuid:a2a19379-b3a9-4fa4-a52d-aba6165f36b8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eupedia.com/england/rugby.shtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9730239510536194, "token_count": 661, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The length of amyloid fibrils found in diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinson appears to play a role in the degree of their toxicity, according to researchers at the University of Leeds. Their findings are published in The Journal of Biological Chemistry in a paper titled \u201cFibril Fragmentation Enhances Amyloid Cytotoxicity.\u201d\nSheena Radford, Ph.D., and colleagues systematically analyzed the effects of fragmentation on three of the 30 or so proteins that form amyloid in human diseases. Their results showed that in addition to the expected relationship between fragmentation and the ability to seed, the length of fibrils also correlated with their ability to disrupt membranes and reduce cell viability. This was evident even when there were no other changes in molecular architecture.\nCo-author, Eric Hewitt, Ph.D., says that while the findings provide scientists with unexpected new insights for the development of therapeutics against amyloid deposit-related diseases, the next stage of research will involve looking at a greater numbers of the proteins that form amyloid fibrils. \u201cWe anticipate that when we look at amyloid fibers formed from other proteins, they may well follow the same rules.\u201d\n\u201cIt may be that because they\u2019re smaller it\u2019s easier for them to infiltrate cells,\u201d Dr. Hewitt suggests. \u201cWe\u2019ve observed them killing cells, but we\u2019re not sure yet exactly how they do it. Nor do we know whether these short fibers form naturally when amyloid fibers assemble or whether some molecular process makes them disassemble or fragment into shorter fibers. These are our next big challenges.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:957a39d1-d98f-461e-8b3f-b4e3363f7224>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.genengnews.com/gen-news-highlights/scientists-claim-short-amyloid-fibers-are-more-toxic-than-their-longer-counterparts/70115925/?kwrd=Cellular%20Biology", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9519702196121216, "token_count": 346, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "1997 the Department of the Interior added the Grove Street\nCemetery to the National Register of Historic Places.\nThree years later the Department\ndeclared the cemetery a National Historic Landmark, the first\ncemetery so designated in New England, because \"this\nsite possesses national significance in commemorating the\nhistory of the United States of America.\"\nthe cemetery \"represents a mile-stone in the development\nof a cemetery as a distinct institution.\nIts monuments reflect the history of funerary\nart in America while its entrance gate is recognized as one\nof the leading examples of Egyptian Revival style in the\n\"The Dead Shall Be Raised\"\nThomas Clarke Williams", "id": "<urn:uuid:9e3ec169-6a95-4cb4-8e4f-bd5955a626d7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.grovestreetcemetery.org/grove_street_cemetery_national_historic_landmark.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.902689516544342, "token_count": 138, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Click here to view an interactive map of the Northern Ireland dataset as currently collated by CEDaR.\nThe map is generated through the NBN Gateway using their Interactive Mapping Tool.\nCoregonus autumnalis pollan Thompson\nPollan is a glacial relict of an Alaskan-Siberian whitefish species and is not found anywhere in Western Europe outside of Ireland. It is a good example of the importance of correct taxonomy in determining conservation importance. For most of the twentieth century, pollan was regarded as one or other of two coregonid species found in Britain. However, molecular studies in the 1970s showed conclusively that it was C. autumnalis, but that there were sufficient differences to regard it as a distinct subspecies C. a. pollan. In a recent revision, Kottelat has suggested that it should be designated as a full species C. pollan rather than a subspecies, which would make it an endemic Irish species. Further work is required to validate this proposal. Irrespective of its exact classification, pollan is one of the most unique elements of the Irish fauna. Pollan entered the Shannon system as a migratory fish at the end of the last Ice Age, some 14,000 years ago, and from there it spread to Loughs Erne and Neagh, all of which were interconnected in the period of glacial retreat. As the sea temperature and salinity increased, pollan lost its migratory habit and became restricted to freshwater. However, pollan have been found in the Erne estuary at Ballyshannon and downstream of Coleraine on the Lower River Bann. Since Neagh, Erne and Shannon (Ree and Derg) stocks have been isolated for over 10,000 years, undoubtedly genetic differences have evolved among them as a result of adaptation to local conditions and by genetic drift. There is also some evidence of distinct populations within Lough Neagh, presumably maintained as a result of natal homing to separate spawning areas.\nPollan is a silvery trout-shaped fish, with a dark greeny-blue back. Superficially, it resembles a herring but is easily recognised due to the presence of the diagnostic salmonid adipose fin, a small fleshy dorsal fin just in front of the tail.\nPollan spawn in December and January in shallow rocky areas of the loughs where wave action provides good oxygenation for the developing eggs. The young fish feed on animal plankton and on larger invertebrates as they grow older. $Mysis relicta$, a glacial relict crustacean, is an important food source in Lough Neagh, as are the abundant larvae of chironomid midges. Spawning takes place from about three years of age and individuals can generally live for about five years, although a seven-year-old has been recorded from Lower Lough Erne.\nThere are no similar freshwater species present in Ireland but two related whitefish species are found in Scotland, Cumbria, and Wales, although several populations of these have become extinct in recent decades.\nHow to see this species\nLough Neagh pollan are fished for commercially and can be seen as fishermen land their catches at various quays around the lough. They can be bought in some fish markets and shops during the fishing season (March to October). Pollan sometimes move down the Lower River Bann and they have been caught by anglers downstream of Coleraine.\nAlthough still common in Lough Neagh, pollan is no longer found in Upper Lough Erne and has become very rare in Lower Lough Erne since the 1970s. It was abundant in Lough Erne in the early part of the twentieth century where it formed the subject of a substantial commercial fishery. Exploitation of Lough Neagh pollan is controlled by Fisheries Legislation, enforced by the Fisheries Conservancy Board Northern Ireland.\nWhy is this species a priority in Northern Ireland?\nPollan is not found anywhere else in Western Europe outside Ireland\nThreats/Causes of decline\nPollan require water with a good level of oxygen and so eutrophication, due to nutrient enrichment, and climatic warming are major threats, especially in the deeper lakes where oxygenation due to wind-mixing is reduced. The other major threat is increase of non-native species such as pike, roach and zebra mussel, which have been linked to the decline in Lower Lough Erne, possibly as a result of predation and decline in zooplankton availability. The recent introduction of zebra mussel into Lough Neagh presents a serious threat to pollan in this lough.\nConservation of this species\nAn all-Ireland Species Action Plan was published in 2005. There is also a UK Species Action Plan which was published in 1995.\nWhat you can do\nSupport the restoration of Northern Ireland lakes to high water quality status. Help prevent the further spread of zebra mussels within Lough Neagh.\nText written by:\nProfessor Andrew Ferguson", "id": "<urn:uuid:3d115573-ceb8-403a-9b3f-375339858b21>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.habitas.org.uk/priority/species.asp?item=42768", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.959903359413147, "token_count": 1049, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Almost all of the 33 developed and developing countries surveyed in a new study had introduced or progressed with significant climate-related legislation within their own borders in the past year.\nIn 2012, 18 countries made significant progress, according to the report by the Grantham Research Institute at LSE and Globe International, which brings together legislators from different countries.\nOnly Canada had gone backwards on climate change, by repealing the Act implementing its targets under the Kyoto Protocol treaty to cut global emissions.\nDespite a tough economic year for many countries, such as those in the eurozone, some progress was made by developed nations.\nThe EU as a whole made progress through its new directive on energy efficiency, while the US pushed forward with regulating carbon dioxide through its Clean Air Act.\nAction by developing countries was more significant, with Mexico leading the way with a new climate law to cut emissions by 30% compared to \"business as usual\" by 2020, and major progress by countries ranging from Kenya to Pakistan.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0a8af8f1-6eb4-4528-91d2-0dbf9e717b05>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.heraldscotland.com/news/environment/global-climate-change-progress.19909473", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9750860333442688, "token_count": 198, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is the media? What does it do? Students examine the types and roles of the media by taking on the role of newsmaker and agenda setter.\nStudents will be able to:\nANTICIPATE by asking students if they\u2019ve ever seen a television newscast. Ask students to recall any details they remember (graphics, music, story topics). Ask students who they think makes decisions about what stories television newscasts discuss.\nDISTRIBUTE the Reading pages to each student.\nREAD the two reading pages with the class, pausing to discuss as necessary.\nCHECK for understanding by doing the T/F Active Participation activity. Have students respond \u201cTrue\u201d or \u201cFalse\u201d as a chorus or use thumbs up/thumbs down.\nDISTRIBUTE scissors, glue, and the Agenda Cutout Activity pages. Students can complete this activity individually or in pairs.\nREAD the directions for the cutout activity.\nALLOW students to complete the cutout activity.\nREVIEW the answers to the cutout activity.\nDISTRIBUTE one worksheet to each student and review the directions for the activities.\nALLOW students to complete the worksheet.\nDISTRIBUTE one Extension Activity to each student and review the directions.\nALLOW students to complete the extension activity.\nCLOSE by asking students to silently recall as many roles of the media as they can. Call on students until all roles have been named.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0ed2aa07-2935-4e0f-8814-0064087833ed>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.icivics.org/teachers/lesson-plans/role-media", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9271356463432312, "token_count": 304, "score": 4.59375, "int_score": 5, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ask The Expert\nOctober 29, 2010\n\"ITB syndrome\" is short for iliotibial band syndrome. It refers to a common cause of knee pain.\nThe iliotibial band is a tough fibrous (scar-like) tissue that extends from the region of the hip to the knee along the outside of the leg. Along with other muscles of the leg, the IT band helps stabilize the knee, especially when the knee is stressed during physical activity.\nITB syndrome develops when there is damage, irritation or inflammation of the IT band. The most common site is at the outside of the knee where the tissue of the IT band rubs over a bony bump.\nPain over the outside of the knee is the most common symptom, although some people complain of pain higher up, along the outside of the thigh or hip. Repetitive knee flexing tends to make it worse. Rest usually relieves the symptoms.\nWhile ITB syndrome may occur for no apparent reason, it's common among people who are:\nTreatment options include:\nIn cases where these measures don't work, doctors may recommend a cortisone injection or even surgery to remove a bony bump that's irritating the IT band.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cf285c38-d5f1-441d-ade3-a352bd72c2e9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtPrint/WSIHW000/29721/8486/1378589.html?hide=t&k=basePrint", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.94072425365448, "token_count": 252, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Eisenhower was President. Elvis was King. It was 19 August 1959, and a new era in Kalamazoo's history was about to begin. The nation's first pedestrian shopping mall opened on the two blocks of South Burdick Street between Water and South Streets with much fanfare, a mere two and a half months after construction first began. The Jimmy Dorsey Orchestra was on hand to celebrate the event with 50,000 people who visited the mall on its first day, more than ten times the usual number.\nSo why would a city construct a pedestrian mall in the heart of its business district? Like the rest of the country, Kalamazoo faced urban decay. The growth of suburban shopping centers raised fears that downtown would lose its place as the business and cultural heart of the community. The city hoped that a mall would bring back business and counter the decline in real estate values.\nThe Gruen Plan\nThe Kalamazoo 1980 plan, also known as the Gruen Plan, was presented by the architectural firm Victor Gruen & Associates in March 1958. Its revolutionary design called for a loop street system that would encircle downtown; a series of pedestrian malls, new parking lots, and renovated stores and offices would lie in the center. Faced with maintaining the status quo or taking a bold step forward, the City Commission approved the design, although funding problems prevented the full plan from being implemented. Shared by the City of Kalamazoo and the property owners fronting the two-block mall, the cost of construction was only $60,000. A third block was added from South Street to Lovell Street in 1960, and a fourth between Water and Eleanor Streets in 1975. Through the leadership of Mayor Glenn Allen Jr., Elton Ham, Garret VanHaaften, Ray Dykema, Irving Gilmore, and others, the Kalamazoo Mall became a reality.\nA Street Once More\nKalamazooans enjoyed the mall for nearly forty years, but ultimately it could not counter the continued effects of suburbanization. Critics complained of the lack of convenient parking, the exposure of shoppers to bad weather, public perceptions of crime, and less shopping diversity. In the mid-1990's the proposed introduction of an access street through two blocks of the mall became the most controversial component of Project Downtown's 10-point plan for Kalamazoo's revitalization. In a hotly contested election, voters approved the access street in May 1997. Construction on the 14-foot wide street began a year later in April 1998. The city officially reopened the street on 9 October 1998 with a weekend celebration highlighted by a visit from Governor John Engler, a big band concert reflecting the one in 1959, and a fireworks display. There was even a citywide raffle to select the lucky citizen who would drive the first car down the mall since 1959.\nThe unprecedented decision to construct a pedestrian mall in the heart of its business district placed Kalamazoo in the national spotlight in 1959. Today, critics argue that the heyday of the pedestrian mall has passed. Of the over two hundred pedestrian malls constructed in the 1970's and 1980's, only a few remain. People are still clearly divided over this issue. Yet despite the disagreement over the Kalamazoo Mall itself, the two sides ultimately want the same thing: a healthy and vibrant downtown.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2b6ecd5f-d3da-423b-b94f-9b47da514138>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kpl.gov/local-history/general/mall-city.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9650354385375977, "token_count": 674, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Definition: 'Taenia Solium'\nTaenia soliumType: Term\n1. the pork, armed, or solitary tapeworm of humans, acquired by eating insufficiently cooked pork infected with Cysticercus cellulosae; hatching of ova within the human intestine may result in establishment of cysticerci in human tissues, resulting in cysticercosis.\nThe information shown above for Taenia solium is provided by Stedman's.\n* Stedman's, part of Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, provide a comprehensive line of health-science publications for healthcare professionals and medical students.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1414d58b-2143-4c4e-870f-f79a254b4a8a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=89566", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8684228658676147, "token_count": 133, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. Its stated purpose is to contribute to peace and security by promoting international collaboration through education, science, and culture in order to further universal respect for justice, the rule of law, and the human rights and fundamental freedoms proclaimed in the UN Charter. In total, 191 nations belong to UNESCO. The organization is based in Paris, with over 50 field offices and several institutes and offices throughout the world. Most of the field offices are \"cluster\" offices covering three or more countries; there are also national and regional offices. UNESCO pursues its action through five major programmes: education, natural sciences, social and human sciences, culture, and communication and information. Projects sponsored by UNESCO include literacy, technical, and teacher-training programmes; international science programmes; the promotion of independent media and freedom of the press; regional and cultural history projects, the promotion of cultural diversity; international cooperation agreements to secure the world cultural and natural heritage and to preserve human rights; and attempts to bridge the world-wide digital divide.\nAs early as 1942, in wartime, the governments of the European countries, which were confronting Nazi Germany and its allies met in the United Kingdom for the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME).\nThe Second World War was far from over, yet those countries were looking for ways and means to reconstruct their systems of education once peace was restored. Very quickly, the project gained momentum and soon took on a universal note. New governments, including that of the United States, decided to join in.\nUpon the proposal of CAME, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London from 1 to 16 November 1945. Scarcely had the war ended when the conference opened. It gathered together the representatives of forty-four countries. Spurred on by France and the United Kingdom, two countries that had known great hardship during the conflict, the delegates decided to create an organization that would embody a genuine culture of peace. In their eyes, the new organization must establish the \u201cintellectual and moral solidarity of mankind\u201d and, in so doing, prevent the outbreak of another world war.\nAt the end of the conference, thirty-seven countries made the birth of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. The Constitution of UNESCO, signed on 16 November 1945, came into force on 4 November 1946 after ratification by twenty countries: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Egypt, France, Greece, India, Lebanon, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States. The first session of the General Conference of UNESCO took place in Paris from 19 November to 10 December 1946 with the participation of representatives from 30 governments entitled to vote.\nThe ashes of the Second World War are reflected in the composition of the founding Member States of UNESCO. Japan and the Federal Republic of Germany became members in 1951, Spain in 1953. Other major historical factors, as the Cold War, the decolonization process and the dissolution of the USSR, also left their trace on UNESCO. The USSR joined UNESCO in 1954 and was replaced by the Russian Federation in 1992. 19 African States became Members in 1960. 12 Republics emanating from the former Soviet Union entered UNESCO in 1991-93.\nAs a consequence of the entry of the People\u2019s Republic of China into the United Nations it has been the only legitimate representative of China at UNESCO since 1971. The German Democratic Republic was a Member from 1972 to 1990, when it joined the Federal Republic of Germany.\nOrigins of UNESCO\nThe main predecessors of UNESCO were:\n\u2022 The International Committee of Intellectual Co-operation (CICI), Geneva 1922-1946,\n\u2022 its executing agency, the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation (IICI), Paris, 1925-1946\n\u2022 the International Bureau of Education (IBE), Geneva, 1925-1968; the latter has since 1969 been part of the UNESCO Secretariat under its own statutes.\nThe new Director-General is elected every four years by the General Conference. Under his authority, the Secretariat is expected to translate into reality the programmes approved by the General Conference.\nVisit the Official Portal of UNESCO", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ee7d896-66e7-4bb5-bb8f-b655db9265e5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newsfinder.org/site/readings/unesco/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9527719616889954, "token_count": 888, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Almost incandescent in the soft light of an overcast sky, the remarkable color of this scrub oak apple gall contrasts sharply with the muted greens, grays and browns of the surrounding chaparral.\nThe gall forms in response to the larvae of the California gall wasp. The gall protects the developing larvae, as well as providing it a source of food.\nOn the right side of the gall there appears to be a \"sun print\" of an oak leaf in the red color, where a nearby leaf may have shielded the surface from sunlight.\nFrom today's run on the Backbone Trail in the Santa Monica Mountains, near Saddle Peak.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a491609e-be60-47bb-812c-ec2217f62b28>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.photographyontherun.com/ScrubOakAppleGall.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9343259334564209, "token_count": 134, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) recently released a new infographic that demonstrates how the country\u2019s medical schools and teaching hospitals work to improve patient care. The graphic can be downloaded and viewed here.\nThe graphic demonstrates how vital medical schools and teaching hospitals are to our country\u2019s health care system. For instance, the nation\u2019s nearly 400 major teaching hospitals train 80,000 residents in primary care and specialty areas each year. Nearly half of all external research funded by the National Institutes of Health is conducted at medical schools. And, AAMC teaching hospitals provide nearly 40 percent of hospital charity care.\nUNC Health Care\u2019s status as a teaching hospital allows us to better train the next generation of doctors and better serve the patients we see each day. We are proud to be a part of a nationwide effort to improve care and better train medical students.", "id": "<urn:uuid:53cdf4bb-95bd-4283-98b6-6977aa7f35f4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.roperhealth.com/?p=796", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9534944891929626, "token_count": 181, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Assignment operator in java\nThis tutorial will help you to understand assignment operator in java..\nConditional operator in java\nConditional operators return either true or false value based on the expression..\nJava set example\nIn this tutorial we will see how to use the Java Set interface . We will create an example to display the contents of the set collection. .\nConverting Boolean to String\nIn this tutorial we are going to convert Boolean to String..\nSerialization in java\nSerialization in java means writing a state of the object to the stream. In this section you will learn about how to serialize and deserialize the object..\nIterator in java\nIterator is a interface in java, help you to traverse the element of collection..\nJava Array declaration\nThis tutorial will help you how to declare array in java.\nCreating multiple Threads\nThis java tutorial explain how to create multiple thread using Java program. Here you will find step by step process to creating multiple threads..\nThe JDK Directory Structure\nThe JDK Directory Structure, in this tutorial we are going to explain you the correct directory structure of JDK..\nCompiling and Interpreting Applications in Java\nCompiling and Interpreting Applications in Java. Learn How to compile and interpret your Java application..\nHow to sort ArrayList in java\nThis Java Tutorial section we demonstrates how to use the sort() method in the Java ArrayList..\nString intern() method returns canonical form representation of a string object..\nFirst Java Program\nHere you will find the video tutorial for creating first Java program. You can learn through video tutorial of Java..\nMatrix addition in java\nIn this tutorial, you will learn how to find the sum of two matrices..\nFibonacci series in java\nThis tutorial will help you to understand the Fibonacci number program in java.\nJava error cannot find symbol\nJava cannot find symbol occur when compiler has not enough information about what java code trying to execute..\nAdd two number in java\nJava add two numbers example explains you that how you can add two integers.\nSwitch case in java\nSwitch statement is a control statement that allow multiple selection by passing control to one of the case statement in the body..\nInstance variable in java\nInstance variable in java are variable which is declared in a class but outside the methods or constructor..\nType casting in java\nType casting is used in Java for converting one type into another type. For example you can typecast string representation of number into int data type. This tutorial explains type casting with example program..\nJava count vowels\nThis program will count the number of vowels in a String..\nNumber Format Exception\nNumberFormatException is a type of RuntimeException which is generated when a programmer try to convert String into integer..\nQueue in java\nIn this section we will discuss about queue in java. Queue is a interface in java.util package of java..\nJava Tutorial for Beginners\nThe java programming language is an object-oriented programming language that contains complete information, syntax and examples of java program for the beginner's. In this online java programming tutorials for beginners helps you to how to write java program, compile java command as well as how to install and configure java..\nHow to get Java?\nThis video tutorial explains the steps of getting the Java development kit for windows operating system and installing on it..\nJava Video Tutorial - What is Java?\nWelcome to the Java programming tutorial series. Today we will learn about Java programming language which is used for the development of desktop, web, mobile and embedded devices application. Learn what is the use of Java Programming through this video tutorial..\nJava Programming video tutorial for beginners\nJava programming video tutorials designed especially for beginners in Java helps them to learn Java in easy, step-by-step and systematic method. Online Java video tutorials explain and demonstrate programming with simple examples..\nSearch an elements in the array\nIn this section we will discuss about how to check the availability of an element in the array..\nContinue statement in java\nIn this section we will discuss about continue statement in java. continue is one of the branching statement used in most of the programming languages like C,C++ and java etc..\nFinally in java\nIn this section we will discuss about finally block in java. Finally block always execute when try block exits. Finally is a block of code that execute after try/catch block.\nTransient Java Keyword\nIn this section we will discuss about transient keyword in java. Transient is a keyword in java which is used to prevent any variable being serialized.\nfor loop in java example\nWe are going to discuss about for loop in java example. The for loop statement has type loop control statement. We first initialize the variable. After that check the condition, if true than it will execute further. If it is false, it will terminate loop. .\nJComboBox Insert Edited Value Into Table\nIn this section we will read about how to make JComboBox an editable and then how to insert the new edited value into the table..\nHow To Create Internal Frames In Java\nIn this tutorial we will learn about how to create a frame within a frame..\nWe will discus about treeSet() method. The treeSet implement the Set interface. we have stored collection of data and data order of element. We have stored date string and Integer value..\nComparing two dates in java\nIn this example you will learn how to compare two dates in java. .\nPrime number program in java\nIn this example you will learn how to write a program to generate and check prime number in java..\nException handling in java\nWe are going to discus about Exception handling in java. Java program many provides exception. We are handle of error in program when during execution in a program .we are generate of exception try() block and catch() block. .\nWrite a program to find a factorial in any given number\nThis programming tutorial will teach you how to write a factorial of any given number..\nFinal method in java\nIn this section we will learn about Final method in java..\nBufferedReader in java\nIn this section you will learn about BufferedReader in java with example. Java provide java.io.Reader package for reading files, this class contain BufferedReader under the package java.io.BufferedReader..\nConverting object to String\nIn this section you will learn to convert Object to String in java. It is sometimes necessary to convert object to String because you need to pass it to the method that accept String only..\nThis section describe about daemon thread in java. Any thread can be a daemon thread..\nDynamic method dispatch\nDynamic dispatch is a process of selecting, which methods to call at run-time. It is a mechanism by which a call to overridden method at run time is resolved rather then compile time..\nConvert a String into an Integer Data\nIn this section you will learn to convert a string type of data to integer type data. Converting string to integer and integer to string is a basic task in java programming language because these two type are widely used..\nSynchronization in java with example\nIn this section we will discuss about Synchronization in java..\nJTable Display Data From MySQL Database\nThis section will describe you the displaying of data of a database table into a JTable. Here you will read about how to create a table in Java swing, how can you add column header's name, how can you show data into the table..\nString replaceAll in java\nIn this section you will learn about replaceAll() method in java, This will replace each of the sub string with the given replacement. This method will return the resulting string..\nSplit in java\nThis section illustrate the use of split in java. Split is used to split the string in the given format..\nConvert String into date\nIn this example we are going to convert String into date. SimpleDateFormat is a concrete class for formatting the dates which is inside package \"java.text.*\" which have a date format which convert a string into Date format..", "id": "<urn:uuid:616e711f-c1f6-4ca6-a0db-cef4720f6309>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.roseindia.net/java/convert-number-to-words.shtml", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.831056535243988, "token_count": 1670, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Painting birds often involves long periods outside, in all kinds of weather and at all times of year, but it's a job I feel privileged to have. One of the difficulties in capturing an accurate sketch or painting of a bird is their sheer dynamism. Granted, herons, swans and many of the larger birds are generally slow-moving, and offer extended opportunities for the wildlife artist to capture a portrait on paper, but the smaller songbirds tend to be fast-moving. Many are skulking and some, like the Goldcrest and Wren, are so tiny and quick that a glimpse is all that may be obtained. Nevertheless, a few pencil lines here, then a few more from another brief glimpse, and the image can be pieced together and gradually built on.\nI am often asked if I use photographs, but I find that paintings done from photos can be stiff and lifeless. I've seen photos of friends or family, where the frozen instant, that photographic split second, has made their facial features seem so odd that it is difficult to recognize them. With bird portraits it's the same. The few sparse pencil lines, if done well, can portray the bird well. The fruit of long experience of the species and its postures movements and looks, a good painting will capture the character and vitality of a bird\nPhotographs do provide a useful reference for the minutiae of bird plumage and structure. How long a particular feather is in relation to other ones etc? What colour are the claws? Just how much white fringing was there on the wing feathers? This additional accuracy in the detail can add the final stamp of realism if the image demands it, but only if the character of the bird has already been imposed on the painting.\nSpring is a great time to paint birds. Not only are the birds in pristine plumage, but the males, in particular, are at their showiest and will often sing from exposed perches for a considerable time. Many of my best views of Wrens, for example, have been in Spring, when they emerge from dense cover into the open and start proclaiming their territories. With so much bird activity in Spring, the source of artistic activity is endless. A Chaffinch on a flowering hawthorn; a Skylark singing constantly, hovering high over sand dunes, a Blackbird singing from an apple tree. The dynamism and energy of Irish birds in Spring is inspirational in every sense.\nWho is not captivated by the sheer exuberance of a dawn chorus and the energy of birds defending territories and raising their young. As a wildlife artist, I can only hope to capture a tiny part of this frantic activity, but the inspiration and energy required to paint is as vibrant at this time of the year as the dawn chorus itself. Go, hear and see it for yourself! You too will be inspired!\nMichael O'Clery graduated from NCAD in Dublin. He illustrated The Complete Guide to Ireland's Birds, which was a bestseller. Michael's work features in journals, books, magazines and in private collections around the world. He lives on the Dingle Peninsula.", "id": "<urn:uuid:467ed05b-d90f-4d4d-bf2c-704430c5d1a1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.rte.ie/radio/dawnchorus/oclery.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9628672003746033, "token_count": 642, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A medieval siege engine used as a weapon!\nThe Catapult is a large machine on wheels with a basket attached to a long wooden arm and a power source (tension, torsion, traction, or gravity) for hurling projectiles.\nWatch objects fly 10 feet away or more from this fantastic scale model of a working catapult with scoop.\nPre-cut, pre-drilled pieces of Basswood and simple instructions help you complete assembly in just a few hours.\nEducational and entertaining, the Catapult Wooden Model Kit is an ideal introduction to Middle Age weaponry!\nSize: 12\"L X 5.5\"W X 5\"H.\nAges 10-16 yrs.\nIf you like these Medieval Weapon Kits, also see the:", "id": "<urn:uuid:9169a329-6b69-445d-ad4a-c6a80ae6170f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scientificsonline.com/review/product/list/id/6001/?cat=421182&telescope_opticaldesign=5", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8933467864990234, "token_count": 157, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "PASADENA, Calif. -- Light-colored mounds of a mineral deposited on a volcanic cone more than three billion years ago may preserve evidence of one of the most recent habitable microenvironments on Mars.\nObservations by NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter enabled researchers to identify the mineral as hydrated silica and to see its volcanic context. The mounds' composition and their location on the flanks of a volcanic cone provide the best evidence yet found on Mars for an intact deposit from a hydrothermal environment -- a steam fumarole, or hot spring. Such environments may have provided habitats for some of Earth's earliest life forms.\n\"The heat and water required to create this deposit probably made this a habitable zone,\" said J.R. Skok of Brown University, Providence, R.I., lead author of a paper about these findings published online today by Nature Geoscience. \"If life did exist there, this would be a promising type of deposit to entomb evidence of it -- a microbial mortuary.\"\nNo studies have yet determined whether Mars has ever supported life. The new results add to accumulating evidence that, at some times and in some places, Mars has had favorable environments for microbial life. This specific place would have been habitable when most of Mars was already dry and cold. Concentrations of hydrated silica have been identified on Mars previously, including a nearly pure patch found by NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Spirit in 2007. However, none of those earlier findings were in such an intact setting as this one, and the setting adds evidence about the origin.\nSkok said, \"You have spectacular context for this deposit. It's right on the flank of a volcano. The setting remains essentially the same as it was when the silica was deposited.\"\nThe small cone rises about 100 meters (100 yards) from the floor of a shallow bowl named Nili Patera. The patera, which is the floor of a volcanic caldera, spans about 50 kilometers (30 miles) in the Syrtis Major volcanic region of equatorial Mars. Before the cone formed, free-flowing lava blanketed nearby plains. The collapse of an underground magma chamber from which lava had emanated created the bowl. Subsequent lava flows, still with a runny texture, coated the floor of Nili Patera. The cone grew from even later flows, apparently after evolution of the underground magma had thickened its texture so that the erupted lava would mound up.\n\"We can read a series of chapters in this history book and know that the cone grew from the last gasp of a giant volcanic system,\" said John Mustard, Skok's thesis advisor at Brown and a co-author of the paper. \"The cooling and solidification of most of the magma concentrated its silica and water content.\"\nObservations by cameras on the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter revealed patches of bright deposits near the summit of the cone, fanning down its flank, and on flatter ground in the vicinity. The Brown researchers partnered with Scott Murchie of Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Md., to analyze the bright exposures with the Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument on the orbiter.\nSilica can be dissolved, transported and concentrated by hot water or steam. Hydrated silica identified by the spectrometer in uphill locations -- confirmed by stereo imaging -- indicates that hot springs or fumaroles fed by underground heating created these deposits. Silica deposits around hydrothermal vents in Iceland are among the best parallels on Earth.\nMurchie said, \"The habitable zone would have been within and alongside the conduits carrying the heated water.\" The volcanic activity that built the cone in Nili Patera appears to have happened more recently than the 3.7-billion-year or greater age of Mars' potentially habitable early wet environments recorded in clay minerals identified from orbit.\nNASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, manages the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter for NASA. Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory provided and operates CRISM, one of six instruments on the orbiter. For more information about the Mars Reconnaissance", "id": "<urn:uuid:db5ca746-1e44-42e0-be93-d4bed3532c83>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.spacetimesnews.com/news/2011/feb/10/silica-mars-volcano-tells-wet-and-cozy-past/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.940216064453125, "token_count": 867, "score": 3.96875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The term \"health information technology\" (health IT) is a broad concept that encompasses an array of technologies to store, share, and analyze health information.\nMore and more, health care providers are using health IT to improve patient care. But health IT isn't just for health care providers. You can use health IT to better communicate with your doctor, learn and share information about your health, and take actions that will improve your quality of life. Health IT lets you be a key part of the team that keeps you healthy.\nElectronic Health Records (EHRs)\nYour doctor keeps records of your health information, such as your history of diseases and which medications you're taking. Up until now, most doctors stored these in paper files. EHRs (sometimes called \"electronic medical records\") are electronic systems that store your health information. EHRs allow doctors to more easily keep track of your health information and may enable them to access your information when you have a problem even if their office is closed. EHRs also make it easier for your doctor to share information with specialists and others so that everyone who needs your information has it available when they need it. Some EHRs may also allow you to log in to a web portal to view your own health record, lab results, and treatment plan, and to email your doctor.\nPersonal Health Records (PHRs)\nA PHR is a lot like an EHR, except that you control what kind of information goes into it.\nYou can use a PHR to keep track of information from your doctor visits, but the PHR can also reflect your life outside the doctor's office and your health priorities, such as tracking your food intake, exercise, and blood pressure. Sometimes, your PHR can link with your doctor's EHR.\nA paper prescription can get lost or misread. E-prescribing allows your doctor to communicate directly with your pharmacy. This means you can go to the pharmacy to pick up medicine without having to bring the paper prescription.\nThere are other \"e-Health tools\" that you can use on your own, if you wish, that may be considered a part of the broader health IT world. These include:\nPersonal Health Tools\nThese are tools that help you check your health, get feedback, and keep track of your progress to better manage your health. Examples include smartphone \"apps\" that can help you set and monitor fitness goals and cell phone text reminders to take your medicine on time.\nOnline communities can help people connect with one another to try to maximize good health (such as during pregnancy) or to respond to concerns about poor health. Through online communities you can share information with -- and emotionally support -- others facing similar concerns about a particular disease or disability.\nThese e-health tools are designed to place you at the center of your care \u2013 helping to put the \"I\" in health IT.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0c9d936d-0e87-4f68-af71-2eda0a53cd50>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.state.nj.us/health/njhit/patients/basics/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9549222588539124, "token_count": 593, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "After a Hurricane\nAfter a Flood\n- If you are in a safe location, do not leave until authorities say it is okay to leave.\n- Make sure all electrical outlets and appliances are dry and free of water before you use them.\n- Stay away from disaster areas unless authorities request volunteers.\n- Donate money to a recognized disaster relief organization. Don't donate food, clothing, or other personal items unless they are specifically requested.\n- Drive only when necessary. Roads will be filled with debris.\n- Stay away from downed power lines and report them to the power company immediately.\n- Report gas, sewer or water mains.\n- Contact your insurance agent.\n- Do not drive through a flooded area. More people drown in their cars than anywhere else.\n- Avoid flood water. It may be contaminated by oil, gas, or sewage. The water may also be electrically charged from underground or downed power lines.\n- Stay away from moving water. Moving water only six inches deep can sweep you off your feet.\n- Stay away form downed power lines and report them to the power company immediately. Electric current passes easily through water.\n- Donate money to disaster relief organizations. Unless specifically requested, do not donate food, clothing or other personal items.\n- Wash your hands frequently with soap and clean water if you come in contact with flood waters. Listen to news reports to learn whether the community's water supply is safe to drink.\n- Watch for animals. They lose their homes in floods and may seek shelter in yours.\n- If your property has been damaged, call the insurance company or agent who handles your flood insurance policy right away to file a claim.\n- Do not go in a building if there is any chance of the building collapsing.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e2506c94-f48a-489f-828b-95a8a7bea0a5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.stmaryohsep.org/index.php/disasters/recovery.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.916861355304718, "token_count": 364, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "To foster student success, DCC administers the COMPASS placement test to new students. This ensures that students are placed in classes consistent with their current level of academic ability. While other tests may be required based on a student's individual needs, the COMPASS test is the primary tool.\nA computerized test of basic skills developed by the American College of Testing. Click COMPASS to download sample problems.\nA written, timed test of basic skills developed by the American College of Testing. Click ASSET to download sample problems.\nTo determine which level course is right for you, you need to take a Spanish Placement Test. This test will evaluate your current skills. Your score will determine which level of Spanish you should start with. Because the Spanish Placement Test is a computerized test, it will be un-timed. Click on Spanish Online Placement Test S-CAPE to download sample questions.\nThe Michigan Test of English as a Second Language (ESL)\nThis test is an objective test of 100 questions. The first 20 questions test listening skills with questions asked on a cassette tape. The following 80 questions concern grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension skills. Students have 75 minutes to complete this test, and it is scored immediately. This test is used to determine whether a student is ready to enroll in an English course at Dutchess Community College, and if so, which course is appropriate.\nScience Placement Test\nA test for students who wish to place into BIO131.\nClick Science Screening Test Guide for more information on the test.\nClick Science Placement for sample questions.\nEnglish Course Placement Appeal\nThe English Course Placement appeal is available to students who place in a certain range on the Writing portion of COMPASS or ASSET. Students are given the opportunity to come in during some \"walk-in\" testing times to write an essay which is then evaluated by a professor from the English department to determine final course placement. Those students qualifying for the English Course Placement appeal will be notified with their test scores.", "id": "<urn:uuid:330e2f3d-8b59-4a2b-a0f5-5235325c2cc2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sunydutchess.edu/academics/academic_services/placement_testing/placement_tests.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.937879204750061, "token_count": 420, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "More U.S. mamas are breastfeeding their babes \u2014 that's according to a new report released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).\nResearchers from the CDC reviewed the National Immunization Survey from 2002-2011 to uncover feeding trends of African American, white, and Hispanic infants born from 2000 to 2008. They found the number of mothers who nurse their newborns increased more than 4 percentage points. And mothers who still nursed at 6 months rose nearly 10 percentage points \u2014 from 35 percent to 45 percent \u2014 during the same time.\nThe American Academy of Pediatrics recommends moms breastfeed newborns for 12 months \u2014 exclusively for the first 6 months, then in combination with the introduction of foods to the baby's diet. (They encourage continuing past 12 months as long as it works for mom and baby.)\nMore good news: The gap between African American and white women who breastfeed is narrowing. The report showed the gap shrunk from 24 percentage points in 2000 to 16 percentage points in 2008.\n\"The striking news here is, hundreds of thousands more babies are being breastfed than in past years, and this increase has been seen across most racial and ethnic groups,\" says CDC Director Tom Frieden, MD, in a press release issued by the CDC.\nHere, the key findings from the report:\n-From 2000 to 2008, breastfeeding at six and 12 months increased significantly among African American, white, and Hispanic infants.\n-While numbers are rising across all groups, all mothers need more support to continue breastfeeding since less than half of mothers are breastfeeding at six months (45 percent) and less than a quarter of mothers (23 percent) are breastfeeding at 12 months.\nAlthough rates of breastfeeding at six months increased by more than 13 percent among African American mothers, this group still had the lowest rates of breastfeeding duration, indicating that they still need more targeted support.\n\"Despite these increases, many mothers who want to breastfeed are still not getting the support they need from hospitals, doctors, or employers. We must redouble our efforts to support mothers who want to breastfeed,\" said Frieden.\nIn order to provide more support to African American mothers, the CDC is funding the project, Best-Fed Beginnings. The project will provide support to 89 hospitals, many serving minority and low-income populations, to improve hospital practices that support nursing mamas.\nThe CDC has also funded six state health departments to develop support programs in African American communities.\nPhoto credit: MorgueFile", "id": "<urn:uuid:cda37a60-6a96-4aa6-b16e-e8f243e2d70e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.whattoexpect.com/wom/baby/0211/more-american-moms-are-breastfeeding.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708142388/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516124222-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9613576531410217, "token_count": 507, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Source: Dang TD, Tang M, Choo S, et al Increasing the accuracy of peanut allergy diagnosis by using Ara h 2. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(4):1056-1063; doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2012.01.056. See AAP Grand Rounds commentary by Dr. Sai Nimmagadda (subscription required).\nQuestion: Among infants, does Ara h 2 antigen testing accurately diagnose peanut allergy?\nQuestion type: Diagnosis\nStudy design: Randomized controlled\nI just finished a handful of peanuts (roasted, unsalted of course) and count myself among the lucky folks who don't have peanut allergy. For those that might have allergy, diagnosis has long been plagued by lack of an easy, accurate means of diagnosis. The gold standard is an oral food challenge (OFC), but this is a costly and prolonged process that carries a risk of anaphylaxis. This study of 200 children, half with OFC-positive peanut allergy and half without, found that measurement of serum Ara h 2-specific IgE antibody was better than measurement of serum whole peanut-specific IgE antibody (sIgE). When cutoff values were set for equal specificities of 98% for both assays, the Ara h 2 antibody was 60% sensitive (95% CI 50-70%), compared to 26% (18-36%) for the sIgE. That's an improvement, but very far from what is needed to replace OFC. A screening test for a serious illness needs to achieve high sensitivity, to avoid missing any cases, accepting a few more false positive results as a tradeoff.\nAs noted by Dr. Nimmagadda in his commentary, Ara h 2 is the predominant peanut allergen in Europe, North America, and Southeast Asia, but Ara h 9 predominates in Spain. It's clearly not a simple problem to be solved.\nOn a final note, this study was performed by the HealthNuts study group in Australia. Normally I'm a bit nonplussed with cute names for study groups, but this one seems to hit an appropriate, nice tone.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8d76264b-c116-4731-a09c-75948b29ce81>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://aapgrblog.blogspot.com/2012/08/peanut-allergy-diagnosis.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9424546957015991, "token_count": 448, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "People vary in their reactions to mosquito bites. Most people develop itchy, raised bumps on the skin that last several days. No treatment is necessary, but calamine lotion or over-the-counter hydrocortisone cream can reduce itching.\nA few people have a significant allergy to mosquito bites. The bites can result in what\u2019s called a large local reaction: swelling, blistering, itching, and pain affecting a wide area of the body (such as an entire arm or leg). Oral antihistamines like cetirizine (Zyrtec), diphenhydramine (Benadryl), or hydroxyzine (Atarax, Vistaril) can help ease itching. Topical hydrocortisone may also help.\nRarely, people with a severe allergy to mosquito bites develop anaphylaxis, a whole-body life-threatening allergic reaction. Symptoms of anaphylaxis include:\n\u2022 Itching or rash, especially hives, in areas of skin away from the bite.\n\u2022 Hoarseness or shortness of breath.\nAnaphylaxis requires emergency medical attention. People who have had anaphylaxis-like symptoms previously should always have injectable epinephrine (an Epi-Pen) nearby.\nThis answer should not be considered medical advice...This answer should not be considered medical advice and should not take the place of a doctor\u2019s visit. Please see the bottom of the page for more information or visit our Terms and Conditions.\nThanks for your feedback.\n37 of 42 found this helpful", "id": "<urn:uuid:5cb64ff8-385c-4479-af06-078629c35092>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://answers.webmd.com/answers/1195087/how-do-i-treat-mosquito-bites", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9117866158485413, "token_count": 327, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "University Library, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma\nThe year 1975 witnessed publication of the fifty-fifth volume of the Oklahoma Academy of Science Proceedings. The fifty-five volumes constitute a record of the activity of its members and a primary source of information about all phases of science of interest both within the state and beyond its borders. As the quantity of material has increased, four cumulated indexes of the contents of the Proceedings have been compiled. The latest of these has recently been produced by the authors of this article at the University of Oklahoma using computer-based informational systems to form a powerful new tool to be used wherever the Proceedings are consulted. This article is a description of the latest index together with its three predecessors.\nThe Oklahoma Academy of Science is the premier scientific society in the state. It was organized in December, 1909, by a group of twenty-one scientists from various schools and colleges throughout the state meeting in Oklahoma City. According to an account of the early history of the Academy (1), ten papers were delivered at that organizational meeting although no record exists of their titles or contents. Subsequent meetings have been held each year except 1914, 1918, and 1919 and proceedings of the meetings have been published annually beginning in 1921. The first volume of the Proceedings includes not only papers presented at the 9th annual meeting held that year, but also lists of titles of papers presented at each of the previous meetings which had been held since the founding except the first. A selected group of papers from those eight earlier meetings is also published in that first volume. Through the year 1975 over 4000 papers had been presented, most of which were published in the Proceedings.\nIn the first volume no attempt was made to arrange articles by subject, but beginning in 1923 the table of contents was divided into the four subject areas of Biology, Geology, Physics, and Psychology. Variations on these categories have been followed throughout the ensuing years. One can gain an appreciation for the wide range of interest of members of the Academy by an examination of the contents pages of various volumes of the Proceedings from across the years. In more recent years that variety of interest can be seen in the newer subject headings of Science Education, Geography (1953), and Conservation (1959), which have been added to the previous divisions. The annual volumes of Proceedings have thus become a storehouse of information on all aspects of science in the state. It is on account of this magnitude of material and the diversity of subject matter covered across the years that cumulated indexes are useful. Many volumes since 1957 contain memorial notes for recently deceased members of the Academy and thus provide biographical material that is often otherwise difficult to obtain. This information is also readily accessible through the more recent indexes.\nWhile much of the information pertaining to the so-called \"hard sciences\" is accessible through special subject indexes, for example Chemical Abstracts and Biological Abstracts, the large amounts of literature in other disciplines such as geography, education, business, and history are not adequately indexed elsewhere. At the same time, the Proceedings indexes are especially convenient for use in obtaining information about Oklahoma in the fields of biology, geology, geography, and social sciences. It is in providing access to information related to Oklahoma that the major subject-oriented indexes are usually least adequate and for which Proceedings indexes serve the greatest need.\nThe first index, covering volumes one through ten, was published in 1931 as a bulletin of the University of Oklahoma.\nIt is both an author index and a conventional subject index (2). The second, published in 1942 with volume 22 of the Proceedings, cumulates volumes 11 through 20, 1931-1940 (3). It includes a subject index which arranges material under five broad science headings each of which is further subdivided several times. The third, a vicennial index, covers the next twenty years of the Proceedings, volumes 21 through 40, and was published as part of the latest of these volumes in 1960 (4). It too is arranged by broad subject headings as is its immediate predecessor. It includes a necrology index of the same twenty-year period.\nThe fourth index was produced primarily from information on the contents pages of each of the first fifty-five volumes of the Proceedings. However, an examination of contents sheets, especially those of earlier volumes of the Proceedings, reveals that much of the information on the contents pages is inaccurate and incomplete. In some instances, a title on the contents page is not exactly the same as it appears at the head of the article within the volume. Where such discrepancies occur, the title as it appears at the head of the article, rather than as it appears in the table of contents, was selected to be used in the index. At the same time, page numbers were added to the table of contents where they had been omitted in the earlier volumes. In this collation process, it was discovered that some articles which had been published in the Proceedings had not been listed on the tables of contents. During this collation process, these titles were inserted into the tables of contents for inclusion in the index. Each volume of the Proceedings was examined from cover to cover to be sure that the information pertaining to titles and page numbers, as it was contained within the volume, was correctly recorded on the title page.\nWhen this verification and collation process had been completed this information was transferred to punch cards from which the machine-readable print-out of the index was created.\nThe index itself consists of three sections. The first section, an entry index, is an alphabetical list by first author of each of the titles which appears in the Proceedings between 1920 and 1975. Articles with joint authorship appear in the entry index only under the name of the first author. Each entry includes the author(s)' name, full title of the article, volume, date, and page numbers. The entry index is the only section of the index which includes full bibliographical description of articles within the Proceedings. Articles which are listed in the contents but for which no text was printed in the Proceedings are noted as being \"by title\" in each part of the cumulated index the same way they are designated in the tables of contents themselves. Each entry within this entry list is also assigned a number to which reference can be made from citations in either the author index section or the key-word-in-context (KWIC) subject index section which follow.\nThe second part is an author index in which all of the authors of papers, both single and joint, are listed. The bibliographical citation beside each author's name in this index includes volume number and page description. Included here also is the entry number which has been assigned to the particular article as it appears in the entry index. By means of this author index and by referring to the entry index, the user may determine the full title and bibliographical description of each of the papers which appears in the Proceedings.\nThe final part of the index is the KWIC subject index. This index is constructed by the computer using titles of all the articles in the Proceedings as its base.\nAll principal words in the titles themselves serve as subject descriptors of the material within the articles. Those principal words are printed in the subject index in alphabetical order with their context words printed before and after on the same line of the index. Thus not only do the key words in the title appear in the subject index, but the context in which each key word occurs is also presented in this KWIC subject index. Biographical articles such as necrologies appear in the KWIC index under names of the biographees the same as they appear in the tables of contents.\nBibliographical information included with the subject entry is the volume number and pages of the article to which the sub-\nject entry refers. Each line in this subject list also includes the entry number that identifies the article in the entry index where full bibliographical information is available.\nThe three older indexes to the Proceedings have been and continue to be valuable tools in gaining access to this literature. This is especially true of the vicennial index published in 1959 with its arrangement by author names under broad subject headings corresponding to the main divisions of the Academy itself.\nThe most obvious advantage of the 55-year cumulated index is the access it provides to all of the literature published since 1959. This is done by means of a complete author index including all joint authors. The KWIC subject index provides greater in-depth access also to information in the Proceedings. And then, of course, the fifty-five year cumulation provides the same thoroughness and depth of access to the older literature which has heretofore been available in a more limited way by its three predecessors.\nBesides these immediate benefits, there is the added one which may be realized in the future. To the existing data base of computerized information from which this latest index was produced can easily be added author and subject information of each future volume as it is published. With relatively small investment in time and money, this latest index can itself be kept up-to-date for quick, convenient and thorough coverage of the Proceedings as soon as they are published.\nThe tape of this fourth index in its present form is currently stored at the computer center at the University of Oklahoma. Queries for copies of the print-out may be directed to the university library.\n1. C. W. SHANNON, Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 1: 8-12 (1921).\n2. Okla. Univ. Bull. N.S. no. 525 (1931).\n3. Decennial Index to the Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci., vols. 11-20, 1931-1940, Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 22: 199-216 (1942).\n4. Vicennial Index of the Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci., vols. 21-40, Proc. Okla. Acad. Sci. 40: 156-193 (1960).", "id": "<urn:uuid:06a5b655-25a9-46f4-8b3f-054e465801e3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://digital.library.okstate.edu/OAS/oas_htm_files/v58/p151_153.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9585832953453064, "token_count": 2039, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- titter (v.)\n- 1610s, \"giggle in a suppressed or covert way,\" probably of imitative origin. Related: Tittered; tittering. The noun is first recorded 1728.\n- titties (n.)\n- 1746 (plural); see tit (n.1) + -ie.\n- tittle (n.)\n- late 14c., \"small stroke or point in writing,\" representing Latin apex in Late Latin sense of \"accent mark over a vowel,\" borrowed (perhaps by influence of Proven\u00e7al titule \"the dot over -i-\") from Latin titulus \"inscription, heading\" (see title (n.)).\n- titular (adj.)\n- 1590s, perhaps by influence of Middle French titulaire, from Latin titulus (see title).\n- tix (n.)\n- short for tickets, by 1947, originally headlinese.\n- tizzy (n.)\n- 1935, American English colloquial, of uncertain origin, perhaps related to slang tizzy \"sixpence piece\" (1804), a corruption of tester, a name for the coin (see tester (n.2)).\n- by 1953 as an abbreviation of tender loving care.\n- Indian group in Alaska and Canada, the people's word for themselves, literally \"human beings.\"\n- 1570s, from Greek tmesis \"a cutting,\" related to temnein \"to cut,\" tome \"a cutting\" (see tome). The separation of the elements of a compound word by the interposition of another word or words (e.g. a whole nother).\n- 1915, abbreviation of trinitrotoluene (1908).\n- to (prep.)\n- Old English to \"in the direction of, for the purpose of, furthermore,\" from West Germanic *to (cf. Old Saxon and Old Frisian to, Dutch too, Old High German zuo, German zu \"to\"), from PIE pronomial base *do- \"to, toward, upward\" (cf. Latin donec \"as long as,\" Old Church Slavonic do \"as far as, to,\" Greek suffix -de \"to, toward,\" Old Irish do, Lithuanian da-).\nIn Old English, the preposition (go to town) leveled with the adverb (the door slammed to) except where the adverb retained its stress (tired and hungry too); there it came to be written with -oo (see too).\nThe nearly universal use of to with infinitives (to sleep, to dream, etc.) arose in Middle English out of the Old English dative use of to, and it helped drive out the Old English inflectional endings (though in this use to itself is a mere sign, without meaning).\nCommonly used as a prefix in Middle English (to-hear \"listen to,\" etc.), but few of these survive (to-do, together, and time references such as today, tonight, tomorrow -- Chaucer also has to-yeere). To and fro \"side to side\" is attested from mid-14c. Phrase what's it to you \"how does that concern you?\" goes back a long way:\nHu\u00e6d is \u00f0ec \u00f0\u00e6s?\n[John xxi:22, in Lindisfarne Gospel, c.950]\n- particle expressing separation, from West Germanic *ti- (cf. Old Frisian ti-, Old High German zi-, German zer-), from Proto-Germanic *tiz-, cognate with Latin-derived dis-. Some 125 compound verbs with this element are recorded in Old English; their number declined rapidly in Middle English and disappeared by c.1500 except as conscious archaisms.\n- to-do (n.)\n- 1570s, from the verb phrase to do, from Old English to don \"proper or necessary to be done\" (see to). Meaning \"disturbance, fuss\" is first recorded 1827.\n- toad (n.)\n- Old English tadige, tadie, of unknown origin and with no known cognates outside English.\n- toadstone (n.)\n- \"stone or stone-like object, supposedly magical (with healing or protective power) and found in the heads of certain toads,\" is attested from 1550s, from toad + stone (n.). Translating Greek batrakhites, Medieval Latin bufonites; cf. also French crapaudine (13c.), German kr\u00f6tenstein.\n- toadstool (n.)\n- late 14c., apparently just what it looks like: a fanciful name from Middle English tadde \"toad\" (see toad) + stole \"stool\" (see stool). Toads themselves were regarded as highly poisonous, and this word is popularly restricted to inedible or poisonous fungi, as opposed to mushrooms (e.g. toad-cheese, a poisonous fungi).\n- toady (n.)\n- \"servile parasite,\" 1826, apparently shortened from toad-eater \"fawning flatterer\" (1742), originally referring to the assistant of a charlatan, who ate a toad (believed to be poisonous) to enable his master to display his skill in expelling the poison (1620s). The verb is recorded from 1827. Related: Toadied; toadying.\n- toast (v.1)\n- \"to brown with heat,\" late 14c., from Old French toster \"to toast or grill\" (12c.), from Vulgar Latin *tostare (source of Italian tostare, Spanish tostar), frequentative of Latin torrere (past participle tostus) \"to parch\" (see terrain). Related: Toasted; toasting.\n- toast (v.2)\n- \"to propose or drink a toast,\" 1700, from toast (n.1). This probably is the source of the Jamaican and U.S. black word meaning \"extemporaneous narrative poem or rap\" (1962). Related: Toasted; toasting.\n- toast (n.1)\n- \"a call to drink to someone's health,\" 1700 (but said by Steele, 1709, to date to the reign of Charles II), originally referring to the beautiful or popular woman whose health is proposed and drunk, from the use of spiced toast (n.2) to flavor drink, the lady regarded as figuratively adding piquancy to the wine in which her health was drunk.\n- toast (n.2)\n- \"a toasted piece of bread,\" early 15c., from toast (v.1); slang meaning \"a goner, person or thing already doomed or destroyed\" is recorded by 1987, perhaps from notion of computer circuits being \"fried,\" and with unconscious echoes of earlier figurative phrase to be had on toast (1886) \"to be served up for eating.\"\n- toaster (n.)\n- 1580s, agent noun from toast (v.1). Electrical type is from 1913. In reference to a person who proposes or pledges a drinking toast, from 1704 (from toast (v.2)).\n- toasty (adj.)\n- \"warm and comfortable,\" 1890, from toast (v.1) + -y (2). Related: Toastiness.\n- tobacco (n.)\n- 1580s, from Spanish tabaco, in part from an Arawakan (probably Taino) language of the Caribbean, said to mean \"a roll of tobacco leaves\" (according to Las Casas, 1552) or \"a kind of pipe for smoking tobacco\" (according to Oviedo, 1535). Scholars of Caribbean languages lean toward Las Casas' explanation. But Spanish tabaco (also Italian tabacco) was a name of medicinal herbs from early 15c., from Arabic tabbaq, attested since 9c. as the name of various herbs. So the word may be a European one transferred to an American plant.\nCultivation in France began 1556 with an importation of seed by Andre Thevet; introduced in Spain 1558 by Francisco Fernandes. Tobacco Road as a mythical place representative of rural Southern U.S. poverty is from the title of Erskine Caldwell's 1932 novel.\n- tobacconist (n.)\n- \"dealer in tobacco,\" 1650s, from tobacco + -ist + abnormal inserted consonant; earlier meaning was \"person addicted to tobacco\" (1590s).\n- masc. proper name, from Late Latin Tobias, from Greek Tobias, from Hebrew Tobhiyyah, literally \"the Lord is my Good,\" from Hebrew tobh \"good.\" Toby is a short form.\n- toboggan (n.)\n- \"long, flat-bottomed sled,\" 1829, from Canadian French tabagane, from Algonquian (probably Micmac) tobakun \"a sled.\" The verb is recorded from 1846. As American English colloquial for a type of long woolen cap, it is recorded from 1929 (earlier toboggan cap, 1928), presumably because one wore such a cap while tobogganing.\n- familiar form of masc. proper name Tobias, in various colloquial usages, e.g. \"jug\" (1840), \"drinking mug in the form of a stout old man;\" as a type of collar (1882) it refers to that worn by the dog Toby in the 19c. Punch and Judy shows. Also in Toby show (by 1942, American English) \"comedy act based on the stock character of a boisterous, blundering yokel.\"\n- word used for the letter T in radio communication, 1898.\n- toccata (n.)\n- 1724, from Italian toccata, from toccare \"to touch.\" A composition for keyboard instrument, intended to exhibit the touch and technique of the performer, and having the air of an improvisation.\n- in reference to an extinct people and Indo-European language of Chinese Turkestan, 1927, from French tocharien, from Greek Tokharoi (Strabo), name of an Asiatic people who lived in the Oxus valley in ancient times. Earlier Tocharish (1910), from German tocharisch. The identification of this culture with the people named by Strabo was suggested in 1907 by F.W.K. M\u00fcller and \"is obviously erroneous\" (Klein).\n- tocsin (n.)\n- \"alarm bell,\" 1580s, from Middle French toquassen \"an alarm bell, the ringing of an alarm bell\" (late 14c.), from Old Proven\u00e7al tocasenh, from tocar \"to strike\" (from Vulgar Latin *toccare \"strike a bell;\" see touch) + senh \"bell, bell note,\" from Late Latin signum \"bell, ringing of a bell,\" in Latin \"mark, signal.\" The current English spelling is from 1794, adopted from modern French.\n- today (n.)\n- Old English tod\u00e6ge, to d\u00e6ge \"on (the) day,\" from to \"at, on\" (see to) + d\u00e6ge, dative of d\u00e6g \"day\" (see day). Generally written as two words until 16c., after which it usually was written to-day until early 20c.\nSimilar constructions exist in other Germanic languages (cf. Dutch van daag \"from-day,\" Danish and Swedish i dag \"in day\"). German heute is from Old High German hiutu, from Proto-Germanic *hiu tagu \"on (this) day,\" with first element from PIE pronomial stem *ki-, represented by Latin cis \"on this side.\"\n- masc. proper name, also a surname (late 12c.), from Middle English todde \"fox,\" a Northern English word of unknown origin.\n- toddle (v.)\n- \"to run or walk with short, unsteady steps,\" c.1600, Scottish and northern British, of uncertain origin, possibly related to totter (1530s); an earlier sense of \"to toy, play\" is found c.1500. Related: Toddled; toddling.\n- toddler (n.)\n- 1793, agent noun from toddle.\n- toddy (n.)\n- 1610s, alteration of taddy (1610s), tarrie (c.1600) \"beverage made from fermented palm sap,\" from Hindi tari \"palm sap\" (in which the -r- sounds close to an English -d-), from tar \"palm tree,\" from Sanskrit tala-s, probably from a Dravidian language (cf. Kannada tar, Telugu tadu). Meaning \"beverage made of alcoholic liquor with hot water, sugar, and spices\" first recorded 1786.\n- toe (n.)\n- Old English ta (plural tan), contraction of *tahe (Mercian tah\u00e6), from Proto-Germanic *taikhwo (cf. Old Norse ta, Old Frisian tane, Middle Dutch te, Dutch teen, Old High German zecha, German Zehe \"toe\"), probably originally meaning \"fingers\" as well (many PIE languages still use one word to mean both fingers and toes). The Old English plural tan survived in southwestern England to 14c. To be on (one's) toes \"alert, eager\" is recorded from 1921.\n- toe (v.)\n- \"touch or reach with the toes,\" 1813, from toe (n.). First recorded in expression toe the mark, which seems to be nautical in origin.\nThe chief mate ... marked a line on the deck, brought the two boys up to it, making them 'toe the mark.' [R.H. Dana, \"Two Years Before the Mast,\" 1840]\nRelated: Toed; toeing.\n- toenail (n.)\n- also toe-nail, 1735, from toe (n.) + nail (n.).\n- toff (n.)\n- lower-class British slang for \"stylish dresser, member of the smart set,\" 1851, said to be probably an alteration of tuft, formerly an Oxford University term for a nobleman or gentleman-commoner (1755), in reference to the gold ornamental tassel worn on the caps of undergraduates at Oxford and Cambridge whose fathers were peers with votes in the House of Lords.\n- toffee (n.)\n- 1825, tuffy, toughy, southern British dialectal variant of taffy. Modern spelling first recorded 1862.\n- tofu (n.)\n- soy bean curd, 1880, from Japanese tofu, from Chinese doufu, from dou \"beans\" + fu \"rotten.\"\n- tog (n.)\n- 1708, \"any outer garment,\" shortened from togman \"cloak, loose coat\" (1560s), thieves' cant word, formed from French togue \"cloak,\" from Latin toga (see toga). Middle English toge \"toga\" (14c.) was also a cant word for \"coat.\"\n- toga (n.)\n- c.1600, from Latin toga \"cloak or mantle,\" related to tegere \"to cover\" (see stegosaurus).\nThe outer garment of a Roman citizen in time of peace; toga pr\u00e6texta had a broad purple border and was worn by children, magistrates, persons engaged in sacred rites, and later also emperors; toga virilis, the \"toga of manhood,\" was assumed by boys at puberty.\nBreeches, like the word for them (Latin bracae) were alien to the Romans, the dress of Persians, Germans and Gauls, so that bracatus \"wearing breeches\" was a term in Roman geography meaning \"north of the Alps.\" College fraternity toga party popularized by movie \"Animal House\" (1978), but this is set in 1962.\n- Old English tog\u00e6dere, from to (see to) + g\u00e6dere \"together\" (adv.), apparently a variant of the adverb geador \"together,\" related to gadrian (see gather).\nGerman cognate zusammen substitutes second element with Old High German verbal cognate of English same (Old English also had tosamne \"together\"). Adjective meaning \"self-assured, free of emotional difficulties\" is first recorded 1966.\n- togetherness (n.)\n- 1650s, \"state of being together,\" from together + -ness. Sense of \"fellowship, fellow-feeling,\" is from 1930.\n- toggery (n.)\n- \"clothes collectively,\" 1812, from tog + -ery.\n- toggle (n.)\n- 1769, \"short pin passed through the eye of a rope,\" a nautical word of uncertain origin, perhaps a frequentative form of tog \"tug.\" Meaning \"a kind of wall fastener\" is recorded from 1934. Toggle bolt is from 1794; toggle switch first attested 1938.\n- toggle (v.)\n- 1836, from toggle (n.). Related: Toggled; toggling.", "id": "<urn:uuid:70d2145d-a237-4c35-978c-178b60901c86>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://etymonline.com/index.php?l=t&p=21&allowed_in_frame=0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9223735928535461, "token_count": 3686, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Surveying for Shipwrecked Mariner Graves off Loch Sloy, Kangaroo Island, SABy Maddy Fowler and Cassandra Morris\nOn the 27th March, Kyle Lent, Cassandra Morris and Maddy Fowler, maritime archaeology students at Flinders University, embarked on the Sealink Ferry to Kangaroo Island to participate in the 2012 survey of historic shipwreck burial sites lead by Amer Khan from the Department for Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). This project involved conducting an archaeological survey to investigate possible locations of the burials of twelve bodies recovered from the sea following the wreck of Loch Sloy. The vessel was bound for Port Adelaide when it wrecked north of Cape de Couedic in the early morning of 24th April 1899. The location of the remains of the shipwreck is at present unknown.\nUpon arriving at the point where we would be leaving the vehicles and begin what turned out to be a four hour walk to site, the remoteness and isolation of where we were was suddenly impressed upon us. The walk took us along the cliff tops of the western coast of Kangaroo Island. There was no path to follow and the terrain was rough with broken limestone and low-lying vegetation. The feat of the four survivors of the wrecking event (one of which would perish before reaching help) was appreciated once the harsh environment into which they were thrown surrounded us.\nWhen we reached the northern limit of the survey area we split into two teams and the survey team began by assessing the sea conditions. After some initial observations were undertaken from the cliff top, the survey team climbed down to the base of the cliffs, where a flat rock shelf softens the impact of the waves (Figure 1). At this point it was clear that the tide was too high for a survey to be undertaken along the base of the cliffs as at high tide waves sweep up to the cliff face.\nIt was decided that a survey along the top of the cliff would be undertaken. Historical documents pointed to the burials being placed at the base of the cliff, although it is quite possible that some bodies were buried at the top. The survey team walked a transect from the northern point of the survey area to where the excavation team were located, approximately 200 metres (m), and two possible burial sites were identified. Key points to look for in the landscape include: arranged stones usually in lines or with possible corner angles, upright stones, stones small enough to lift but big enough to hold back sediment, and an east-west alignment (to indicate Christian burials). The team recorded these two possible sites by taking GPS positions.\nIn the initial site survey, which took place in December 2011, a cliff top survey was undertaken with some possible burial sites located. The excavation team further investigated one of these sites. A scale drawing was made of the linear rock feature that appeared to be a possible grave. The grave ran in an east west direction with three rocks creating a line on the western end and a very distinct line along the northern edge. The rock feature was roughly rectangular and approximately human sized and the rocks were small enough to be easily lifted by people (Figure 2). Detailed photographs were also taken at this point. Both teams then traced their way back across the landscape to the vehicles.\nDue to the long and difficult walk to and from the site, a different approach was taken on the subsequent trip\u2014approaching the site from the north rather than the south. This involved walking down a ravine, over a headland, along a beach and then over another headland. On this day two people from the ABC News crew joined us. Conditions on the following visit were improved as it was just after low tide, and the survey team was able to undertake a search along the rock shelf at the base of the cliffs. Within the central section of the survey area, the rock shelf presented itself as a beach, with masses of rocks and boulders fallen from the cliffs (Figure 3). Amongst the fallen cliff faces was a multitude of deposited timber remains, buoys, and odd pieces of rubbish (a can of insect spray with Spanish packaging perhaps the strangest piece, along with the occasional flip-flop). In order to keep in contact with the other team, three volunteers remained at the top of the cliffs with one of the UHF radios to relay messages if need be.\nBeginning the survey, possible sites were searched for while another team member acted as a spotter, watching the ocean in case of large waves. Clambering over the rock fall, there were few sites above the high water mark with enough sediment to bury a body. From historical accounts, written by those conducting the burials, the graves were described as being above the high water mark, at the base of the cliff. To pinpoint many of these areas required climbing up a sand hill or fallen boulders. Continuing along the base of the cliff until the beach ran out, only two possible sites had been found\u2014both along the same ridge but impossible to get to, lessening the likelihood of being burials. Following this, the team moved on to survey the southern extent of the area (Figure 4).\nThis survey was short as no possible area could be identified along the rock shelf. Concluding the entire survey, it was decided that should the burials have been placed at the bottom of the cliffs, no trace remains to this day. The only possible location left unexplored was under the rocks and boulders. Observing the coast with the knowledge of the violent winter storms that occur every year, it is thought to be unlikely that the burials would have lasted through the first storm, let alone surviving 100 years on the rugged coastline.\nWhile the survey was undertaken, the excavation team placed a 50 centimetre (cm) by 50 cm test pit and excavated to determine whether the primary possible gravesite contained human remains. This test pit was conducted using trowels to remove sediment in 10 cm spits. The spoil from each spit was sieved and the trench was photographed at each level (Figure 5). Bedrock was reached at approximately 50 cm depth and no cultural material was identified. It is therefore unlikely that the rock feature represents a gravesite, however it cannot be ruled out entirely. It is possible that the test pit targeted the wrong area of the site.\nAlong with the grave survey, we also undertook other survey projects. One project was to relocate and record a small vessel located in the Ravine des Casoars that had been reported to DENR by the park rangers when it was exposed in October of last year. Based on a GPS position we conducted a metal detector survey and dug test pits but were unable to relocate it (Figure 6). The river which flows nearby and exposed the wreck during high levels had also helped to cover the wreck in sand when it decreased.\nAnother project undertaken was to identify the location of a shelter hut at West Bay, built to assist people who came ashore in the area after wrecking. We used an historical photograph to try to find the location and conducted a pedestrian survey through the dunes. No remains could be located on the surface but an approximate area for the structure was identified (Figure 7).\nA final task was to relocate a threshing floor near American River. This site, built in the 1950s, is a ring of rocks with a flat dirt floor in which sheaves of grain would be placed to be \u2018threshed\u2019\u2014a process to tear grain from the stalks and loosen the husks. Listed on the government register, this site had not been relocated for many years, despite several attempts being made. We left the road on a bearing towards a rough GPS position. Part way to the GPS point we discovered a stone feature in a right-angled linear arrangement. This arrangement was recorded as it possibly relates to the threshing floor. The threshing floor was then located approximately 100 m further on. Viewing the site amongst the tall grass and bushes, the construction of the ring was flawless\u2014stones were all the same height and length and had been placed upright, fitting together perfectly. The site was recorded and a new GPS point taken about 20 m away from the original mark.\nWe would like to thank Amer Khan and Cameron Hartnell from DENR for giving us the opportunity to volunteer on such a unique project. Also Terry Drew, Lynda Bignell and Steve Saville for supplying a box of Mars Bars and entertaining stories. Finally our appreciation to the Flinders Chase National Park rangers: Charlotte, Caroline and Alison, ABC news crew: Caroline and Chris, and all the volunteers with the Kangaroo Island Walking Group for carrying our equipment.\nPlease tune into ABC at 7:30 on Friday 20th to see the news feature about the site and the Loch Sloy.", "id": "<urn:uuid:695e0304-4aba-4023-b2bc-331e904e91b5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://flindersarchaeology.com/2012/04/19/walking-and-a-little-bit-of-archaeology/?like=1&source=post_flair&_wpnonce=39eb77acf0", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.97818523645401, "token_count": 1788, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "2. System components\n(1) Redox flow battery (1 MW x 5 hours)\nA redox flow battery is a storage battery that comprises a charging/discharging cell section and a tank full of metal ion electrolyte.\nIt charges/discharges through oxidation-reduction of vanadium or other ions.\nThe battery features long service life as the electrodes and electrolyte are not subject to deterioration even after repeated charge/discharge\noperations and is easily maintained as its uses the same electrolyte in both the cathode and anode.\nIt also provides increased safety as it does not require any combustible substances and is operated at ambient temperatures. This battery is suitable for irregular,\nhighly fluctuating charge/discharge operations, enabling accurate monitoring and control of stored electric power.\nAccordingly, it is an optimal storage battery for efficient use of renewable energy and surplus electricity supplied during the night.\n(2) Concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) unit (maximum power generation of a total of 28 units: 200 kW)\nA CPV unit is a photovoltaic system incorporating small-size photovoltaic cells for energy conversion, directing high-intensity sunlight converged by a lens to photovoltaic cells.\nThe power generation efficiency of the CPV panel is about twice that of silicon solar panels currently on the market as CPV cells are made from a special compound semiconductor material.\nInstalled at an elevated position, concentrator panels provide usable space below them.\nThe newly developed CPV unit offers 7.5 times greater output power (7.5 kW/unit), and yet the CPV panels are thinner and lighter than conventional ones.\n(3) Energy management system (EMS)\nThe EMS monitors the amounts of electric power generated by a total of 28 CPV units, provided via commercial power networks,\nstored in a redox flow battery, and consumed at an office or plant to manage the electric power flow.\nObtained data is sent by optical communication networks to be collectively controlled at the central control server.\nThis system will be used in the demonstration test held at the Yokohama to achieve optimal supply-demand balance\n(maximum demand control of 1 MW) and power demand control based on preset schedules.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6b4dd4d7-7021-4f6f-9f01-df3c057913f0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://global-sei.com/news/press/12/prs046_s.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9085143208503723, "token_count": 468, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Question: \"When were the Gospels written?\"\nAnswer: It is important to understand that the dating of the Gospels and other New Testament books is at best an educated guess and at worst foolish speculation. For example, suggested dates for the writing of the Gospel of Matthew range from as early as A.D. 40 to as late as A.D. 140. This wide range of dates from scholars indicates the subjective nature of the dating process. Generally, one will find that the presuppositions of the scholars greatly influence their dating of the Gospels.\nFor example, in the past many liberal theologians have argued for a later dating of many of the New Testament books than is probably warranted or valid, in an attempt to discredit or cast doubts upon the content and authenticity of the Gospel accounts. On the other hand, there are many scholars who look to a much earlier dating of the New Testament books. There are some that believe there is good evidence to support the view that the whole New Testament, including Revelation, was written prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. It is our contention that the evidence supports the earlier dating more than it does the later dating.\nThere are scholars who believe the Gospel of Matthew was written as early as ten to twelve years after the death of Christ. Those who hold to this earlier dating of Matthew believe he first wrote his Gospel in Aramaic, and then it was later translated into Greek. One of the evidences of this earlier dating of Matthew\u2019s Gospel is that early church leaders such as Irenaeus, Origen, and Eusebius recorded that Matthew first wrote his gospel for Jewish believers while he was still in Palestine. In fact Eusebius (a bishop of Caesarea and known as the father of church history) reported that Matthew wrote his Gospel before he left Palestine to preach in other lands, which Eusebius says happened about 12 years after the death of Christ. Some scholars believe that this would place the writing of Matthew as early as A.D. 40-45 and as late as A.D. 55.\nEven if the Gospels were not written until 30 years after Christ\u2019s death, that would still place the writing of them prior to the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. This presents no major problem with their authority or accuracy. Passing on oral traditions and teachings was commonplace in the Jewish culture of that day, and memorization was highly cultivated and practiced. Also, the fact that even at that time there would have been a considerable number of eyewitnesses around to dispute and discredit any false claims, and the fact that none of the \u201chard sayings\u201d of Jesus were taken from the Gospel accounts, further supports their accuracy. Had the Gospels been edited before being written down, as some liberal scholars contend, then it was a very poor job. The writers left far too many \u201chard sayings,\u201d and culturally unacceptable and politically incorrect accounts that would need explaining. An example of this is that the first witnesses of the resurrection were women, who were not considered reliable witnesses in the culture of that day.\nThe bottom line for Christians is this\u2014whether the Gospels were written soon after the death of Christ, or not until 30 years after his death, does not really matter, because their accuracy and authority does not rest on when they were written but on what they are: the divinely inspired Word of God (2 Timothy 3:16). We should also remember that one of the promises Jesus gave His disciples was that He would send them \u201canother helper,\u201d the Holy Spirit, who would teach them all things and \u201cbring to your remembrance all that I said to you\u201d (John 14:26). So, whether it was few years or many after Jesus\u2019 death that the Gospels were written, we can have total confidence and faith in their completeness and accuracy, knowing that they were written by \u201cmen moved by the Holy Spirit\u201d (2 Peter 1:21), who accurately recorded the very words of God.\n\u00a9 Copyright 2002-2013 Got Questions Ministries.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a8d29839-ab17-47fc-89cc-050659a31e2a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://gotquestions.org/Printer/when-Gospels-written-PF.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9880231022834778, "token_count": 843, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "These LEDs are connected to a thermistor that\u2019s running just a little bit hotter than the ambient room temperature. So, by blowing on the thermistor, the birthday boy or girl is cooling it down, thus increasing the resistence. The microcontroller senses this and turns off a few of the LEDs as a result. Make one of these guys and you\u2019ll never again have to worry about melted wax on your cake. For detailed instructions, head on over to Instructables.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f51e4a20-9e4e-460d-8a25-cfaccf052f8e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hacknmod.com/hack/blow-out-some-led-birthday-candles/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9375746846199036, "token_count": 99, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Habsburg Empire May Be Dead, but its Honest Bureaucracy's Legacy Lives On\nWhen I think Habsburg Empire, I think of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, whose assassination famously marked the beginning of World War I and less famously, the decline of the empire itself until its dissolution in 1918. However, the silhouette of the empire still marks a psychologically different part of Europe, according to research by Sascha Becker and Ludger Woessmann. In their 2011 short paper, The Empire Is Dead, Long Live the Empire! Long-Run Persistence of Trust and Corruption in the Bureaucracy, (summarized here) they compared levels of trust on opposite sides of the long-gone Habsburg Empire border within five countries. Surprisingly, they found that the border was still meaningful. Within the border, firms and people have higher trust in courts and police. Outside the border--specifically in regions that were once part of the Ottoman empire--levels of trust are relatively lower. Historians have described the Habsburg bureaucracy as \u201cfairly honest, quite hard-working, and generally high-minded\u201d (Taylor 1948). According to Becker and Woessman, this lies at the root of the higher trust levels.\nTaylor, AJP (1948), The Habsburg Monarchy 1809-1918: A History of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, Penguin Books (reprint 1990)", "id": "<urn:uuid:a7f49f9a-360a-4a42-b5ca-1aa296eaa087>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://intelligentlife.blogspot.com/2012/01/habsburg-empire-may-be-dead-but-its.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9342378973960876, "token_count": 293, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A boy in my 8-year-old daughter's class has a cleft palate. I know that he has trouble finding friends because other kids \u2014 including my daughter \u2014 are wary of his difference. How can I encourage her to reach out to him so other kids will too?\nThis is an excellent opportunity for you to teach your daughter about accepting others. Kids are often sharp observers of physical appearances and, like your daughter, many are initially wary of others with noticeable differences.\nProvide basic information about cleft palate so your daughter will understand it. Emphasize that although some kids may look different, they are just like other children in many ways. Keep it as simple and direct as possible, perhaps saying something like: \"Johnny was born with an opening on the roof of his mouth, called a cleft palate. His doctors are working to make it better and he sometimes has trouble saying certain sounds.\"\nFocus on how the boy is just like other kids, perhaps saying something like, \"He's a good reader like you and likes to play soccer.\"\nEncourage your daughter to talk to him or ask him to play in the same ways she does with other kids. If she's reluctant to do this for fear of what her friends think, ask her to consider how she would feel if others excluded her based on a physical feature that she couldn't help, like glasses or a birthmark.\nForcing your daughter to develop friendships with specific kids isn't likely to work. But you can continue to gently encourage her to reach out to the boy, help her feel more comfortable and confident interacting with people who are different for any reason, and teach ways to be more accepting of them.\nAnd don't forget to pay attention to the way you treat others with differences, as the example you set will strongly influence your daughter's behavior.", "id": "<urn:uuid:eee9c195-401a-43f8-9ff6-93b3e980eac3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=NiswongerChildrens_Hospital&lic=362&cat_id=138&article_set=57194&tracking=P_RelatedArticle", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9868784546852112, "token_count": 373, "score": 3.859375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A couple of weeks ago, I was invited to the local PBS affiliate to hear the results of a study recently commissioned by PBS Kids. We are a PBS Kids family for sure, so the whole family was excited to attend the event with me. While I was hearing about the study, my little guy was hanging out with Curious George. [Cue the Pre-School Squee!]\nAccording to PBS Kids, \u201cThe national survey of parents with children ages 2-12 also indicated that parents are less likely to support their kids\u2019 math skills from the earliest ages, and that many parents have anxiety about supporting math learning at home.\u201d\nResponding to this need, PBS Kids and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) announced a new program called \u201cIt All Adds Up.\u201d It All Adds up is \u201can effort that aims to boost math learning at home \u2013 and everywhere \u2013 by providing resources for parents.\u201d\nPBS Kids and the CPB have already been doing great work over the last two years in literacy and math via more than 100 games and apps through the Ready to Learn program. It All Ads Up will build on that success and make them accessible online at PBS Kids\u2019 Lab, \u201ca site that aggregates games, apps and offline activities to help support math and reading learning for kids 2 -8.\u201d\nHere are a couple of photos of my little guy and a little girl playing a particularly awesome Curious George game available at PBS Kids\u2019 Lab. It uses the microphone and the camera on the computer to allow the game to be interactive with little ones who maybe haven\u2019t mastered the mouse or the keyboard. My guy LOVED it.\nHere are a few of the awesome new resources:\nNew FETCH! 3-D Online Game: Ruff Ruffman\u2019s Monumental Mini-Golf\nKiddos aged 6 to 8 will help Ruff build his mini golf course. Kids will partner up (safely) with other kids who are also online to solve puzzles and create structures. All along they will be practicing spatial reasoning, measurement, and shape manipulation. At the end of the game, kids get to play through the mini golf course that they just helped create! This game is in public beta, so there will likely be more changes to the game, but it\u2019s a great time to get in and try it!\nPBS Parents Play & Learn App\nThis is PBS Kids\u2019 first app designed exclusively for parents. Available for free download, the app offers games and ideas for parents to practice math skills with their kids. The games are organized around familiar places like home or the grocery store and also divided by stages: baby, toddler, and pre-school. I happen to LOVE this app and wish it was around when my guy was even younger. It\u2019s available in English and Spanish plus on basically every platform you could possibly want: iPhone, iPad, iPod touch, Android phones/tablets (including Kindle Fire).\nLaunch of Peg + Cat\nI\u2019m very excited about this. PBS Kids will be launching a new show called Peg + Cat in Fall of 2013. It features \u201cspirited Peg and her sidekick Cat as they embark on adventures and learn foundational math concepts and skills.\u201d We got to see a quick clip at the event, and it is adorable. Can\u2019t wait! I\u2019m sure my guy is going to love it!\nTo stay up to date on all of the good things going on at PBS Kids, be sure to follow them on Facebook.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ff562cd-9f9c-4eba-80bb-a3c7a2b95858>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kimworld.com/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9615150690078735, "token_count": 739, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by Jeremiah Akin and Jim March\nThis talk will expose the slight of hand tricks used by government agencies to make them appear more transparent than they are. \"Transparency\" is a common buzz word that suggests that government operates in a manner that is clear, visible, and understandable. Open Data Centers are supposed to increase accountability and transparency in government computer-based operations. However, can you use the data they provide to spot waste or corruption in government? Vote counting used to be a process that people could watch, but now you only see a false replica of the open counting process. Meanwhile the votes are actually counted where they can not be observed. The public needs to be able to differentiate between transparency and transparency theater, just as it needs to learn to differentiate between security and security theatre. Several examples of how government agencies produce this theatre will demonstrate how what is supposed to be transparent is intentionally hidden.\n9th\u201313th March 2012", "id": "<urn:uuid:10135fd1-3b82-4517-85f2-e0ec6c428cdc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://lanyrd.com/2012/sxsw-interactive/schedule/?topics=open-data,government", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9717764258384705, "token_count": 187, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(Message Oriented Middleware) Software plumbing. Message-oriented middleware is the term for software that connects separate systems in a network by carrying and distributing messages between them. The messages may contain data, software instructions, or both together. MOM infrastructure is typically built around a queuing system that stores messages pending delivery, and keeps track of whether and when each message has been delivered. Most MOM systems also support autonomous publish-subscribe messaging. MOM products frequently use proprietary messaging technologies -- well-known examples include IBM MQSeries, MSMQ from Microsoft and Tibco Rendezvous -- but emerging standards specifications such as JMS and WS-ReliableMessaging are now enabling standards-based MOM infrastructures.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dfb16b6e-160a-4665-8878-f94cc3b89b5f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://looselycoupled.com/glossary/MOM", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9080339670181274, "token_count": 148, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "If you're a backpacker you need a reliable yet lightweight method for purifying and filtering water in the wild. Most commercial methods are either bulky and heavy or need supplies such as salt and/or batteries. Instead you can make a gravity water filtration system using two water bladders, a $17 Aquamira Frontier Pro filter or likewise, and a pack of chlorine dioxide purification tablets.\nYouTube user and veteran backpacker Jason Klass demonstrates the light weight, versatility, and low cost (around $40 for everything) of this setup. Basically you fill your \"dirty\" water bottle directly from a river, lake, or stream, add a purification tablet, and connect your clean water bottle to the Aquamira filter. The other side of the filter is connected to the water resevoir you drink from. Hang the dirty water from a tree branch and keep the clean water on the ground and in half an hour you'll have a couple of liters of clean water to drink.\nWhy does this system use both a chemical and a mechanical filter? The aquamira filter is good at keeping out dirt and objects that would change the taste of your water but does not filter closely enough to remove most bacterias and viruses. A chlorine dioxide chemical treatment (same as what most municipal water supplies use) will kill 99.999% of all viruses and bacterias and shouldn't change the taste of the water. If you run out of purification tablets while on the trail you can always gravity filter the water into a pot and boil it.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6ef6fead-c2aa-4082-9afb-ef5875a6ba51>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nuldi.com/diy-gravity-water-filter-542/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.932425320148468, "token_count": 315, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Gospel of Matthew\nAuthorship and writing of the Gospel\nAlthough the document is internally anonymous, the authorship of this Gospel has been traditionally ascribed to St. Matthew. The surviving testimony of the Church Fathers is unanimous in this view, and the tradition had been accepted by Christians at least as early as the 2nd century up to modern times. In addition, the title \"According to Matthew\" is found in the earliest codexes, which date to the fourth century.1\nAccording to Tradition, after Pentecost St. Matthew preached the Good News of the Lord's Resurrection throughtout Palestine. Then, \"at the request of the Jewish converts at Jerusalem, the holy Apostle Matthew wrote his Gospel describing the earthly life of the Savior before leaving to preach the Gospel in faraway lands.\" 2 He then left to preach his Gospel in Syria, Media, Persia, Parthia, before being martyred in Ethiopia.\nBecause it was first recorded in Palestine, there is some speculation and evidence that Matthew's Gospel was originally written in Aramaic, though the earliest surviving version now in existence is in Greek. According to OCA, \"many of the linguistic and cultural-historical peculiarities of the Greek translation give indications of it [the Gospel's original Aramaic form].\" It was probably written somewhere from AD 60-65, though more liberal scholars put the date at 80-100.\nFor convenience, the book can be divided into its four structurally distinct sections: Two introductory sections; the main section, which can be further broken into five sections, each with a narrative component followed by a long discourse of Jesus; and finally, the Passion and Resurrection section.\n- Containing the genealogy, the birth, and the infancy of Jesus (Matthew 1; Matthew 2).\n- The discourses and actions of John the Baptist preparatory to Christ's public ministry (Matthew 3; Matthew 4:11).\n- The discourses and actions of Christ in Galilee (4:12\u201326:1).\n- The Sermon on the Mount, concerning morality (Ch. 5\u20137)\n- The Missionary Discourse, concerning the mission Jesus gave his Twelve Apostles. (10\u201311:1)\n- The Parable Discourse, stories that teach about the Kingdom of Heaven (13).\n- The \"Church Order\" Discourse, concerning relationships among Christians (18\u201319:1).\n- The Eschatological Discourse, which includes the Olivet Discourse and Judgement of the Nations, concerning his Second Coming and the end of the age (24\u201325).\n- The sufferings, death and Resurrection of Jesus, the Great Commission (28:16\u201320).\nThe one aim pervading the book is to show that Jesus of Nazareth was the promised Messiah \u2014 he \"of whom Moses in the law and the prophets did write\" \u2014 and that in him the ancient prophecies had their fulfillment. This book is full of allusions to passages of the Old Testament which the book interprets as predicting and foreshadowing Jesus' life and mission. This Gospel contains no fewer than sixty-five references to the Old Testament, forty-three of these being direct verbal citations, thus greatly outnumbering those found in the other Gospels. The main feature of this Gospel may be expressed in the motto \"I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill\" (5:17). The Apostle Matthew preached among people who were awaiting the Messiah. His Gospel manifests itself as a vivid proof that Jesus Christ is the Messiah foretold by the prophets, and that there would not be another (Mt. 11:3).\nThe preaching and deeds of the Savior are presented by the evangelist in three divisions, constituting three aspects of the service of the Messiah: as Prophet and Law-Giver (Ch. 5-7), Lord over the world both visible and invisible (Ch. 8-25), and finally as High Priest offered as Sacrifice for the sins of all mankind (Ch. 26-27).\nThe theological content of the Gospel, besides the Christological themes, includes also the teaching about the Kingdom of God and about the Church, which the Lord sets forth in parables about the inner preparation for entering into the Kingdom (Ch. 5-7), about the worthiness of servers of the Church in the world (Ch. 10-11), about the signs of the Kingdom and its growth in the souls of mankind (Ch. 13), about the humility and simplicity of the inheritors of the Kingdom (Mt. 18:1-35; 19 13-30; 20:1-16; 25-27; 23:1-28), and about the eschatological revelations of the Kingdom in the Second Coming of Christ within the daily spiritual life of the Church (Ch. 24-25).\nThe Kingdom of Heaven and the Church are closely interconnected in the spiritual experience of Christianity: the Church is the historical embodiment of the Kingdom of Heaven in the world, and the Kingdom of Heaven is the Church of Christ in its eschatological perfection (Mt. 16:18-19; 28:18-20).\nIn general, the text of the gospel of St Matthew is used most consistently in liturgical worship of the Orthodox Church. This may be because it was the most common gospel in the very early Churches. It contains the version of the beatitudes and the Lord's Prayer that is used in services.\nOnly this gospel contains the post resurrection order of the Lord to his apostles, \"to make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit\" (28:19). And it contains the longest and most detailed record of Christ's teachings in the Sermon on the Mount (5-7)", "id": "<urn:uuid:a87f844b-4ec6-49ed-89cc-3cd809988bd5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://orthodoxwiki.org/index.php?title=Gospel_of_Matthew&oldid=55553", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9404741525650024, "token_count": 1186, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Quantum Diaries has an interesting introduction to the higgs. It makes it seem like the way that the higgs field gives mass to particles is via all of the interactions with virtual higgs particles.\nMy question is, how can interaction with the field give rise to mass? It seems almost like Flip Tanedo is saying that, due to the interaction with the higgs field, the particle (electron, say) is experiencing a large number of changes in direction, and thus it takes a path much longer than the one that you measured.\nIt seems to imply that, when going from A to B, the electron 'bounces' off of a number of virtual higgs particles and takes a much longer path than the straight line from A to B, travelling at light speed all the while.\nIs this a good way to look at the creation of 'mass' (i.e. a particle appears to move slower than light speed because it takes a path longer than the shortest one)? Or is there some other way to understand how the higgs mechanism imparts mass?", "id": "<urn:uuid:5a536c05-bf0f-4ea3-ba2f-4fa2af41485b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/31701/how-can-coupling-with-the-higgs-field-slow-a-particle-down?answertab=votes", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9586414694786072, "token_count": 220, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "During the Turkish wars the wild hordes of riders advanced as far as Purbach. On such occasions the townspeople of Purbach fled into the nearby Leitha Mountains to seek refuge there from the hordes. During one such attack Andreas Grein remained at home.\nWhen the Turkish horde found Grein, they placed him in handcuffs, tied him to a horse's tail, and thus forced him to run along behind. The Turks took Grein back to their country, where he was housed in a stall and forced to pull a plow by day. For food he received nuts and millet.\nAfter seven years of terrible suffering he succeeded -- with the help of a fellow countrywoman -- in escaping from Turkey. In October 1647, after traveling on foot for many months, he arrived at Purbach. He stopped to rest on his own property, about 1000 steps from the town. He then went to his home, where he encountered his wife, who had recently remarried. She did not recognize Grein, because of his wild appearance. After much discussion she recognized her husband from his voice. She asked him for forgiveness, and they lived happily together until they died. The second husband, of course, had to step aside.\nAt the place where he had rested, Grein erected a Holy Trinity column, inscribed with the year 1647.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b8b5016e-3bf1-413c-baa0-3966ffcdb0e7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://pitt.edu/~dash/purbach.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9928467273712158, "token_count": 278, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There are some interesting things to note in there:\nI think that ray tracing in the classical sense, of analytically intersecting rays with conventionally defined geometry, whether they be triangle meshes or higher order primitives, I\u2019m not really bullish on that taking over for primary rendering tasks which is essentially what Intel is pushing. But, I do think that there is a very strong possibility as we move towards next generation technologies for a ray tracing architecture that uses a specific data structure, rather than just taking triangles like everybody uses and tracing rays against them and being really, really expensive. It\ninvolves ray tracing into a sparse voxel octree which is essentially a geometric evolution of the mega-texture technologies that we\u2019re doing today for uniquely texturing entire worlds. It\u2019s clear that what we want to do in the following generation is have unique geometry down to the equivalent of the texel across everything.\n- ray tracing in the classical sense, in which rays intersect with triangles, is far too expensive for use in games, even with next generation hardware\n- the sparse voxel octree format permits unique geometry\nOctrees can be used to accelerate ray tracing and store geometry in a compressed format at the same time.\nQuote from a game developer (Rare) on the voxel octree:\nStoring data in an octree is far more efficient than storing it using textures and polygons (it's basically free compression for both geometry and texture data). It's primarily cool because you stop traversing when the size of the pixel is larger than the projected cell, so you don't even need to have all your data in memory, but can stream it in on demand. This means that the amount of data truly is unlimited, or at least the limits are with the artists producing it. You only need a fixed amount of voxels loaded to view a scene, and that doesn't change regardless of how big the scene is. The number of voxels required is proportional to the number of pixels on the screen. This is true regardless of how much data you're rendering! This is not true for rasterization unless you have some magical per-pixel visibility and LOD scheme to cut down the number of pixels and vertices to process, which is impossible to achieve in practice. Plus ray casting automatically gives you exact information on what geometry needs to be loaded in from disk, so it's a \"perfect\" streaming system,\nwheras with rasterization it would be very difficult to incrementally load a scene depending on what's visible (because you need to load the scene before you know what's visible!)\nIf you want to model micrometer detail, go ahead, it won't be loaded into memory until someone zooms in close enough to see it. Voxels that are not intersected can be thrown out of memory. Of course you would keep some sort of cache and throw things out on a least recently used basis, but since it's hierarchical you can just load in new levels in the hierarchy only when you hit them.\nVoxels have some very interesting benefits compared to polygons:\n- It's a volumetric representation, so you can model very fine details and bumps, without the need for bump mapping. Particle effects like smoke, fire and foam can be efficiently rendered without using hacks. Voxels are also being used by some big Hollywood special effects studio's to render hair, fur and grass.\n- id wants to use voxels to render everything static with real geometry without using normal maps.\n- Voxels can store a color and a normal. For the renderer, textures and geometry are essentially the same.\n- The position of the voxel is defined implicitely by the structure that is holding it (the octree). Here's the good part: this structure represents both the primitives that need to be intersected and the spatial division of these primitives. So, in contrast to triangle ray tracing which needs a separate spatial division structure (kd-tree, BVH, ...), voxels are right away structured in a grid or an octree (this does not mean that other structures can't be used as well). So for voxel ray tracing, octrees are perfect.\n- Voxels are very cheap primitives to intersect, much cheaper than triangles. This is probably their biggest benefit when choosing between voxel and polygon ray tracing.\n- A voxel octree permits a very natural multiresolution. There's no need to go deeper into the octree when the size of a pixel is larger than the underlying cell, so you don't have to display detail if it's not necessary and you don't streal in data that isn't visible either way.\n- Voxels are extremely well suited for local effects (voxel ray casting). In contrast to triangle rasterization, there are no problems with transparency, refraction, ... There are also major benefits artwise: because voxels are volumetric, you can achieve effects like erosion, aging materials, wear and tear by simply changing the iso value.\n- Ray casting voxels is much less sensitive to scene complexity than triangles\n(partly translated from http://forum.canardplus.com/showpost.php?p=1257790&postcount=96)\nDisadvantages of voxel ray tracing vs polygon ray tracing:\n- Memory. Voxel data sets are huge relative to polygon data. But this doesn't have to be a problem, since all data can be streamed in. This does however create new challenges when the point of view changes rapidly and a lot of new data bricks have to be streamed in at once. Voxels sets have the benefit over polygons that voxel subsets can be loaded in, which permits some sort of progressive refinement. Other possible solutions are: using faster hard disks or solid state drives to accelerate the streaming, limiting depth traversal during fast camera movement or masking the streaming with motion blur or depth of field postprocessing.\n- Animation of voxels requires specialized tools\n- Disadvantages of ray tracing in general: dynamic objects require the octree to be updated in realtime. However, there are solutions for dynamic objects which don't require updating of the octree (such as building a deformation lattice around dynamic objects so that when you raycast into it bend the rays as it hits the deformation lattice). id Tech 6 plans to tackle the problem of having many dynamic objects with hybrid rendering.\nMore on dynamic raytracing:\nDynamic Acceleration Structures for Interactive Ray Tracing, Reinhard, E., Smits, B., and Hansen, C., in Proc. Eurographics Workshop on Rendering, pp. 299-306, June 2000. Summary: This system uses a grid data structure, allowing dynamic objects to be easily inserted or removed. The grid is tiled in space (i.e. it wraps around) to avoid problems with fixed boundaries. They also implement a hiearchical grid with data in both internal and leaf nodes; objects are inserted into the optimal level.\nTowards Rapid Reconstruction for Animated Ray Tracing, Lext and Akenine-Moller, Eurographics 2001. Summary: Each rigid dynamic object gets its own grid acceleration structure, and rays are transformed into this local coordinate system. Surprisingly, they show that this scheme is not a big win for simple scenes, because in simple scenes it is possible to completely rebuild the grid each frame using only about a quarter of the runtime. But, this would probably not be true for a k-d or BSP tree.\nDistributed Interactive Ray Tracing of Dynamic Scenes, Wald, Benthin, and Slusallek, Proc. IEEE Symp. on Parallel and Large-Data Visualization and Graphics (PVG), 2003. Summary: This system uses ray transformation (into object coordinate system) for rigid movement, and BSP rebuild for unstructured movement. A top-level BSP tree is rebuilt every frame to hold bounding volumes for the moving objects. Performance is still an issue for unstructured movement.\nInteractive Space Deformation with Hardware Assisted Rendering, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications, Vol 17, no 6, 1997, pp. 66-77. Summary: Instead of deforming objects directly, this system deforms the space in which they reside (using 1-to-1 deformations). During raytracing, the rays are deformed into the object space instead of deforming the objects into the ray space. However, the resulting deformed rays are no longer straight, so they must be discretized into short line segments to perform the actual ray-object intersection tests.\nRay casting free-form deformed-volume objects, Haixin Chen, J\u00fcrgen Hesser, Reinhard M\u00e4nner A collection of techniques is developed in this paper for ray casting free-form deformed-volume objects with high quality and efficiency. The known inverse ray deformation approach is combined with free-form deformation to bend the rays to the opposite direction of the deformation, producing an image of the deformed volume without generating a really deformed intermediate volume. The local curvature is estimated and used for the adaptive selection of the length of polyline segments, which approximate the inversely deformed ray trajectories; thus longer polyline segments can be automatically selected in regions with small curvature, reducing deformation calculation without losing the spatial continuity of the simulated deformation. We developed an efficient method for the estimation of the local deformation function. The Jacobian of the local deformation function is used for adjustments of the opacity values and normal vectors computed from the original volume, guaranteeing that the deformed spatial structures are correctly rendered. The popular ray casting acceleration techniques, like early ray termination and space leaping, are incorporated into the deformation procedure, providing a speed-up factor of 2.34-6.56 compared to the non-optimized case.\nMore info on id Tech 6 and voxel ray casting in the ompf thread", "id": "<urn:uuid:0eea54f5-70c2-4727-b883-a7027e92ec81>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://raytracey.blogspot.com/2008_08_01_archive.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9212645888328552, "token_count": 2081, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Two-Toed Sloths are native to the rain forests in Costa Rica, we are the slowest animals on the planet and lots of people want to know if we're nocturnal (awake at night) or diurnal (awake during the day) but we're really neither. We're only awake for 4-6 hours a day and that can be at any time.\nWe eat lots and lots of leaves and plants but have a very slow metabolism so we only go to the bathroom about once/week! Our bodies are made of mostly retractor muscles so we can't walk or sit upright but we're sure good at hanging around. In the wild we even grow a green moss that covers our fur and if we're hungry we can always nibble on that! Another cool fact is that we have the lowest and more variable body temperature of any mammal we can be comfortable anywhere between 72 and 94 degrees!", "id": "<urn:uuid:4d3be516-223c-446f-9cb6-408a89f7b452>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://roosnmore.org/sponsor_me.php?back=school&animalid=5&page=Events", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9647655487060547, "token_count": 187, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "How Not To Insult The Prophet Mohammed\nHow to honor the Prophet:\n- Promote and engage in violence on global scale.\n- Denigrate and heap scorn upon other religions.\n- Make certain that the majority of victims of violence are other Muslims.\n- Encourage and endorse violent and vicious regimes.\n- Resist free and democratic principles at all costs.\n- Make sure that Muslims in the Middle East are denied decent education.\n- Never object to or criticize FGM, honor killings, gang rapes or acid attacks on women.\n- Encourage religious sermons that preach hate.\n- Make sure parishoners leave sabbath prayer services enraged and ready to kill.\n- Deny the Holocaust\n- Agree that the Holocaust was a wonderful idea.\n- Encourage and reward racist and bigoted ideology.\n- Intimidate anyone who disagrees.\n- Finally....always be the aggrieved victim, resisting, fighting and killing anyone you please.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ffe4d2c5-9e15-4348-82e6-80627a4380b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sigcarlfred.blogspot.com/2006/02/how-not-to-insult-prophet-mohammed.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8469746112823486, "token_count": 200, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This tutorial shows how to send modifications of code in the right way: by using patches.\nThe word developer is used here for someone having a KDE SVN account.\nWe suppose that you have modified some code in KDE and that you are ready to share it. First a few important points:\nNow you have the modification as a source file. Sending the source file will not be helpful, as probably someone else has done other modifications to the original file in the meantime. So your modified file could not replace it.\nThat is why patches exist. Patches list the modifications, the line numbers and a few other useful information to be able to put that patch back into the existing code. (This process is called \"patching\" or also \"applying a patch.\")\nThe main tool for creating patches is a tool called diff, which makes the difference between two files. This tool has a mode called unified diff, which KDE developers use. Unified diffs have not just the difference between the file but also the neighborhood around the differences. That allows to patch even if the line numbers are not the same anymore.\nThe most simple patch is created between the modified file (here called source.cpp) and the non-modified version of the file (here called source.cpp.orig.)\ndiff -u -p source.cpp.orig source.cpp\nThat lists the difference between the two files in the unified diff format (and with function name information if possible.) However it only displays it to screen, which is of course not the goal. So you need to redirect the output.\ndiff -u -p source.cpp.orig source.cpp > ~/patch.diff\n~/patch.diff is here an example and you can create the file where you prefer with the name that you prefer. (You will soon find out that it is probably not a good idea to create a patch where the source is.)\nBut normally, you do not just change one file and you do not keep the original version around to be able to make the difference later. But here too, there is a solution.\nThe program svn, which is used on the command line interact with the SVN server, has a diff function too: svn diff.\nYou can run it like this and it will give you the difference of the current directory and all sub-directories below it. Of course, here too, you want to redirect the output.\nsvn diff > ~/patch.diff\nThere are useful variants too (shown here without redirection)\nNote: even if svn can make the difference of another directory (svn diff mydirectory), it is not recommended to do it for a patch that should be applied again. (The problem is that the person that will apply the patch will have to be more careful about how he applies it.)\nNote: for simple diff, like those shown in the examples above, svn diff can be used offline, therefore without an active connection to the KDE SVN server. This is possible, as svn keeps a copy of the original files locally. (This feature is part of the design of SVN.)\nBy default, svn diff does not have a feature like the -p parameter of diff. But svn allows that an external diff program is called, so you can call diff:\nsvn diff --diff-cmd diff --extensions \"-u -p\"\nThe procedures described above work very well with text files, for example C++ source code. However they do not work with binary files, as diff is not made to handle them. And even if SVN can internally store binary differences, svn diff is not prepared to do anything similar yet, mainly because it currently uses the unified diff format only, which is not meant for binary data.\nTherefore, unfortunately, there is little choice but to attach binary files separately from the patch, of course attached in the same email.\nFirst, you need to make svn aware of files you have added.\nsvn add path/to/new/file /path/to/another/new/file\nThen run svn diff as before.\nNote that if you do svn revert, for example, the files you created will NOT be deleted by svn - but svn will no longer care about them (so they won't show up when you do svn diff, for example). You will have to rm them manually.\n(TODO: are there any other issues with adding new files if you don't have commit access?)\nNow you are ready to share the patch. If your patch fixes a bug from KDE Bugs, then the easiest way is to attach it there, see next section.\nThe main way of sharing a patch is to email to a mailing list. But be careful not to send big patches to a mailing list, a few 10KB is the limit.\nIf you find that the patch is too big to send to a mailing list, the best is to create a bug report in KDE Bugs and to attach the patch there, after having created the bug report.\nAnother possibility, however seldom used, is to post the patch on a public Web server (be it by HTTP or FTP) and to send an email to the mailing list, telling that the patch is waiting there.\nAnother variant is to ask on the mailing list which developer is ready to get a big patch. (Try to give its size and ask if you should send it compressed, for example by bzip2.)\nA last variant, if you know exactly which developer will process the patch and that you know or that you suppose that he currently has time, is to send the patch to a developer directly. (But here too, be careful if your patch is big. Some KDE developers have still analog modems.)\nIn this section we assume that you have chosen to add your patch to an existing KDE bug or that you have created a bug report just for your patch.\nEven if this tutorial is more meant to send patches to a mailing list, most of it can be applied to adding a patch to KDE Bugs.\nYou have two ways to do it:\nTo send an email to a bug report, you can use an email address of the form firstname.lastname@example.org where 12345 is the bug number. Please be sure to attach your patch and not to have it inlined in your text. (If it is inlined, it would be corrupted by KDE Bugs, as HTML does not respect spaces.)\nNote: if you send an email to KDE Bugs, be careful to use as sender the same email address as your login email address in KDE Bugs. Otherwise KDE Bugs will reject your email.\nNote: if you create a new bug report just for your patch, be careful that you cannot attach a patch directly when creating a new bug. However as soon as the new bug is created, you can then attach files, one-by-one, therefore also patches.\nWarning: sometimes your patch will be forgotten because the developers do not always closely monitor the bug database. In this case, try sending your patch by email as described below. If that also does not help, you can always talk to the developers on IRC\nAssuming that you have chosen to send the patch to a mailing list, you might ask yourself: to which one?\nThe best destination for patches is the corresponding developer mailing list.\nIn case of doubt, you can send any patch for KDE to the kde-devel mailing list. (However with an increased risk that you would miss the right developer.)\nOf course, if you know exactly which developer will process the patch and that you know or that you suppose that he currently has time, then you can send the patch to him directly.\nNow you have a patch redirected into a file (for this example called patch.diff), you are ready to send it by email. But the first question: where?\nNow that you have entered an email address, a good practice is to attach the patch to your file before writing anything else in the email. So you will not forget to attach it.\nA little note here: yes, in KDE (unlike for the Linux Kernel for example), we prefer to have the patches sent as attachments.\nNow you are ready to write the rest of the email. Please think of a title that matches your patch. (Think of having to find it again in the archives in a few months or even years.) A good habit is to precede the title by [PATCH]. So for example a title could be [PATCH] Fix backup files.\nAs for the body of the email, please tell to which file or directory your patch applies. For example for a file: The attached patch applies to the file koffice/kword/kwdoc.cpp or for a directory: The attached patch applies to the directory koffice/kword. This help the developers to have an overview of which code has been modified. Also tell for which branch it is meant, for example for trunk.\nThen tell what your patch does. If it fixes a bug, then please give the bug number too. If the bug was not registered in KDE Bugs, then please describe instead the bug that is fixed. Similarly, if you know that the patch fixes a bug introduced from a precise SVN revision, please add the revision number.\nTell also what could be useful to the developers, for example if you could not completely test the patch (and why), if you need help to finish fixing the code or if it is a quick&dirty solution that should be fixed better in long-term.\nNow check the email again to see if you have not forgotten anything (especially to attach the patch) and you can send the email.\nOne popular way of submitting patches is KDE's reviewboard. A big advantage over using the bugtracker of KDE is that the patches are less likely to be forgotten here. Also, the reviewboard allows inline review of diffs and other gimmicks.\nFirst you need to check if the project you've created the patch for is actually using reviewboard. For this, go to the groups section and see if the project's group is listed there. If it is listed there, you should use the reviewboard, otherwise send the patch by other means.\nFor sending a patch, you first need to register. Then simply click New Review Request and fill out the form. The most important parts of the form are:\nAfter you completed the form, a notification mail will be sent to the developers and they will answer you.\nNow you have to wait that a developer reacts on your patch. (If you are not subscribed to the mailing lists where you have sent the patch, then monitor the mailing list archives] for such a message.)\nThe reaction is normally one of the following:\nThe first case is when nobody has answered. That perhaps means that you have chosen the wrong mailing list. Perhaps you have not explained correctly what the patch fixes or you have given a title that is not precise enough. If this happens, the developer might have overlooked the patch. Perhaps the developer that should have answered has not any time currently. (That too happens unfortunately.) The best is to try to work a little more on the patch, make a better description and try again a second time, perhaps to another mailing list or to use KDE Bugs instead.\nIf the developer tells you that your patch conflicts with changes that he is currently doing, you could probably not do much against it. Maybe you can discuss with him how you can effectively work with him on this piece of code.\nIf your patch was not accepted, you could work further on it. Probably you should discuss the problem on the mailing list to know in which direction you should work further.\nIf a developer wants a few changes, then work on the code to make the changes according to the critic. If you need help because you do not understand how to do the needed change, then ask it on the mailing list.\nIf your patch was accepted, congratulations! :)", "id": "<urn:uuid:b1579d04-7a6b-420c-9fe2-a0b676d91ec3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://techbase.kde.org/index.php?title=Contribute/Send_Patches&oldid=40759", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9597765207290649, "token_count": 2482, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Neurons that can multitask greatly enhance the brain\u2019s computational power, study finds.\nThe movie \"21,\" a fictional work loosely based on the story of the MIT blackjack team that won millions of dollars from casinos across the country, opens in theaters Friday.\nThroughout the 1990s, several MIT students were part of a team that used advanced card-counting techniques to improve their chances of winning at blackjack. Their story became Ben Mezrich's book \"Bringing Down the House,\" which served as the basis for the fictional \"21.\"\nMost notably, the character played by Kevin Spacey, portrayed as an MIT professor, is entirely fictional. While his irresponsible acts may enliven the Hollywood script, they are entirely unrepresentative of the Institute.\nThose familiar with MIT should not be surprised that its students are capable of the calculations and observations necessary to outsmart casinos. In addition to its global leadership in science and engineering, MIT remains a mathematics powerhouse. As just one example, the MIT math team recently finished third at the prestigious William Lowell Putnam intercollegiate mathematics competition, garnering 21 out of the top 74 scores.\nAnd while shots of Killian Court and other MIT exteriors dot \"21,\" the movie was actually filmed at Boston University, at the Christian Science Center in Boston and in Las Vegas.\nThe careful MIT observer will notice several alumni also have small credited roles in the film, including iRobot co-founder Colin Angle '89, SM '91, who provided the movie robot; Jeffrey Ma '94; and Henry Houh '89, '90, SM '91, PhD '98.", "id": "<urn:uuid:064d02dc-b4dd-4dec-8584-0fceaa255d08>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2008/twenty-one-0328.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9632422924041748, "token_count": 339, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Saving water for the Mujib Reserve, Jordan\nTogether with the Royal Society for Conservation of Nature (RSCN) we worked in Jordan to reduce the impact of the dam upstream on the Mujib reserve, involve the local population in agricultural activities to save water and preserve water quality, and make sure that the Mujib reserve water needs are fulfilled in water management plans and decisions of the government.\nMore Action Details\nJordan is among the water poorest countries in the world. Population growth and unsustainable use such as pumping water for economic development since eighties of the past century have caused increase in the already high water stress. Nevertheless, Jordan does not have an integrated approach to water resource management.\nDrivers of the current situation of water overexploitation are: conflict of use between different sectors (drinking water, agriculture, industries, tourism), poverty and sanitation problems; disappearance of wetlands (Azraq) and huge impact on ecosystems such as Mujib National Reserve.\nRead more on our work in the Mujib Reserve, Jordan\nRead the announcement of the workshop on December 2011\nRoyal Society for Conservation of Nature (RSCN)", "id": "<urn:uuid:1f1ddb2c-fdfc-439a-979e-91854bce7dfe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wetlands.org/Whatwedo/Ouractions/tabid/2661/mod/601/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/2473/Saving-water-for-the-Mujib-Reserve-Jordan.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9274953007698059, "token_count": 236, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "January 12, 2013\n'Singing penis' sets noise record for water insect\nElla Davies at the BBC:\nScientists from France and Scotland recorded the aquatic animal \"singing\" at up to 99.2 decibels, the equivalent of listening to a loud orchestra play while sitting in the front row.\nThe insect makes the sound by rubbing its penis against its abdomen in a process known as \"stridulation\".\nResearchers say the song is a courtship display performed to attract a mate.\nMicronecta scholtzi are freshwater insects measuring just 2mm that are common across Europe.\nThe team of biologists and engineering experts recorded the insects using specialist underwater microphones.\nOn average, the songs of M. scholtzi reached 78.9 decibels, comparable to a passing freight train.\nPosted by S. Abbas Raza at 11:15 PM | Permalink", "id": "<urn:uuid:f1073f40-1e4e-4ab0-8aed-efe6e6df0275>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.3quarksdaily.com/3quarksdaily/2013/01/singing-penis-sets-noise-record-for-water-insect.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9366298913955688, "token_count": 183, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Historic Sites\nAmerica\u2019s First Iraq\nWHAT HAPPENED WHEN WE DELIVERED THE PHILIPPINES FROM TYRANNY A CENTURY AGO\nAugust/September 2003 | Volume 54, Issue 4\nIf all of this sounds eerily like a precursor to Vietnam, nothing appears more familiar than the seeming ambivalence of American troops and administrators toward the people whose land they were occupying. U.S. soldiers cursed the Filipinos continually as deceitful, lazy, \u201cbrainless monkeys,\u201d \u201cniggers,\u201d and \u201cgugus\u201d and longed to go home. At the same time, they threw themselves into every sort of effort to improve life in the country they were occupying, building sewers, distributing food, vaccinating people against smallpox, and even reforming the Spanish judiciary by appointing Filipino judges. American soldiers started and taught in makeshift schools throughout the islands, bringing formal education to many rural areas for the first time.\nIt was, as one observer put it, \u201ca harsh and philanthropic war at the same time.\u201d By the time President Theodore Roosevelt declared the conflict officially over, on July 4, 1902, it had ended up costing the United States 4,234 dead and 2,818 wounded, not including thousands more who later died at home of diseases they had caught in the islands. Some 20,000 Filipino soldiers and at least 250,000 civilians had also died, out of a population estimated at 7.6 million.\nEven before the war was over, though, our occupation had taken a philanthropic turn when a federal judge named William Howard Taft arrived to serve as the islands\u2019 first civilian governor. Taft considered most of the rebels no better than murderers and referred to his new subjects as his \u201clittle brown brothers.\u201d Yet he was also a highly competent administrator, imbued with a strict sense of public duty. From the start it was clear that America\u2019s role in the Philippines was to prepare the country for independence.\n\u201cWe hold the Philippines for the benefit of the Filipinos, and we are not entitled to pass a single act or to approve a single measure that has not that as its chief purpose,\u201d Taft declared on arriving in the islands, and in his considerable wake came thousands of American volunteers, who would quickly transform our first colonial possession. They would build roads and ports, sewers, water systems, and railroads everywhere. They would reform the archaic law and tax codes left over from the Spanish, stimulate industry and finance, break up the old monastic estates and distribute their land to rural villagers. Before long Filipinos would enjoy the highest literacy rate in Southeast Asia. And vast improvements in public hygiene and health care would go a long way toward doubling the islands\u2019 population by 1920.\n\u201cCompared to European colonialism, the United States was indeed a model of enlightenment,\u201d the journalist Stanley Karnow writes in his seminal work on the subject, In Our Image: America\u2019s Empire in the Philippines. In 1916 an act of Congress pledged eventual independence to the Philippines; the islands were made a semiautonomous commonwealth in 1935, and full independence, delayed by World War II, became a reality in 1946.\nYet in Karnow\u2019s assessment, the Americans\u2019 performance in the Philippines \u201cwas neither as brilliant as their publicists claimed nor as bleak as their critics contended.\u201d The Americans tried to make the country over into another America but also made clear they considered the Filipinos their racial inferiors. They preached democracy but dispersed patronage to those Filipino politicians who supported U.S. policies. They fought side by side with their \u201clittle brown brothers\u201d against the Japanese, during some of the most ferocious combat in World War II, and against Southeast Asian communism during the Cold War, but also felt free to suborn the Philippines\u2019 nascent democracy for years. Since the Reagan administration\u2019s tardy but decisive support for Cory Aquino\u2019s People Power movement in the 1980s, U.S.-Filipino relations have gotten on a more even keel, but not even enough to have kept the country from closing key American military bases for eight years in the 1990s.\nOf course, Iraq presents its own unique challenges and possibilities. Among other differences, the United States does not view it as a colony at all and certainly not as a possession. But if we can learn anything from our long adventure into the Philippines, it is that we need a policy that will be consistent not only in deed but in word and attitude as well, one that will avoid condescension and be directed toward making a restored, democratic Iraq truly independent.", "id": "<urn:uuid:49afc403-f650-4d34-a369-793f515d62c2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.americanheritage.com/content/america%E2%80%99s-first-iraq?page=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9733612537384033, "token_count": 972, "score": 3.546875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Caring for Student Health\nBy Naomi Dillon\nIt makes perfect sense: If you don\u2019t feel well, you won\u2019t perform well. Professional athletes know this. Medical professionals know this. Moms and dads know this. And in an increasing number of public schools, district officials know it, too.\nAnd many are doing something about it, in the form of more than 2,000 school-based health centers across the nation.\nKnown also by their acronym (SBHCs), these clinics take many shapes and forms, sometimes occupying a wing in a school building, a mobile unit on school grounds, or an old shuttered campus retrofitted as a modern medical facility. Most provide preventative and wellness care, although more are adding mental health, dental, and eye care services to their list of offerings.\n\u201cLots of times, people like to describe them as a doctor\u2019s office, but often they are more comprehensive than that,\u201d says Linda Juszczak, executive director of the National Assembly on School-Based Health Care.\nNumerous studies have shown that SBHCs can improve student health while lowering hospitalizations and Medicaid expenses. Several have noted sharp reductions in absenteeism and tardiness rates in schools where health centers exist. At least one study has determined that students who frequented the clinics for mental health services had higher grade point averages than those who didn\u2019t use the centers.\nMeanwhile, a 2010 study published in the Journal of Community Health estimated that a nationwide school-based clinic program would cost $4.5 billion but save nearly $25 billion in medical and opportunity costs for missed work and premature death from asthma. That same year, as part of President Obama\u2019s health care reform bill, Congress appropriated $200 million for school-based health programs.\n\u201cIt\u2019s a triumph of common sense,\u201d U.S. Secretary of Education Arne Duncan told the Denver Post last summer. \u201cSchools should be the heart of the neighborhood. You\u2019re putting a critical, critical resource right there at the school building.\u201d\nJuszczak says the federal government\u2019s support has sent the message \u201cthat the clinics are here to stay, that they are filling a role that\u2019s appreciated and essential in the communities that need them.\u201d\n\u201cThat\u2019s changed the attitude that people have of these programs,\u201d she says.\nSubscribers please click here to continue reading. If you are not a subscriber, please click here to purchase this article or to obtain a subscription to ASBJ.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d6398b53-1a87-4f65-83f1-facc26510df5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.asbj.com/MainMenuCategory/Archive/2012/June/Caring-for-Student-Health.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9623807072639465, "token_count": 543, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Portable Antiquities Scheme (PAS) exists to record objects found by members of the public and enter them onto an online database. Since it began in 1997, PAS has recorded over 750,000 objects of all periods of history from Palaeolithic flints to eighteenth-century coins and has become an important source of new archaeological data to be used by students and academics in their research. Initially based on a small group of pilot regions, recording was extended to cover the whole of England and Wales in 2003, at which point Oxfordshire became a part of the Scheme with the employment of a local Finds Liaison Officer (FLO) in the county. Alongside recording ordinary objects, PAS also deals with objects which come under remits of the Treasure Act 1996, which include gold and silver artefacts and coin hoards.\nThe Ashmolean has been officially involved with the PAS since 2004 when the Scheme\u2019s \u2018National Finds Advisor for Medieval and Post-medieval Coinage\u2019 became a part of our Heberden Coin Room. A further strengthening of the ties between the Ashmolean and PAS came with the re-opening of the museum in 2009 when the Coin Room and Department of Antiquities started a monthly \u2018identification service\u2019 for artefacts and coinage, at which the Oxfordshire FLO also attends. Through this service, PAS has recorded hundreds of objects, many of which would probably not have come to PAS\u2019s attention in any other way. The importance of PAS and local finds to the Ashmolean can be seen in the displays of local material around the museum, especially the \u2018England 400-1600\u2019 and \u2018Money\u2019 galleries, the latter housing a set of drawers including a range of finds made by a local metal-detectorist.\nFind out more about:", "id": "<urn:uuid:bafd5018-4828-4ce2-9e4e-364b50498bde>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/britarch/resources/PAS-intro.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9684666991233826, "token_count": 383, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Plants flower faster than climate change models predict\nScientific models are failing to accurately predict the impact of global warming on plants, says a new report.\nResearchers found in long-term studies that some are flowering up to eight times faster than models anticipate.\nThe authors say that poor study design and a lack of investment in experiments partly account for the difference.\nThey suggest that spring flowering and leafing will continue to advance at the rate of 5 to 6 days per year for every degree celsius of warming.\nThe results are published in the journal Nature.\nFor more than 20 years, scientists have been carrying out experiments to mimic the impacts of rising temperatures on the first leafing and flowering of plant species around the world.\nEnd Quote This Rutishauser Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research\nThe bottom line is that the impacts might be bigger than we have believed until now\u201d\nResearchers had assumed that plants would respond in essentially the same way to experimental warming with lamps and open top chambers as they would to changes in temperatures in the real world.\nVery little has been done to test the assumption until this study lead by Dr Elizabeth Wolkovich, who is now at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver.\nWith her colleagues she studied the timing of the flowering and leafing of plants in observational studies and warming experiments spanning four continents and 1,634 plant species.\nAccording to Dr Wolkovich, the results were a surprise.\n\"What we found is that the experiments don't line up with the long term data, and in fact they greatly underestimate how much plants change their leafing and flowering with warming,\" she said.\n\"So for models based on experimental data, then we would expect that plants are leafing four times faster and flowering eight times faster in the long term historical record than what we're using in some of the models.\"'Consistent message'\nObservational data have been gathered by scientific bodies for many years. In the UK, the systematic recording of flowering times dates back to 1875, when the Royal Meteorological Society established a national network of observers.\nSince then, data has also been recorded by full-time biologists and part-time enthusiasts, and in recent years there have been mass-participation projects such as BBC Springwatch.\nThis new research suggests that these observations of flowering and leafing carried out in many different parts of the world over the past thirty years are remarkably similar according to Dr Wolkovich.\n\"In terms of long term observations, the records are very coherent and very consistent and they suggest for every degree celsius of warming we get we are going to get a five- to six-day change in how plants leaf and flower.\"\nShe argues that the difficulties in mimicking the impacts of nature in an artificial setting are much greater than many scientists estimate. The team found that in some cases the use of warming chambers to artificially raise temperatures can sometimes have the opposite effect.\n\"In the real world, we don't just see changes in temperature - we see changes in precipitation and cloud patterns and other factors - so certainly when you think about replicating changes in clouds, we are very, very far away from being able to do that.\n\"I guess we will never get to perfectly match nature, but I am hopeful as scientists we can do much, much better, given funding resources.\"\nThe team found that the greater investment in the design and monitoring of experiments, the more accurate the result.\n\"We have a very consistent message from the long-term historical records about how plants are changing, but we need to think more critically about how we fund and invest in and really design experiments,\" said Dr Wolkovich.\n\"We do need them in the future, they are the best way going forward to project how species are changing but right now what we're doing isn't working as well as I think it could.\"\nOther researchers were equally surprised by the results.\nDr This Rutishauser is at the Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research at the University of Bern in Switzerland. He says that in light of this work scientists will have to rethink the impacts of global warming.\n\"The bottom line is that the impacts might be bigger than we have believed until now. That's going to provoke a lot of work to probably revise modelling results for estimations of what's going to happen in the future for food production especially.\"\nDr Wolkovich agrees that if the models are so significantly underestimating the real world observations, there could be also be impacts on water the world over.\n\"If a whole plant community starts growing a week earlier than we expect according to these experiments, it's going to take up a lot more water over the growing season and if you add to that many years of the model projections, you are going to see big changes in the water supply.\"\nShe appeals to people to get involved in citizen science projects and help gather data on flowering and leafing, especially in remote areas.\nThe National Phenology Network in the US logged its millionth observation this week, and similar programmes are underway in the UK, Sweden, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, and a pan-European database is under development.\n\"We have very few monitoring networks. We need many, many people out there observing this because it is changing faster and across more habitats than we are currently measuring - we need more help!\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:2b0a717c-2162-468d-9a68-767e517dc557>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-17924653", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9647480845451355, "token_count": 1102, "score": 3.5, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The authoritative source of information about all types of bottled waters, IBWA members include U.S. and International bottlers, distributors and suppliers. IBWA represents our industry\u2019s uncompromising commitment to the safety and availability of bottled water worldwide.\nBottled water companies work hard to protect the environment, and play an important role in promoting recycling of plastic containers and groundwater management.\nThe bottled water industry is one of thousands of food, beverage and commercial water users. Bottled Water companies actively support comprehensive ground water management practices that are science-based, treat all users equitably, multi-jurisdictional, and provide for future needs of this important resource. Learn more.\nBottled water is a safe, healthy, and convenient packaged food product, which is comprehensively regulated at both the federal and state level.\nStrictly regulated as a packaged food product by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), bottled water is a safe, refreshing, convenient, and consistently reliable beverage choice. Did you know that by mandate of federal law, the FDA regulations governing the safety and quality of bottled water must be as stringent as the EPA regulations which govern tap water? Learn more.\nMYTH: Bottled water isn't as regulated as tap water.\nFACT: By federal law, the FDA regulations governing the safety and quality of bottled water must be as stringent as the EPA regulations which govern tap water.\nTo suggest in any way that bottled water is less stringently regulated than tap water is simply not true...", "id": "<urn:uuid:bd9be442-e49c-4b45-9c04-cf71efc77bf6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bottledwater.org/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9587801098823547, "token_count": 313, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "is the standard method used by scientists to determine the\nage of certain fossilized remains. As scientists will often\nclaim something to be millions or billions of years old\n(ages that do not conform to the Biblical account of the age\nof the earth), Christians are often left wondering about the\naccuracy of the carbon-14 method. The truth is, carbon-14\ndating (or radiocarbon dating, as it\u2019s also called) is not a\nprecise dating method in many cases, due to faulty\nassumptions and other limitations on this method.\nhas a weight of twelve atomic mass units (AMU\u2019s), and is the\nbuilding block of all organic matter (plants and animals).\nA small percentage of carbon atoms have an atomic weight of\n14 AMU\u2019s. This is carbon-14. Carbon-14 is an unstable,\nradioactive isotope of carbon 12. As with any radioactive\nisotope, carbon-14 decays over time. The half-life of\ncarbon 14 is approximate 5,730 years. That means if you\ntook one pound of 100 percent carbon-14, in 5,730 years, you\nwould only have half a pound left.\ncreated in the upper atmosphere as nitrogen atoms are\nbombarded by cosmic radiation. For every one trillion\ncarbon-12 atoms, you will find one carbon-14 atoms. The\ncarbon-14 that results from the reaction caused by cosmic\nradiation quickly changes to carbon dioxide, just like\nnormal carbon-12 would. Plants utilize, or \u201cbreath in\u201d\ncarbon dioxide, then ultimately release oxygen for animals\nto inhale. The carbon-14 dioxide is utilized by plants in\nthe same way normal carbon dioxide is. This carbon-14\ndioxide then ends up in humans and other animals as it moves\nup the food chain.\nThere is then a\nratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 in the bodies of plants,\nhumans, and other animals that can fluctuate, but will be\nfixed at the time of death. After death, the carbon-14\nwould begin to decay at the rate stated above. In 1948, Dr.\nW.F. Libby introduced the carbon-14 dating method at the\nUniversity of Chicago. The premise behind the method is to\ndetermine the ratio of carbon-14 left in organic matter, and\nby doing so, estimate how long ago death occurred by running\nthe ratio backwards. The accuracy of this method, however,\nrelies on several faulty assumptions.\ncarbon-14 dating to be accurate, one must assume the rate of\ndecay of carbon-14 has remained constant over the years.\nHowever, evidence indicates that the opposite is true.\nExperiments have been performed using the radioactive\nisotopes of uranium-238 and iron-57, and have shown that\nrates can and do vary. In fact, changing the environments\nsurrounding the samples can alter decay rates.\nThe second faulty\nassumption is that the rate of carbon-14 formation has\nremained constant over the years. There are a few reasons\nto believe this assumption is erroneous. The industrial\nrevolution greatly increased the amount of carbon-12\nreleased into the atmosphere through the burning of coal.\nAlso, the atomic bomb testing around 1950 caused a rise in\nneutrons, which increased carbon-14 concentrations. The\ngreat flood which Noah and family survived would have\nuprooted and/or buried entire forests. This would decrease\nthe release of carbon-12 to the atmosphere through the decay\ncarbon-14 dating to be accurate, the concentrations of\ncarbon-14 and carbon-12 must have remained constant in the\natmosphere. In addition to the reasons mentioned in the\nprevious paragraph, the flood provides another evidence that\nthis is a faulty assumption. During the flood, subterranean\nwater chambers that were under great pressure would have\nbeen breached. This would have resulted in an enormous\namount of carbon-12 being released into the oceans and\natmosphere. The effect would be not unlike opening a can of\nsoda and having the carbon dioxide fizzing out. The water\nin these subterranean chambers would not have contained\ncarbon-14, as the water was shielded from cosmic radiation.\nThis would have upset the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12.\nTo make carbon-14\ndating work, Dr. Libby also assumed that the amount of\ncarbon-14 being presently produced had equaled the amount of\ncarbon-12 \u2013 he assumed that they had reached a balance. The\nformation of carbon-14 increases with time, and at the time\nof creation was probably at or near zero. Since carbon-14\nis radioactive, it begins to decay immediately as it\u2019s\nformed. If you start with no carbon-14 in the atmosphere,\nit would take over 50,000 years for the amount being\nproduced to reach equilibrium with the amount decaying. One\nof the reasons we know that the earth is less than 50,000\nyears old is because of the biblical record. Another reason\nwe can know this is because the amount of carbon-14 in the\natmosphere is only 78% what it would be if the earth were\nLibby and the evolutionist crowd have assumed that all plant\nand animal life utilize carbon-14 equally as they do\ncarbon-12. To be grammatically crass, this ain\u2019t\nnecessarily so. Live mollusks off the Hawaiian coast have\nhad their shells dated with the carbon-14 method. These\ntest showed that the shells died 2000 years ago! This news\ncame as quite a shock to the mollusks that had been using\nthose shells until just recently.\nWe\u2019ve listed five\nfaulty assumptions here that have caused overestimates of\nage using the carbon-14 method. The list of non-compliant\ndates from this method is endless. Most evolutionists today\nwould conclude that carbon-14 dating is \u2013 at best \u2013 reliable\nfor only the last 3000 to 3500 years. There is another\nreason that carbon-14 dating has yielded questionable\nresults \u2013 human bias.\nIf you\u2019ve ever\nbeen part of a medical study, you\u2019re probably familiar with\nthe terms \u201cblind study\u201d and \u201cdouble-blind study\u201d. In a\nblind study, using carbon-14 dating for example, a person\nwould send in a few quality control samples along with the\nactual sample to the laboratory. The laboratory analyst\nshould not know which sample is the one of interest. In\nthis way, the analyst could not introduce bias into the\ndating of the actual sample. In a double-blind study (using\nan experimental drug study as an example), some patients\nwill be given the experimental drug, while others will be\ngiven a placebo (a harmless sugar pill). Neither the\npatients nor the doctors while know who gets what. This\nprovides an added layer of protection against bias.\nthat do not fit a desired theory are often excluded by\nalleging cross-contamination of the sample. In this manner,\nan evolutionist can present a sample for analysis, and tell\nthe laboratory that he assumes the sample to be somewhere\nbetween 50,000 years old and 100,000 years old. Dates that\ndo not conform to this estimate are thrown out. Repeated\ntesting of the sample may show nine tests that indicate an\nage of 5000 to 10,000 years old, and one test that shows an\nage of 65,000 years old. The nine results showing ages that\ndo not conform to the pre-supposed theory are excluded.\nThis is bad science, and it is practiced all the time to fit\nwith the evolutionary model.\nThe Shroud of\nTurin, claimed to be the burial cloth of Christ, was\nsupposedly dated by a blind test. Actually, the control\nspecimens were so dissimilar that the technicians at the\nthree laboratories making the measurements could easily tell\nwhich specimen was from the Shroud. This would be like\ntaking a piece of wood and two marbles and submitting them\nto the lab with the instructions that \u201cone of these is from\nan ancient ponderosa pine, guess which.\u201d The test would\nhave been blind if the specimens had been reduced to carbon\npowder before they were given to the testing laboratories.\nHumans are naturally biased. We tend to see what we want to\nsee, and explain away unwanted data.\nPerhaps the best\ndescription of the problem in attempting to use the\nCarbon-14 dating method is to be found in the words of Dr.\nRobert Lee. In 1981, he wrote an article for the\nAnthropological Journal of Canada, in which stated:\ntroubles of the radiocarbon dating method are undeniably\ndeep and serious. Despite 35 years of technological\nrefinement and better understanding, the underlying\nassumptions have been strongly challenged, and warnings\nare out that radiocarbon may soon find itself in a crisis\nsituation. Continuing use of the method depends on a\nfix-it-as-we-go approach, allowing for contamination here,\nfractionation there, and calibration whenever possible. It\nshould be no surprise then, that fully half of the dates\nare rejected. The wonder is, surely, that the remaining\nhalf has come to be accepted\u2026. No matter how useful it\nis, though, the radiocarbon method is still not capable of\nyielding accurate and reliable results. There are gross\ndiscrepancies, the chronology is uneven and relative, and\nthe accepted dates are actually the selected dates.\u201d\naccuracy of carbon-14 dating relies on faulty assumptions,\nand is subject to human bias. At best, radiocarbon dating\nis only accurate for the past few thousand years. As we\u2019ve\nseen though, even relatively youthful samples are often\ndated incorrectly. The Biblical record gives us an\nindication of an earth that is relatively young. The most\nreliable use of radiocarbon dating supports that position.\nThis method of dating, overall, tends to be as faulty and\nill conceived as the evolutionary model that is was designed\nTO EVOLUTION MAIN PAGE", "id": "<urn:uuid:7d4420ef-da3e-4c61-885f-478078194d0d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.contenderministries.org/evolution/carbon14.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9408059120178223, "token_count": 2164, "score": 3.65625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is Braille?\nBraille is an arrangement of clusters of six points, some of which are raised, representing letters, sounds and words. The fingertips are passed over the embossed dots enabling the reader to feel the points. This process means that a visually impaired or blind person who understands the significance of the patterns at his/her fingertips can read.\nWho was Louis Braille?\nLouis Braille was a Frenchman. Born in 1809, he was a normally-sighted baby. Unfortunately he lost his sight three years later when his eyes became infected after an accident. Seven years later he won a scholarship to the National Institute for the Blind in Paris where he learned to play musical instruments. He was an intelligent student and soon went on to play the organ in churches all round the country.\nThe school was a leader in the field of teaching the blind and its founder had invented a system of raised letters on paper in order to teach blind children to read. There were drawbacks to this method, however. The books were large and unwieldy, and although the children learned to read they did not learn to write.\nFortunately this situation was soon to change. In 1821 a former officer of the French Army paid a visit to the school. His name was Charles Barbier and he had been commanded by Napoleon to invent a system for writing at night, silently and without light, for use in the French Army. Barbier had come up with a system of twelve dots and dashes, raised on paper. The code had not taken off very well, however, as it was too difficult to learn. Nevertheless he told the institute about it and the idea sparked Louis Braille\u2019s creative abilities. He quickly spotted the flaw in Barbier\u2019s system and set about simplifying the code to six dots which made it much easier to learn to use. The beauty of Braille\u2019s system lay in the fact that the fingertip did not need to move around in order to trace out each letter or cover a 12-dot cluster \u2013 the pattern of just six raised dots could be read with one touch. Also, blind people could write as well as read with this method.\nLouis Braille worked tirelessly on his system until he completed it in the mid 1820s, while still in his teens. In later years he widened the scope of the code so that both music and mathematics could be read and produced with it. By 1830 the first book in Braille had been published.\nIn adulthood Louis Braille stayed on at the Institute as a teacher though he didn\u2019t teach his system for reading and writing to the children there \u2013 \u2018Braille\u2019 had yet to catch on officially. In 1852 he succumbed to tuberculosis and died. Just two years later his code of raised dots was given official recognition as the system to be used when teaching literacy to the blind.\nExactly one hundred years after his death Louis Braille\u2019s remains were transferred to the Panth\u00e9on in Paris, re-interred and accorded the honours the inventor of a reading and writing system for the blind deserved. In spite of the fact that the use of Braille is declining nowadays due to advances in technology, Louis Braille\u2019s place in history is assured.\nSee also: More important problems to deal with than blindness?\nQuick Quiz: Read the clues below and write the solutions on a piece of paper. Then take the first letter of each answer and rearrange them to find the hidden word connected with this Talking Point.\n1. He lost his sight three years later when his eyes became infected after an __________.\n2. The school was a __________ in the field of teaching the blind.\n3. There were __________ to this method, however.\n4. A former officer of the French Army paid a visit to the school whose name was Charles __________.\n5. He had been commanded by Napoleon to invent a system for writing at __________, silently and without light.\n6. Barbier had come up with a system of twelve dots and __________, raised on paper.\n7. The beauty of Braille\u2019s system lay __________ the fact that the fingertip did not need to move around in order to trace out each letter or cover a 12-dot cluster.\n8. Louis Braille worked tirelessly on his system until he completed it in the mid 1820s, while still in his __________.\n9. __________ one hundred years after his death Louis Braille\u2019s remains were transferred to the Panth\u00e9on in Paris.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d72c28b4-84d3-4e23-9149-b7ae6cfe5ead>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.englishclub.com/esl-forums/viewtopic.php?p=391032", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9863001108169556, "token_count": 951, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Animal & Veterinary\nFARAD \u2013 Resource for Residue Problem Avoidance\nFDA Veterinarian Newsletter July/August 2003 Volume XVIII, No 4\nThe Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank (FARAD) is a computer-based decision support system originally designed to provide livestock producers, extension specialists, and veterinarians with practical information on how to avoid drug, pesticide and environmental contaminant residue problems. However, FARAD also offers emergency response assistance for accidental or deliberate chemical exposures to food animals. Since 1982 the FARAD has provided emergency hotline assistance to State and Federal agencies dealing with chemical contamination in food animals.\nFARAD is a collaboration between USDA, FDA, and three Universities (North Carolina State University, University of Florida, and University of California, Davis). FARAD was authorized by Congress in 1998 (Public Law 105-185). Dr. Jim Riviere, Professor, North Carolina State University, College of Veterinary Medicine says one of FARAD\u2019s functions is \u201cto provide withdrawal time guidance in support of extra-label drug use under AMDUCA.\u201d Dr. Riviere adds, \u201cThey also provide such information to the FDA-supported Veterinary Antimicrobial Decision Support System (VADSS) program on Prudent Antimicrobial Use and internationally to the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, International (CABI), which is a global storehouse and disseminator of agricultural databases.\u201d\nFARAD personnel at the University of California, Davis and the University of Florida comb through numerous sources of residue avoidance information and extract information that will be of greatest use. These data are reviewed by residue experts to ensure accuracy and consistency, and further analysis is done by FARAD personnel at North Carolina State University to explore novel ways in which the data may be used to prevent residue problems. FARAD maintains an up-to-date computerized compilation of:\n- Current label information including withdrawal times on all drugs approved for use in food animals in the United States and on hundreds of products used in Canada, Europe and Australia.\n- Official tolerances for drugs and pesticides in tissues, eggs and milk.\n- Descriptions and sensitivities of rapid screening tests for detecting residues in tissues, eggs and milk.\n- Data on the fate of chemicals in food animals.\nFARAD maintains the largest database of animal pharmacokinetic data in the world. These data describe the time-course of chemical (drugs, pesticides, environmental contaminants and toxins) depletion in the tissues and products of animals. FARAD is also sanctioned to provide these estimates to the United States Pharmacopeia-Drug Information (USP-DI) Veterinary Medicine Advisory Committee. As a cooperative multi-state program, FARAD is available nationwide to offer advice about residue avoidance.\nWhere to Call FARAD\nFARAD expert-mediated assistance is available from two Regional Access Centers that can be accessed by this single toll-free telephone number:\nWESTERN REGIONAL ACCESS CENTER\nEASTERN REGIONAL ACCESS CENTER\nWhen to Call FARAD\nAnyone who has a question about how to prevent residues in animal-derived foods is encouraged to call FARAD for assistance. Food animal veterinarians and Extension specialists are currently the major users of FARAD information. The FARAD Regional Access Centers operate during normal business hours. Most questions can be answered immediately; however, complex response may require a couple of days.\nFor more information, please visit FARAD\u2019s web site at http://www.farad.org.", "id": "<urn:uuid:65ac5eaa-4bce-4f24-a758-93d2dcfe2a6f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/NewsEvents/FDAVeterinarianNewsletter/ucm103415.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.88568115234375, "token_count": 723, "score": 2.953125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Keglacian culture thrived in the mountainous regions of Jorvyll north of the Evesque Valley. Their skill in stone working and stonemasonry was most likely put to use in the building of the Baleman. The majority of the Keglacians fled South to the Valley in the wake of the Earthquake of Fluyr in -75 EC.\nWith them they brought their songs, epic poetry, and sports including hoopkah. While much of the poems and old songs of the Keglacians have melted into the collective culture, hoopkah has made a distinctive mark and is becoming more popular with every passing year.\nVariations of this Keglacian sport are also known as choopkah (team play) or hoopspootch (a simplified version for children). Professional hoopkah teams wherein a Hive-Coach and his four or five player team compete in a series of matches against local rival teams are popular events often drawing huge crowds of common folk who treat such matches as huge social gatherings complete with food and drinks.\nWhile the stonemason origins of the Keglacians are now mostly destroyed, it would seem that this simple pastime will remain their gift to world culture.\n--Dr. H.L. Ackroyd 18:57, 27 Nov 2004 (EST)", "id": "<urn:uuid:23a64e5e-0a6c-427a-9305-ead9a8763ad0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.gamegrene.com/wiki/Keglacians", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9650446772575378, "token_count": 279, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Started conversation May 4, 2004\nIt's incorrect to say that \"gyratory system\" is just the name for a roundabout that has got too big for its boots. In fact it's the original term which was soon displaced when they became common.\nI'm not sure if the term \"gyratory circus\" was ever really used. There are a number of junctions in London known as circuses after the circular range of buildings around them. This was a particularly 18th century fashion, so of course the most famously beautiful one is in Bath.\nThe OED says of \"gyratory\":\nApplied to a system of directing road traffic round a roundabout or through a system of one-way streets to avoid the need for one line of traffic to intersect another.\n1909 Westm. Gaz. 7 Aug. 4/2 The gyratory principle, by which vehicles are directed into circular lines ingeniously devised to avoid intersection. 1926 Rep. Comm. Police Metropolis, 1925 16 in Parl. Papers (Cmd. 2660) XV. 239 Gyratory systems for the circulation of traffic, after years of discussion, reached the point of practical demonstration this year. 1928 Observer 5 Feb. 13/7 Now that every week dedicates a new bunch of streets to the Gyratory System. 1966 Guardian 8 Sept. 5/4 A new gyratory road system to ease traffic congestion..is to be built..at Stretford.\nAnd of \"roundabout\":\nA junction at which traffic moves one way round a central island. Cf. RONDPOINT b, ROTARY n. 3.\n1927 Glasgow Herald 3 Jan. 7/2 There is only one draw~back to the roundabout, and that is the inconvenience caused to pedestrians. 1937 Times 13 Apr. (British Motor No.) p. viii/1 Roundabouts..have the advantage of keeping vehicles on the move. 1947 Daily Mail 22 May 3/4 Removal of the Mansion House to make room for a big round-about. 1955 Times 2 Aug. 9/7 Makeshift tactics are particularly evident in the proposed treatment at Hyde Park Corner which includes an extremely complicated roundabout. 1967 Listener 28 Sept. 398/1 People make only occasional use of their speedometer..on such critical occasions as the approach to roundabouts. 1977 Belfast Tel. 14 Feb. 5/9, 12 shots were fired at an armoured police vehicle near the roundabout at Narrow~water Castle.\nAnd of \"circus\":\nA circular range of houses. Also, a traffic roundabout. Often in proper names as Oxford Circus, Regent Circus.\n1714 POPE Rape Lock IV. 117 Sooner shall Grass in Hide-Park Circus grow. 1766 ANSTEY Bath Guide II. ix. 57 To breathe a purer Air In the Circus or the Square. 1771 SMOLLETT Humph. Cl. 23 Apr., The same artist who planned the Circus has likewise projected a crescent [at Bath]. Ibid. The Circus is a pretty bauble..and looks like Vespasian's amphitheatre turned outside in. 1794 Looker-on No. 89 The squares and circuses are no longer the only scenes of dignified dissipation. 1898 Tit-Bits 15 Jan. 300/3 Bridges, of light and tasty design, across all the main thoroughfares, and at the various \u2018circuses\u2019 and cross roads.\nPosted Sep 2, 2004\nI'm a little confused. The definitions you gave seem to support the idea that there *is* a difference between a roundabout and a gyratory.\nThose definitions say that a roundabout is a junction, while a gyratory is a particular kind of one way system.\nOf course a roundabout could be viewed as a very small one way system, so you could argue that all roundabouts are gyratories. But not all gyratories are really roundabouts according to the definitions you produced. (Specifically, a gyratory consisting of more than one junction is, by definition, not a roundabout.)\nBut in practice, isn't the common usage pretty much as I suggested? I'm only actually aware of two road systems commonly referred to as gyratories - one is the subject of this article, and the other is in Reading. And both of them are distinctly on the large side. In particular, they both have multiple junctions.\nSo the common usage of the word seems to be to describe overgrown roundabouts (and more specifically, multi-junction ones) in practice.\nCan you point to any counterexamples in real use? I'm just going on the gyratories I know - I've not done any exhaustive research on gryatories across the nation.\nPosted Aug 12, 2005\nThere is a gyratory system at Park Gate near Southampton that consists of a pair of roundabouts connected by a pair of one way carriage ways.\nPosted Aug 12, 2005\nI have to correct my previous entry because, while I have heard it called the Park Gate gyratory system, it is not recorded as a gyratory system on Hampshire's register of adopted roads. It is recorded as the following separate components... Botley Road roundabout, the Bridge Road dual carriageway and the Brook Lane roundabout.\nHowever, I find there is a gyratory system just east of Park Gate on the A27 at Titchfield and this is a large roundabout with traffic lights and many junctions.\nComplain about this post", "id": "<urn:uuid:ecec54f2-86e4-4767-b811-568614e9a17a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.h2g2.com/approved_entry/A303346/conversation/view/F37910/T416799", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9443924427032471, "token_count": 1153, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A notch or groove cut into a piece of material to allow two sections to be combined with a flush joint.\nA woodcutting tool used to cut an L-shaped groove into a piece of material. see also Rabbet\nA strong current in a stream or river.\n1. An enclosed metal channel, usually fire-resistant, installed in a building to hold electrical wiring.\n2. A chute that directs the flow of a material to a specific location in a device.\nA channel holding electrical wiring that is designed to look like a piece of decorative trim or molding.\nA channel holding electrical wiring designed to be installed on a floor. The unit has a low profile and sloping edges to facilitate walking over it.\nThe illegal practice of directing certain races away from some neighborhoods and into others.\n1. A storage unit designed to hold various objects.\n2. To cause a structure to shift so that it is out of plumb.\n1. A force that causes a structure to shift so that it is out of plumb.\n2. Installation of bricks or other masonry units so that each course is stepped back from the previous one.\nStraight-line outward movement from a circle's center.\nA power saw with a circular blade that is mounted on a moveable arm. The arm is lowered or raised to move the cutting blade to or away from the material to be cut.\nA drill press with a moveable arm that can be swung to various positions on the work table.\nAn HVAC system with ductwork running outward from a central heating and/or cooling unit.\nThe surface of a log cut down the center.\nHeating system where electrical or hot-water heating elements are installed in a concrete slab floor.\nsee Radiant heating\nUse of radiation to generate heat such as with baseboard heating where the circulating hot water is radiated through conduction by thin metal fins at the bottom of the wall. The room is warmed by air circulating around the heating unit using convention.\nHeating unit that is exposed and which transfers heat generated by hot eater or steam through conduction. When the air circulates around the radiator using convention, the room is heated.\nThe distance from the center of a circle to the circumference. One-half of the diameter of a circle.\nA tool used for checking the radii of convex and concave surfaces.\nRadioactive gas that seeps into some homes, from the ground, through sump pumps, cracks in the foundation, etc., it is considered a health hazard.\nAny of the beams that slope from the ridge of a roof to the eaves to serve as support for the roof.\nA metal fastener attached to the top plate of a wall to hold a rafter.\nA rafter parallel to the gable end that projects out to form an overhang.\nThe end of a rafter extending beyond the line of a building's walls.\nA guide used when cutting rafters.\nThe top plate of a building's walls. The rafters rest on the rafter plate.\nThe vertical cut made into a rafter so it will rest on the wall plate. see also Rafter Seat Cut\nThe horizontal cut made into a rafter so it will rest on the wall plate. see also Rafter Plumb Cut\nCutting a section off of the end of a rafter equal to one-half of the thickness of the ridge board (the rafter on the other side of the ridge board receives a similar cut).\nTables, often printed on a framing square, containing the data required to calculate angles and lengths of rafters for various roof types.\nsee Rafter Overhang\nA horizontal structure used as a handhold or to block off a drop or other unsafe area.\n1. Continuous metal bars on which wheeled vehicles travel (i.e. railroads).\n2. The horizontal sections of a panel door.\n3. The top and bottom sections of a window sash.\nWaterproof cap, also called weatherheads, mast heads or entrance caps, which is placed at the upper part of an electrical mast at the point where the wires are run to the inside electrical meter. Wires hang from the pole to the entrance cap so that the entrance cap is not the low point in the downhill run from the pole because water will run to the low point before dripping to the ground. Wires enter the entrance cap at an upward angle through a tight insulator. Water is further stopped from getting through the entrance cap because of this entrance angle.\nWood where the fibers have swelled, usually because of becoming wet. Wood is often sanded with the grain raised to achieve an extremely smooth finished surface.\n1. A fork-like tool used for gathering materials (i.e. leaves) or smoothing an area of soil.\n2. A roof overhang on a building's gable end.\n3. An angle between objects.\nA masonry joint where a portion of mortar has been removed, creating a groove between masonry units. A raked joint if often used in brickwork.\nMortgage, most commonly used by the elderly who have substantial equity in their homes. A periodic payment is made to the borrower from the lender thus, increasing the loan balance, causing negative amortization.\nA hydraulically powered piston used for driving a weight.\nA sloping surface used to move from one elevation to another.", "id": "<urn:uuid:792f0695-cc94-4f2f-a4fe-56cf6b911ddf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hrmls.com/awright/cgi-bin/aa.fcgi?+ZDFlN2Y2OTY0ZmE3ODBmM2IwM2EwZmFlYTg4MWRhNTISlI0ibvs8tuFLdidYcPWsbrYzAtzw0l6PsmvbEvsSvSHxLc7ZUWfuT%2Fq8jXxxMg2fZvJBI3GsCgqsqB4A6YU2OvgSbvU%3D", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9262642860412598, "token_count": 1123, "score": 2.984375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Jhansi city is located in central India, in Uttar Pradesh\nState. Situated between the rivers Pahunj and Betwa\n, the city is a symbol of bravery, courage and self respect. In ancient times Jhansi was a part of the regions Chedi Rashtra, Jejak Bhukit, Jajhoti and\n. It is most famous as the land of\nRani Lakshmi Bai\n, the brave woman-ruler of Jhansi, who fought the British.\nToday it is a center of trade and industries including railway workshops and iron and steel mills. There are many manufacturing units of brassware, rugs, rubber, and silk goods. The city developed around a fort built in 1613 and strengthened in 1742. It was the scene of a massacre of British residents in 1857 during the Sepoy Rebellion. The total population exceeds three hundred thousand.\nThe Jhansi festival is a major cultural event here. The seventeenth century Jhansi Fort is a major tourist attraction. Jhansi has its own railhead which links the city to major nearby destinations.", "id": "<urn:uuid:06e4cdd5-0b64-4ef7-ba6c-ce5b0d1173af>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.india9.com/i9show/-Uttar-Pradesh/Mahoba/Jhansi-19071.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.963404655456543, "token_count": 237, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Bills create, amend, or repeal law. To become law, a bill must pass the House of Representatives and the Senate by a majority vote of the members-elect in each house. Bills may be introduced by members of the Legislative Assembly, standing committees, or the Legislative Management. A state executive agency or the North Dakota Supreme Court can have bills automatically introduced in the name of the standing committee to which the bill will be referred. House bills begin with the number 1001, and Senate bills begin with the number 2001. The Constitution of North Dakota (Article IV, Section 13) provides that bills adopted by the Legislative Assembly generally take effect August 1 after filing with the Secretary of State. However, certain appropriations and tax measures become effective July 1. The effective date may be later if specifically written into a bill. The effective date may be earlier if the Legislative Assembly declares an \u201cemergency\u201d and the measure receives a two-thirds vote of the members-elect in each house.\nResolutions propose constitutional amendments, express opinions, request actions, congratulate, or console. Resolutions do not have the effect of law. Resolutions are the vehicles used to propose constitutional amendments for voter consideration. Resolutions are used to request an interim study by the Legislative Management on a specific subject. Resolutions frequently express legislative opinion to Congress or other federal offices with regard to federal programs or policies. House concurrent resolutions begin with the number 3001, and Senate concurrent resolutions begin with the number 4001. Concurrent means that a particular resolution must be approved by both the House and Senate. The House or Senate may use resolutions for their own separate business such as memorial resolutions for deceased members, e.g., House Memorial Resolution 7001 and Senate Memorial Resolution 8001.\nSession Laws (the popular name for Laws of North Dakota)\nSession Laws contain the text of all measures enacted (bills) or adopted (resolutions) by a particular Legislative Assembly. Session Laws also include:\n- Constitutional amendments proposed by the Legislative Assembly. Vote totals are provided for those \u201capproved\u201d or \u201cdisapproved\u201d since publication of the preceding Session Laws.\n- Initiated laws or constitutional amendments and referred bills submitted to voters since publication of the preceding Session Laws (includes vote totals).\n- Governor\u2019s veto messages.\n- Lists of House and Senate members.\n- A statewide legislative district map.\nRecent Session Laws are online at: http://www.legis.nd.gov.\nStatutes provide written organized law. Since becoming a state in 1889, North Dakota law has been codified as the:\n- Revised Codes of 1895.\n- Revised Codes of 1899.\n- Revised Codes of 1905.\n- Compiled Laws of North Dakota 1913, with 1925 supplement.\n- North Dakota Revised Code of 1943 with 1947, 1949, 1953, and 1957 supplements.\n- North Dakota Century Code.\nThe North Dakota Century Code is the codification of general and permanent law. The Century Code was published between 1959 and 1960 and was named to commemorate the 100th anniversary of the establishment of Dakota Territory in 1861.\nThe Century Code is arranged systematically under broad titles such as Title 23 \u2013 Health and Safety, Title 39 \u2013 Motor Vehicles, Title 54 \u2013 State Government, and Title 65 \u2013 Workers Compensation. Laws with specific expiration dates usually are not codified in the Century Code. Following each Legislative Assembly, the Century Code is updated to reflect changes. Volumes are either reprinted or supplemented with a pocket part. Volume 13 of the Century Code contains the United States and the North Dakota Constitutions as well as other historic documents, including the Magna Carta, Articles of Confederation, and Declaration of Independence.\nThe Century Code is available online at www.legis.nd.gov.\nHow to Testify Before a North Dakota Legislative Committee\nYou have the right...\nYou have the right, as do all citizens, to testify before the North Dakota Legislative Assembly on any bill or resolution.\nNorth Dakota has one of the most open legislatures in the nation. Every bill must have a public hearing before a legislative committee, must be publicly voted upon by the committee, and then must come before the full House or Senate for still another public vote.\nYour opportunity to testify on a bill comes at the committee hearing.\nLegislative committees meet in rooms on the ground floor or in the legislative wing of the State Capitol. You can come into a committee meeting at any time, even if the door is closed or a hearing is in progress.\nLists of the legislative committees, committee members, and the days and places committees meet are available on this website and at the legislative information kiosk in the hall between the Senate and House chambers. Committee hearing schedules are available on this website and can be viewed on the monitors by the information kiosk and in the hall of the ground floor at the Capitol.\nMost current versions of bills and amendments are available on this website. You can also get copies of bills from the Bill and Journal Room. However, if the bill has been amended, the printed bill may not include the amendments.\nHearings Before North Dakota Legislative Committees Are Generally Informal and Few Rules Need Be Observed!\nBefore the Hearing You Should...\n- Find out when and where your bill will be heard. Be on time for the hearing. Usually, once a hearing is closed on a particular bill, no further testimony is heard.\n- Plan your testimony. It is not necessary, but it is helpful, to have written copies of your comments available.\n- See if other persons will be testifying on your bill. If so, try to coordinate your testimony before the hearing to avoid duplication.\n- Contact the Secretary of State's office if you are going to testify on behalf of anyone but yourself to see if you must register as a lobbyist.\nAt the Hearing You Should...\n- Be present at the start of the hearing. All persons present usually get a chance to speak, but sometimes because of large turnouts it is not possible to give everyone a chance to speak. If you do not get a chance to testify, your presence may be acknowledged and you might be asked if you favor or oppose the bill. Also, you can always submit written testimony.\n- Sign the witness sheet at the lectern. Give the bill number, whether you favor or oppose the bill, your name, your lobbyist registration number if you have one, and who you represent if other than yourself.\n- Wait your turn. The chairman announces the beginning of the hearing on a particular bill. The clerk will read the bill. The first speaker is usually the bill's sponsor. The chairman then asks for testimony first from proponents and then opponents.\n- Plan on following the custom (although it is not absolutely necessary) of beginning your remarks by addressing the chairman and committee members, giving your name and address, and why you are there. For example: \"Mr. or Madam Chairman and members of the committee, my name is John Q. Public from Edwinton. I'm in favor of this bill because, etc.\"\n- Be brief. Do not repeat what others have said. The hearings are informal so be conversational. Avoid being too technical. Avoid using acronyms or technical references unless you first explain what they mean.\n- Do not be nervous or worried about doing something wrong. There are no \"rights and wrongs\" about testifying. Legislators are just your friends and neighbors who want to hear what you have to say.\n- Expect some questions and comments from committee members. These questions are not designed to embarrass you but merely to provide additional information.\n- Avoid any clapping, cheering, booing, or other demonstrations.\nAfter the Hearing...\n- Some committees vote right after a hearing. Others wait until the end of the meeting. Some postpone voting until another meeting.\n- All committee action is public so you can stay to listen to committee debate and its vote even though the public comment portion of the hearing is over.\n- One or two days later you can check with the committee clerk, your legislator, or the legislative information kiosk to find out how the committee voted on your bill.\nYou have a right to testify on any bill before a legislative committee. Legislators want to hear what you have to say.\nState law (North Dakota Century Code Chapter 54-05.1) requires most persons to register as lobbyists if they (1) attempt to secure the passage, amendment, or defeat of any legislation by the Legislative Assembly or the approval or veto of any legislation by the Governor; or (2) attempt to influence decisions made by the Legislative Management or by an interim committee of the Legislative Management.\nThe North Dakota Secretary of State administers the lobbyist registration law. Information on lobbyist registration is available from the Secretary of State.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4917ea78-0aa5-4cf9-bc7d-6b8e1dcac592>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.legis.nd.gov/general-information", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9252357482910156, "token_count": 1802, "score": 3.328125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There\u2019s a course at Yale University in which undergraduates travel to the Amazon rain forest to collect fungi.\nThe fungus samples are often nothing you\u2019ve encountered. One of them, however, which will be featured in a paper accepted by a scientific journal, might solve the problem of polyurethane building up in our landfills. The fungus basically eats the plastic and breaks it down into carbon.\nThat\u2019s just one discovery being studied in the Rainforest Expedition and Laboratory course taught by professor Scott A. Strobel.\n\u201cWe take 15 undergraduates into the Ecuadorean rain forest and collect plant samples,\u201d said Kaury Kucera, co-instructor of the course and a postdoctoral researcher in the department of molecular biophysics and biochemistry.\nThe fungus they\u2019re looking for \u201cgrows in the inner tissues of plant samples that is symbiotic with the plant and often produces natural compounds that are interesting to medicine,\u201d Kucera said.\nClick \"source\" for entire article.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2d6808b0-5c98-46c6-849f-49b15d671b18>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.microbeworld.org/component/jlibrary/?view=article&id=7187", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9437915682792664, "token_count": 221, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Those who cannot learn from history are doomed to repeat it.--George Santayana\nAt the HNI Shareholders meeting, President and CEO, Stan Askren, made a point to tell shareholders that the past does not predict the future. There are always unforeseen events that are random or exogenous that lie outside the realm of normal that alter the future. For example, who could foresee the credit crisis and the mortgage mess.\nWhat\u2019s wrong with looking at history and making an inference about the future? Bestselling author, Nicholas Taleb, points out that history suffers from a problem of induction that he calls the Black Swan. When one moves from specific examples to general conclusions, there\u2019s always a problem that a random event can alter the expected outcome. Looking at history provides comfort because it rules out randomness. It\u2019s like a brain suave for those who are afraid of risk.\nIn fact, economists say that one should not let sunk costs determine future decisions. What happened in the past should be irrelevant to future decisions.\nThere\u2019s another problem when using history as a guide in teaching economics. The problem lies in the brain\u2019s tendency to find patterns in past events and think that one should have predicted the events that followed given these past events. This is what Taleb calls the post hoc narrative fallacy. In other words, hindsight is 20/20.\nSo when economics is taught in the history department, there\u2019s tendency to teach it with a post hoc narrative and tendency to use induction. For these two reasons alone, economics should be taught in the business department.", "id": "<urn:uuid:88f62a18-739a-4ef7-b4dc-e5ca1c073d19>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mikeroeconomics.blogspot.com/2009/05/what-department-should-teach-economics.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9400315284729004, "token_count": 329, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Source Newsroom: University of Alabama Huntsville\nNewswise \u2014 Dr. Michael Briggs, a member of NASA\u2019s Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM) team at The University of Alabama in Huntsville today announced that the GBM telescope has detected beams of antimatter produced above thunderstorms on Earth by energetic processes similar to those found in particle accelerators.\n\"These signals are the first direct evidence that thunderstorms make antimatter particle beams,\" said Michael Briggs, a university researcher whose team, located at UAHuntsville, includes scientists from NASA Marshall Space Flight Center, the University of Alabama in Huntsville, Max-Planck Institute in Garching, Germany, and from around the world. He presented the findings during a news briefing at the American Astronomical Society meeting in Seattle.\nScientists think the antimatter particles are formed in a terrestrial gamma-ray flash (TGF), a brief burst produced inside thunderstorms that has a relationship to lighting that is not fully understood. As many as 500 TGFs may occur daily worldwide, but most go undetected.\nThe spacecraft, known as Fermi, is designed to observe gamma-ray sources in space, emitters of the highest energy form of light. Fermi\u2019s GBM constantly monitors the entire celestial sky, with sensors observing in all directions, including some toward the Earth, thereby providing valuable insight into this strange phenomenon.\nWhen the antimatter produced in a terrestrial thunderstorm collides with normal matter, such as the spacecraft itself, both the matter and antimatter particles immediately are annihilated and transformed into gamma-rays observed by the GBM sensors. The detection of gamma-rays with energies of a particular energy -- 511,000 electron volts -- is the smoking-gun, indicating that the source of the observed gamma-rays in these events is the annihilation of an electron with its antimatter counterpart, a positron, produced in the TGF.\nSince the spacecraft\u2019s launch in 2008, the GBM team has identified 130 TGFs, which are usually accompanied by thunderstorms located directly below the spacecraft at the time of detection. However, in four cases, storms were a far distance from Fermi. Lightning-generated radio signals, detected by a global monitoring network, indicated the only lightning at the time of these events was hundreds or more miles away.\nDuring one TGF, which occurred on December 14, 2009, Fermi was located over Egypt. However, the active storm was in Zambia, some 2,800 miles to the south. The distant storm was below Fermi\u2019s horizon, so any gamma-rays it produced could not have been detected directly. Although Fermi could not see the storm from its position in orbit, it was still connected to it through sharing of a common magnetic field line of the Earth, which could be followed by the high-speed electrons and positrons produced by the TGF. These particles travelled up along the Earth\u2019s magnetic field lines and struck the spacecraft. The beam continued past Fermi along the magnetic field, to a location known as a mirror point, where its motion was reversed, and then 23 milliseconds later, hit the spacecraft again. Each time, positrons in the beam collided with electrons in the spacecraft, annihilating each other, and emitting gamma-rays detected by Fermi\u2019s GBM.\nNASA's Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope is an astrophysics and particle physics partnership. The spacecraft is managed by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Md. The GBM instrument is a collaboration between scientists at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, the University of Alabama in Huntsville, and the Max-Planck Institute in Garching, Germany. The Fermi mission was developed in collaboration with the U.S. Department of Energy, with important contributions from academic institutions and partners in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Sweden and the United States.", "id": "<urn:uuid:989a7303-e260-45ab-8210-a42bb5fa3437>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newswise.com/articles/view/572496/?sc=dwhn", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.957234263420105, "token_count": 813, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The IDLgrTessellator class is a helper class that converts a simple concave polygon (or a simple polygon with holes) into a number of simple convex polygons (general triangles). A polygon is simple if it includes no duplicate vertices, if the edges intersect only at vertices, and exactly two edges meet at any vertex.\nTessellation is useful because the IDLgrPolygon object accepts only convex polygons. Using the IDLgrTessellator object, you can convert a concave polygon into a group of convex polygons.\nThe IDLgrTessellator::Init method takes no arguments. Use the following statement to create a tessellator object:\nmyTess = OBJ_NEW('IDLgrTessellator')\nSee IDLgrTessellator for details on creating tessellator objects.\nThe procedure file\nobj_tess.pro, located in the\nexamples/visual subdirectory of the IDL distribution, provides an example of the use of the IDLgrTessellator object. To run the example, enter OBJ_TESS at the IDL prompt. The procedure creates a concave polygon, attempts to draw it, and then tessellates the polygon and re-draws. Finally, the procedure demonstrates adding a hole to a polygon. (You will be prompted to press Return after each step is displayed.) You can also inspect the source code in the\nobj_tess.pro file for hints on using the tessellator object.", "id": "<urn:uuid:55ea103e-d05b-4d17-afe3-3d22471f1685>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.physics.nyu.edu/grierlab/idl_html_help/obj_attribute8.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8112226724624634, "token_count": 329, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\"Many environmentalists believe that wind and solar power can be scaled to meet the rising demand [of billions emerging from poverty], especially if coupled with aggressive efforts to cut waste,\" reports Justin Gillis. \"But a lot of energy analysts have crunched the numbers and concluded that today\u2019s renewables, important as they are, cannot get us even halfway there.\"\nGillis discusses the most promising innovations in nuclear power, which many technologists see as the most viable option for providing a reliable source of electricity without carbon emissions. These include \"a practicable type of nuclear fusion\", \"a fission reactor that could run on today\u2019s nuclear waste\", and \"a safer reactor based on an abundant element called thorium.\"\n\"Beyond the question of whether they will work,\" he adds, \"these ambitious schemes pose a larger issue: How much faith should we, as a society, put in the idea of a big technological fix to save the world from climate change?\"\nAnd as is appropriate for a nuclear-related news item that appeared on the two-year anniversary of the Tohoku earthquake, we offer a reminder of the twelve different nuclear power \"near miss\" events that occurred in the United States in 2012.", "id": "<urn:uuid:11349972-17b0-4f34-b408-cfc39341347b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.planetizen.com/node/61170", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9544863104820251, "token_count": 248, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Archeologists, during an ongoing excavation, have unearthed two ancient theater masks belonging to Roman period in southeastern Turkish province of Mardin.\nAn archaeological team conducted by the Museum of Mardin in Ilisu Dam excavated the masks revealed to be made of bronze and iron.\nThe experts suggest that the masks belong to a travelling theater group, which came to Mardin at the time of Roman Empire about 2300 years ago.\n\"It is revealed that this historical artifact from Roman Empire have been brought to Mardin by the travelling theaters as there has been no theater here at that time. This travelling theater is presumed to come from west to east,\" said Mardin Culture and Tourism Director Davut Beliktay.\nMany other relics have been uncovered during the excavation, though they are less important than the masks as rare ancient treasure in Turkey, Beliktay added.\nThe newly found artifacts have an historical importance to Mardin, as they confirm the city\u2019s rich history, said the Director of Mardin Museum, Nihat Erdogan.\nThe masks were immediately taken for restoration in a laboratory in the Museum of Mardin. When the restoration comes to end, they are programmed to be protected at the museum.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5b6eeb8a-1465-47be-b211-e184ed1b6366>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.presstv.ir/detail/2012/08/27/258407/two-old-theater-masks-found-in-turkey/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9690683484077454, "token_count": 257, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Bhopal disaster\nwas an industrial disaster\nthat occurred in the city of Bhopal\n, Madhya Pradesh\n, resulting in the immediate deaths of more than 3,000 people, according to the Indian Supreme Court. A more probable figure is that 8,000 died within two weeks, and it is estimated that the same number have since died from gas related diseases.\nThe incident took place in the early hours of the morning of December 3, 1984, in the heart of the city of Bhopal in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. A Union Carbide subsidiary pesticide plant released 43 tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, exposing at least 520,000 people to toxic gases. The Bhopal disaster is frequently cited as the world's worst industrial disaster. The International Medical Commission on Bhopal was established in 1993 to respond to the disasters.\nBackground and causes, summary\nThe Union Carbide India, Limited\n(UCIL) plant was established in 1969. 51% was owned by Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) and 49% by Indian authorities. It produced the pesticide carbaryl\n(trade mark Sevin). Methyl isocyanate\n(MIC), an intermediate in carbaryl manufacture, was used instead of less toxic but more expensive materials. In 1979, a plant for producing MIC was added. UCC was responsible for all technique and design. The plant was located close to a densely populated area, instead of on the other side of the town where UCIL was offered an area. MIC was stored in a few large tanks instead of several small tanks.\nDuring the night of December 3rd 1984, large amounts of water entered tank 610, containing 43 tonnes of methyl isocyanate. The resulting reaction generated a major increase in the temperature of liquid inside the tank to over 400\u00b0F (200\u00b0C). The MIC holding tank then gave off a large volume of toxic gas, forcing the emergency release of pressure. The reaction was sped up by the presence of iron from corroding non-stainless steel pipelines.\nThere have been several theories on the reason for the entry of water into the tank. The workers claim that, because of the bad maintenance with leaking valves etc, it was possible for the water to climb from the point where the pipeline washing was performed to tank 610. UCC maintains that this was not possible, and that it was an act of sabotage by a \"disgruntled worker\" who introduced water directly into the tank. There is much confusion because the Indian government closed the plant to outsiders and would not allow interviews with the plant employees for almost a year. Much speculation arose in the meantime and much of it was not scientifically based, but based on worker accounts which may or may not have been accurate.\nThe deciding factors that caused the outcome were the state of the art plant design (location near a densely populated area, using hazardous chemicals instead of less dangerous, storing in large tanks, possible corroding material in pipelines etc), and the decision to close the plant which began a shut down which contributed to poor oversight by local managers (poor oversight of operators, safety systems not functioning etc), and in the aftermath, negligence on the part of the governments of India and Madhya Pradesh as well as UCC.\n- The deficiencies in the Bhopal plant design can be summarised as: choosing a dangerous method of manufacturing pesticides; large-scale storage of MIC prior to selling; location close to a densely populated area; under-dimensioning of the safety features; dependence on manual operations..\n- Deficiencies in the management of UCIL can be summarised: lack of skilled operators because of the staffing policy; reduction of safety management because of reducing the staff; insufficient maintenance of the plant; lack of emergency response plans.\nA long-term cause of the catastrophe was the location of the plant; authorities had tried and failed to persuade Carbide to build the plant away from densely-populated areas. Carbide explained their refusal on the expense that such a move would incur.\nPlant production process\nUnion Carbide produced their pesticide, Sevin (the name of carbaryl\n), using MIC as an intermediate. Until 1979, MIC was imported from USA. Other manufacturers, such as Bayer\n, made Sevin without MIC, though at greater manufacturing costs.\nThe Bhopal route was to react methyl amine with phosgene (also a deadly gas & chemical warfare agent) to form MIC, the MIC was then reacted with 1-naphthol to form the final product. This route is different to the MIC free route used elsewhere with the same raw materials in a different manufacturing order: phosgene is reacted with the naphthol first to form a chloroformate ester which is then reacted with methyl amine.\nIt seems as at least some of the techniques were more or less unproven.\nIn the early 1980s, the demand for pesticides had fallen though production continued leading to buildup of stores of unused MIC.\nAttempts to reduce expenses affected the factory\u2019s employees and their conditions.\n- Kurzman argues that \u201ccuts... meant less stringent quality control and thus looser safety rules. A pipe leaked? Don\u2019t replace it, employees said they were told... MIC workers needed more training? They could do with less. Promotions were halted, seriously affecting employee morale and driving some of the most skilled... elsewhere\u201d.\n- Workers were forced to use English manuals, despite the fact that only a few had a grasp of the language.\n- By 1984, only six of the original twelve operators were still working with MIC and the number of supervisory personnel was also cut in half. No maintenance supervisor was placed on the night shift and instrument readings were taken every two hours, rather than the previous and required one-hour readings.\n- Workers made complaints about the cuts through their union but were ignored. One employee was fired after going on a 15-day hunger strike. 70% of the plant\u2019s employees were fined before the disaster for refusing to deviate from the proper safety regulations under pressure from management.\n- In addition, some observers, such as those writing in the Trade Environmental Database (TED) Case Studies as part of the Mandala Project from American University, have pointed to \u201cserious communication problems and management gaps between Union Carbide and its Indian operation\u201d, characterised by \u201cthe parent companies [sic] hands-off approach to its overseas operation\u201d and \u201ccross-cultural barriers\u201d.\n- The personnel management policy led to an exodus of skilled personnel to better and safer jobs.\nEquipment and safety regulations\n- It emerged in 1998, during civil action suits in India, that, unlike Union Carbide plants in the USA, its Indian subsidiary plants were not prepared for problems. No action plans had been established to cope with incidents of this magnitude. This included not informing local authorities of the quantities or dangers of chemicals used and manufactured at Bhopal.\n- The MIC tank\u2019s alarms had not worked for 4 years.\n- There was only one manual back-up system, not the four-stage system used in the USA.\n- The flare tower and the vent gas scrubber had been out of service for 5 months before the disaster. The gas scrubber therefore did not treat escaping gases with sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), which may have brought the concentration down to a safe level. Even if the scrubber had been working, according to Weir, investigations in the aftermath of the disaster discovered that the maximum pressure it could handle was only one-quarter of that which was present in the accident. Furthermore, the flare tower itself was improperly designed and could only hold one-quarter of the volume of gas that was leaked in 1984.\n- To reduce energy costs, the refrigeration system, designed to inhibit the volatilization of MIC, had been left idle \u2013 the MIC was kept at 20 degrees Celsius, not the 4.5 degrees advised by the manual, and some of the coolant was being used elsewhere.\n- The steam boiler, intended to clean the pipes, was out of action for unknown reasons.\n- Slip-blind plates that would have prevented water from pipes being cleaned from leaking into the MIC tanks via faulty valves were not installed. Their installation had been omitted from the cleaning checklist.\n- Water sprays designed to \u201cknock down\u201d gas leaks were poorly designed \u2013 set to 13 metres and below, they could not spray high enough to reduce the concentration of escaping gas.\n- The MIC tank had been malfunctioning for roughly a week. Other tanks had been used for that week, rather than repairing the broken one, which was left to \u201cstew\u201d. The build-up in temperature and pressure is believed to have affected the explosion and its intensity.\n- Carbon-steel valves were used at the factory, despite the fact that they corrode when exposed to acid. On the night of the disaster, a leaking carbon-steel valve was found, allowing water to enter the MIC tanks. The pipe was not repaired because it was believed it would take too much time and be too expensive.\n- Themistocles D'Silva contends that the design of the MIC plant, following government guidelines, was \"Indianized\" by UCIL engineers to maximize the use of indigenous materials and products. It also dispensed with the use of sophisticated instrumentation as not appropriate for the Indian plant. Because of the unavailability of electronic parts in India, the Indian engineers preferred pneumatic instrumentation.\nPrevious warnings and accidents\nA series of prior warnings and MIC-related accidents had been ignored:\n- In 1976, the two trade unions reacted because of pollution within the plant.\n- In 1981, a worker was splashed with phosgene. In panic he ripped off his mask, thus inhaling a large amount of phosgene gas; he died 72 hours later.\n- In January 1982, there was a phosgene leak, when 24 workers were exposed and had to be admitted to hospital. None of the workers had been ordered to wear protective masks.\n- In February 1982, an MIC leak affected 18 workers.\n- In August 1982, a chemical engineer came into contact with liquid MIC, resulting in burns over 30 percent of his body.\n- In October 1982, there was a leak of MIC, methylcarbaryl chloride, chloroform and hydrochloric acid. In attempting to stop the leak, the MIC supervisor suffered intensive chemical burns and two other workers were severely exposed to the gases.\n- During 1983 and 1984, leaks of the following substances regularly took place in the MIC plant: MIC, chlorine, monomethylamine, phosgene, and carbon tetrachloride, sometimes in combination.\n- Reports issued months before the incident by scientists within the Union Carbide corporation warned of the possibility of an accident almost identical to that which occurred in Bhopal. The reports were ignored and never reached senior staff.\n- Union Carbide was warned by American experts who visited the plant after 1981 of the potential of a \u201crunaway reaction\u201d in the MIC storage tank; local Indian authorities warned the company of problems on several occasions from 1979 onwards. Again, these warnings were not heeded.\n- In November 1984, most of the safety systems were not functioning. Many valves and lines were in poor condition. Tank 610 contained 43 tonnes MIC, much more than allowed according to safety rules.\n- During the nights of 2-3 December, large amounts of water entered tank 610. A run-away reaction started, which was accelerated by contaminants, high temperatures and other factors. The reaction generated a major increase in the temperature of liquid inside the tank to over 200\u00b0C (400\u00b0F). The MIC holding tank then gave off a large volume of toxic gases, forcing the emergency release of pressure. The reaction was sped up by the presence of iron from corroding non-stainless steel pipelines.\n- We know that workers cleaned pipelines with water. They were not told by the supervisor to add a slip-blind water isolation plate. Because of this, and of the bad maintenance, the workers consider it possible for water to enter the MIC tank.\n- UCC maintains that a \"disgruntled worker\" deliberately connected a hose to a pressure gauge. However, this would hardly have been possible if the safety rules had been followed.\nTime line, summary\nAt the plant\n- 21.00 Water cleaning of pipes start.\n- 22.00 Water enters 610. Reaction starts.\n- 22.30 Gases are coming out from the VGS-tower.\n- 00.30 The large siren sounds and is turned off.\n- 00.50 The siren is heard within the plant area. The workers escape.\n- 22.30 First sensations felt. Suffocation, cough, eyes, vomiting.\n- 1.00 Police alerted. People escaped. UC-director denied a possible leak.\n- 2.00 The first people reached Hamidia hospital. Half blind, gasping for air, frothing at the mouth, vomiting.\n- 2.10 The alarm was heard outside the plant.\n- 4.00 The gases were reduced.\n- 6.00 The police's loudspeaker said: \"Everything is normal\".\n- Morning: Thousands of dead bodies and hundreds of dead cattle lying on the streets.\nApart from MIC the gas cloud may have contained phosgene\n, hydrogen cyanide\n, carbon monoxide\n, hydrogen chloride\n, nitrous oxides\n, monomethyl amine\n(MMA) and carbon dioxide\n, either produced in the storage tank or in the atmosphere. All these gases, except carbon dioxide, are acutely toxic at levels well below 500 ppm\nThe gas cloud, composed mainly of materials more dense than the surrounding air, stayed close to the ground and spread outwards through the surrounding community. The initial effects of gas exposure were coughing, vomiting, severe eye irritation and a feeling of suffocation. People awoken by these symptoms fled away from the plant. Those who ran inhaled more than those who had a vehicle. Due to their height, children and other people of lower stature inhaled relatively higher concentrations. Many people were trampled trying to escape.\nThousands of people had succumbed to gas exposure by the morning hours. There were mass funerals and mass cremations as well as bodies being disposed of in the Narmada river. 170,000 people were treated at hospitals and temporary dispensaries. 2,000 buffaloes, goats, and other animals had to be collected and buried. Within a few days, leaves on trees went yellow and fell off. Supplies including food became scarce due to safety fears by the suppliers. Fishing was prohibited as well which caused further supply shortages. .\nA total of 36 wards were marked by the authorities as being \"gas affected\", affecting a population of 520,000. In 1991, 3,928 deaths had been certified. Independent organizations recorded 8,000 dead the first days. Other estimations vary between 10,000 and 20,000. Another 100,000 to 200,000 people are estimated to have been injured.\nThe majority of deaths and serious injuries were related to pulmonary edema, but the gas caused a wide variety of other ailments. Signs and symptoms of methyl isocyanate exposure include coughing, dyspnea, chest pain, lacrimation, eyelid edema, and unconsciousness. These effects tend to progress over 24 to 72 hours following exposure to include acute lung injury, cardiac arrest, and death.\nLong term health effects\nThe quality of the epidemiological and clinical research varies. Reported and studied symptoms are eye problems, respiratory difficulties, immune and neurological disorders, cardiac failure secondary to lung injury, female reproductive difficulties, and birth defects among children born to affected women. Other symptoms and diseases are often ascribed to the gas exposure, but there is no good research supporting this.. For a review of the research on the health effects of the Bhopal disaster (Dhara & Dhara, 2002), see http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12641179.\nAftermath of the leakage\n- The doctors and the staff were completely taken by surprise as thousands and thousands of survivors entered the gates.\n- Doctors and hospitals were not informed of proper treatment methods for MIC gas inhalation. They were told to simply give cough medicine and eye-drops to their patients.\n- The gases immediately caused visible damage to the trees. Within a few days, all the leavsfelof.\n- 2,000 bloated animal carcasses had to be taken care of.\n- \"Operation Faith\" On december 16, the tanks 611 and 619 shoud be emptied of the remains of MIC. This led to a second mass evacuation from Bhopal.\n- Complaints of a lack of information or misinformation were legion. Not even the medical doctor of the Bhopal plant had proper information about the properties of the gases. An Indian Government spokesman said that \"Carbide is more interested in getting information from us than in helping our relief work.\"\n- Up to today, UCC has not released information about the possible composition of the cloud.\n- Formal statements were issued that air, water, vegetation and foodstuffs were safe everywhere in the city. At the same time, television features informed people that poultry was unaffected, but warned people not to consume fish, etc.\n- The survivors lost their economic standard, lost health and gained worries about the future. Much time was spent at hospitals and clinics. The expences fore medicines could sometimes esceed expenses on food. It was difficult for girls to get married.\n- Bhopal was invaded by American lawyers, radical groups and health personnel. Sometimes there was conflicts with the police.\nUnion Carbide\u2019s defense\nNow owned by Dow Chemical Company\n, Union Carbide denies allegations against it on its website dedicated to the tragedy. The corporation believes that the accident was the result of sabotage, stating that safety systems were in place and operative. It also stresses that it did all it could to alleviate human suffering following the disaster.\nInvestigation into possible sabotage\nThe company cites an investigation conducted by the engineering consulting firm Arthur D. Little\n, which concluded that a single employee secretly and deliberately introduced a large amount of water into the MIC tank by removing a meter and connecting a water hose directly to the tank through the metering port. Carbide claims such a large amount of water could not have found its way into the tank by accident, and safety systems were not designed to deal with intentional sabotage. UC says that the rest of the plant staff falsified numerous records to distance themselves from the incident, and that the Indian Government impeded its investigation and declined to prosecute the employee responsible, presumably because that would weaken its allegations of negligence against Union Carbide.\nUnion Carbide has never publicly named or identified the employee it claims sabotaged its Bhopal plant or attempted to prosecute. Nevertheless, on the company\u2019s Bhopal Information Center website, Carbide claims that \u201cthe Indian authorities are well aware of the identity of the employee and the nature of the evidence against him\u201d.\nSafety and equipment issues\nThe corporation denies the claim that the valves on the tank were malfunctioning, claiming that \u201cdocumented evidence gathered after the incident showed that the valve close to the plant's water-washing operation was closed and leak-tight. Furthermore, process safety systems \u2013 in place and operational \u2013 would have prevented water from entering the tank by accident\u201d. Carbide states that the safety concerns identified in 1982 were all allayed before 1984 and \u201cnone of them had anything to do with the incident\u201d.\nThe company admits that \u201cthe safety systems in place could not have prevented a chemical reaction of this magnitude from causing a leak\u201d. According to Carbide, \u201cin designing the plant's safety systems, a chemical reaction of this magnitude was not factored in\u201d because \u201cthe tank's gas storage system was designed to automatically prevent such a large amount of water from being inadvertently introduced into the system\u201d and \u201cprocess safety systems \u2013 in place and operational \u2013 would have prevented water from entering the tank by accident\u201d. Instead, they claim that \u201cemployee sabotage \u2013 not faulty design or operation \u2013 was the cause of the tragedy\u201d.\nThe company stresses the \u201cimmediate action\u201d taken after the disaster and their continued commitment to helping the victims. On December 4th, the day following the leak, Union Carbide sent material aid and several international medical experts to assist the medical facilities in Bhopal.\nCarbide put $2 million into the Indian Prime Minister\u2019s immediate disaster relief fund on 11th December 1984. The corporation established the Employees' Bhopal Relief Fund in February 1985, which raised more than $5 million for immediate relief.\nIn August 1987, Carbide made an additional $4.6 million in humanitarian interim relief available.\nUnion Carbide also undertook several steps to provide continuing aid to the victims of the Bhopal disaster after the court ruling, including:\n- The sale of its 50.9 percent interest in UCIL in April 1992 and establishment of a charitable trust to contribute to the building of a local hospital. The sale was finalized in November 1994. The hospital was begun in October 1995 and was opened in 2001. The company provided a fund with around $90 million from sale of its UCIL stock. In 1991, the trust had amounted approximately $100 million. The hospital caters for the treatment of heart, lung and eye problems.\n- Providing \"a $2.2 million grant to Arizona State University to establish a vocational-technical center in Bhopal, which was constructed and opened, but was later closed and leveled by the government\u201d.\n- Donating $5 million to the Indian Red Cross.\n- Developing the Responsible Care system with other members of the chemical industry as a response to the Bhopal crisis, which is designed \u201cto help prevent such an event in the future by improving community awareness, emergency preparedness and process safety standards\u201d.\nLegal action against Union Carbide has dominated the aftermath of the disaster. However, other issues have also continued to develop. These include the problems of ongoing contamination, criticisms of the clean-up operation undertaken by Union Carbide, and a 2004 hoax.\nTime-line 1984-2004: See \"Bhopal Gas Tragedy: Fact Sheet\", Hindustan Times, Dec 3, 2004\nLegal action against Union Carbide\nLegal issues began affecting Union Carbide, the US and Indian governments, the local authorities in Bhopal and the victims of the disaster immediately after the catastrophe.\nLegal proceedings leading to the settlement\nOn 14th December 1984, the Chairman and CEO of Union Carbide, Warren Anderson\n, addressed the US Congress, stressing the company\u2019s \u201ccommitment to safety\u201d and promising to ensure that a similar accident \u201ccannot happen again\u201d. However, the Indian Government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in March 1985, allowing the Government of India to act as the legal representative for victims of the disaster, leading to the beginning of legal wrangling.\nMarch 1986 saw Union Carbide propose a settlement figure, endorsed by plaintiffs\u2019 US attorneys, of $350 million that would, according to the company, \u201cgenerate a fund for Bhopal victims of between $500-600 million over 20 years\u201d. In May, litigation was transferred from the US to Indian courts by US District Court Judge. Following an appeal of this decision, the US Court of Appeals affirmed the transfer, judging, in January 1987, that UCIL was a \u201cseparate entity, owned, managed and operated exclusively by Indian citizens in India\u201d. The judge in the US, Judge Keenan, granted Carbide\u2019s forum request, thus moving the case to India. This meant that, under US federal law, the company had to submit to Indian jurisdiction.\nLitigation continued in India during 1988. The Indian Supreme Court told both sides to come to an agreement and \u201cstart with a clean slate\u201d in November 1988. Eventually, in an out-of-court settlement reached in 1989 , Union Carbide agreed to pay US$470 million for damages caused in the Bhopal disaster, 15% of the original $3 billion claimed in the lawsuit. By the end of October 2003, according to the Bhopal Gas Tragedy Relief and Rehabilitation Department, compensation had been awarded to 554,895 people for injuries received and 15,310 survivors of those killed. The average amount to families of the dead was $2,200.\nThroughout 1990, the Indian Supreme Court heard appeals against the settlement from \u201cactivist petitions\u201d. Nonetheless, in October 1991, the Supreme Court upheld the original $470 million, dismissing any other outstanding petitions that challenged the original decision. The decision set aside a \u201cportion of settlement that quashed criminal prosecutions that were pending at the time of settlement\u201d. The Court ordered the Indian government \u201cto purchase, out of settlement fund, a group medical insurance policy to cover 100,000 persons who may later develop symptoms\u201d and cover any shortfall in the settlement fund. It also \u201crequests\u201d that Carbide and its subsidiary \u201cvoluntarily\u201d fund a hospital in Bhopal, at an estimated $17 million, to specifically treat victims of the Bhopal disaster. The company agreed to this. However, the International Campaign for Justice in Bhopal notes that the Court also reinstated criminal charges.\nCharges against Warren Anderson and others\nThe Chairman and CEO of Union Carbide, Warren Anderson\n, had been arrested and released on bail by the Madhya Pradesh Police in Bhopal on December 7, 1984. This caused controversy as his trip to Bhopal was conditional on an initial promise by Indian authorities not to arrest him. Anderson has since refused to return to India.\nBeginning in 1991, the local authorities from Bhopal charged Warren Anderson, who had retired in 1986, with manslaughter, a crime that carries a maximum penalty of 10 years in prison. Anderson has so far avoided an international arrest warrant and a US court summons. He was declared a fugitive from justice by the Chief Judicial Magistrate of Bhopal on February 1, 1992 for failing to appear at the court hearings in a culpable homicide case in which he was named the chief defendant. Orders were passed to the Government of India to press for an extradition from the United States, with whom India had an extradition treaty in place. He went missing for several years, until he was discovered by Greenpeace \u201cliving a life of luxury in the Hamptons\u201d. The Bhopal Medical Appeal believe that \u201cneither the American nor the Indian government seem interested in disturbing him with an extradition\u201d. Some allege that the Indian government has hesitated to put forth a strong case of extradition to the United States, fearing backlash from foreign investors who have become more important players in the Indian economy following liberalization. A seemingly apathetic attitude from the US government, which has failed to pursue the case, has also led to strong protests in the past, most notably by Greenpeace. A plea by India's Central Bureau of Investigation to dilute the charges from culpable homicide to criminal negligence has since been dismissed by the Indian courts.\nThe U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear appeal of the decision of the lower federal courts in October 1993, meaning that victims of the Bhopal disaster could not seek damages in a US court.\nMeanwhile, very little of the money from the settlement reached with Union Carbide went to the survivors, and people in the area feel betrayed not only by Union Carbide (and chairman Warren Anderson), but also by their own politicians..On the anniversary of the tragedy, effigies of Anderson and politicians are burnt.\nIn July 2004, the Indian Supreme Court ordered the Indian government to release any remaining settlement funds to victims. The deadline for this release was extended by the Indian Supreme Court In April 2005, giving the Indian government until 30th April 2006 after a request from the Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims. The fund is believed to amount to $500 million after earning interest \u201cfrom money remaining after all claims had been paid\u201d.\nAugust 2006 saw the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in New York City upheld the dismissal of remaining claims in the case of Bano v. Union Carbide Corporation. This move blocked plaintiffs\u2019 motions for class certification and claims for property damages and remediation. In the view of Carbide, \u201cthe ruling reaffirms UCC\u2019s long-held positions and finally puts to rest \u2014 both procedurally and substantively \u2013 the issues raised in the class action complaint first filed against Union Carbide in 1999 by Haseena Bi and several organizations representing the residents of Bhopal\u201d. In September 2006, the Welfare Commission for Bhopal Gas Victims announced that all original compensation claims and revised petitions had been \u201ccleared\".\nCriminal charges are proceeding against former Union Carbide India Limited employees including: Former UCIL Chairman Shri Keshub Mahindra; presently Chairman-cum managing Director Shri Vijay Gokhale; former Vice-President Functioning In charge, Shri Kishor Kamdar; former works manager Shri J. Mukund; and former Production manager A.P. Division, Shri S.P. Choudhury.\nFederal class action litigation, Sahu v. Union Carbide et al., is presently pending on appeal before the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in New York. The litigation seeks damages for personal injury, medical monitoring and injunctive relief in the form of cleanup of the drinking water supplies for residential areas near the Bhopal plant. A related complaint seeking similar relief for property damage claimants is stayed pending the outcome of the Sahu appeal before the federal district court in the Southern District of New York.\nChanges in corporate identity\nSale of Union Carbide India Limited\nUnion Carbide sold its Indian subsidiary, which had operated the Bhopal plant, to Eveready Industries India Limited\n, in 1994.\nMerger of Union Carbide and Dow Chemical Company\nThe Dow Chemical Company\npurchased Union Carbide in 2001 for $10.3 billion in stock and debt. Dow has publicly stated several times that the Union Carbide settlement payments have already fulfilled Dow's financial responsibility for the disaster.\nSome Dow stockholders filed suits to stop the merger, noting the outstanding liabilities for the Bhopal disaster. The merger has gained criticism from the International Campaign for Justice in Bhopal, as it is apparently \u201ccontrary to established merger law\u201d in that \u201cDow denies any responsibility for Carbide\u2019s Bhopal liabilities\u201d. According to the Bhopal Medical Appeal, Carbide \u201cremains liable for the environmental devastation\u201d as environmental damage was not included in the 1989 settlement, despite ongoing contamination issues.\nOngoing contamination from the accident\nLack of political willpower has led to a stalemate on the issue of cleaning up the plant and its environs of hundreds of tonnes of toxic waste, which has been left untouched. Environmentalists\nhave warned that the waste is a potential minefield in the heart of the city, and the resulting contamination\nmay lead to decades of slow poisoning, and diseases affecting the nervous system, liver and kidneys in humans. Studies have shown that the rates of cancer\nand other ailments are higher in the region since the event. Activists have demanded that Dow clean up this toxic waste, and have pressed the government of India to demand more money from Dow.\nCriticisms of Clean-up Operations\nCarbide states that \u201cafter the incident, UCIL began clean-up work at the site under the direction of Indian central and state government authorities\u201d, which was continued after 1994 by the successor to UCIL, Eveready Industries, until 1998, when it was placed under the authority of the Madhya Pradesh Government. Critics of the clean-up undertaken by Carbide, such as the International Campaign for Justice in Bhopal\n, claim that \u201cseveral internal studies\u201d by the corporation, which evidenced \u201csevere contamination\u201d, were not made public; the Indian authorities were also refused access. They believe that Union Carbide \u201ccontinued directing operations\u201d in Bhopal until \u201cat least 1995\u201d through Hayaran, the US trained site manager, even after the sale of its UCIL stock. The successor, Eveready Industries, abruptly relinquished the site lease to one department of the State Government while being supervised by another department on an extensive clean up programme. Environmental problems resulting from lack of a proper clean-up persist today. The Madhya Pradesh authorities have announced that they will \u201cpursue both Dow and Eveready\u201d to conduct the clean-up as joint tortfeasors.\nThe International Campaign view Carbide\u2019s sale of UCIL in 1994 as a strategy \u201cto escape the Indian courts, who threatened Carbide\u2019s assets due to their non-appearance in the criminal case\u201d. The successor, Eveready Industries India, Limited (EIIL), ended its 99 year lease in 1998 and turned over control of the site to the state government of the Madhya Pradesh. Currently, the Madhya Pradesh Government is trying to legally force Dow and EIIL to finance clean-up operations.\nContamination from the site itself\nA large portion of the contamination in the site itself and the surrounding areas did not arise directly from the Bhopal disaster, but rather from the materials processed at the plant and the conditions under which those materials were processed. A report from Greenpeace\ndetails the extent and persistence of this contamination, which accounts for most of the heavy metal contamination.\nIn 2002, an inquiry found a number of toxins, including mercury, lead, 1,3,5 trichlorobenzene, dichloromethane and chloroform, in nursing women\u2019s breast milk. Well water and groundwater tests conducted in the surrounding areas in 1999 showed mercury levels to be at \u201c20,000 and 6 million times\u201d higher than expected levels; heavy metals and organochlorines were present in the soil. Chemicals that have been linked to various forms of cancer were also discovered, as well as trichloroethene, known to impair fetal development, at 50 times above safety limits specified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).\nIn an investigation broadcast on BBC Radio 5 on November 14, 2004 , it was reported that the site is still contaminated with 'thousands' of metric tons of toxic chemicals, including benzene hexachloride and mercury, held in open containers or loose on the ground. Some areas are reportedly so polluted that anyone entering the area for more than ten minutes is likely to lose consciousness. Rainfall causes run-off, polluting local wells and boreholes, and the results of tests undertaken on behalf of the BBC by accredited water analysis laboratories in the United Kingdom reveal pollution levels in borehole water 500 times the legal maximum in that country. Statistical surveys of local residents, with a control population in a similarly poor area away from the plant, are reported to reveal higher levels of various diseases around the plant.\nAdditional Settlement Funds Hoax\nOn December 3, 2004, the twentieth anniversary of the disaster, a man claiming to be a Dow representative named Jude Finisterra was interviewed on the BBC. He claimed that the company had agreed to clean up the site and compensate those harmed in the incident. (video) Immediately afterward, Dow's share price fell 4.2% in 23 minutes, for a loss of $2 billion in market value Dow quickly issued a statement saying that they had no employee by that name \u2014 that he was an impostor, not affiliated with Dow, and that his claims were a hoax. BBC broadcast a correction and an apology. The statement was widely carried\n\"Jude Finisterra\" was actually Andy Bichlbaum, a member of the activist prankster group The Yes Men. In 2002, The Yes Men issued a phony press release explaining why Dow refused to take responsibility for the disaster and started up a website, DowEthics.com, designed to look like the Dow website but give what they felt was a more accurate cast on the events. In 2004, a producer for BBC News emailed them through the website requesting an interview, which they gladly obliged\nTaking credit for the prank in an interview on Democracy Now!, Bichlbaum explains how his fake name was derived: \"Jude is the patron saint of impossible causes and Finisterra means the end of the Earth\". He explained that he settled on this approach (taking responsibility) because it would show people precisely how Dow could help the situation as well as likely garnering major media attention in the US, which had largely ignored the disaster's anniversaries, when Dow attempted to correct the statement\nAfter the original interview was revealed as a hoax, Bichlbaum appeared in a follow-up interview on the United Kingdom's Channel 4 news (video). During the interview he was repeatedly asked if he had considered the emotions and reaction of the people of Bhopal when producing the hoax. According to the interviewer, \"there were many people in tears\" upon having learned of the hoax. Each time, Bichlbaum said that, in comparison, what distress he had caused the people was minimal to that for which Dow was responsible.\n- Broughton E (2005). \"The Bhopal disaster and its aftermath: A review\". Environmental Health 4 (1): 6. 10 May 2005\n- Browning, Jackson (1993). Union Carbide: Disaster at Bhopal. Detroit:\n- Cassels, J. (1993). The Uncertain Promise Of Law: Lessons From Bhopal. University Of Toronto Press.\n- (1994, 2004). Bhopal: the Inside Story \u2013 Carbide Workers Speak Out on the World's Worst Industrial Disaster. USA: The Apex Press. India: Other India Press ISBN 81-85569-65-7 Main author Chouhan was an operator at the plant. Contains many technical details.\n- Dhara, V. Ramana; Dhara, Rosaline The Union Carbide disaster in Bhopal: A review of health effects. Archives of Environmental Health. (2002). .\n- D'Silva, Themistocles (2006). The Black Box of Bhopal: A Closer Look at the World's Deadliest Industrial Disaster. Written by an employed at UCC.\n- D'Silva TDJ, Lopes A, Jones RL, Singhawangcha S, Chan JK (1986). \"Studies of methyl isocyanate chemistry in the Bhopal incident\". J. Org. Chem. 51 (20): 3781\u20133788.\n- Eckerman, Ingrid Chemical Industry and Public Health - Bhopal as an example. (2001). . Essay for MPH. A short overview, 57 pages, 82 references.\n- Eckerman, Ingrid (2004). The Bhopal Saga - Causes and Consequences of the World's Largest Industrial Disaster . India: Universities Press. All known facts 1960s - 2003, systematized and analysed. 283 pages, over 200 references.\n- Eckerman, Ingrid The Bhopal gas leak: Analyses of causes and consequences by three different models.. Journal of Loss Prevention in the process industry. (2005). .\n- Eckerman, Ingrid The Bhopal Disaster 1984 - working conditions and the role of the trade unions.. Asian Pacific Newsletter on occupational health and safety. (2006). .\n- de Grazia, Alfred (1985). A Cloud over Bhopal - Causes, Consequences and Constructive Solutions.\n- (2005). The Bhopal Reader. Remembering Twenty Years of the World's Worst Industrial Disaster. USA: The Apex Press. Reprinting and annotating landmark writing from across the years.\n- Jasanoff, Sheila (2007). \"Bhopal\u2019s Trials of Knowledge and Ignorance\". Isis 98 344\u2013350.\n- Kalelkar AS, Little AD. (1998). Investigation of Large-magnitude incidents: Bhopal as a Case Study.. London: The Institution of Chemical Engineers Conference on Preventing Major Chemical Accidents\n- Kurzman, D. (1987). A Killing Wind: Inside Union Carbide and the Bhopal Catastrophe. New York: McGraw-Hill.\n- Kovel, J (2002). The Enemy of Nature: The End of Capitalism or the End of the World?.\n- Lapierre, Dominique; Moro, Javier (2001). Five Minutes Past Midnight in Bhopal. A novel, based on facts, that describes the development from the 1960s to the disaster itself. Very thrilling.\n- Lepowski, W. \"Ten Years Later: Bhopal\". Chemical and Engineering News, 19 December 1994.\n- Rice, Annie; ILO Bhopal Revisited - the tragedy of lessons ignored. Asian Pacific Newsletter on occupational health and safety. (2006). .\n- Singh, Moti (2008). Unfolding the Betrayal of Bhopal Gas Tragedy. Delhi, India: B.R. Publishing Corporation. The chief coordinator of rescue operations at the district level writes rather critically on how the administration and bureaucracy functioned after the disaster.\n- Stringer R, Labunska I, Brigden K, Santillo D. Chemical Stockpiles at Union Carbide India Limited in Bhopal: An investigation. Greenpeace Research Laboratories. (2002). .\n- Weir, D (1987). The Bhopal Syndrome: Pesticides, Environment and Health. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books", "id": "<urn:uuid:0f005578-0ea0-4b3e-a92a-e41bbc655af6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.reference.com/browse/benzene+hexachloride", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9654624462127686, "token_count": 8687, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Assurance contracts may be a way to pay for so-called \u201cpublic goods;\u201d things that it\u2019s said everyone can use without diminishing their value to others. Typical examples of public goods include public parks, open source software, national defense. Assurance contracts are basically pledges of funding towards providing a public good. If enough people pledge funds, then the good is undertaken. (The public park is built.) If not enough people pledge then the good is not provided. (The public park is not built.)\nThe open source 3D editing program \u201cBlended 3d\u201d was released as a result of SPP. The source code was released only when enough members of a community collectively pledged 100,000 Euros. The program was proprietary before.\nSome have proposed Assurance contracts as an alternative to taxation as a way to provide public goods.\nNote that the concept of public goods is itself a matter of controversy between free market economists versus more collectivist economists like Samuelson, who is credited with creating a formal theory for them.\nI wonder if Seasteads could be funded by assurance contracts, given enough knowledge about and interest in them?\n> I wonder if Seasteads could be funded by assurance contracts, given enough knowledge about and interest in them?\nI think pledging is a great way of financing. I do not have the statistics to back it up, but I think pledges are more effective than donations. If you pledge you will be sure that your money only goes to the project if a sufficient amount of others give their money, too. So when you give your money away you can be sure it is enough to start the project resp. keep it running.\nIf you donate, you are often uncertain whether your money makes a difference. It is likely that too few people donate. That would waste your money because the project can\u2019t take off. So you probably hesitate a lot more to donate than to pledge.", "id": "<urn:uuid:41879175-d9ad-4704-a02f-c8db98e99cc2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.seasteading.org/forum-list/topic/paying-public-goods-assurance-contracts/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9686729907989502, "token_count": 400, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Causes of Keratosis Pilaris\nKeratosis pilaris is not a very well known skin condition. Up to 40% of adults all over the globe suffer from it, and over half of them don\u2019t even know it. Keratosis pilaris is genetic in origin but the precise cause has not yet been determined. Still, many doctors believe that the cause of Keratosis pilaris is the overproduction of keratin inside the skin. This excess gets trapped inside the follicle, developing a bump.\nIt is also thought to be a disorder of keratinisation in which the sticky cells that line the hair follicle form a horny plug instead of exfoliating. This widens the pores making them appear more obvious than elsewhere. Often a curled hair can be identified under the skin.\nKeratosis pilaris is a skin condition frequently seen on the upper arms, buttocks and thighs. The skin cells that normally flake off as a fine dust form plugs in the hair follicles. These appear as small pimples that have a dry ''sandpaper'' feeling. They are usually white, but when inflamed they appear rather red. They usually don't itch or hurt, except with extreme changes in temperature.\nThis condition is particularly common among teenagers (up to 80%). Its manifestation is very common on the upper arms, especially on the external side of the arm. It may occur in babies where it tends to be most obvious on the cheeks. It may remain for years but in most cases it gradually disappears usually before age 30. Keratosis pilaris is unsightly but completely harmless. It is usually worse during the winter months. The worsening is directly associated with low humidity, skin dryness and tight clothes that \u201crub\u201d the bumps at al times. Some people have stated that this condition worsened during pregnancy and/or after childbirth.\nSome doctors as well as patients believe that food is related with keratosis pilaris. According to their own experience, spicy foods tend to increase the bumps and make them more noticeable. On the other hand, patients that reduced or eliminated milk and its derivatives from their diet claimed to have had a considerable improvement.\nTreatment for keratosis pilaris is not necessary, and unfortunately, it often has disappointing results. With persistence, most people can get improve this aesthetic condition by moisturizing and replenishing the lipid content of the skin regularly.\nThe plugged pores can be removed by taking long, hot soaking tub baths and then rubbing the areas with a coarse washcloth, stiff brush, or 'Buf-Puf'. Also, a good microdermabrasion proceeding can help get rid of all the excess keratin.\nPrescription medicines may help, including some antibiotics like Erythromycin and Bactrim. If the swelling or redness of the bumps is getting worse, you should discuss with your doctor the use of topical retinoids. The derivatives of vitamin A can be very harsh for the skin, so be aware of all the symptoms you develop.\nWe offer a solution for Keratosis Pilaris, a natural cream with Helix Aspersa M\u00fcller Glycoconjugates. It is a biological ingredient collected from live snails and contains a complex compound of molecules that protect the skin from free radical oxydation, promote the proliferation of the water holding molecules in the skin and the healthy turnover of connective tissues, dissolve damaged and non functional tissues such as keratin plugs by enzymatic digestion or breakdown of their amino-acid components and has antimicrobial properties.\nBIOSKINTREATMENT\u2122 and BIOSKINEXFOL\u2122 are natural skin care products that require constancy in their use to achieve results. You must apply BIOSKINEXFOL three times a week, or the BIOSKINTREATMENT lotion twice a day every day. It is important to be patient since results will not be immediate, not even fast. For most people results will be seen in 5 to 6 weeks.\nBIOSKINTREATMENT\u2122 and BIOSKINEXFOL\u2122 work because the biological ingredient in them and the formulation makes it the most complete and balanced natural solution for the normal functioning of the skin and for regeneration of damaged skin.\nBIOSKINTREATMENT LOTION clears skin of keratin bumps and regenerates healthy skin\nThe product is made with the same base as BIOSKINCARE plus Salix Nigra (Willow) Extract and Amorphophallus Konjac Root Powder for a more potent keratolytic effect that cleans the excess horny material of the skin by degrading keratin plugs and dissolving debris, damaged, abnormal and necrotic tissues. It decongests the skin as the enzymes in the snail serum and the natural salicylic acid in willow bark extract help to 'digest' all damaged structures into their amino-acid and other components, which also favors the regeneration of all the structural components of healthy skin.\nIt leaves your skin smooth, refreshed, soft and with use over a period of time it takes away keratosis pilaris, actinic keratosis scales, controls acne and reduces and even vanishes all types of skin blemishes: razor nicks and burns, roughness, blisters, scrapes, cuts, and the list can go on and on...\nMade in the USA. 60 grams = 2 oz\nOne Bottle: $60\nUltra exfoliate rough scars and dull skin with BIOSKINEXFOL\nHome microdermabrasion cream. Contains the same natural ingredients in BIOSKINTREATMENT but infused with micro-crystals so that you may rub it with your finger tips to remove old, hard, and tough scars or stretch marks by a physical breakdown of the scar tissues. Best also for oily skin and aged skin, actinic keratosis scales and pitted acne scars. Not for keloids and not if your skin is still fragile (use BIOSKINTREATMENT for a few months first to strengthen your skin). The compounded action of the physical abrasion and the enzymes in the cream liquefy damaged proteins more thoroughly helping to release amino-acids to aid in rebuilding damaged tissues quickly. Results are not only immediate, but compound over time and do not trigger inflamm-aging of delicate skin tissues.\nMade in the USA. Two to Three Month's supply 120 grams = 4.23 oz\n120 Gram Bottle: $89\nBiological Skin Treatment Ingredient\nOur products contain a biological serum created by a living creature. It is packed with enzymes, coenzymes, glycoproteins, glycosaminoglycans (hyaluronic acid), proteoglycans, peptides and oligoelements that (a) dissolve keratin plugs that obstruct the hair follicles and cause hyperkeratosis or acne and damaged and dysfunctional tissues, (b) regenerate healthy skin by promoting the proliferation of fibroblasts and supporting microcirculation in capillaries, (c) scavenge oxygen radicals and the damaging effects of excessive solar radiation and (c) keep microbes in check by the action of antimicrobial peptides secreted on the skin and within the hair follicles.\nIt keeps the skin moisturized, prevents skin infection, repairs wounds, promotes scarless healing, and renews the skin.\nThe collection of the biological ingredient in our products is done by using a humanely method that inflicts no damage upon the little creatures from which we gather the biological compound that can not possible be replicated in even the most sophisticated laboratory.\nWhat customers say about the results of the product for keratosis pilaris?\nSkin Treatment Products\nA deeply moisturizing and pure natural skin care cream that dissolves keratin plugs and debris and unblocks clogged pores allowing for the outflow of sebum to the surface where it lubricates and protects the skin instead of causing injuries to the cells lining the follicles and an inflammatory reaction of the body to repair the damage. Triggers the rebuilding of damaged and dead tissues and restores the capacity of the skin to hold in water from within. Rrestores the lipid wall of our skin thereby impeding the penetration of allergens and toxins. It induces the production of antimicrobial peptides on the surface of the skin and within the skin follicles contributing to control microrganisms. Signals the body it is being taken care of and does not need to fire its immune responses and overly react to minor injuries thus avoiding the loss of tissues that characterizes deep scars. Avoids scarring and diminishes scars from accidents, surgery, stretch marks, hypertrophic and keloid scars, by the breakdown of abnormal, dysfunctional and damaged tissues into their amino acid components while stimulating their replacement with new healthy skin structures. Vanishes redness and dryness, relieves eczema and dermatitis, reduces psoriasis scales and most skin blemishes. Repairs skin damaged by glycolic peeling and other chemical peels, dermabrasion or laser resurfacing. By strengthening the skin it relieves the uncomfortable side effects of retinoic drugs such as Accutane that thin the skin. Reduces and heals skin fragility and is a potent antioxidant thus helping to reduce the damaging effects on the dermis of sun burns and too much exposure to solar radiation. It also helps to heal blisters, bruises, wounds, and the consequences on the skin of ionizing radiotherapy or radiodermatitis. 50 gram (1.76 oz) jar = $60.\nA home microdermabrasion cream with micro-crystals that breakdown hard, rough and old scar tissues, and allow for a deeper penetration of our natural skin moisturizing and regeneration complex contained in the microdermarasion cream.120 gram (4 oz) jar = $89.-", "id": "<urn:uuid:2d3b3a2f-7ba1-43b5-90fe-da8e84ef5643>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.skintreatmentcream.com/causes/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.91428142786026, "token_count": 2033, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Australian scientists discover deep sea corals\nSYDNEY (AFP) - Australian scientists mapping the Great Barrier Reef have discovered corals at depths never before thought possible, with a deep-sea robot finding specimens in waters nearly as dark as night.\nA team from the University of Queensland's Seaview Survey announced the unprecedented discovery 125m below the surface at Ribbon Reef, near the Torres Strait and at the edge of the Australian continental shelf.\nDr Ove Hoegh-Guldberg, chief scientist on the project, told AFP on Thursday that coral had previously only been shown to exist to depths of 70m and the finding could bring new understanding about how reefs spawn and grow.\n\"What's really cool is that these corals still have photosynthetic symibionts that supposedly still harvest the light,\" Dr Hoegh-Guldberg told AFP.", "id": "<urn:uuid:30063ff7-16ef-45a6-85e9-73e5e4e40e79>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/technology/story/australian-scientists-discover-deep-sea-corals-20130103", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9514318108558655, "token_count": 177, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Shoving, teasing and name-calling are all too often a daily occurrence in schools across the country where cliques thrive and anyone who might be \u201cdifferent\u201d has a hard row to hoe. And, with the growth of technology, bullying has expanded its reach, finding its way out of the schoolyard and into the back pockets of students who have no way to escape their tormentors.\nCell phones and social media have enabled bullying to evolve from mere (albeit still hurtful) verbal and physical harassment to pervasive cyber-bullying attacks through Facebook, emails and text messages.\nIt\u2019s a pervasive problem and the Blaine school district is looking for answers.\nTo help curb bullying, they\u2019ve asked Scott Backovich, an international motivational speaker whose talks are geared toward youth, to speak to students about bullying, respect and the effects of being what he calls \u201ca catalyst.\u201d Backovich will speak to students at both Blaine Middle School and Blaine High School during a special day organized by the district on January 16.\nChanges in state legislation and the public awareness of teen suicides due to bullying, particularly cyber-bullying, have put the issue on center stage. \u201cWe have a mandate from the state [to address bullying],\u201d Randy Ellsbree said. Ellsbree is in charge of making sure the district complies with the state mandate. \u201cI help the principals follow the law and get the resources to teach students.\u201d\nThe district hopes that an outside speaker can offer students a different perspective on cyber-bullying, and cause them to take note.\n\u201cOther school districts have recommended Backovich,\u201d Ellsbree said. \u201cAnd there\u2019s a parental education piece as well.\u201d\nThe district has also scheduled Backovich to give a presentation to parents on the evening of the January 16. During this session, parents will have the opportunity to learn about various cyber-bullying issues, along with tips and strategies to help their child be safe.\nParents of children in any age group are encouraged to attend. Daycare and a light meal will be provided at the evening program. For more info, contact Larissa Dhanani at the Blaine school district at 360/332-0728.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f17f7991-2f3b-43ea-a3ef-c63710527a24>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thenorthernlight.com/news/article.exm/2013-01-09_international_teen_mentor_to_visit_blaine_school_district", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9542677998542786, "token_count": 472, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Snopes.com defines phishing as \"a term which refers to the online imitation of a company's branding in spoofed e-mail messages and web sites, created with the intent of fooling unsuspecting users into divulging personal information such as passwords, credit card numbers, PINs, etc. A typical \"phish\" e-mail will appear to come from a financial institution (such as a bank or credit card company), informing the recipient that some type of problem has affected his account and directing him to follow a provided hyperlink to clear up the problem. The hyperlink leads not to a legitimate site, however, but to a server (usually in another country) on which an imitation web site has been set up. The fooled customer is then prompted to enter confidential personal information (collected by the scammers for perpetrating) identify theft and (usually) redirected to a legitimate web site to obscure the fact that he just gave away data to crooks.\"\nPhishing sites can also include malicious elements that are intended to take advantage of web browser vulnerabilities. Even if you don't enter personal information on the spoofed web site, you could be putting your computer's security in danger simply by clicking on the link in the spoofed message. The best way to protect yourself from phishing scams is to never click on the link in an unexpected or suspicious message you receive.\nThe Internet has made the world a much smaller place. While its benefits are tremendous, connecting us to others and to volumes of instant information on any subject anywhere in the world, its downside includes dark alleys frequented by criminals intent on harming you, your computer, and/or your information.\nIn the physical world, it used to be that you knew which dark alleys or bad neighborhoods to avoid. Today the Internet, with all its benefits, has also brought the dark alleyways to your computer. As such, it takes much more vigilance to protect yourself and your computer from would-be criminals.\nSome of the risks you encounter simply by surfing the Internet include, but are not limited to: Identity Theft, viruses and worms that infect your computer, spamming, and spyware infections.\nContent provided by CU Boulder", "id": "<urn:uuid:250130df-2f3d-4b41-8729-6f220641bc45>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.uccs.edu/itsecure/home-computing-and-student-resources/phishing.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9529338479042053, "token_count": 446, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In July 2010, the United Nations General Assembly created UN Women, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women.\nIn doing so, UN Member States took an historic step in accelerating the Organization\u2019s goals on gender equality and the empowerment of women.\nThe creation of UN Women came about as part of the UN reform agenda, bringing together resources and mandates for greater impact. It will merge and build on the important work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system which focus exclusively on gender equality and women\u2019s empowerment:\n- Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW)\n- International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW)\n- Office of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI)\n- United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)\nThe main roles of UN Women are:\n- To support inter-governmental bodies, such as the Commission on the Status of Women, in their formulation of policies, global standards and norms\nTo help Member States to implement these standards, standing ready to provide suitable technical and financial support to those countries that request it and to forge effective partnerships with civil society.\nTo hold the UN system accountable for its own commitments on gender equality, including regular monitoring of system-wide progress.\nOver many decades, the UN has made significant progress in advancing gender equality, including through landmark agreements such as the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW).\nGender equality is not only a basic human right, but its achievement has enormous socio-economic ramifications. Empowering women fuels thriving economies, spurring productivity and growth.\nYet gender inequalities remain deeply entrenched in every society. Women lack access to decent work and face occupational segregation and gender wage gaps. They are too often denied access to basic education and health care. Women in all parts of the world suffer violence and discrimination. They are under-represented in political and economic decision-making processes.\nFor many years, the UN has faced serious challenges in its efforts to promote gender equality globally, including inadequate funding and no single recognized driver to direct UN activities on gender equality issues.\nUN Women \u2014 which will be operational by January 2011 \u2014 has been created to address such challenges. It will be a dynamic and strong champion for women and girls, providing them with a powerful voice at the global, regional and local levels.\nGrounded in the vision of equality enshrined in the UN Charter, UN Women will, among other issues, work for the:\nelimination of discrimination against women and girls\n- empowerment of women\n- achievement of equality between women and men as partners and beneficiaries of development, human rights, humanitarian action and peace and security.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bb220cbb-22d1-4aa4-9ef9-2df7ac00147f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/daw/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9415403604507446, "token_count": 573, "score": 3.53125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Council has placed much focus on what has come to be known as \u2018International hydro-diplomacy\u2019. For the past three years, the Council has been at the forefront, bringing forward a new water politics and making the Voice of Water heard on every level of decision making.\nWorld Water Council Activity Report 2010-2012\nOne of the Council's major accomplishments is its contribution to increasing awareness of global water issues and to political mobilisation through World Water Forums. Serving as stepping-stones towards global collaboration on water problems, the Forum is a unique platform where the water community and policy- and decision-makers from all regions of the world can come together, debate and attempt to find solutions to achieve water security.\nIn the past, the Forum has produced the World Water Vision, a unique prospective exercise on the future state of global water resources whose results were presented at the 2nd Forum, as well as the establishment of concrete actions and commitments derived from the 3rd Forum.\nThe Council has also played a strategic role in promoting and facilitating the establishment of dialogues on cross-cutting issues that were not sufficiently addressed, both at local levels and national levels. Key dialogues include those on Water for Food and Environment, and on Water and Climate.\nIn 2001, the Council raised the issue of financing to the top of its priorities by establishing the Panel on Financing Water Infrastructure, whose mandate was to look for new sources of funding for water to avoid the 2025 \"water scarcity\" scenario of the World Water Vision.\nWith the 4th World Water Forum, the Council established mechanisms for cooperation and coordination to transform global vision into concrete actions while integrating local knowledge.\nThe 5th Forum gave voice to the local authorities stakeholders\u2019 who were encouraged to improve their water situation on a local level by signing the Istanbul Water Consensus, which has reached more than 1,000 signatories throughout the world.\nFrom 2009 to 2012, political involvement though the Ministerial, Parliamentarian and local Authorities processes of the Forum has steadily increased and the Council\u2018s efforts have greatly contributed in raising Water higher on the political agenda.\nWater is finally being acknowledged as a worldwide priority. During the 2012 Rio+20 Earth Summit, a Sustainable Development Dialogue was dedicated to Water. The Council\u2019s aim is now to keep water on the table of high level discussions in view of the post-2015 Sustainable Development Goals.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2e9ea735-fb5c-443e-98e9-7a2c7306d79a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.php?id=93&L=0%20%2C%2024%25%20title%25", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9668892025947571, "token_count": 487, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The definition of binocular is something that uses both eyes at the same time.(adjective)\nAn example of something binocular is the vision you use to look through 3D glasses; binocular vision.\nA binocular is defined as a device used to view things far away, often referred to as binoculars.(noun)\nAn example of a binocular is a set of opera glasses.\nSee binocular in Webster's New World College Dictionary\nOrigin: < L bini, double (see binary) + ocularis, of the eyes < oculus, eye\nSee binocular in American Heritage Dictionary 4\npair of binoculars\nLearn more about binocular", "id": "<urn:uuid:0649a085-1e99-48ac-8169-decf85f55b3d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.yourdictionary.com/binocular", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368697974692/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095254-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8595860004425049, "token_count": 142, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "story to find out more.\nJohn Ewart (left),\nan aquaculture/fisheries specialist (University of Delaware), and ARS\nmicrobiologist Gary Richards examine freshly harvested oysters on board the\nCenter for the Inland Bays' work boat before transport to the laboratory.\nClick the image for more information about it.\nResearch Reveals Functions of Harmful Shellfish\nPathogens By Jim\nCore March 4, 2005\nProviding safer shellfish is the goal of Agricultural Research Service\n(ARS) scientists who are studying the\nmeans by which pathogenic bacteria enter shellfish.\nIn the United States, two pathogenic bacteria from the genus\nVibrio are of concern: V. vulnificus and V.\nparahaemolyticus. These bacteria are naturally found in shellfish and\nseawater, particularly when water temperatures are warm, and can lead to\nserious health concerns.\nARS scientists at the\nSafety of Aquaculture Products Center of Excellence in Dover, Del., are\nstudying these bacteria with the goal of keeping them out of shellfish.\nRichards, a microbiologist and the center's lead scientist, wants to\nidentify Vibrio enzymes that may help the organism enter shellfish--and,\neventually, a human host.\nRichards, who leads a group of scientists from\nDelaware State University and the\nNational Institutes of Health, recently\ndiscovered in V. vulnificus an enzyme called phosphoglucose isomerase.\nThis enzyme could provide a way for Vibrio to spread more easily.\nHe also detected the enzyme in virtually all species of Vibrio\ntested, but not in non-Vibrio pathogens. The enzyme is capable of\nproducing what are called vasoactive peptides, which could contribute to rapid\nspread of V. vulnificus in humans. A study of V. vulnificus in\noysters suggests that strains virulent to humans may be more invasive to--and\nThe Dover center, a field location of the ARS\nRegional Research Center in Wyndmoor, Pa., also studies methods to detect\nnorovirus and the hepatitis A virus in shellfish. It also develops\nhigh-pressure processing techniques to inactivate enteric viruses in\nThis research may provide better diagnostic capabilities and treatment\nstrategies to further reduce shellfish-related illnesses.\nmore about this research in the March issue of Agricultural Research\nARS is the U.S. Department of\nAgriculture's chief scientific research agency.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6fa6a989-209b-4026-9db8-88d0ba695779>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2005/050304.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9047471284866333, "token_count": 537, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This Week\u2019s Creature Feature ... Susquehanna Flats B&B Open for Businesstesttest\nHousing stock is on the rise for the young fish and crabs who\u2019ll be sheltering at the top of the Bay come spring. The vast grass-filled Susquehanna Flats, the circular area where the Susquehanna River meets the Bay, appeared unexpectedly healthy in aerial survey images made late last year.\nThe valuable Bay habitats seem to have survived fall 2011\u2019s deluge of runoff and sediment.\nThat was a welcome surprise. During Hurricane Irene and Tropical Storm Lee, monitors saw large tangles of all varieties of uprooted grasses floating downstream. Remembering the devastation caused by Tropical Storm Agnes almost 40 years ago, scientists feared the worst.\n\u201cBack on those days of Tropical Storm Lee, looking at the deluge of water over the Conowingo Dam, I would\u2019ve bet that we had lost the Flats grasses entirely,\u201d said Rich Batiuk of the Chesapeake Bay Program.\nHad that been the case, over-wintering waterfowl would have lost a favorite table. Many juvenile Bay creatures would have been homeless come spring.\nThe grasses\u2019 survival is good news not only for the creatures that feed on and live among them, but also for the Bay.\n\u201cThat large, dense beds can survive extreme conditions is another indicator of the Bay\u2019s resilience,\u201d Batiuk said.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d2e09ba4-11f7-40a0-8a15-5e7d54ddf071>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://bayweekly.com/articles/creature-features/article/weeks-creature-feature-susquehanna-flats-bb-open-business", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9265226721763611, "token_count": 313, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Reduced visibility can play a key role in traffic accidents. Lowered visibility can occur because of darkness or weather conditions such as snow or rain. No matter the cause, motorists often aren\u2019t as careful as they should be.\nThe bottom line: driving in poor weather adds to the risk factor, boosting the possibility of skidding off the road, being involved in a crash and other similar events. However, there are things you can do to reduce the possibility of an accident.\nTwenty-five percent of the average person\u2019s driving is night driving, which is a more challenging time to travel.\nAccording to PennState Environmental Health and Safety:\n\u2022 Car crash fatalities happen three times more often at night\n\u2022 More than half (55%) of fatal accidents happen at night\n\u2022 Pedestrian fatalities happen much more often after dark (62%)\nSome useful safe driving tips in times of reduced visibility, such as night driving, include:\n\u2022 Slowing down\n\u2022 Staying alert\n\u2022 Using headlights\n\u2022 Putting a safe distance between your car and the vehicle ahead of you; this is especially important when it\u2019s a large truck, as their spray can cause additional problems with visibility\n\u2022 Choosing the middle lane during wet driving conditions\n\u2022 Taking advantage of tracks in the snow made by other vehicles and driving in those tracks\n\u2022 Avoiding puddles\nWhat should you do now?\n\u2022 Set up a regular schedule to check your windshield wipers. New wipers are available at Advance Auto Parts. Get free installation with purchase.*\n\u2022 Always keep a supply of extra windshield washer fluid.\n\u2022 Check your car lights periodically.\n\u2022 If your headlights are foggy or dim, purchase a headlight restoration kit.\n\u2022 Use Rain-X on your windshield. Rain-X acts as a repellant on your windshield for rain, sleet or snow.\n\u2022 Always carry an emergency car kit.\nEditor\u2019s note: Wow, that\u2019s a lot to think about. Make it easy on yourself by heading to your local Advance Auto Parts store for safe driving tips and answers on how to keep your vision in check this winter.\n*Most vehicles, most store locations.", "id": "<urn:uuid:820c0ff5-bac7-4b97-8790-81d512ac5b37>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.advanceautoparts.com/tag/safe-driving-tips/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9479746222496033, "token_count": 456, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The emergence of low cost computers in the UK market in the early 1980s kick started many a career in IT. The early market was not dominated by one type of machine but rather one full of choices from a myriad of companies. School playgrounds across the country soon became split between two camps, you either loved the Spectrum or the BBC Micro (which quickly became known as the Beeb). There were friends with other computers (Vic 20, Dragon, Commodore 64 to name a few) but these people were in the minority and viewed as weird.\nToday marks the day the BBC Micro was first launched on the market. At the time it was expensive compared to the other machines on the market but it was supported by the BBC in the form of a TV series about computers and their uses.\nAt the time the BBC Micro was launched I had already been programming for several years but it is this machine which I remember with fondness. I had a great time learning how this machine worked and even purchased the Advanced BBC Micro handbook. It was this handbook which allowed me to get closer to the hardware. I even wrote my own disc operating system. This also taught me a very valuable lesson, always backup your work \u2013 I accidently tested the format command on the disc containing the only copy of the source code. To my dismay it was one of those occassions where I had manged to write 200 lines of assembler which worked perfectly first time.\nThe early industry meant that schools had to quickly put together a programme of lessons which taught pupils about the new machines and how to use them. The lack of software such as spreadsheets, presentation software etc. meant that children were taught about the machines and how they worked. Something which is lacking today. This lack of understanding about how computers actually work is slowly being recognised here in the UK and it appears that the government is starting to recognise that something needs to be done. One group of people who remember those early days are already working on a small computer for the education market. Check out the Raspberry Pi for more information on the project.\nYou can read more about the BBC Micro in this article on the BBCs news web site.\nHappy Birthday BBC Micro", "id": "<urn:uuid:1d234c6f-e904-4c99-8325-d6188767599f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.mark-stevens.co.uk/?cat=11", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9860022664070129, "token_count": 447, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Filtering Posts By: \"bias voltage\"\n02.05.2007| By Shure Notes|\nMany users of professional audio equipment believe there is no difference between phantom power and bias voltage. Not true! Phantom and bias are not interchangeable. This bulletin explains the differences between phantom and bias, and addresses common misconceptions. Phantom power is a dc voltage (11 \u2013 48 volts) which powers the preamplifier of a condenser microphone. Phantom power is normally supplied by the microphone mixer, but may also be supplied by a separate phantom power supply. Phantom requires a balanced circuit in which XLR pins 2 and 3 carry the same dc voltage relative to \u2026", "id": "<urn:uuid:3d13451c-16dc-4cd7-abc2-4ae7b947d04d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.shure.com/tag/bias-voltage/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8962374925613403, "token_count": 134, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "These collections contain over 80,000 rare books, magazines and government publications from the 1600s to the 1940s.\nThis rare collection of documentary heritage will be of interest to scholars, genealogists, history buffs and anyone who enjoys reading about Canada's early days.\nThe Early Canadiana Online collection of rare books, magazines and government publications has over 80,000 titles (3,500,000 pages) and is growing. The collection includes material published from the time of the first European settlers to the first four decades of the 20th Century.\nYou will find books written in 21 languages including French, English, 10 First Nations languages and several European languages, Latin and Greek.\nThe Early Canadian Periodicals collection includes over 1,000 magazines, totaling over 65,000 issues. It covers a wide range of topics such as political satire, agriculture, religion, medicine and health, as well as many men\u2019s, women\u2019s and children\u2019s popular magazines. This collection even includes the first magazine ever published in Canada, The Nova Scotia Magazine (1789-1792). It offers a remarkable record of the development of thought and opinion on diverse issues of the nation in its formative years. Many of Canada's initial prominent poets, novelists, scientists and great minds were first known through their works published in these magazines. They give an entertaining window into society and individual lives of the early Canadians with their stories, articles, advertisements, cartoons, drawings and photographs. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThis online collection consists of 60 publications focused on the lives of the early Governors General of Canada. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThe Early Official Publications collection includes over 1.5 million digitized pages of historical pre-1901 colonial and federal government documents. This collection includes government acts, bills, committee reports, court rules, debates, journals, ordinances, a selection of official publications from France and Great Britain, sessional papers, regulations, royal commission reports, and treaties. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThis collection of 875 works includes fiction, drama, songs, and poetry, as well as biography, travel literature and exploration accounts. It is comprised of books published from 1697 to 1900, and from a variety of countries (Canada, United Kingdom, United States, Switzerland). Browse this collection \u00bb\nThis collection of periodicals and books relates to the field of health and medicine and covers almost 100 years of medical thought, news, practice and research in Canada. Here you will find writings on: public health, human anatomy, promotion of health, pharmacology, diet, physical fitness, dentistry, surgery, obstetrics, childbirth, pediatrics, etc. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThe 732 French language books in this collection relate to the history of French settlement and French culture in Canada. In the collection are books published from 1575 to the early 20th century, and from a variety of countries (Canada, France, United Kingdom, Netherlands). Topics covered include: the discovery and exploration of Canada; religious works, including those of the Jesuits; history of Acadia; First Nations settlements; scholarly writings on the French language; French Canadian songs and poems; education; biographies; geography; politics; law; social life and customs; commerce, and natural resources. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThe Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) collection consists of 160 titles (20,000 pages) that detail the rich history of one of the oldest and still active companies in the world. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThe Jesuit Relations is a 73-volume set of books (22,500 pages) in the original Italian, Latin and French with commentary and translation into English by Reuben Thwaites (1853-1913). Most of the Relations are annual missionary reports written between 1632 and 1678 by the Jesuits in New France for their superiors in France. Through their Relations, the Jesuits provide details of colonial life during the French regime in Canada. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThis collection of 900 titles relating to Canada\u2019s early First Nations Peoples was published from 1558 to 1900 in a variety of countries (Canada, Germany, Switzerland, United Kingdom, United States) and in a variety of languages (e.g. Micmac, Iroquois, Mohawk, Chipewyan, Nootka, Chinook, Ojibwa). Here you will find writings on: customs, folklore, spirituality, history, languages, treaties, battles, biographies, relations with the government, cultural assimilation, education, etc. Browse this collection \u00bb\nThis collection of 683 titles consists of the early published writings of Canadian women authors, as well as Canadian publications written about women or \"women's issues\". The collection covers many genres, including memoirs, diaries and collected letters, drama, exploration and travelers' accounts, printed ephemera, political pamphlets, and much more. Comprised of books published from 1677 to 1900, and from a variety of countries (Canada, France, United Kingdom, United States). Browse this collection \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:be6595ab-2e66-4abf-acae-d1a21986bfdf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://eco.canadiana.ca/?usrlang=en", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9345968961715698, "token_count": 1027, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Part of a series on|\nThe Ny\u0101ya S\u016btras are an ancient Indian text on of philosophy composed by Ak\u1e63ap\u0101da Gautama (also Gotama; c. 2nd century BCE). The sutras contain five chapters, each with two sections. The core of the text dates to roughly the 2nd century BCE, although there are significant later interpolations.\nThe Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidy\u0101 or the Science of Debate, V\u0101da-Vidy\u0101 or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Ny\u0101ya. Thus some of its features and categories are better understood from that perspective. Gotama is sometimes given the honorific titles \"Ak\u1e63ap\u0101da\" (probably in the sense \"having his eyes fixed in abstraction on his feet\") and \"D\u012brghatapas\" (\"performing long penance\"). He is also sometimes accorded the religious titles \"\u1e5a\u1e63i\" or \"Mahar\u1e63i\".\nIn the Ny\u0101ya Sutras Gotama developed and extended the Vai\u015be\u1e63ika epistemological and metaphysical system through 528 aphorisms. Later commentaries expanded, expounded, and critically discussed Gotama's work, the first being by V\u0101tsy\u0101yana (c.450\u2013500 CE), followed by the Ny\u0101yav\u0101rttika of Uddyotak\u0101ra (c. 6th\u20137th century), V\u0101caspati Mi\u015bra's T\u0101tparyat\u012bk\u0101 (9th century), Udayana's T\u0101tparyapari\u015buddhi (10th century), and Jayanta's Ny\u0101yama\u00f1jar\u012b (10th century).\nPurpose of the Nyaya Sutras \n\"Gautama \u1e5a\u1e63i, in his Ny\u0101ya S\u016btras, proposes that one can attain liberation by negating both illusion and unhappiness: duhkha-janma-prav\u1e5btti-dosa-mithy\u0101-jnananam uttarottarapaye tad-anantarabhavad apavargah. \"By successively dispelling false conceptions, bad character, entangling action, rebirth and misery -- the disappearance of one of these allowing the disappearance of the next -- one can achieve final liberation.\" (Ny\u0101ya S\u016btra 1.1.2) But since Nyaya philosophers believe that awareness is not an essential quality of the soul, they teach that a liberated soul has no consciousness. The Ny\u0101ya idea of liberation thus puts the soul in the condition of a dead stone. This attempt by the Ny\u0101ya philosophers to kill the soul's innate consciousness is here called sato mrtim by the personified Vedas. But the Ved\u0101nta-sutra (2.3.17) unequivocally states, jno 'ta eva: \"The j\u012bva soul is always a knower.\" In the opening s\u016btra of the Ny\u0101ya S\u016btra, it was claimed that the ultimate purpose of it is the attainment of liberation (ni\u1e25\u015breyasa), attained by knowledge of the sixteen categories (pad\u0101rtha), which are:\n- means of valid knowledge (pram\u0101\u1e47a);\n- objects of valid knowledge (prameya);\n- doubt (sa\u1e43\u015baya);\n- purpose (prayojana);\n- example (d\u1e5b\u1e63\u1e6d\u0101nta);\n- conclusion (siddh\u0101nta);\n- the constituents of a syllogism (avayava);\n- argumentation (tarka);\n- ascertainment (nir\u1e47aya);\n- debate (v\u0101da);\n- disputations (jalpa);\n- destructive criticism (vita\u1e47\u1e0da);\n- fallacy (hetv\u0101bh\u0101sa);\n- quibble (chala);\n- refutations (j\u0101ti); and\n- points of the opponent's defeat (nigrahasth\u0101na).\nMeans of attaining valid knowledge \nAccording to the Nyaya Sutras, there are four means of attaining valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony. The sutra ultimates implicitly develop a theory of causation. Cause and effect should be homogeneous in nature, and yet the effect is a new beginning and was not already contained in the cause.\nThe Buddhist thesis that all things are negative in nature (inasmuch as a thing's nature is constituted by its differences from others) is rejected, as is the view that all things are eternal or that all things are noneternal. Both these latter views are untrue to experience.\nThus, the resulting metaphysics admits two kinds of entities: eternal and noneternal. The whole is a new entity over and above the parts that constitute it. Also, the idea that God is the material cause of the universe is rejected. God is viewed as the efficient cause, and human deeds produce their results under the control and cooperation of God.\nThe five part syllogism \nThe Nyaya Sutra supports a five-part syllogism, widely followed in the Indian tradition:\n- This hill is fiery (pratij\u00f1\u0101: a statement of that which is to be proved).\n- Because it is smoky (h\u0113tu: statement of reason).\n- Whatever is smoky is fiery, as is a kitchen (ud\u0101hara\u1e47a: statement of a general rule supported by an example).\n- So is this hill (upanaya: application of the rule of this case).\n- Therefore this hill is fiery (nigamana: drawing the conclusion).\nThe characteristic feature of the Nyaya syllogism is its insistence on the example, which suggests that the Nyaya logician wanted to be assured not only of formal validity but also of material truth.\nTypes of logical error \nFive kinds of fallacious \"middle\" (hetu) are distinguished:\n- the inconclusive (savyabhicara), which leads to more conclusions than one;\n- the contradictory (viruddha), which opposes that which is to be established;\n- the controversial (prakaranasama), which provokes the very question that it is meant to settle;\n- the counterquestioned (sadhyasama), which itself is unproved; and\n- the mistimed (kalatita), which is adduced \"when the time in which it might hold good does not apply\".\n- Nandalal Sinha, Mahamahopadhyaya Satisa Chandra Vidyabhusana, The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama, The sacred books of the Hindus, 1930; Motilal Banarsidass, 1990 reprint, ISBN 978-81-208-0748-8; Munshiram Manoharlal reprint, 2003, ISBN 978-81-215-1096-7.\n- Ganganatha Jha, Nyaya- Sutras of Gautama (4 vols.), Motilal Banarsidass, 1999 reprint, ISBN 978-81-208-1264-2.\nSources and reading \n- Sue Hamilton, Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-19-285374-0\n- B.K. Matilal, Epistemology, Logic, and Grammar in Indian Philosophical Analysis (Oxford University Press, 2005) ISBN 0-19-566658-5\n- J.N. Mohanty, Classical Indian Philosophy (Rowman & Littlefield, 2000) ISBN 0-8476-8933-6\n- B. K. Matilal \"Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge\" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.\n- Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica (2007)\n- All About Hinduism by Sri Swami Sivananda\n- Chattopadhyaya, D. (1986). Indian Philosophy: A popular Introduction, New Delhi: People's Publishing House, ISBN 81-7007-023-6, p.163", "id": "<urn:uuid:6cce618a-a06f-4ea3-8ff0-b47fde562b3a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aksapada_Gautama", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8513426780700684, "token_count": 1732, "score": 3.46875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What Is Air Pollution?\nin its great magnitude has existed in the 20th century from the\ncoal burning industries of the early century to the fossil burning technology in\nthe new century. The problems of\nair pollution are a major problem for highly developed nations whose large\nindustrial bases and highly developed infrastructures generate much of the air\nEvery year, billions of tonnes of pollutants are released into the\natmosphere; the sources include power plants burning fossil fuels to the effects\nof sunlight on certain natural materials. But\nthe air pollutants released from natural materials pose very little health\nthreat, only the natural radioactive gas radon poses any threat to health.\nSo much of the air pollutants being released into the atmosphere are all\nresults of man\u2019s activities.\nIn the United Kingdom, traffic\nis the major cause of air pollution in British cities. Eighty six percent of families own either one or two\nvehicles. Because of the\nhigh-density population of cities and towns, the number of people exposed to air\npollutants is great. This had led\nto the increased number of people getting chronic diseases over these past years\nsince the car ownership in the UK has nearly trebled. These include asthma and respiratory complaints ranging\nthrough the population demographic from children to elderly people who are most\nat risk. Certainly those who are\nsuffering from asthma will notice the effects more greatly if living in the\ninner city areas or industrial areas or even near by major roads.\nAsthma is already the fourth biggest killer, after heart diseases and\ncancers in the UK and currently, it affects more than three point four million\nIn the past, severe pollution in London during 1952 added with low winds\nand high-pressure air had taken more than four thousand lives and another seven\nhundred in 1962, in what was called the \u2018Dark Years\u2019 because of the dense\ndark polluted air.\nis also causing devastation for the environment; many of these causes are by man\nmade gases like sulphur dioxide that results from electric plants burning fossil\nfuels. In the UK, industries and\nutilities that use tall smokestacks by means of removing air pollutants only\nboost them higher into the atmosphere, thereby only reducing the concentration\nat their site.\nThese pollutants are often transported over the North Sea and produce\nadverse effects in western Scandinavia, where sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide\nfrom UK and central Europe are generating acid rain, especially in Norway and\nSweden. The pH level, or relative\nacidity of many of Scandinavian fresh water lakes has been altered dramatically\nby acid rain causing the destruction of entire fish populations.\nIn the UK, acid rain formed by subsequent sulphur dioxide atmospheric\nemissions has lead to acidic erosion in limestone in North Western Scotland and\nmarble in Northern England.\nIn 1998, the\nLondon Metropolitan Police launched the \u2018Emissions Controlled Reduction\u2019\nscheme where by traffic police would monitor the amount of pollutants being\nreleased into the air by vehicle exhausts.\nThe plan was for traffic police to stop vehicles randomly on roads\nleading into the city of London, the officer would then measure the amounts of\nair pollutants being released using a CO2 measuring reader fixed in\nthe owner's vehicle's exhaust. If the\nexhaust exceeded the legal amount (based on micrograms of pollutants) the driver\nwould be fined at around twenty-five pounds.\nThe scheme proved unpopular with drivers, especially with those driving\nto work and did little to help improve the city air quality.\nIn Edinburgh, the main causes of bad air quality were from the vast\nnumber of vehicles going through the city centre from west to east.\nIn 1990, the Edinburgh council developed the city by-pass at a cost of\nnearly seventy five million pounds. The\nby-pass was ringed around the outskirts of the city where its main aim was to\nlimit the number of vehicles going through the city centre and divert vehicles\nto use the by-pass in order to reach their destination without going through the\ncity centre. This released much of\nthe congestion within the city but did little very little in solving the\ncity\u2019s overall air quality.\nTo further decrease the number of vehicles on the roads, the government\npromoted public transport. Over two\nhundred million pounds was devoted in developing the country's public transport\nnetwork. Much of which included the development of more bus lanes in\nthe city of London, which increased the pace of bus services.\nIntroduction of gas and electric powered buses took place in Birmingham\nin order to decrease air pollutants emissions around the centre of the city.\nBecause children and the elderly are at most risk to chronic diseases,\nsuch as asthma, major diversion roads were build in order to divert the vehicles\naway from residential areas, schools and elderly institutions.\nIn some councils, trees were planted along the sides of the road in order\nto decrease the amount of carbon monoxide emissions.\nOther ways of improving the air quality included the restriction on the\namounts of air pollutants being released into the atmosphere by industries;\ntough regulations were placed whereby if the air quality dropped below a certain\nlevel around the industries area, a heavy penalty would be wavered against them.\n\u00a9 Copyright 2000, Andrew Wan.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ea6c54fe-1f6e-4a4c-bcb5-4f4c9e0fb6de>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://everything2.com/user/KS/writeups/air+pollution", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9489327669143677, "token_count": 1097, "score": 3.25, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "I love this document. It's a survey of property allotted to Hassanamisco Nipmuc Sarah Robins who married Peter Muckamaug. Though Native, Peter was not from Hassanamesit so the land could not be allotted to (or owned by) him. When Sarah Robins died, the land passed to her children.\nThe Muckamaug allotment was originally 106 acres. The land came from the division of the Hassanamisco Praying Plantation. Praying Plantations, or towns, were the colonial Massachusetts equivalent to today's reservation system. The Praying Town at Hassanamesit was 8000 acres. In 1728, the MA Bay government allowed those 8000 acres to be divided up between 40 English proprietors and 7 Native families. Land was also set aside for a Native church and school and stipulations made for a minister and teacher. The 7 Native families received 1200 acres in separate parcels. The rest was sold to the 40 proprietors and monies from the sale deposited for use by the Hassanamiscos. Since it was not believed that Native people could control their own resources, guardians were appointed to oversee their assets. Native people throughout Massachusetts could not sell their land or spend even the interest on their money without asking their guardians to petition the legislature until 1869.\nAnother map from the collections of American Antiquarian Society showing part of the 1728 allotments. This was posted on a Grafton, MA town webpage.\nPart of the Muckamaug allotment is now owned by the town of Grafton and is preserved as \"Hassanamesit Woods\".The Fiske Center for Archaeological Research is conducting an archaeological dig in Hassanamesit Woods where the Muckamaug's great-granddaughter's house stood from at least 1790 to 1923 when it was bulldozed over. The story of 4 generations of Nipmuc women living on this land will be coming to this blog soon!\n(You may have noticed that sometimes I write Hassanamisco and sometimes Hassanamesit. Hassanamesit refers to the land and means \"the place of many small stones\". Hassanamisco refers to the people of that land.)\nUntil next time,", "id": "<urn:uuid:148a8548-174a-4f78-97fd-ad31f8c9dedf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://forallmyrelations.blogspot.com/2012/08/hassanamisco-indians.html?showComment=1346810207768", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9672296047210693, "token_count": 450, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Imagine having hands so sensitive to cold that each winter they would swell and split open, so that just grabbing a carton of milk out of the refrigerator makes them whiten and throb with pain. Then imagine learning to raise the temperature in your hands so that you could hold the carton of milk and do it without any pain. This is an example of what biofeedback training is attempting to accomplish for certain medical problems, such as Raynaud's disease, a circulatory disorder that can cause its victims extreme discomfort and debilitation. For Raynaud's disease, this therapy has not been found to be clearly effective, but there may be benefits for some other conditions.\nCurrently, incomplete but encouraging evidence suggests that biofeedback may indeed offer at least modest benefits for a variety of conditions, including anxiety , low back pain , insomnia , and female stress incontinence. There is mixed evidence as to whether biofeedback helps with migraine and tension headaches.\nThe major advantages of biofeedback are that it is noninvasive, has virtually no side effects, and is possibly effective over the long-term. The major disadvantage for some is that it requires effort, commitment, and involvement on the part of patients.\nHow Biofeedback Works\nEvery time you scratch an itch, grab a snack when you're hungry, or use the bathroom when you feel the urge, you are responding to biofeedback cues from your body about your physiological state.\nWith biofeedback training, however, you are cued by sensors attached to your body. These sensors measure heart rate, the temperature of your extremities, the muscle tension in specific muscle groups, or, in neurofeedback, the kinds of brain waves you are emitting. This information is conveyed by visual displays or sounds. Using imagery and mental exercises, you learn to control these functions, using the feedback provided by the sensors as a gauge of success. With practice, you can learn to \"tune in\" without instrumentation and control these functions at will during ordinary life.\nFor example, in a biofeedback training session for headache, temperature sensors would be attached first to your hands, then to your feet, and finally to your forehead, if needed. Your goal would be to increase blood flow away from the brain by raising the temperature in your hands and feet and eventually lowering it in your temples. Other sensors might monitor your electrodermal or galvanic skin response, how easily you sweat or get goose bumps, because this affects your ability to alter your skin temperature.\nTo warm up your hands and feet, you might imagine basking in the sun on a beach while listening to a script like \"I feel warm\u2026my hands are growing warm and heavy\u2026\" Both the image and the script would be tailored to you personally to evoke a vivid and relaxing mental image. After your training session, you would be sent home with an audio version of the script and small thermometers to use for your daily practice.\nWho Needs to Be Involved With Biofeedback?\nAny biofeedback treatment program should involve your primary healthcare provider and relevant specialists, such as urologists, cardiologists, or neurologists. The training is often most effective when integrated with other types of therapy, such as medicine or cognitive-behavioral therapy.\nNeurofeedback, also called EEG feedback, is the most controversial form of biofeedback therapy, largely because so few controlled clinical trials have been able to assess its efficacy. Neurofeedback is the \"retraining\" of brainwave patterns. Although controversial, it is experiencing a resurgence of interest in the treatment of a variety of disorders, including depression, fibromyalgia, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and alcoholism.\nIn a neurofeedback training session, several sensors that measure your brain's electrical activity are attached to your scalp. You relax and play a video game, which is controlled just by your brain waves and responds favorably to brain waves of the desired pattern. As you play the game, your trainer observes your electroencephalogram (EEG), transmitted to a separate video terminal. Most practitioners recommend at least 20 sessions to obtain significant, long-lasting results, although improvement is usually noted early on if the treatment protocol is right for you.\nA note of caution: Be sure that the practitioner that you choose to work with has training and experience in using neurofeedback. Ask lots of questions and talk with your primary care doctor before starting a treatment program.\n- Reviewer: Brian Randall, MD\n- Review Date: 12/2011 -\n- Update Date: 12/28/2011 -", "id": "<urn:uuid:ed843a53-3adf-4646-97a8-d0af35f62ec1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://medtropolis.com/your-health/?/13550/biofeedback", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9435345530509949, "token_count": 942, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A crowd awaits a ship at Station Pier, Port Melbourne.\nSource: Italian Historical Society - Co.As.It.\nFind out why this landmark has become such an evocative symbol of Victoria's immigration history.\nStation Pier is one of Australia's longest operating passenger piers. It holds iconic significance in Victoria's heritage, and is particularly significant to Victoria's post-war immigrants for whom it is an ongoing symbol of their arrival and the start of their new life.\nThe exhibition provides an historical overview of Station Pier, including its early days as Railway Pier in the 1850s, and its upgrade in the 1920s in response to the growing needs of the city and port of Melbourne.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b9d46c6f-d3e0-4144-ab12-52f44d5a2d11>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://museumvictoria.com.au/immigrationmuseum/whatson/past-exhibitions/station-pier/?reply=15128&sort=newest&googleminiexclude=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9703242778778076, "token_count": 140, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "[en] The efficiency of the transmission of surface plasmon waves by use of a dielectric diffraction grating is discussed. The Kretschmann device allows us to obtain a surface plasmon resonance that consists of an absorption peak in the reflection spectrum. When surface plasmon resonance occurs, the TM-polarization mode of the incident electromagnetic wave is neither transmitted nor reflected. The procedure to transform an absorption peak into a transmission peak is described. Transmittivity of 68% is obtained for a simple structure that consists of a thin-film layer of Ag coated on a volume diffraction grating and embedded between two dielectric media. The results presented herein were obtained by numerical simulations that were carried out by use of an algorithm based on the rigorous coupled-wave theory.\nService de Physique G\u00e9n\u00e9rale, Hololab\nFonds pour la formation \u00e0 la Recherche dans l'Industrie et dans l'Agriculture (Communaut\u00e9 fran\u00e7aise de Belgique) - FRIA", "id": "<urn:uuid:abf25383-07bd-4879-8bed-60a2b7af74d1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/handle/2268/96932", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8441981077194214, "token_count": 214, "score": 2.78125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Description: In Oracle, you can create an autonumber field by using sequences. A sequence is an object in Oracle that is used to generate a number sequence. This can be useful when you need to create a unique number to act as a primary key.\nOnce you've created a sequence object, to retrieve the next value in the sequence order you need to use NEXTVAL.\nLanguage: PL/SQL Highlight Mode: PLSQL Last Modified: March 14th, 2009\nCREATE SEQUENCE <sequence_name>\nMAXVALUE <integer>/ NOMAXVALUE\nMINVALUE <integer>/ NOMINVALUE\nCYCLE / NOCYCLE\nCACHE <#>/ NOCACHE\nORDER/ NOORDER;-- basic autonumber with sequence:INSERTINTO<table_name>(<column_name>)VALUES(<sequence_name>.NEXTVAL);-- basic autonumber with sequence demo.-- these insert statements will insert 2 new records into -- the 'test_bed' table. The user_id field would be assigned -- the next number from the seq__user_id sequence. CREATE SEQUENCE seq_user_id;SELECT seq_user_id.NEXTVALFROM dual;INSERTINTO test_bed\n(user_id, class_type, room_location)VALUES(seq_user_id.NEXTVAL,'Underwater Basketweaving','RM1205');SELECT*FROM test_bed;INSERTINTO test_bed\n(user_id, class_type, room_location)VALUES(seq_user_id.NEXTVAL,'Creative Anarchy','RM3111');SELECT*FROM test_bed;\nSQL University.net courses meet the most demanding needs of the business world for advanced education\nin a cost-effective manner. SQL University.net courses are available immediately for IT professionals\nand can be taken without disruption of your workplace schedule or processes.\nCompared to traditional travel-based training, SQL University.net saves time and valuable corporate\nresources, allowing companies to do more with less. That's our mission, and that's what we deliver.", "id": "<urn:uuid:52e97a82-5b3b-4a6b-9318-9e823f04d72a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psoug.org/snippet/SEQUENCE-Demo-code-and-Examples_885.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.7475969195365906, "token_count": 468, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The study involved 66 spider-phobic women who watched a video of a spider 14 times. The participants were randomly divided into different groups to either watch the video every two hours or every 12 hours, and either in the morning or evening, or after spending a night sleeping or a full day awake.\nThe researchers also sounded off a loud noise during some of the videos and then measured the participants\u2019 palm sweat in response.\nOverall, women who managed to get a good night\u2019s sleep after watching the spider videos \u2014 before being shown the spiders again \u2014 were less likely to rate the spider high on a scale of \u201cfearfulness, disgust, and unpleasantness,\u201d according to the Harvard Gazette.\nOn the other hand, subjects who stayed awake for 12 hours after watching the spider videos and were then shown the videos again at the end of the day exhibited a stronger stress response.\nThere was no evident difference in reaction between participants who viewed the spider videos in the morning or the evening.\n\u201cThus, sleep following exposure therapy may promote retention and generalization of extinction learning,\u201d the researchers wrote in the study.\nThe researchers added that REM sleep in particular could be responsible for the effect.\nRecently, a Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences study showed that severely arachnophobic adults who participated in just one session of therapy experienced brain changes that allowed them to hold a tarantula in their hands. The effect lasted six months after the therapy session.\n\u201cBefore treatment, some of these participants wouldn\u2019t walk on grass for fear of spiders or would stay out of their home or dorm room for days if they thought a spider was present,\u201d study researcher Katherina Hauner, Ph.D., postdoctoral fellow in neurology at Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, said in a statement.\n\u201cBut after a two or three-hour treatment, they were able to walk right up and touch or hold a tarantula. And they could still touch it after six months,\u201d Hauner said.\nThe study is published in the Journal of Psychiatric Research.\nSource: Journal of Psychiatric Research", "id": "<urn:uuid:e8a6bdb6-961b-44c2-8a74-f1329ca39adf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psychcentral.com/news/2012/07/29/sleep-enhances-exposure-therapy-for-spider-phobia/42301.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9511181116104126, "token_count": 444, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "For over a decade, information technologies have significantly affected the\nbanking industry. Banks and other financial institutions have improved their\nfunctions as a financial intermediary through adopting various information technologies\n(Chang, 2002; Gourlay and Pentecost,\n2002; Hannan and McDowell, 1984; Haynes\nand Thompson, 2000; VanHoose, 2003).\nGenerally, when the information technologies combine with functions of banks\nand financial institutions, it is called electronic banking. Electronic banking\ntechnologies have led banks and financial institutions to improve effectiveness\nof distribution channels through reducing the transaction cost and increasing\nthe speed of service (Chang, 2002; VanHoose,\n2003). Globalization of finance, integration, advances in information technologies\nand financial innovations in the last couple of decades have deeply changed\nbanking business not only in Iran but in also other markets and forced the state\nauthorities to deregulate national financial systems. Deregulation allowed banks\nto flourish their businesses and enter into new markets with new technologies\ninvolving both individual and institutional costumer interaction (DeYoung\net al., 2004). In addition, developments of modern computer technology\nhave also enabled banks to lessen the cost of bank transactions by having the\nclient interact with an e-banking facility rather than with a human being. E-banking\napplications, which include Automated Teller Machine (ATM), telephone banking,\nmobile banking, digital television, debit and credit cards, internet banking,\netc., became one of the main battlefields of the banking industry. For instance,\nHanson and Kalyanam (2007) points out that e-banking grew\nrapidly, ATMs made costumer visits to a branch less necessary and then in the\nlate 1990s the rapid growth in banking web sites made a wide range of services\navailable from almost everywhere. Among various banking technologies, Internet\nbanking which is the act of conducting financial intermediation on the Internet,\nis the latest banking technology and the most rapidly diffused banking technology\nin the Iran. Internet banking has advantages for banks to maintain competition,\nto save costs, to enhance mass customization, marketing and communication activities\nand to maintain and attract consumers (Daniel and Storey,\n1997; Mols, 2000; Read, 1998;\nSheshunoff, 2000; Tomkin and Baden-Fuller,\n1998). The primary advantage of Internet banking is to save time and cost.\nLee and Lee (2001) indicated that Internet banking allows\nconsumers easier access to their bank accounts, lower service charges and time\nsaving. Moreover, Chang (2002) showed that Internet banking\nhad a low transaction cost and a high speed of service when compared to other\nbanking services. For example, while the cost of transaction for money transfer\nwas 95\u00a2 for checking and 27\u00a2 for ATM, while it was only 1\u00a2 for\nInternet (Chang, 2002). Hence, internet is increasingly\nbecoming a diverse global marketplace with global business opportunities for\nfinancial services delivery as well as challenges.\nFinancial sector is the spinal cord of sovereign economy of any country. Iran\nis no exception; the technology adaption in banking operations in Iran was a\nfew decades behind that of in developed countries. In terms of international\nand global comparison, Internet usage in Iran is still in the infancy stage.\nPresently in Iran, an important function of e-commerce is the handling of payment\nOver the Internet. Most e-commerce involves the exchange of some form of money\nfor goods and services. Implementation of payment system currently competes\nfor dominant the results of research could help bank managers to make informed\ndecisions, thereby providing better service to their customer and formulate\nmore efficacious strategies to ensure rapid migration of customers to Internet\nCustomer satisfaction: Early concepts of satisfaction research have\ntypically defined satisfaction as a post choice evaluative judgment concerning\na specific purchase decision (Churchill and Surprenant,\n1992; Oliver, 1980). Most researchers agree that\nsatisfaction is an attitude or evaluation that is formed by the customer comparing\ntheir pre-purchase expectations of what they would receive from the product\nto their subjective perceptions of the performance they actually did receive\n(Oliver, 1980). Several authors have defined satisfaction\nin a different way. Satisfaction is a persons feelings of pleasure or\ndisappointment resulting from comparing a products perceived performance\n(or outcome) in relation to his or her expectations (Kotler,\n2000) Customer satisfaction is a collective outcome of perception, evaluation\nand psychological reactions to the consumption experience with a product/service\nSatisfaction formation: In marketing literature (Churchill\nand Surprenant, 1992; Oliver, 1980) as well as in\nrecent information system studies (McKinney et al.,\n2002), the disconfirmation theory emerges as the primary foundation for\nsatisfaction models. According to this theory, satisfaction is determined by\nthe discrepancy between perceived performance and cognitive standards such as\nexpectation and desires. Oliver (1980) described the\nprocess by which satisfaction judgments are reached in the expectancy-disconfirmation\nframework. Buyers form expectations of the specific product or service before\npurchase and perceived quality level which is influenced by expectations (Khalifa\nand Liu, 2003). Customer expectation can be defined as customers pretrial\nbeliefs about a product (McKinney et al., 2002).\nExpectations are viewed as predictions made by consumers about what is likely\nto happen during impending transaction or exchange (Zeithaml,\n1988). Perceived performance is defined as customers perception of\nhow product performance fulfills their needs, wants and desire (Cadotte\net al.,1987). Perceived quality is the consumers judgment about\nan entitys overall excellence or superiority (Zeithaml,\n1988). Disconfirmation is defined as consumer subjective judgments resulting\nfrom comparing their expectations and their perceptions of performance received\n(Mckinney et al., 2002; Spreng\net al., 1996). Ho and Wu (1999) identified\nfive antecedents of customer satisfaction to be appropriate for online shopping\non the Internet. These are logistical support, technical characteristics, information\ncharacteristics, home page presentation and product characteristics. Eastin\n(2002) presented the model that demonstrate the adoption of four ecommerce\nactivities currently available to Internet users: (1) online shopping, (2) online\nbanking, (3) online investingand (4) electronic payment for an Internet service\n(i.e., access to exclusive sites). Author also explained six attributes common\nto the model. These are-perceived convenience and financial benefits, risk,\nprevious use of the telephone for a similar purpose, self efficacy and Internet\nuse and all six attributes play a significant role in the adoption processes.\nOnline service quality: Oppewal and Vriens (2000)\ndeveloped an application for measuring retail banking service quality, which\nconsists of 28 attributes including four service quality dimensions such as:\naccessibility; competence; accuracy and friendliness; and tangibles. The accuracy\nand friendliness dimension turned out to be the most important factor out of\nfour determining banking preference, followed by competence, tangiblesand accessibility.\nKamilia and Nantel (2000) proposed an alternative measure\nof perceived service quality in retail banking that comprises 31 items with\nsix underlying key dimensions. These dimensions are: Effectiveness and assurance,\naccess, price, tangibles, service portfolio and reliability. Madu\nand Madhu (2002) proposed 15 dimensions of online service quality dimensions\nbased on literature review: Performance, features, structure, aesthetics, reliability,\nstorage capacity, serviceability, security and system integrity, trust, responsiveness,\nproduct/service differentiation and customization, web store policies, reputation,\nassurance and empathy. Wolfinbarger and Gilly (2003)\nhave found four online retailing service quality dimensions through focus group\ninterviews and an online survey. These are web site design, reliabilityand privacy/security\nand customer service. They found that reliability and fulfillment is the strongest\npredictor of customer satisfaction.\nInternet banking: Berger (2007) argued that\na sound understanding of client is required for improvement of e-banking. Thus,\nall relevant information about the clients should be taken into account and\na client-centric strategy should be developed by Confirming Berger\n(2007). Electronic banking research has attracted much attention from marketing\nresearchers about client perception (Maenpa et al.,\n2008), client attitudes (Liao and Cheung, 2002; Mols,\n1998), client satisfaction (Gonzalez et al.,\n2004) service quality Bauer et al. (2005)\nbut it attracts relatively less attention from the finance and banking researchers\nabout the economic consequences of e-banking. One of the papers that examine\nthe economic outcome of e-banking is that of Parker and\nParker (2008) who investigated the money velocity in Finland following wide\nspreading of e-banking in Finland. Their results interestingly show that money\nvelocity has decreased despite the expectations. Durukan\n(2003) evaluated the impact of internet banking on the performance of Turkish\ncommercial banks. Adoption, perception and usage of internet banking by consumers\nis one of the topics heavily examined in e-banking literature. Centeno\n(2004) argued that speed, the convenience of remote access, 7/24 availability\nand price incentives are the main motivation factors for the consumers to use\ninternet banking. Durkin et al. (2008) noted\nthat the simplicity of the products offered via internet banking facilitates\nthe adoption of internet banking by consumers. Calisir and\nGumussoy (2008) compared the consumer perception of internet banking and\nother banking channels and report that internet banking, ATM and phone banking\nsubstitute each other. Maenpaa et al. (2008)\nexamined the consumer perceptions of internet banking in Finland and their findings\nindicate that familiarity has a moderating role in the perception. Guerrero\net al. (2007) examined the usage of internet banking by Europeans\nand their results indicate that ownership of diverse financial products and\nservices, attitude towards finances and trust in the internet as a banking channel\ninfluence clients usage of internet banking. Sohail\nand Shanmugham (2003) documented accessibility of internet, awareness of\ne-banking and resistance to change are found to be influencing Malaysians\nuse of internet banking. Another factor that promotes clients usage of internet\nbanking is seller support (Nilsson, 2007). While the\nadoption of e-banking by clients is heavily researched there is less research\non the supply side of e-banking. We can list the advantages of e-banking as\nthe competitive advantage, member/client retention, increased revenues and reduced\ncosts (Esser, 1999). The Woolwich Bank case study conducted\nby Shah and Siddiqui (2006) revealed that understanding\nclients, organisational flexibility, availability of resources, systems security,\nestablished brand name, having multiple integrated channels, e-channel specific\nmarketing, systems integration, systematic change management, support from top\nmanagement and good client services are the factors critical to success in e-banking.\nAktan and Teker (2009) examined the usage of internet\nin Turkey to make a basic due-diligence investigation for the financial institutions,\nincluding banking, stock trading, insurance and provision of financial information\nwithin the framework of internet banking by using statistics compiled mostly\nfrom the Bank Association of Turkey over the period 2005 and 2008. The findings\nshow that internet usage in Turkey with its young population has continued to\ngrow dramatically in financial services. Sudha et al.\n(2007) studied the banking customers perception towards security concern\nand Internet banking adoption. They research reveals that the customers have\nmuch concern about security and privacy issue in adoption of Internet banking,\nwhether the customers are adopted Internet banking or not. Amiri\net al. (2009) investigated the effective factors on improving e-banking\nby using Fuzzy Topsis in Parsian Bank. They present a method at solving MCDM\nproblems in which the weights of criteria are unequal. They results shows factors\nof operational, technical and strategic have the most effect on Improving of\ne-banking. Sarlak et al. (2009) examined the\nfactors that can speed up the successful implementation of electronic banking\ninnovations in the Irans country. They research revealed that there is\na meaningful and significant relationship between co-structural, content and\ncontext factors and the successful implementation of e-banking in Iran. Pour\nMirza et al. (2009) in their study showed an understanding of Iranian\ncustomers attitude and adoption of Internet Banking services. They only\nsurvey Internet Banking users and non-users of Mellat Bank of Tehran. The results\nrevealed significant differences between demographic profiles and attitudes\nof users and non-users groups.\nThe main purpose of this research is to identify the customer preferences towards the online banking and to find out the various service quality dimensions, which affect the customer satisfaction. This study also tried out to find out the relationship between the various demographic variables and satisfaction level of customers.\nDevelopment of hypotheses: Researcher developed the hypotheses to identify\nthe relation between age, profession, gender, preferences of bank and satisfaction\n||There is no significant relation between age and choice of\n||There is no significant relation between profession of customer and preference\n||There is no significant relation between gender and number of banks usage\n||Factors determining satisfaction level of respondents are independent\nof their age\n||Factors determining satisfaction level of respondents are independent\nof their profession\n||Factors determining satisfaction level of respondents are independent\nof their gender\n||Factors determining satisfaction level of respondents are independent\nof Status of usage\n||Factors determining satisfaction level of respondents are independent\nof no. of Bank usage\nSampling and sample size: For achieving the objective, a descriptive\nstudy was conducted. Primary data were collected of six kinds of banks (Saman,\nParsian, Melli, Keshavarzi (agri Bank), Tejarat and Sepah) in Iran at spring\n2010, from Internet banking users of public and private banks in Tehran district,\nwith the help of structured questionnaire. A sample of 300 respondents who actually\nuse internet banking was selected by following non-probabilistic convenience\nsampling technique as it is appropriate for exploratory studies.\nResearch instrument: Questionnaire was designed after reading of SERVQUAL\n.The Service Quality (SERVQUAL) scale developed in an attempt to measure the\nperception of quality of service (Parasuraman et al.,\n1988; Zeithaml et al., 2001) has been gaining\nmomentum in application among various service sectors. Still that scale has\nundergone several revisions, extensionsand modifications to suit different sectors\nneeds. The authors, based on qualitative research, formulated a measure of service\nquality derived from data on a number of services, instead of counting on early\ndimension of goods quality in the manufacturing sector. The entire approach\nwas formulated on the tenet that the customers entertain expectations of performance\nperceptions. The authors defined service quality as the degree of discrepancy\nbetween customers normative expectations for the service and their perceptions\nof the service performance. Concept and after interacting with bank employees\nand customer who generally use internet banking. Questionnaire had a list of\n21 statements related to efficiency, tangibility, responsiveness, reliability\nand empathy. Respondent has to choose one option of each statement depending\non whether he or she is Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neutral ,Agree ,or Strongly\nAgree with statement.\nAnalysis of data: Data presentation and analysis were done with the\nhelp of various statistical tools by using SPSS. Percentage, frequencies, Cross\nTabulation and factor analysis methods were used for analysis. For testing of\nhypotheses, ANOVA and F-test were used.\nRESULTS AND DISCUSSION\nDemographic profile of respondent: Fifty seven percent of respondent are young, having age less than 30 years. Majority of respondent (84%) were men and 85% respondent belong to Service class. 61% of respondent were using the Internet banking from last one Year. Majority of respondent (89%) having bank account in 1 bank only, while 11% respondents have bank account in 2 or more banks (Table 1). Out of 89 respondent 32 respondents have account in SAMAN bank, 25 in PARSIAN bank, 21 respondents have account in MELLI bank.\nPreference of customer towards banks: Table 2 reveals\nthat there is no specific bank preference of customers of all age groups and\nin Table 3, hypothesis testing also revealed that there is\nno significant relation between age and preference of Banks, thus null hypothesis\n(1) is accepted (Sig = 0.201>0.05) and (F = 36.741/23.349 =1.574).\n|| Demographic profile of respondents\n|Source: From primary data\n|| Cross-tabulation between age and customers preference\n|| ANOVA and F-test for age and customers preference of\n||Cross tabulation between profession and customers preference\n||ANOVA and F-test for profession and customers preference\n|| Cross tabulation between Gender and number of bank usage\n|| ANOVA and F-test for Gender and number of Bank usage\n|| KMO and Bartletts test\nTwenty seven percent of service class customers and 5% of business class Customers have account in SAMAN bank (Table 4). Table 5 reveals that there is no significant relation between profession of customer and preference of banks means null hypothesis (2) is also accepted (Sig = 0.922>0.05) and (F = 1.964/24.204 = 0.081)\nAfter doing Cross tabulation between Gender and number of Bank usage (Table 6), it was found that most of the customers whether male or female prefer to have account only in one bank. But hypothesis testing (Table 7) revealed that there is no significant relation between genders and number of banks usage thus the null hypothesis (3) is also accepted (Sig = 0.335>0.05) and (F = 0.163/0.173 = 0.94).\nFactors determining satisfaction level of customers: Factor analysis\nis applied on responses provided by respondent. Factor analysis is a set of\ntechniques, which by analyzing the correlation between variables, reduces their\nnumber into few factors, which explain much of the original data, more economically\nAccording to Table 8 Measure of Sampling Adequacy such as\nBartlett's Test of Spherecity (Approx. Chi-Square is 1183.031, Degree of freedom\nis 210, significance is 0.000) and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy\n(KMO) value is 0.818 showed that data were fit for factor analysis. Table\n8 indicated the appropriateness of factor analysis i.e., the sample was\nadequate. Similarly, Cooper and Schindler (2003) argued\nthat while the correlation coefficients in matrix table is less than 0.80, the\nmulticollinearity could be ignored.\nFor extracting the factors, Principal Component Analysis was used and 5 factors were retained as their Eigen values is more than 1 (Table 9).\n|| Total variance explained\n|Extraction method: Principal component analysis\n|Extraction method: Principal component analysis.\nKMO and Bartletts Sphericity used to test the sample appropriateness. The variables, which had loadings of less than 0.5, were excluded and dimensions with Eigen values of 1 or above; were retained.\nThus, five factors have been extracted. Extraction communalities are estimates of variance in each variable accounted for by the factors in the factor solution. According to Table 10 all the variables are fit well in factor solution as all factors have value more than 0.40.\nNext task is interpretation and naming of factors. It is done by identifying the variables that have high loading on individual factors. For this purpose, Rotated factor matrix (Table 11) is used. Values close to the 1 represent high loading and close to 0 represent low loading.\nTable 12 show the Naming of Factors that:\nFactor 1 responsiveness: Total variance explained (Table\n9) has revealed that this factor explained variance of 20.357%. 7 variables\n(12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and18) were loaded on this factor. Researcher has named\nthis factor as Responsiveness as it includes bank and employees willingness\nto help the customers.\nFactor 2 reliability: It has been found that 2nd important factor have explained variance of 15.521% and 4 variables (8, 9, 10 and 11) are loaded on this factor. As the variables related to reliability and accuracy of bank websites, are loaded on this factor, thus this factor is named as Reliability.\nFactor 3 efficiency: This is 3rd important factor, which accounts for 13.865% of the variance and 5 variables were loaded on this factor. As the variables related to speed and efficiency of bank website was loaded on this factor, this factor is named as Efficiency.\nFactor 4 privacy of transactional information: 3 variables loaded on this factor and together they account for 11.573% of the variance. Variables related to collection and security of customers personal information was loaded high on this factor and thus researcher has named it as Privacy of Transactional Information.\nFactor 5 easiness to use: Two variables load on this factor and together\nthey account for 6.365% of the variance. Easy to navigate and easiness to find\ninformation on website load high on this factor and thus researcher has named\nthis factor as Easiness to use.\nANALYSIS OF VARIABLE AND F-TEST BETWEEN FACTORS AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES\nComparative age-wise analysis: Table 13 indicates\nthat hypothesis (4) is rejected partially. Thus it can be said that all factors\ndetermining the satisfaction level of customers except efficiency and privacy\nof information are independent of age.\nPost-hoc analysis (Table 13a and b)\nfurther revealed that satisfaction level of customers belonging to age group\n31-50 years are effected by efficiency of bank website and privacy of information\nas compared to customers of age groups of less than 30 years and above 50 years.\n|| Rotated factor matrix\n|Note: extraction method: Principal component analysis. Rotation\nmethod: Varimax with kaiser normalization. a Rotation converged in 17 iterations\n|| Naming of factors\n|| ANOVA and F-test between age and factors\nComparative customers profession-wise analysis: Table 14 indicate hypothesis (5) is completely accepted. Thus it can be said that all the factors determining the satisfaction level of customers are independent of profession.\nComparative gender-wise analysis: According to Table 15, hypothesis (6) is partially rejected. Thus, it can be said that all the factors except Easiness to use website, determining the satisfaction level of customers are independent of gender.\nComparative status of usage analysis: Table 16 revealed\nthat hypothesis (7) is also partially rejected. So it can be said that all the\nfactors except Reliability of website, determining the satisfaction level of\ncustomers are independent of Status of Usage.\n||Post hoc analysis: Age and efficiency\n|Note: The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level\n||Post hoc analysis: age and privacy of information\n|Note: The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.\n|| ANOVA and F-test between customers profession and factors\n|| ANOVA and F-Test between gender and factors\n|| ANOVA and F-Test between status of usage and factors\nPost-hoc analysis (Table 16a) further revealed that satisfaction\nlevel of customers who are using the internet banking from last 2 years are\nmore satisfied and influenced by the reliability of bank website.\nComparative status of number of banks usage: Table 17 indicates that hypothesis (8) is again partially rejected. Thus it can be said that all the factors except Responsiveness determining the satisfaction level of customers are independent upon the number of bank usage.\nThe increasingly competitive environment in the financial services market has resulted in pressure to develop and utilize alternative delivery channels. The most recent delivery channel to be introduced is electronic or online banking. The term electronic banking is used to describe the provision of information or services by a bank to its customers, the majority of customers are very comfortable and willing to use IB services. Hence, it is very important for Iranian banks to have online banking services. It is well-accepted fact that, providing good customer service will increase the number of adopters after a while.\nSeveral scholars have analyzed the demographic characteristics of IB customers\n(Pour Mirza et al., 2009) but emphasis has been\nplaced on analyzing behavioral, attitudinal and social characteristics of the\nbank clients. The empirical findings of the current study show that these characteristics\nhave effective impacts on adoption of IB services. In terms of personal and\nsocial characteristics, this study contributes to this purpose, by identifying\nthe Iranian customers attitude toward IB services.\nFinding of demographic characteristics of the research reveals that Reliability\nand Efficiency are important factors in level of customers satisfaction\nand there is a significant relation between these two variables with age and\nstatus of usage. This also supports the findings of Ramayah\net al. (2002) which found that most of the individuals are reluctant\nto use Internet banking as they concerns over security and privacy issues. This\nis also supported by the findings of Al-Sabbagh and Molla\n(2004), who found that perceived security and trust have emerged as the\ntop issues inhibiting Internet banking adoption.\nThe finding about the impact of age on adoption of online banking services\nindicates that the effect of age is not prominent. Therefore, age is not a crucial\nvariable for banks that are planning to offer IB services. Gefen\nand Straub (2003) and Pour Mirza et al. (2009)\nconfirm this argument. Moreover (Gefen and Straub, 2000),\nindicate gender has not been found to have a direct effect on adoption of technology\nin general, also the results of current study uphold this matter.\n||Post hoc analysis\n|Note: The mean difference is significant at the .05 level\n|| ANOVA and F-test between number of banks usage and factors\nThe research show, customers do not trust e-banking for some reasons especially\ndue to lack of the security of the system. Also (Rotchanakitumnuai\nand Speece, 2003; Pour Mriza et al., 2009)\nrevealed that all the customers are very concerned about security in transaction\nprocesses. This results is in consistent with the results, which have been reported\nearlier by other scholar (Black et al., 2001;\nLee and Turban, 2001; Polatoglu and\nEkin, 2001; Alam et al., 2007).\nIndeed the purpose of this study is to show how the demographic factors are associated with individuals benefits and costs of adopting Internet banking. This research have a general results for managers and customers, because researcher surveyed the public and private banks of Iran instead of only one bankand therefore can complete other studies of IB in Iran.\nThe present study was aimed to identify the customer preferences towards the online banking and to find out the various service quality dimensions, which affect the customer satisfaction .Factor analysis, reveals that the five factors that influence the satisfaction level of customers are Responsiveness, Reliability, Efficiencyand Privacy of Information and Easiness to use.\nHypothesis testing results show that first null hypothesis (1) is accepted and it can be concluded that there is no significant relation between age and preference of Banks. Twenty seven percent of service class customers and 5% of business class customers have account in SAMAN bank. The 2nd null hypothesis stating that there is no significant relation between profession of customer and preference of banks is also accepted. The third hypothesis, stating that there is no significant relation between genders and number of banks usage is also accepted.\nHypothesis (4) stating that all factors determining the satisfaction level\nof customers except efficiency and privacy of information are independent of\nage is rejected partially. Post-hoc analysis revealed that satisfaction level\nof customers belonging to age group 31-50 years are effected by efficiency of\nbank website and privacy of information as compared to customers of age groups\nof less than 30 years and above 50 years. That mean customers in the middle\nage group are more concern about the efficiency of bank website and privacy\nof their personal information. Banks should adopt various tools to improve the\nefficiency of website.\nThe 5th hypothesis, factors determining the satisfaction level of customers is independent of profession, is completely accepted. The hypothesis (6) is partially rejected, it can be said that all the factors except Easiness to use website, determining the satisfaction level of customers are independent of gender.\nHypothesis (7) stating that all the factors except Reliability of website, determining the satisfaction level of customers are independent of Status of usage is also partially rejected. Post-hoc analysis further revealed that satisfaction level of customers who are using the internet banking from last 2 years are more satisfied and influenced by the reliability of bank website. That means the customers who are using the internet banking from less than 2 years have not trust on websites and afraid of using internet banking.\nThe last Hypothesis (8) is again partially rejected. Thus it can be said that all the factors except Responsiveness determining the satisfaction level of customers are independent upon the number of bank usage.\nThe website is an important element in a banks marketing communications\nactivities and giving better customer experience. It is therefore important\nto use it in an appropriate way and to provide rich contentand to keep it updated\nto attract and maintain customers. Banks should consider that it is beneficial\nto spend time on the design because this can help the company attract visitors,\nwhich in turn can become customer. Banks should conduct surveys and self assessment\ntests which should be actually related to the product and service line, which\nwould in turn make the customers more educated about the companies offeringsand\nthis could be done just by starting a blog or chat for the customers. Banks\nshould create platforms wherein customer can be free to express their opinion\nor give the feedback to the banks. And it is believed that firms who try to\ncreate such interaction are considered to be most successful in business. Automated\ne-mail and instant massage should be used more extensively than it is at present.\nIt is essential to assess the effectiveness of a website. By doing this, banks\ncan improve their site and that helps to provide positive web experience to\nManagers must know that ability and opportunity cost of time have significant impacts in explaining consumers adoption behavior for Internet banking. Also, consumers benefit and cost associated with attitude should be considered to decide the determinants of Internet banking adoption and attend to consumers past consumption pattern, current situationand future expectations influenced Internet banking adoption. Although managers must analyzed variables by comparison between individuals benefit and costand find out the nature of each variable is based on the past, presentand future consumption. Attention to this matter is essential that all of the various financial institutions can have the same functions in the financial market. Therefore, the financial institutions have tried to exert competitive power in the market through various ways such as affiliations with other financial companies, downsizing their physical facilitiesand expanding their service scope. In this situation, Internet banking has been attractive to the financial sector. Companies can expect to save a lot of the cost of maintaining their large physical distribution systems by adopting Internet banking. Although many financial companies have realized the advantages of Internet banking and launched this service, the companies have not obtained a lot of benefits yet because some consumers have not been ready to adopt Internet banking. Therefore, financial companies need to make an effort to provide information about Internet banking based on accurate customer segmentation. Usage of other banking technologies had a significant impact on Internet banking adoption. This means that customers, who have mainly depended on traditional banking services such as checks, mail and phone, have lower probabilities to adopt Internet banking. Therefore, at first, retailers or marketers in banks and other financial companies should focus on customers who have already used other banking technologies to boost usage of Internet banking. However, if financial companies have not had various banking services, it is difficult to grasp which consumers have experience of other banking technologies. Financial companies need to have various banking services within a consolidated distribution system to grasp and to meet customers needs. If a financial company has only a few functions or a small number of distribution channels, the company will find it difficult to survive in the market.\nInternet banking is growing. Affiliations and business alliances can be an efficient way to increase Internet banking use because marketers or retailers in the financial companies can segment customer groups more accurately based on customers various use of banking services.\nIn conclusion, the study shows that Internet Banking is an integral part of web communication and provides a starting point for future studies to explore the issue of web standardization or localization for Unity Internet Banking (UIB) in the word. This research study encourages managers to understand global consumers perception of Internet Banking and their preference so as to understand the users psychology and then design UIB to target the global audience.\nLIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY\nAs only one country has been taken for this study, it is not sure whether the findings will apply to other countries. Due to the limitation of finance and time, a sample of only 300 respondents was taken which may not be representative of the whole population.\nSCOPE FOR FURTHER RESEARCH\nRather than offering a complete answer for global Internet Banking strategy, I hope my study opens possibilities for future studies that go beyond description and pursue further to predict global Internet Banking strategies and tactics. In addition, future research can explore the results by considering the standardization of dimensions of Internet Banking for other countries also like Japan, China, Singapore, Malaysia, Dubai, Indian, Australia, Canada, UK, USA, etc. The findings are sure to provide evidence for the robustness of the framework across countries as a basis for future applications.\nI would like to acknowledge and express my gratitude to Mr. Hadi Gharoei for his magnificent support during this project.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6872f91d-e319-40f5-93fc-cbcca3266109>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://scialert.net/fulltext/?doi=jas.2011.426.437&org=11", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9237611293792725, "token_count": 7210, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Free Search (10904 images)\nThe Canadian Arctic Archipelago\nRating: 0.00/5 (0 votes cast)\n- Title The Canadian Arctic Archipelago\n- Released 29/02/2008 2:53 pm\n- Copyright ESA\nThis Envisat image features the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, which lies to the north of mainland Canada and consists of 94 major islands and more than 36 000 minor ones. Visible in centre and lower half of image, Victoria Island is only slighter smaller than the island of Great Britain and is Canada\u2019s second largest island and the world\u2019s 9th largest. This image was acquired by Envisat\u2019s Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MERIS) instrument on 19 September 2007 working in Full Resolution mode to provide a spatial resolution of 300 metres.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a48cda3e-1ff3-4e21-9b8c-b727518cdfc8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://spaceinimages.esa.int/Images/2008/02/The_Canadian_Arctic_Archipelago", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8707209825515747, "token_count": 170, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sarah Dazley - Murder\nThe development of forensic science in the 19th century\nA case study for Key Stage 3, Britain 1750 - 1900 and GCSE History\nThis case study outlines the case of Sarah Dazley, a young widow, who at the age of 28, was tried and found guilty of the murder of her 2nd husband, William Dazley.\nThe case is interesting in many ways:\n- Forensic Evidence was used to make the case against Sarah - this was an early use of forensic science to determine the cause of death.\n- Heresay gossip from villagers counted against her.\n- Sarah Dazley was the last woman to be publicly hanged at Bedford Gaol.\nIn this section you will find background information and activites relating to the case of Sarah Dazley, the detection of crime and the treatment of those accused of murder in the 19th century.\nThe KS 3 & 4 activities are aimed at students but provide a wealth of additional information and insight to the life of a young woman during the 19th century.\nA case study for Key Stage 3, Britain 1750 - 1900 and GCSE History. The materials can also be used for general interest.\nThis section has reports and documents relating to the life of Sarah Dazely that can be used for research or for completing the activities provided with this case study.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3c2a0b03-339c-479a-a7cd-0f1a31020ad7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://vcp.e2bn.org/case_studies/casestudy11232-sarah-dazley-murder.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9321889877319336, "token_count": 281, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By Julie Steenhuysen\nAn influential U.S. panel has called for routine HIV screening for all Americans aged 15 to 65, a change that could help reduce some of the stigma about getting tested for the sexually transmitted infection that causes AIDS.\nThe draft recommendations, released on Monday by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force, a government-backed group of doctors and scientists, also called for routine HIV testing for all pregnant women.\n\"The prior recommendations were for screening high-risk adults and adolescents,\" said task force member Dr Douglas Owens who is a medical professor at Stanford University.\n\"The current recommendation is for screening everyone, regardless of their risk,\" said Owens, who is also affiliated with the Veterans Affairs Palo Alto Health Care System in California.\nNearly 1.2 million people in the United States are infected with HIV, yet 20 to 25 percent of them do not know it.\n\"This marks a monumental shift in how HIV in the United States can be prevented, diagnosed and treated,\" said Carl Schmid, deputy executive director of The AIDS Institute, an AIDS advocacy group.\nThe new guidelines by the task force are expected to affect the reimbursement of HIV testing, removing one of the barriers to the tests, Schmid's group said in a statement.\nUnder the Affordable Care Act, insurers are required to cover preventive services that are recommended by the task force. The change brings the group more in line with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which in 2006 recommended HIV testing for everyone between 13 and 64.\nThe recommendations, which had been expected, are based on the latest evidence showing the benefits of early HIV testing and treatment. Recent studies have shown that HIV treatment can reduce transmission of the virus to an uninfected partner by as much as 96 percent.\n\"Treatment has two benefits. One is to the person who has HIV, and also treatment helps prevent transmission and protects a person's partner,\" Owens said.\nDr. Jeffrey Lennox, a professor of medicine at Emory University School of Medicine and chief of infectious disease at Grady Memorial Hospital, an inner-city hospital in Atlanta, said under the current recommendations, many doctors simply fail to offer the tests.\n\"In our practice, we see patients every week who are newly diagnosed with HIV - people who have seen many physicians in the past 10 years and none of them had ever offered testing,\" Lennox said.\nMany of these patients have far advanced disease, that could have been caught earlier and successfully treated.\nOwens said he hopes the change will make it easier for doctors to offer testing.\n\"You are offering this to adolescents and adults and everyone. The conversation you have with people is likely to be easier,\" he said.\nThe draft recommendations are based on a study of the most recent evidence on the risks and benefits of HIV testing published in the Annals of Internal Medicine.\nThe guidelines will be available for a 30-day public comment period before final recommendations are released, likely some time next year.", "id": "<urn:uuid:35ee1a50-e65e-4410-9152-266b58f96e79>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://vitals.nbcnews.com/hiv-testing", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9721584320068359, "token_count": 619, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Calorie Needs: Calculate Your Basal Metabolic Rate\nYour BMR (basal metabolic rate) is the number of calories your body needs each day to simply perform basic functions. From the time you go to sleep one night until you go to sleep the next night, your body is using calories to fuel the body. Nearly 75 percent of the calories you eat each day are used by the body for this purpose.\nYou expend energy no matter what you're doing -- even when you are sleeping. It takes calories each day to breathe, build new red and white blood cells, build muscle tone, pump blood throughout the body, think, raise or lower your body temperature, and all other basic body functions -- not to mention the calories needed for moving around, working, reading and everything else you do in a day.\nIf you've noticed that every year, it becomes harder to eat whatever you want and stay slim, you've learned that your BMR decreases as you age. Likewise, depriving yourself of food in hopes of losing weight also decreases your BMR, as your body adjusts how it burns fuel depending upon the amount of fuel it is given.\nIf you eat more calories than your body metabolism needs, you will gain weight. There are 3,500 calories in every pound of body fat. So, if you eat 500 calories more a day than your body needs, you will gain one pound every week.\nKnowing your BMR can help you maintain your weight, because you will know approximately how many calories you need each day to perform basic bodily functions; and help you determine your exercise needs.\nYour BMR is influenced by many factors:\nGender -- Men have a greater muscle mass and a lower body fat percentage. This means they have a higher basal metabolic rate\nMedications -- Some drugs slow down the BMR dramatically\nGenes -- Some people are born with faster metabolisms, some with slower metabolisms; this genetic metabolic fact cannot be changed\nAge -- BMR reduces with age. After age 20, it drops about 2 per cent per decade\nExercise -- Physical exercise influences body weight by burning calories, but it also helps raise your BMR by building extra lean tissue (lean tissue is more metabolically demanding than fat tissue), so you burn more calories even when sleeping\nWeight -- The more your weight, the higher your BMR; for example: the metabolic rate of obese women is 25 percent higher than the metabolic rate of thin women\nBody Surface Area -- The greater your body surface area factor, the higher your BMR, i.e., tall, thin people have higher BMRs\nBody Fat Percentage -- The lower your body fat percentage, the higher your BMR; the higher body fat percentage in the male body is one reason why men generally have a 10-15 percent higher BMR than women\nDiet -- Starvation, eating disorders or serious abrupt calorie-reduction can dramatically reduce BMR by up to 30 percent; restrictive low-calorie weight loss diets may cause your BMR to drop by as much as 20 percent\nOther Factors -- Other factors include: body temperature and health, hormones, external temperature, and glands/ glandular function\nA regular routine of cardiovascular exercise can increase your BMR, improving your health and fitness when your body's ability to burn energy gradually slows down.\nCalculating Your BMR\nCalculate calories for basic needs.\nMultiply your weight in pounds by 10 (for women) and 11 (for men).\n___ lbs. x 10 = _____ calories for basic needs\nCalculate calories for physical activity.\nUse the chart below to determine your activity level.\n_____calories for basic needs x ___% activity level = ____calories for activity\n||Examples of Activities\n||Sitting, driving, sleeping, reading, typing\n||Light exercise, < 2 hours per day\n||Moderate exercise, gardening, dancing, little sitting\n||Active in physical sports or labor-intensive job, such as construction worker\nCalculate calories for digestion of food.\nAdd calories for basic needs (#1) and calories for activity level (#2), then multiply by 10%.\n(___calories for basic needs + ____calories for activity) x 10% = ___calories for digestion\nCalculate total energy needs.\nAdd calories from each section to get total energy needs.\n___calories for basic needs + ___calories for activity +___calories for digestion = ____total energy needs\nTo lose weight, you need to take in fewer calories than your total energy needs. To gain weight, you need to take in more calories than your total energy needs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e95fee7b-1bed-4ad2-bc09-8994d50b5049>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bjchealth.org/hfyh_wellness.aspx?id=1993", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9061862826347351, "token_count": 958, "score": 3.453125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "E\u1e63fah\u0101nArticle Free Pass\nE\u1e63fah\u0101n, also spelled Isfahan, major city of western Iran. E\u1e63fah\u0101n is situated on the north bank of the Z\u0101yandeh River at an elevation of about 5,200 feet (1,600 metres), roughly 210 miles (340 km) south of the capital city of Tehr\u0101n. E\u1e63fah\u0101n first thrived under the Selj\u016bq Turks (11th\u201312th century) and then under the Persian \u1e62afavid dynasty (16th\u201318th century). In addition to being an important regional and provincial capital (of E\u1e63fah\u0101n province), the city is one of the most important architectural centres in the Islamic world. In 1979 E\u1e63fah\u0101n\u2019s Mayd\u0101n-e Em\u0101m (Persian: \u201cImam\u2019s Square\u201d; formerly Mayd\u0101n-e Sh\u0101h, \u201cRoyal Square\u201d) was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site. Pop. (2006) 1,602,110.\nWhat made you want to look up \"Esfahan\"? Please share what surprised you most...", "id": "<urn:uuid:09abce61-2d02-43d0-9c0e-e0f9db9936bc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/192452/Esfahan", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9080243706703186, "token_count": 258, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Girls learn about fun of science, math and engineering at camp\nBy Cheryl Cottrill, Executive Director of WiN-Canada\nHave you ever mined chocolate chips from a cookie or made a machine from recycled materials that would make flavoured water?\nLast week at the Girls in Real Life Science (GIRLS) Camp, 25 girls aged eight to 13 took on the role of scientists and inventors in a number of science- and engineering-based activities. The day camp, run by Camp GEMS (http://www.gemscamp.org) (Girls Engineering Math Science) took the girls though a week-long program incorporating engineering, math and science principles in a hands-on and fun environment. Bruce Power sponsored the camp through the local Women in Nuclear (WiN)-Bruce chapter (www.wincanada.org).\n\u201cThe girls\u2019 collective intelligence and creativity was absolutely amazing as they brainstormed their way through various projects,\u201d said Bruce Power\u2019s Laurie Glover, a volunteer at the camp. \u201cIt was a great experience, watching these young minds solve complex problems together as a team.\u201d\nEach day the girls began working on a group project called \u2018Rube Goldberg Machine\u2019 to design a machine that could perform an activity. By the end of the week the machines were able to pop balloons, turn on a fan, sharpen a pencil, dunk a ball, pour water into a cup and make flavoured water. All were very ingenious and creative projects!\nA little science magic was worked into the morning program so the girls could impress their siblings and parents with disappearing pennies, exploding Mentos and Coke and changing the colour of milk with a Q-tip and soap.\nThe campers learned everything from chromatography \u2013 separating colours from M&M candy \u2013 to telling time using homemade sundials, to the economics of mining using chocolate chip cookies, and to designing and building a Popsicle stick house on a budget.\nThe biggest hit of the week was \u2018science tie and dye\u2019 when the girls brought white items of clothing and applied permanent markers and rubbing alcohol to create colourful designs.\nMentors from Bruce Power, Ontario Power Generation and Ian Martin Limited helped out each day, providing the girls with female role models who are successful in science and technology.\nAdditional information and pictures from the camp may be found on the WiN-Canada website at www.wincanada.org.\nA second camp will run July 23-27 at the Whitney Crawford Community Centre in Tiverton. There are currently two spots available. For further information, contact Kate McKenzie at firstname.lastname@example.org or call 519-361-2673 ext 17126.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bda758cb-610a-42cc-a9f4-f8bebfd37576>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.brucepower.com/6263/community-blog/girls-learn-about-fun-of-science-math-and-engineering-at-camp/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9369617700576782, "token_count": 568, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Students of Heather Hanson, Class of 2011, thought a recent ABC News story, \u201cA Hidden America: Children of the Plains,\u201d did not give an accurate depiction of the life of Native American children living on reservations.\nThey wanted to do something to help set the record straight and share the message that \u201cwe are more than that.\u201d Heather teaches English and speech at Todd County High School in Mission, S.D., which is located on the Rosebud Reservation. The ABC story hosted by Diane Sawyer depicted how children in the Lakota Sioux tribe on the Pine Ridge Reservation struggle in the face of poverty, alcoholism and related issues.\n\u201cI watched the 20/20 special and many of my students did as well,\u201d says Heather. \u201cThen we watched the video in class and had a discussion about \u2018single stories\u2019 and what image we want to represent us when we get out into the world outside of the reservation.\u201d\n\u201cMany of my students were upset by the ABC story but were not entirely sure how to respond,\u201d she adds. \u201cSo, I gave them choices. They could write a letter to Diane Sawyer, make a video, or tell a story about some of the great things that we do here.\u201d They decided to produce a video, which was scripted and filmed entirely by her students. The video can be seen at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FhribaNXr7A&feature=share\nHeather thinks it is important for her students to present their side of the story, because they have a voice that needs to be heard. \u201cThey live here, they know what goes on. This is their hometown and this is their life. Diane Sawyer cannot capture the pride of the Lakota people in 45 minutes and she cannot voice what my students have to offer because one year will never beat a life time of rising above.\u201d\n\u201cThere are many negative statistics circling the reservations yet there are still people who are proud of who they are and where they are from, which they should be,\u201d says Heather. \u201cThe American Indians are a proud people with a strong past that has been stifled by so many people and I personally am tired of people not listening to my students when they say, \u2018I am more than that.\u2019 I think they need to let the world know that this is their hometown and though negatives are here, there are negatives everywhere and those negatives do not define who you are. They want to succeed and they need to tell people that.\u201d\n\u201cThey did a wonderful job with the video and have gained back an enormous sense of pride,\u201d adds Heather.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d551b0a5-f7d5-4f55-8e0f-d921a8d1d178>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bvu.edu/about/news/detail.dot?id=6a020af2-254c-4298-9da8-3cb239e45ee2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.984309732913971, "token_count": 566, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cleveland Metroparks is committed to maintaining the health and diversity of the natural resources within the Park District by:\n- Appropriately managing native plant and wildlife populations to promote balanced and naturally functioning ecosystems\n- Identifying, protecting, and managing endangered species and habitats within the Park District\n- Substantially improving water quality within the Park District through monitoring and advocacy of appropriate improvement measures\n- Promoting fisheries in appropriate bodies of water within the Park District\nProtecting the Resources\nHealthy, functioning ecosystems provide services for a healthy, functioning human society. While this statement is clear from the perspective of ecology, it is not always apparent in human-dominated landscapes where issues related to the day-to-day repair and maintenance of our built infrastructure (e.g. water, wastewater, transportation, energy) appear separated from natural ecosystem processes.\nNaturally functioning and sustainable ecosystems provide services that support human activities in the region. For example, forests, wetlands, and natural lakes slow storm water runoff and reduce flooding while also providing habitat for native plants, mammals, birds, amphibians, and fish.\nReplacing natural infrastructure with human engineered infrastructure requires a large initial development investment and perpetual repair and replacement costs from human society. Protecting, conserving, and restoring natural ecosystem structure and function represent a cost-effective way to maintain and improve the benefits humans derive from the ecosystems they inhabit.\nCleveland Metroparks provides leadership in protecting existing and also additional open space throughout Northeast Ohio with special attention to areas adjacent to existing reservations. Through partnership, cooperative efforts, and the support of other agencies, the Park District aggressively pursues the protection of the remaining major river valleys within the seven counties of the Northeast Ohio region. To this end, the Natural Resource Division assists with the evaluation of tracts of land that are candidates for protection through acquisition, easement, or other means.\nThe mission of the Natural Resources Division is guided by Cleveland Metroparks primary responsibility for the conservation of natural resources:\nThe Board of Park Commissioners may acquire lands either within or without the Park District for conversion into forest reserves and for the conservation of the natural resources of the state, including streams, lakes, submerged lands, and swamplands, and to those ends may create parks, parkways, forest reservations, and other reservations and afforest, develop, improve, protect, and promote the use of the same in such a manner as the board deems conducive to the general welfare.\nJohn Mack, Chief of Natural Resources\nJennifer Grieser, Senior Natural Resource Area Manager Urban Watersheds\nRobert Golias, Natural Resource Area Manager Central\nJohn Krock, Natural Resource Area Manager West\nEd Kuilder, Natural Resource Area Manager South\nErik Shaffer, Natural Resource Area Manager East\nJennifer Hillmer, Invasive Plant Coordinator\nTerry Robison, Manager of Field Research\nMike Durkalec, Aquatic Biologist\nClaire Weldon, Aquatic Research Coordinator\nConstance Hausman, Plant and Restoration Ecologist\nJohn Reinier, Wetland Ecologist", "id": "<urn:uuid:11647bf3-9b26-46c0-8e36-ee612445fff7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.clevelandmetroparks.com/Main/NaturalResources.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.893686830997467, "token_count": 622, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(CNN) -- The World Health Organization cautioned that the swine flu outbreak could gain momentum in the months ahead, despite claims by the health secretary of Mexico -- the epicenter of the outbreak -- that the virus \"is in its declining phase.\"\nThe number of confimed cases of the H1N1 virus continue to multiply.\nThe outbreak is only about 10 days old, and even if the illness is declining, it could return, said Gregory Hartl, the WHO spokesman for epidemic and pandemic diseases, at a briefing Sunday.\n\"I ... would like to remind people that in 1918 the Spanish flu showed a surge in the spring, and then disappeared in the summer months, only to return in the autumn of 1918 with a vengeance,\" Hartl said. \"And we know that that eventually killed 40 million to 50 million people.\"\nMexican authorities believe the virus's most active period in Mexico was between April 23 and April 28, and Mexican Health Secretary Jose Cordova described the outbreak as being in decline in his country.\nAs of late Sunday, Mexican health officials reported 568 cases and 22 fatalities linked to the flu. WHO says it has confirmed 506 cases and 19 deaths in Mexico.\nThe world has 898 confirmed cases of the virus, known to scientists H1N1 virus, in a total of 18 countries, WHO said Sunday.\nThe United States has reported 226 confirmed cases in 30 states. The U.S. cases include one death -- a Mexican toddler visiting relatives in the United States.\nAccording to WHO, Canada has 70 confirmed cases; the United Kingdom has 15; Spain has 13; Germany has 6; New Zealand has 4; Israel has 3; France has 2; and Austria, China, South Korea, Denmark, Netherlands, Switzerland, Costa Rica and Ireland each have one.\nIn China, officials have quarantined 68 people, including 13 crew members, who were passengers of a Mexico City to Shanghai flight, which carried a passenger who tested positive for the virus, China's state-run Xinhua news agency reported Sunday. None of the other passengers has exhibited any flu-like symptoms, one health official said.\nAbout another 110 people who were on the Aeromexico plane went on to other destinations, and may face quarantines elsewhere, the news agency said. Fifteen have been quarantined at a Beijing hotel.\nShanghai's airport is now barring other Aeromexico planes from landing there, a representative of the airline told CNN. Aeromexico is suspending flights to Shanghai until May 15, the representative said. The airline does not fly to Hong Kong or Beijing.\nIn the United States, New York has the most confirmed cases, with 63, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Texas has 40; California has 26; Arizona 18; South Carolina 15; Delaware 10; Massachusetts and New Jersey each have seven; Colorado has four; Florida, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Virginia, Wisconsin each have three; Connecticut, Kansas and Michigan each have two; Alabama, Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Mexico, Rhode Island, Tennessee and Utah each have one.\nCalifornia officials suspended visitation and other \"nonessential activities\" at Centinela State Prison in Imperial County after an inmate was suspected of having swine flu. The case has yet to be confirmed with lab testing.\nOn Sunday, health officials in North Carolina and Pennsylvania announced the first confirmed cases in those states, and Louisiana's governor said his state had seven confirmed cases. The cases from those three states were not immediately included in the CDC tally.\nIn Washington, U.S. Secretary of Health Kathleen Sebelius, appearing on CNN's \"State of the Union,\" warned that even if the flu outbreak wanes, \"it could come back with greater force in the winter and fall, when we get into flu season.\"\n\"So, this is no time for complacency,\" she said. \"We want to stay out ahead of this.\"\nDr. Anne Schuchat, the CDC's interim deputy director for public health, told reporters Sunday that she was \"heartened\" by Mexican authorities' reports but still is \"very cautious.\"\n\"I know that influenza can be surprising, and the time course here in the United States is later. We believe we're just on the upswing here, and in several parts of Mexico, cases began quite a while ago,\" Schuchat said.\n\"From what I know about influenza, I do expect more cases, more severe cases and I do expect more deaths,\" she added. \"And I'm particularly concerned about what will happen in the fall.\"\nActing CDC Director Richard Besser, also speaking on \"State of the Union,\" said U.S. health officials are examining whether people who received flu shots for the swine flu in 1976 may have some level of protection from the current swine flu.\n\"That's going to play in very, very big as we move forward with our plans around vaccines, because that may help guide some of the issues around who is most at risk at getting this in the future,\" Besser said.\nOffering a general picture of the state of U.S. efforts to combat the virus, Besser said \"there are encouraging signs.\"\n\"We're not out of the woods yet,\" he said. \"But what we've learned about the virus itself -- it doesn't contain the factors that we know are seen in much more severe flu strains.\"\nWhile the new virus strain in the recent outbreak has affected humans, Canadian officials said it has shown up at a pig farm in Alberta, Canada.\nOfficials said the pigs may have been infected by a Canadian farmer who recently returned from a trip to Mexico, the epicenter of the outbreak. The pigs have since been quarantined.\n\"We have determined that the virus H1N1, found in these pigs, is the virus which is being tracked in the human population,\" said Dr. Brian Evans of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency. iReport.com: How should H1N1 be handled?\nEvans and other officials said it is not uncommon for flu viruses to jump from humans to animals, and that it does not pose a risk for consuming pork. The number of pigs infected was not disclosed.\nThe infected farmer had flu-like symptoms, but he is recovering, Evans said. Learn about the virus \u00bb\n|Most Viewed||Most Emailed||Top Searches|", "id": "<urn:uuid:f9fb107d-88dc-4f58-80d1-e3c38221f5fb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/05/03/swine.flu/index.html?iref=mpstoryview", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9757596254348755, "token_count": 1336, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- Study at Deakin\n- Campus life\n- Industry and community\n- About Deakin\n1 June 2009\nWith one of the world\u2019s largest populations of consumers, mainland China is a potentially lucrative market for many advertisers, but to successfully communicate their message to Chinese consumers advertisers need a visual strategy that does more than simply \u2018stick a dragon on the box\u2019 according to Deakin University lecturer in graphic design Dr Lisa Scharoun.\n\u201cChinese consumers are open to western products and ideas, but if the wrong approach is used it can lead the audience to misinterpret the visual message and be highly offended as a result,\u201d she said.\nFrom 2003 to 2005, Dr Scharoun was a lecturer at the Raffles Design Institute in Shanghai and she said it was during this time she became particularly interested in the advertising western companies used in China.\n\u201cLiving there I realised how completely at odds western style advertising was with Chinese culture.\u201d\nIn her recent paper Made for China: Global Collaboration and Understanding in Advertising Design, Dr Scharoun refers to a number of examples where the misuse of culturally significant symbols in advertising offended Chinese consumers \u2013 for instance dragons portrayed as sinister, frightening creatures.\n\u201cThe western interpretation of a dragon as an \u2018evil demon\u2019 doesn\u2019t work in China because, while dragons are highly significant to the Chinese and are seen as possessing great power, they are considered to be good-natured. It\u2019s a bit like presenting a kangaroo as an evil protagonist to an Australian audience,\u201d Dr Scharoun said. Even the appropriateness of the research methods themselves need to be evaluated.\n\u201cOften an advertising agency or a company will take a strategy that works well in the west and try and use it in China without researching whether it is suitable for that market.\n\u201cGenerally in the west, we have an individual mindset whereas in mainland China there is more of a collective mindset. For instance, if you were to run a focus group in mainland China, participants are less likely to express their own feelings and more likely to look to the group\u2019s leader for their response,\u201d Dr Scharoun said.\nUnderstanding the Chinese market not only has implications for advertisers and their agencies, Dr Scharoun says, but also for the teachers of design.\n\u201cIt\u2019s very important that design students are given the opportunity to gain an understanding of the complexities surrounding advertising in China.\u201d Dr Scharoun believes cross-cultural collaboration at the undergraduate level could be one of the ways to overcome this type of cultural misunderstanding.\n\u201cGlobal Design Strategies: China is a proposed 12-week course for Deakin University graphic design students providing an in-depth exploration of Chinese culture, history and design,\u201d Dr Scharoun said.\nAs part of the course, it is planned for Deakin students to be paired with \u2018design mentors\u2019 from DongHua University in Shanghai, collaborations Dr Scharoun says she hopes will be ongoing.\n\u201cHopefully through these collaborations students will form relationships they can take forward into their careers. Then when they are presented with a brief for developing advertising for China they can draw on the contacts they made through the course and on the knowledge they gained to develop work that is culturally sensitive and not just stick a dragon on the box.\u201d\nDeakin Media Relations\n03 5227 71301 or 0488 292 644", "id": "<urn:uuid:349cfa74-9946-44d7-a052-556d2f6b85b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.deakin.edu.au/news/2009/010609china.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9500867128372192, "token_count": 715, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "If gas prices reached $5, $6, or even $7 a gallon, would you respond by purchasing a hybrid? How about an electric car? Some consumers are already contemplating their responses to those questions. And the news is that alternative fuel vehicles have apparently begun creeping into the mainstream consciousness.\nA Consumer Reports survey conducted this year proves that. The magazine didn't query its respondents about what they would do if gas prices skyrocketed. It merely asked what they would look for in their next vehicle. The responses showed that they are concerned about the future of gasoline-burning cars.\nGM's Chevy Volt: Are more consumers willing to switch to alternative powertrains?\n(Source: General Motors)\nThirty-seven percent of the survey respondents told Consumer Reports that fuel economy was their most important consideration -- more important than quality, safety, value, performance, styling, or technological innovation. The majority of those surveyed said they expect to get better fuel economy from a gasoline-burning engine. Many expressed a desire to buy a smaller car.\nBut almost three-quarters of the respondents said they're ready to consider an alternative powertrain, and that's where the results got interesting. Among those, the most popular alternative choice was electric/hybrid at 43 percent, followed closely by flex fuel engines (which can run on E85) at 42 percent. Other alternatives cited by respondents included natural gas (21 percent), hydrogen fuel cells (18 percent), and diesel engines (15 percent). Up until now, consumers haven't shown much interest in plug-in hybrids and pure electric cars. GM sold just 1,462 Volts in April, and Nissan sold just 370 Leafs.\nClearly, though, survey respondents were open to the idea of new powertrain technologies. Among those willing to consider a hybrid/electric car, 58 percent expressed interest in a conventional hydrid powertrain (like that of the Prius). Twenty-one percent said they'd consider a plug-in hybrid, and 13 percent were willing to look at a pure electric car.\nThe bottom line is that many consumers have apparently reached a tipping point. About 80 percent of them said they support the idea of a government-mandated fuel standard of 55mpg, and an equal percentage said they would be willing to pay extra for a fuel-efficient vehicle if they could recoup that investment through lower operating costs. That's significantly different from what we're seeing in the marketplace. Hybrids are hovering at around 3 percent of new vehicle sales, and pure electrics comprise such a small category that it's almost immeasurable.\nBut if there's a takeaway from the Consumer Reports survey, it's that some consumers are already considering a plan of action if gas prices climb too high. They may not fully understand the available choices, but they're beginning to think an alternative powertrain isn't such a bad idea, after all.\nDo you agree with the survey respondents? If gas prices reached $6 or $7 per gallon, what kind of powertrain would you consider? Tell us in the comments section below.", "id": "<urn:uuid:93a8078c-1802-4558-88ee-78924c2d417c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.designnews.com/author.asp?section_id=1366&doc_id=244669&piddl_msgid=726401", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.962668240070343, "token_count": 624, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Response to Intervention (RTI)\nThe purpose is to provide support, guidance and technical assistance for intervention systems in districts and schools. Response to Intervention (RTI) is a multi-tier approach to the early identification and support of students with learning and behavior needs. The RTI process begins with high-quality instruction and universal screening of all children in the general education classroom. Struggling learners are provided with interventions at increasing levels of intensity to accelerate their rate of learning. These services may be provided by a variety of personnel, including general education teachers, special educators, and specialists. Progress is closely monitored to assess both the learning rate and level of performance of individual students. Educational decisions about the intensity and duration of interventions are based on individual student response to instruction. RTI is designed for use when making decisions in both general education and special education, creating a well-integrated system of instruction and intervention guided by child outcome data.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a759308c-0615-4435-98e7-66601feee99e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.doe.nv.gov/Response_Instruction/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9477499127388, "token_count": 188, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Organic EDEN Wild Blueberries are from low-bush wild blueberry fields called 'barrens' in northern Qu\u00e9bec that have been organically managed since 1996. Formerly heavily forested, just a few years after logging they became filled with native wild low-bush blueberries. Blueberries are handpicked in August, washed, cleaned, sorted, and quick frozen. Later they are thawed and infused with organic apple juice concentrate to a targeted sweetness or 'Brix'. Infused blueberries are rinsed, slowly dried, and misted with organic sunflower oil to prevent clumping. They require no refrigeration.\nWild blueberries have been gathered from fields and forests by Americans for at least centuries, used in stews, soups, cooked with corn, sweetened with maple syrup or honey, and worked into jerky. The blossom or calyx of each berry forms a five pointed star. Native Americans called it 'star berry', and elders told stories of the Great Spirit bringing star berries to comfort children. Blueberry juice was used to ease \"old coughs,\" and to dye rugs, blankets, and clothing. They made smoked berries, sun-dried berries, and blueberry powder to add to their meats and other dishes. Leaves and roots where used to make tea. Native Americans taught Pilgrims how to grow, store, and use native plants. Wild berries were important food of early settlers.\nThere are more than 450 plants in the blueberry family Vaccinium, but just a few are native to North America: the wild low-bush sweet blueberry Vaccinium angustifolium; two high-bush varieties now used to cultivate blueberries Vaccinium corymbosum and Vaccinium ashei; and the sour New England variety Vaccinium myrtilloides. The wild low-bush blueberry is native to northeastern North America growing from Minnesota to Maine, and from southern Canada to as far north as the Arctic. It grows in cooler regions producing small blueberries on a dwarf plant 1 to 2 feet high. Cultivated blueberries are a much taller bush grown in many areas and are planted like an orchard. Wild blueberry plants are not planted. They develop from native stands and their habitat is simply protected.\nAlthough both types of blueberries contain antioxidants, it is the wild, low-bush blueberry that is far higher in antioxidant activity. USDA uses a system called Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity (ORAC). By testing the ability of foods and other compounds to subdue oxygen free radicals, USDA determines antioxidant capability. The ORAC value of wild blueberries is 2,400. The highest of the 20 common fruits tested.\nUnlike commercial dried fruit, organic EDEN Wild Blueberries contain no added refined sugar or high fructose corn syrup. They are free of sulfites, chemical preservatives, or any other additives.\nOrganic EDEN Wild Blueberries are a healthy snack food great for lunches, camping, and hiking, or just a real good snack anytime. There's no limiting them to a snack though. Use them in hot or cold cereals, cakes, scones and muffins, in pie fillings and puddings, and in grain and bread stuffing. Sprinkle them on salads. They're great in granola, muesli, granola bars, popcorn balls, and caramel corn.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cd58fe77-27f7-47ad-80e6-51fdc9c3f2c5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.edenfoods.com/store/product_details.php?cPath=75_98&products_id=403288&eID=42ac641909f4e7c4d2c582280d0bc263", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9474449753761292, "token_count": 697, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Wednesday May 22, 2013\nLibrary Hours: 7:30am to 10:00pm\nEastern Michigan University Library\nWhy use scholarly sources?\nBecause of the level of authority and credibility evident in scholarly sources they contribute a great deal to the overall quality of your papers. Use of scholarly sources is an expected attribute of academic course work.\nIn all disciplines, knowledge is built by responding to the ideas and discoveries of those who came before us. Scholarly journal articles are unique in that they require authors to document and make verifiable the sources of the facts, ideas, and methods they used to arrive at their insights and conclusions. Scholarly articles also strive to identify and discuss the merits of alternative explanations and viewpoints for the positions they espouse. This makes it easier to assess the truth, as well as the strengths and weaknesses, of the claims made in a paper. This is the case for those with knowledge of a subject (for example, your professor), as well as for those just beginning to learn about a subject (for example, you).\nAs you know, anyone can say just about anything in articles posted on the web. While you might agree with the conclusions of a paper found on the web, you are often not given the chain of evidence you need to assess the truth of those conclusions. Likewise, articles published in popular magazines, while they provide information and opinions, are not required to document evidence that either supports or negates their conclusions. Scholarly journal articles, unlike web-based or popular magazine articles, are designed and structured to provide the elements necessary to most thoroughly evaluate the validity and truth of an author's position.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e0b45a9f-e399-4a66-8e9a-caf4c35e935c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.emich.edu/library/help/scholarly.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9567738771438599, "token_count": 330, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Learn the ins and outs of an Individualized Education Program (IEP).\nA grrateful Jacob Landers tells how his mother's support and advocacy on his behalf led him out of struggles with school and substance abuse.\nNew federal initiatives aim to improve early reading instruction in schools across the country.\nIf your child has an IEP, you should understand the legal provisions for disciplining him at school.\nThe key to performing well on tests is preparation - weeks, not hours, in advance. Learn to take good class notes, read to comprehend, and plan a test review schedule.\nGet the information that drives school decisions about your child. Find out how to obtain your own copies of your child's school records.\nExpert advice for parents on starting early to help kids with learning disabilities prepare for success in the workplace.\nSometimes your child doesn't pay attention or follow directions, but is it AD/HD? A guide to diagnosing and dealing with this disorder.\nResearchers analyzed thousands of email exchanges between kids to get the insider view of life with a learning disability.\nExpert strategies for working with your child's teacher on an effective classroom plan.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2161dad7-35cf-4ea2-b9fb-01691465a2e7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.greatschools.org/articles/?p=7&topics=225", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9541957378387451, "token_count": 237, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Learning standards describe what students should learn at each grade in a particular subject. State standards are created by the state's department of education.\nShow me standards for a different state\nLearn more: Why are standards important?\nNational standards are created by national education organizations. They are voluntary, and students are not held accountable to them. Some states use them as guidelines for creating their own state standards or simply adopt them.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5e21667d-a603-418e-8f16-d32ea8faf99a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.greatschools.org/content/stateStandards.page?state=OK", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9730985760688782, "token_count": 84, "score": 3.796875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Pythons are thought to be slithering around southern Florida like crazy but so far a contest to catch them has produced a paltry 21 of the invasive snakes.\nThe first week of the state's 2013 Python Challenge ended Friday with fewer than two dozen Burmese pythons received by the University of Florida even though 777 people signed up.\nWildlife experts say Burmese pythons are a threat to the Everglades ecosystem and are looking to whittle down their population, thought to number in the thousands on state lands alone.\nBurmese pythons, native to Asia, are constrictors that can grow to 26 feet long and are known to be voracious predators of mammals, birds and reptiles. That diet makes it hard on the state's native predators such as foxes and bobcats.\nThe non-venomous Burmese pythons have been reported in extreme south Florida since the 1980s, and now are established mainly within the bounds of Everglades National Park.\nThe python-catching event runs through Feb. 10. The person who kills the most Burmese pythons by that date will receive a check for $1,500.\nMost Popular Stories\n- SEO Traffic Lab Celebrate Wins at Digital Marketing Event 'Internet World 2013' in London\n- Social Media Initiatives Should Follow Customers' Lead\n- Apple CEO: Offshore Units Not a 'Tax Gimmick'\n- U.S. Senate Accuses Apple of Large-scale Tax Avoidance\n- UTEP Water Recycling Project Wins Venture Titles\n- Marketo Makes a Mint in IPO: Stock Shoots Up More than 50 Percent\n- Bieber Booed at Billboard Awards\n- Crude Oil Up, Gasoline Down\n- Austin Startup Compare Metrics Raises $3.5 Million for Expansion\n- Why So Many Top 'Car Guys' Are Actually Women", "id": "<urn:uuid:a977461e-8be4-451a-944b-6bb923f96bee>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hispanicbusiness.com/2013/1/21/python_challenge_yields_only_21_serpents.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9191233515739441, "token_count": 392, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Impact of Evolution on the Humanities and Science\nby John N. Moore, M.S., Ed.D.\nThe novels of Jack London, the plays of George Bernard Shaw, and even the poetry of Alfred Tennyson contain a seemingly convincing basis for belief in the \"evolution\" of humankind.1 Tennyson had expressed an evolutionary viewpoint actually some time before Darwin's book appeared in 1859. But the writings of these \"greats\" of literature, and authors of other belles lettres as well, were strongly instrumental in adding to the impact of Darwin's second book, The Descent of Man, in converting nineteenth century intellectuals to acceptance of the concept of the so-called evolution of human beings.\nActually both London and Shaw were English socialists and followers of the thinking of the Fabian Society, which came into existence due to the work and effort of Beatrice and Sidney Webb, who in turn were followers in England of Karl Marx. Thus the \"web\" of selected indoctrination and inter-relationship of propagandists for an evolutionary viewpoint or world outlook can be extended. And both London and Shaw used their literary works to present Marxian socialistic views as most plausible and to illustrate the struggle for existence concept. London especially popularized the \"red tooth and claw\" phrase through the struggles he wrote about in White Fang and The Call of the Wild. The latter book has been repopularized by way of television dramatization in the late 1970's. Continued use of evolutionary thinking by novelists can be shown in the works of Veblen, Norris, Dreiser and Michener, whose Centennial is a par excellence example of misapplication of \"historical\" geology in early chapters.\nIn philosophy the impact of evolutionary thought can be traced through the increasingly broad application of criticism of nineteenth century classification systems involving archetypes as possible created kinds of plants or animals. According to the evolutionist's position there has been a slow, gradual change between organisms as one kind supposedly had joint ancestry with another kind and all present kinds that are known today gradually came into existence over a great expanse of time.\nAs if that position were grounded in proper, orderly science, philosophers have mistakenly accepted that viewpoint and used it as a basis for their attitude that categories cannot be clearly defined and that absolutes are not identifiable, that is, all things are relative. Hence confusion has been introduced into logic as basic Aristotelian principles of thinking have been challenged by systems of multivalued logic. Further confusion has been fostered in ethics and aesthetics also by acceptance of evolutionary thinking in philosophy. Mention must be made especially of the importance of the writings of John Dewey, who fully accepted evolutionary thinking, because his views2 were very influential in development of the \"new\" philosophy of the twentieth century that has strongly contributed to the despair of existentialism, the New Consciousness, and \"openness\" to mysticisms of Eastern religions.3\nBy tracing acceptance of the concept of inheritance of acquired characteristics by Sigmund Freud, a good beginning is made toward showing the impact of evolutionary thinking in psychology and psychiatry. In the late edition of his book, The Origin of Species, Darwin utilized the concept of inheritance of acquired characteristics fostered by Lamarck, who believed that characteristics acquired during the lifetime of an individual were transmitted somehow to offspring. Though this idea is now fully discredited and completely rejected by leading biologists and geneticists, when Freud accepted the idea, he gave significant impetus to the environmentalist inclination so prominent in psychology. According to environmentalists, an individual's behavior is the consequence of the environment in which growth and development have occurred. Today, B. F. Skinner, and also Robert Ardrey, Konrad Lorenz, and Desmond Morris, reflect broad acceptance of the environmentalist approach which is based upon the unscientific idea of an evolutionary origin of humankind.4\nIn the multiple sub-fields of the scientific discipline the impact of evolutionary thought has been almost complete. The influential writings of such leaders as the late Julian Huxley, Theodosius Dobzhansky, and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin in support of the infusion of evolutionary thinking into all facets of biology and associated sciences still have great impact in the training programs of young scientists and in the mass communications media as well. In addition to their influence, G.G. Simpson still serves as a strong guide to almost ubiquitous application of evolutionary thought.\nHowever, weaknesses and deficiencies in Darwinism, Neo-Darwinism, and even the modern synthetic \"theory\" of evolution have been published by scientists5 in every decade since The Origin of Species was published in 1859. Yet such criticisms have not been included to any significant extent in science textbooks. Actually specific impetus inaugurated in the 1960's to expand and augment the teaching of evolutionary origins in the secondary schools in the United States has really been an important cause in the 1970's for the development of creationism teaching, that is, explanation of the scientific basis or support of the creation account of origins.6\nThe \"prime mover\" of modern education, John Dewey, showed a broad acceptance of Darwinism in his extensive writings. He viewed the human being as an \"evolved\" creature that was slowly improving physically and mentally. According to Dewey, the environment in which schooling occurred was most important. Because Dewey stressed an evolutionary outlook in many if not all of his books, and since several generations of educators have followed Dewey's thinking in one form or another, environmentalism has become a strong viewpoint in the development of educational principles and policies in the public schools in the United States. The human being has been treated as an intelligent animal developing as a consequence of interaction with the environment, as a \"survivor\" by use of its wits.7\nFinally, even the modern-day study of theology has been largely controlled by evolutionary ideas. Wherever acceptance of the Graff-Wellhausen \"hypothesis\" regarding criticism of Biblical texts can be shown, then evidence is gained for broad impact of evolutionary thinking. According to that view the Bible content has \"evolved.\" A most influential spokesman for the view of \"evolution\" of the Bible was Harry Emerson Fosdick.8 He wrote extensively on the theme that man's worship of God \"evolved\" from the worship of a sun god and moon god, to a mountain god and river god, to a crop god, to a tribal god, to an Omnipotent God. Actually polytheistic worship has been a degenerate derivation of ancient, initial monotheism in all groups of peoples on the earth as can be shown by reference to outstanding present-day scholarships.9 The whole position of higher criticism and form criticism of the twentieth century is rooted in an evolutionary viewpoint.\n1 Conner, Frederick W., 1949, Cosmic Optimism (A Study of the Interpretation of Evolution by American Poets from Emerson to Robinson), Gainesville, Florida: University of Florida Press; Leo J. Henkin 1940. Darwinism in the English Novel. N.Y.: Corporate Press, Inc.; Bert J. Loewenberg 1964. Darwinism: Reaction or Reform? N.Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston; Stow Parsons (Editor) 1956. Evolutionary Thought in America, N.Y.: George Braziller, Inc.; Georg Roppen 1956. Evolution and Poetic Belief. Oslo, Norway: Oslo University Press; Lionel Stevenson 1963. Darwin Among the Poets. N.Y.: Russell and Russell. See also Zirkle, Conway 1959. Evolution, Marxian Biology and the Social Scene. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, especially Chapter 10, \"Marxian Biology in the Communist World.\"\n2 See various Dewey books such as Reconstruction in Philosophy (1920) and The Quest for Certainty (1929).\n3 Schaeffer, Francis A. 1968. Escape from Reason. Chicago: Inter-Varsity Press; and James W. Sire 1976. The Universe Next Door (A Basic World View Catalog). Downers Grove, Illinois: Inter-Varsity Press.\n4 Skinner, B.F. 1971. Beyond Freedom and Dignity. Toronto, N.Y. Bantam Books, N.Y.: Vintage Books; Robert Ardrey 1970. The Social Contract. N.Y.: Atheneum and African Genesis.1962. N.Y.: Atheneum; Konrad Lorenz 1966. On Aggression. N.Y.: Harcourt, Brace and World; Desmond Morris 1967. The Naked Ape. London: Cape. See Francis A. Schaeffer 1972. Back to Freedom and Dignity. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press in which he responds to the Skinner Book as well as to Jacques Monod's 1971 Chance and Necessity. N.Y.: Knopt and to Francis Crick's 1966 Of Molecules and Men. Seattle: University of Washington Press.\n5 An accumulative computerized bibliographic compilation is available for one dollar upon request to Dr. Moore. These materials were gathered while using six research grants from Michigan State University over twelve years under the title, \"Library Search for Representative Statements by Scientists on Organic Evolution, Natural Selection, and Related Topics since 1859.\"\n6 Books published by Creation-Life Publishers, such as Origins: Two Models by Richard Bliss; Streams of Civilization, Vol. One. Ancient History to 1572 A.D. by Albert Hymn and Mary Stanton; Scientific Creationism by Henry M. Morris, Editor; or Biology: A Search for Order in Complexity Edited by John N. Moore and Harold S. Slusher. 1974. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House.\n7 White Morton. 1943. The Origins of Dewey's Instrumentalism. N.Y.: Columbia University Press. Among many books by John Dewey see his Essays in Experimental Logic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1916) and Logic: The Theory of Inquiry (N.Y.: Henry Holt & Co., 1938). See also Zirkle, Op. Cit., Reference 1.\n8 McDowell, Josh. 1972. Evidence That Demands A Verdict (Historical Evidence for the Christian Faith). San Bernardino: Campus Crusade for Christ, International. Also excellent on the Graff-Wellhausen thesis is Oswald T. Allis, 1943. The Five Books of Moses. Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company; and Clifford Wilson, 1977. Ebla Tablets: Secrets of a Forbidden City. San Diego: Master Books.", "id": "<urn:uuid:87ae2471-0ceb-48f3-8fed-4966889bfb04>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.icr.org/articles/view/135/316/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9332308173179626, "token_count": 2162, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": ".: My Research\nThe universe entered a dark age 300,000 years after the big bang as the primordial radiation cooled and shifted into the infrared. Darkness remained until the first non-linearities developed, eventually evolving into the galaxies that illuminate the universe today. To understand how the galaxies in the early universe evolved into those that we see locally requires an understanding of the chemical and star formation history of galaxies. I study how the amount of metals and star formation changes in galaxies over cosmic time using spectroscopy from the optical and near-infrared spectrographs on the Keck and Subaru telescopes on Mauna Kea. I compare the observed star formation and chemical properties of galaxies with detailed theoretical models including stellar evolution synthesis models and detailed photoionization models.\nWeb site contents \u00a9 Copyright Lisa Kewley 2006, All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bd9a13c3-1332-426e-9f03-aae118bb8d44>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/~kewley/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8614706993103027, "token_count": 169, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is a pediatrician and who do they treat?\nPediatricians diagnose and treat a wide range of illnesses or injuries in children who range from newborns to young adults up to 21. Pediatricians -- also called pediatric doctors -- manage the prevention, early detection, and treatment of various conditions, including congenital defects, developmental disorders, behavioral issues, eating disorders (anorexia and bulimia), and familial and social stresses (including child abuse), as well as depression and anxiety disorders. They also oversee the general health of their patients by administering physical examinations and immunization shots\nPediatric doctors may also collaborate with other medical specialists and healthcare professionals to provide for the health and emotional needs of children. They may also specialize in fields such as adolescent medicine, pediatric cardiology, pediatric endocrinology (treating diseases such as diabetes), pediatric oncology (treating cancer in children), neonatal/perinatal medicine, and orthopedics (treating disorders of the musculoskeletal system), among other specialties.\nFollowing graduation from medical school, pediatric doctors complete three years of education in an accredited pediatric residency program. A pediatric doctor is then eligible for board certification by the American Board of Pediatrics, and recertification is required every seven years.\nWhen would I take my child to see a pediatrician, and what conditions does a pediatrician treat?\nYou will need to visit your pediatric doctor right after your baby is born to make sure your new child is healthy and growing properly. During this examination, the doctor will weigh and measure the baby, give appropriate immunization shots, explain the proper care of your baby (including care of the umbilical cord and, if applicable, circumcision), make sure the baby is feeding properly (breastfeeding or bottle-feeding), and address any concerns you may have. Your pediatrician may visit the hospital to examine your baby for the first time a day or two after he or she is born. Otherwise, you should schedule your first appointment within the first few days after you take your child home from the hospital.\nIn the first two years of your child\u2019s life, you can expect a minimum of eight visits to the pediatrician: a one-month check-up, two-month check-up, four-month check-up, six-month, nine-month, one-year, 15-month, 18-month, and two-year check-up. During these visits, your child will be measured and weighed, receive a physical examination and health assessment, and receive all required immunization shots.\nAfter age two, your child will visit the pediatrician annually for a physical examination until age 21. During these examinations, your child will also be measured and weighed, examined for overall health, and given any immunization shots to attend school, if required. You should also visit your pediatrician when your child is sick or injured, exhibits symptoms of a sleep disorder or behavioral problem (bed-wetting, depression, or hyperactivity), or needs a physical examination and health assessment to participate in sports.\nCommon conditions a pediatric doctor will treat include colic and failure to thrive\n, attention deficit disorder\nor attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADD/ADHD), vomiting and diarrhea, sleep issues\n, poisoning and other conditions. Pediatricians may also answer any questions you have regarding your child\u2019s development, including how to handle a bully, the proper way to discipline a child, and the effects of TV and video games on children.\nKids with stubborn asthma may have food allergy\n10 Ways You\u2019re Making Your Child Fat", "id": "<urn:uuid:e7f66433-51b6-4936-8929-bfaa738f03ff>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.lifescript.com/Doctor-directory/genetics-specialist/park-ridge-illinois-il-debra-ann-rita-md.aspx", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9456654787063599, "token_count": 738, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "a combination of one or more elementary reaction steps which start with the appropriate reactants and end with the appropriate product(s)\na description of the path, or sequence of steps, by which a reaction occurs\na description of the path that a reaction takes\na detailed description of how a chemical reaction occurs\na detailed description of the way a reaction occurs and is based on the known experimental data about the reaction\na detailed (theoretical) description of how we think the chemical reaction proceeds\na series of elementary reactions or elementary steps that lead from reactants to products\na set of steps at the molecular level\na step by step description of the separate steps that occur during a chemical reaction\na stepwise description of the reaction path\nmechanism. A list of all elementary reactions that occur in the course of an overall chemical reaction.\nIn chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of elementary reactions by which overall chemical change occurs.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7ae3a60b-341f-4a49-8f9d-b5b4588f2f8d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.metaglossary.com/meanings/3337605/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9414262175559998, "token_count": 195, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Medicinal Mushrooms and Cancer\nMushrooms are not just a tasty addition to a salad or casserole. They are much, much more. Most, of an estimated 38,000 species of mushrooms, provide a wealth of protein, fiber, B vitamins, and vitamin C, as well as calcium and other minerals. At least three of these species have demonstrated phenomenal healing potential: maitake, shiitake, and reishi. These medicinal mushrooms have been shown to lower the risk of cancer; promote immune function; ward off viruses, bacteria, and fungi; boost heart health; reduce inflammation; combat allergies; help balance blood sugar levels; and support the body\u2019s detoxification mechanisms.\nMedicinal mushrooms have several overlapping properties: all support cardiovascular health, all boost immune function, and all show promise in lowering the risk of, or treating, cancer. Maitake is specifically recommended for stomach and intestines, as well as blood sugar levels; shiitake helps with nutritional deficiencies and liver ailments, while reishi promotes respiratory health and spirituality.\nMany of the medicinal mushrooms, including chaga mushroom, maitake mushroom, ganoderma (also known as gano) mushroom, and cordyceps mushroom, contain cancer-preventive and cancer-fighting actions. Along with research on polysaccharides with beta 1,3 glucan linkages, other mushroom extracts have been shown to have clinical effectiveness against human cancers, these being D-fraction extracted from the Maitake mushroom, and extracts from the split gill, turkey tail and Reishi mushrooms.\nMedicinal mushrooms are sources of antitumor and immunity-modulating polysaccharides (a type of carbohydrate) that have been extensively researched. Cancer patients may also wish to investigate medicinal mushrooms (such types as reishi, shiitake, cordyceps, maitake, agaracus, and coriolus) as immune-boosting companions to chemotherapy.\nShiitake, as with many of the medicinal mushrooms, has been shown to be of benefit as an adjuvant cancer therapy. It has been shown to improve specific immune markers (including natural killer cells, tumor necrosis factor, T-helper cells, and a variety of interleukins), and patient outcomes.\nReishi can be used to treat cancer patients due to its ability to activate NK cells, macrophages, T-lymphocytes, and cytokines, all important immune system components. Kee Chang Huang reports that reishi \u201cexerts a synergistic effect with other anticancer chemothera-peutic agents or radiotherapy, to augment the clinical therapeutic effect in the treatment of cancer patients.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:d4cdeec3-48c7-418e-b1ab-a98a832cf7c7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.mushroomcoffeecanada.com/medicinal-mushrooms-cancer/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9202226996421814, "token_count": 560, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Relationships by their nature promote natural health-\nit is considered that every positive relationship enhances a happy\nand healthy lifestyle.\nWelcome to Relationships\nat Natural Earth\nWe all relate. We cannot be \"out\" of a relationship-\neven with a person we 'hate'. The act or thought of hating is a\nprocess of relating.\nof a relationship.\na) Uncertainty reduction - through eye contact, identification,\nopening disclosure, etc.\nb) Perceptual - notice how a person looks at the other and their\nc) Interactional cues - nodding, maintaining eye contact, etc.\nd) Invitational - encouraging the relationship (e.g. asking if they\nwant to meet up later for coffee)\ne) Avoidance strategies - if one person discloses and the other\ndoes not, minimal response, lack of eye contact, etc.\na) Feelers - hints or questions (ex. asking about family)\nb) Intensifying strategies - further the relationship (ex. meeting\nold friend, bringing the other to meet family, becoming more affectionate,\nc) Public - seen in public together often (ex. if in a romantic\nrelationship, may be holding hands)\n3) Intimacy -very close, may have exchanged some sort of personal\nbelonging or something that represents further commitment. (ex.\nmay be a promise ring in a romantic relationship or a friendship\nnecklace symbolizing two people are best friends)\n4) Deterioration - things start to fall apart. In a romantic relationship,\nafter six months, people are out of what is sometimes referred to\nas the \"honeymoon stage\" and start to notice flaws. The\nway this is dealt with determines the fate of the relationship.\nlove can be returned or unrequited. In the former case, the mutual\nexpressions of love can lead to marriage or to the establishment\nof a permanent relationship, which in most cases will include passionate\nsexual love. Where the love is one-sided (unrequited), the result\ncan be damaging to the esteem and/or the psychological welfare of\nthe spurned lover.\nOne aspect of romantic love is the randomness of the encounters\nwhich lead to love. It may be for this reason that some in Western\nsociety have historically emphasized romantic love far more than\nother cultures in which arranged marriages are the tradition. However,\nthe globalization of Western culture has spread Western ideas about\nlove and romance.\nRomantic love became a recognized passion in the Middle Ages, when\nin some cases insurmountable barriers of morality or convention\nseparated the lovers. The effect of physical attraction and impossibility\nof intimacy resulted in an excessive regard of the beloved as extremely\nprecious. Winning the love, or at least the attention, of the beloved,\nmotivated great efforts of many kinds, such as poetry, song or feats\nProperties of romantic love purported by Western culture include:\n* It must take you by surprise (the result of a random encounter).\n* It cannot be easily controlled.\n* It is not overtly (initially at least) predicated on a desire\nfor sex as a physical act.\n* If requited it may be the basis for a lifelong commitment.\nWhile romantic love as discussed above is a dream of many, some\nclaim that such love as is depicted in books and movies rarely,\nif ever, occurs. They point to the modern practice of dating, where\noften the goal is to have sexual intercourse as soon as possible\ninstead of building a lasting relationship. Often, the rigorous\ndemands of careers in the modern world rob people of the time to\nfind such ideal companions, and mental disorders such as social\nanxiety disorder prevent people from approaching others. In addition,\nthe high prevalence of divorce in western society may be an additional\ndeterrent for individuals seeking long-term, romantic relationships\nwith the possibility of marriage.\nhere to read more about Relationships\nPLEASE NOTE: Natural-Earth.com\ndoes not necessarily endorse any of the treatments and therapies\nin the natural health, natural medicine and lifestyles directory.\nThe material on this web site has been provided for your information\nand we urge you to be discriminating in making your choice of complementary\nor alternative therapy. We wish you Good Luck... and Good Health.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2998eb13-98f2-4e18-ad84-ca68ee16dc4c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.natural-earth.com/relationships.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9125738739967346, "token_count": 910, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Cassini probe may have already collected data that could reveal the presence of life on Saturn's moon Enceladus, a new study argues. But mission scientists say teasing out the subtle signature of life may prove difficult.\nResearchers have been fascinated with Enceladus since July 2005, when Cassini revealed a dramatic plume of ice particles and water vapour shooting out from the moon's south pole.\nThe plume's origin is still being debated, but some models suggest the moon holds an ocean of liquid water beneath its surface. This ocean could be a potential habitat for extraterrestrial life.\nNow, a team led by Christopher McKay of NASA's Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California, says Cassini could offer up the first evidence that life exists or once existed on the 500 km-wide moon.\nThough the probe was never designed to look for life, it could do so by studying organic chemicals such as methane in the plume, the team says.\n\"If you think about what you need for life, you need water, energy, organic material, and you need nitrogen, and they're all coming out of the plume,\" McKay told New Scientist. \"Here is a little world that seems to have it all.\"\nLife could take the form of methane-producing microbes, or methanogens, similar to those that have been seen buried under kilometres of ice in Greenland.\nCassini could potentially find evidence for such life by studying the relative abundances of methane and heavier organic chemicals, such as propane and acetylene.\nOrganic, carbon-containing molecules, including methane, are produced in various ways.\nAbiological processes include the breakup of large, complex molecules called tholins, and the chemical buildup of carbon monoxide and hydrogen into organic molecules of varying weights.\nNone of these abiological methods should strongly favour the formation of methane over that of heavier organic molecules, McKay's team argues. Biological processes, in contrast, should produce much higher amounts of methane than heavier organic compounds, they say.\nResearchers have taken advantage of this disparity to trace the source of organic compounds on Earth. Earlier this year, it was used to rule out a biological origin for oils and gases released from the \"Lost City\" hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the Atlantic Ocean.\nMcKay and colleagues believe a similar study could be carried out on Enceladus using data from Cassini's Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer (INMS), which can measure the concentration of different molecules in the plume.\nThat hints that the moon's methane was created early on, perhaps in clouds of gas that predate the solar system.\n\"That doesn't mean there's not a biological signal hidden under the other stuff, but we don't have any evidence to suggest that is the case,\" says INMS lead scientist Hunter Waite of the Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas.\n\"It's not a clear-cut, hands-down winner for biology,\" McKay acknowledges.\nTo better understand what a biological signal on Enceladus might look like, McKay has reconfigured a chamber previously used to simulate conditions on Saturn's moon Titan to simulate non-biological ways of making methane and other organic molecules. The signatures could help researchers interpret Cassini's results, McKay says.\nWaite says the best way to search for evidence of life may be to return to Enceladus with more sensitive instruments. In 2009, NASA will choose between two competing ideas for the next mission to the outer planets.\nOne mission would send two orbiters to Jupiter and its moon Europa. The other would send an orbiter to Saturn and a probe that could descend to the surface of Saturn's moon Titan. The Titan-Saturn mission would also include a number of flybys of Enceladus, Waite told New Scientist.\nJournal reference: Astrobiology (vol 8, p 909)\nView a slideshow of Cassini's best images, narrated by imaging team leader Carolyn Porco.\nIf you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to.\nHave your say\nOnly subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in.\nOnly personal subscribers may leave comments on this article\nGet To It Then\nTue Nov 04 08:39:59 GMT 2008 by Supernova\nIt would only be the discovery of the Century.\nNot Quite Panspermia\nTue Nov 04 10:54:37 GMT 2008 by Constantino\nIts Tuesday morning and im letting my imagination get carried away with itself, but what if the conditions underneath Enceladus are perfect life-starting condtions with plumes spewing out jets of \"biological starter packs\" that over time ended up on the friendlier earth where they were able to develop and evolve.\nThat's assuming that conditions on earth have never been quite right to actually start biological processes, see where I'm going with this?\nAnyway I'm fairly certain my last assumption is incorrect so I will file this idea under whimsical fantasy but it is nice to think of our solar system as all connected and \"one big process\"\nTue Nov 04 15:32:30 GMT 2008 by Larian Lequella\nI am enthralled at the innovative thinking going on here. Considering the news that I have been force-fed for nearly 2 years, and the historic events taking place at US polls, I find this to be the most awe inspiring and significant news of the day!\nI've seen Dr. McKay on a few NatGeo and Discovery Channel specials as of late. Best of luck!\nConstantino, no harm in that sort of speculation. I am interested in seeing what sort of actual results come through though before making any fanciful leaps of the imagination. But if your whimsical fantasy bears out, I guess we're all aliens! INS will have a heck of a time deporting us! :P\nAll comments should respect the New Scientist House Rules. If you think a particular comment breaks these rules then please use the \"Report\" link in that comment to report it to us.\nIf you are having a technical problem posting a comment, please contact technical support.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a714a25f-fea9-48fc-aa9f-dfa118b5d1ca>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn15113", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9393433928489685, "token_count": 1308, "score": 3.96875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tuesday, November 22, 2011\nThey could lead the way to Hi-Def displays that are large, almost paper thin, and portable. While everyone is fully cognizant of the more common terms, such as LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) and Plasma; which fortunately is not an acronym, but a rather a descriptive term of the weird, futuristic, fourth state of matter science going on behind the flat panel, there continue to be new sets of letters, and the latest seem to end in \u201ced\u201d. Since the attack of the \u201ceds\u201d is all good news for lovers of state-of-the-art technology, I will attempt to elucidate some of the important points in an easy to understand way beginning with OLED.\nSurprisingly, OLED is already in use in some smaller video applications such as cell phones and digital camera displays. It could have an extremely bright future in FPD (flat panel display), but its debut into the world of widespread mass production and sales in television is still a year or two off. Samsung has released a prototype 40-inch HDTV using OLED that is extremely thin. In the future, we could see an OLED set that is twice as large and only a fraction of an inch thick! It will even be possible to roll up these extremely thin screens and carry them around!\nOLED works by conducting electrons through layers of organic materials that emit light to create the standards of current high definition television. Photons (particles of light) are emitted as electrons are sent from a cathode layer across two or three layers of organic material (the \u201co\u201d in oled) to the anode layer. The colors of the HDTV are determined by the type of organic material used in the emissive layer and the brightness of the picture seen by the viewer\u2019s eye is controlled by the level of voltage used. The \u201cO\u201d in OLED stands for organic material, which in this case means a carbon based chain of molecules, also known as a polymer.\nOLED promises to give us extremely wide screen, HD televisions that could be only a few millimeters thick and use very little electricity. The tiny amounts of electrical power needed to power this type of display can solve the problem of hot operating temperatures in today\u2019s LCD and Plasma sets. Newer generations of HD (High Definition) technologies are constantly being invented. There are already at least six types of OLED technology now in existence. It will be fascinating to view the subsequent forms of flat panel displays using OLED, as they begin to populate our world.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9bd90462-6d95-4021-878f-1d442556a648>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.newtechnologytv.com/index.php?itemid=952", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9584950804710388, "token_count": 527, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Function and Strategy of Problem Solving\nBy Chris Bach and The Third Way \u2013 The Next Generation in Reinforcement Training\nLast month, we moved into a very important area of dog training, PROBLEM SOLVING. Chris shared her theory on the \u201cfunction and strategy\" for teaching dogs.\nWe are continuing our discussion on Problem Solving. This month Chris explains her theory on the \u201cfunction and strategy of problem solving\u201d.\nThe function of problem solving is different than teaching and much more complex. Problem solving involves the entire teaching process but only as one of its components. It also entails totally changing and therefore totally controlling the consequences of a response. In addition, the trainer must also eliminate the emotional fluctuation brought on by the presence of specific stimuli as well as \u201cstimulation\u201d itself.\nChanging a dog\u2019s response to stimuli, both operantly and classically is infinitely more difficult than teaching new consequences, or keeping emotional fluctuations to a minimum in the first place.\nBecause the function of problem solving is changing rather than just teaching, strategies are also different and much more complex.\nThe strategy for problem solving has four keys:\n- The dog is NEVER to blame.\n- The problem response must never occur again.\n- A new incompatible response must be taught and proofed in a separate venue.\n- When this new response is reliable, it is cued before the problematic response can occur.\nI always accept the blame if my dog fails to conform to my expectations or requirements. My expectations are wrong, not my dog. My dog is perfect. I have failed to either adequately teach him what I want, or to recognize some limitation that prevents him from meeting my goals. It is up to me to teach him properly and/or modify my expectations.\nThe problem solving process begins with people taking full responsibility for their dog\u2019s actions. Next, people must recognize that there is a problem only because the dog is failing to meet some human-imposed expectation. Dogs are and always will be PERFECT at being dogs and at being their individual self. They are imperfect only in the minds of people.\nOnce people accept responsibility for there being a problem, they must precisely identify the problem and then explore their options for dealing with it.\nThe purpose of this is to assist dog owners and caretakers in identifying the real problem and exploring the options available. Then once an option is chosen, a viable and realistic program that the dog owner or caretaker can accept and/or implement can be developed.\nThe Third Way\u2019s PROBLEM SOLVING FUNCTIONS and STRATEGIES\nProblem Solving Function:\nModify the contingencies for a response and/or modify the contingencies for an emotional state change.\nProblem Solving Strategy:\n- Take responsibility for the problem\n- Identify the problem\n- Consider the Four Options (which will be discussed in up coming columns)\n- Commit to the chosen option\n- Design a program\n- Management program for Option Two\n- Problem Solving Program for Option One\n(c) THE THIRD WAY ~ Chris Bach ~ 2002. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4d4fada2-1bf7-4938-b32a-100c9734322a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.pawsativechoice.com/trainingtips-aug2002/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9458382725715637, "token_count": 653, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Man in Space is an episode of Disneyland which originally aired on March 9, 1955. It was directed by Disney animator Ward Kimball.\nKimball was famous for his creation of the character Jiminy Cricket, The Cheshire Cat, The March Hare, The Mad Hatter, and for redesigning Mickey Mouse in 1938. He joined the Disney Studios in 1934, and rose up in the ranks to become a directing animator on such classics as \u201cSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs,\u201d \u201cPinocchio,\u201d \u201cFantasia\u201d and \u201cPeter Pan.\u201d He directed Disney Oscar-winning shorts \u201cToot, Whistle, Plunk and Boom\u201d in 1953 and \u201cIt\u2019s Tough To Be a Bird\u201d in 1969.\nThis Disneyland episode (set in Tomorrowland), was narrated partly by Kimball and also by such famed scientists as Dr. Willy Ley, Dr. Heinz Haber, Dr. Wernher von Braun, and Dick Tufeld of Lost in Space fame.\nThe show talks briefly about the lighthearted history of rockets and is followed by discussions of satellites, a practical look (through humorous animation) at what spacemen will have to face in a rocket (both physically and psychologically, such as momentum, weightlessness, radiation, even space sickness) and a rocket takeoff into space.\nBoth Haber and Wernher von Braun were involved with Operation Paperclip and intimately a part of the Nuremberg medical tribunal, which saw former Nazis war criminals rescued to the United States, ultimately resulting in a considerable contribution to the development of NASA.\nOperation Paperclip was the Office of Strategic Services program used to recruit the scientists of Nazi Germany for employment by the United States in the aftermath of World War II (1939\u201345). It was conducted by the Joint Intelligence Objectives Agency, and in the context of the burgeoning Soviet\u2013American Cold War.\nUnknown to many Disney watchers, Kimball was also student of UFOs and Outer Space.\nKimball worked with technical advisor Werhner Von Braun to write and direct three key outer space documentaries for the \u201cDisneyland\u201d television series. The three documentaries were, \u201cMan in Space,\u201d \u201cMan and the Moon,\u201d and \u201cMars and Beyond.\u201d Kimball referred to them as, \u201cthe creative highpoint of my career. According to Disney spokesman Howard E. Green, the three outer space documentaries are \u201coften credited with popularizing the concept of the government\u2019s space program during the 1950s.\nThe first of these, the 1955 \u201cMan in Space, was so popular (viewed by over 42 million people) that according to Kimball, President Eisenhower phoned Walt Disney from the White House looking for a copy of the production. When Disney asked Eisenhower why he wanted it Eisenhower replied, \u201cWell, I\u2019m going to show it to all those stove-shirt generals who don\u2019t believe we\u2019re going to be up there!\nIt was Kimball, who at the July 1979 MUFON UFO symposium in California, told of his interest in the subject of UFOs. Then to a stunned audience he related the story of how the American government had approached Walt Disney himself prior to Sputnik to make a UFO documentary to help acclimatize the American population to the reality of extraterrestrials.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a82259ad-0ec1-41c4-84b7-d4d2a04a28d4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.republicmedia.tv/?p=4887", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9636452198028564, "token_count": 708, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "It is fair to say that the struggle for power in the USSR between 1924 and 1929 was partially to do with the economic policy because the way in which different members of the Communist Party treated the economic policy depended how much support they got from fellow members of the Communist party. However, there were other factors involved such as a lack of democratic elections, the nature of leadership and fear of a divided party.\nYou could argue that the struggle for power was due to the differing economic policies, this is because different key players in the power struggle wanted different things. For example, the Bukharinite model wanted gradualism \u2013 to allow market forces to drive the economy forward and so letting the peasants gain wealth individually. He believed this would lead to a prosperous consumer market and heavy industry that is centrally controlled, planned economy run by a proletariat dictatorship. This would please the peasantry and results in political and economic growth as well as increased trade. Trotsky and his leftist model agreed that the party must recognise the role of the market forces during the gradual change to socialism. However, in 1926 he became increasingly critical of the gradualist approach and didn\u2019t approve of peasants who had no obligation to sell if the market wasn\u2019t right and therefore wanted a slightly more capitalist approach to the economic policy so that the government had greater control over produce. This created a power struggle because different people wanted different things and approached economic policy in certain ways and whilst Bukharin was trying to ensure the happiness of the public, Trotsky was trying to ensure the wealth and growth of the USSR as a trade nation. Although these two models were important in why there was a power struggle in those years it is not the most important reason.\nSecondly, you could say it... [continues]\nCite This Essay\n(2012, 05). The Struggle for Power in the Ussr. StudyMode.com. Retrieved 05, 2012, from http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Struggle-For-Power-In-The-994323.html\n\"The Struggle for Power in the Ussr\" StudyMode.com. 05 2012. 05 2012 <http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Struggle-For-Power-In-The-994323.html>.\n\"The Struggle for Power in the Ussr.\" StudyMode.com. 05, 2012. Accessed 05, 2012. http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Struggle-For-Power-In-The-994323.html.", "id": "<urn:uuid:61e8d025-162a-4646-af75-1a56f8e565cc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Struggle-For-Power-In-The-994323.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9625645875930786, "token_count": 533, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The World Health Organization (WHO) released a worldwide health alert Sunday (September 23) after the United Kingdom\u2019s Health Protection Agency (HPA) confirmed that a newly identified virus\u2014genetically related to the SARS virus\u2014has infected a second patient, who was last reported in critical condition in London.\nThe virus was first identified this summer in Saudi Arabia following the death of a 60-year-old pneumonia patient. It is a type of coronavirus, a group that includes cold viruses as well as the SARS virus, which caused a global outbreak of severe respiratory illness between 2002 and 2003, killing more than 700 people. So far, health experts are optimistic that the new virus will not have the same tragic spread.\n\u201cSARS was very quick off the mark, infecting hospital staff etc., and this new virus does not to me appear to be in the same 'big bang' group,\u201d John Oxford, a virology expert at Queen Mary, University of London told BBC News.\nThe London patient had recently traveled to Saudi Arabia where it is suspected he picked up the virus; the two confirmed infections shared 99.5 percent sequence identity. Experts are investigating other suspected cases in the Middle East and preparing outbreak responses if needed, but the WHO has yet to issue any travel restrictions or advice.\n\u201cFor the moment, we're just assuming there were two individual infections, probably from some animal reservoir,\u201d Ron Fouchier, a virologist at Erasmus MC in Rotterdam in the Netherlands and a lead researcher on one of the two recently publicized H5N1 papers, told ScienceInsider. \u201cThey occurred 3 months apart, which is too long for one to have infected the other,\u201d added Fouchier, who sequenced the new virus's genomes from the two confirmed cases. \u201cSo let's keep both feet on the ground and not blow this out of proportion.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:b00c8db8-2bb9-4c90-9835-c1a3c528b013>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/32668/title/Outbreak-Watch/flagPost/66021/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9584459662437439, "token_count": 399, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The city of Coos Bay has drafted an ordinance to allow wind turbines in town.\nThe World of Coos Bay reports that turbines have been under a moratorium, but the city plans to take public comment in early 2013.\nThe draft ordinance would allow turbines no higher than 70 feet - industrial wind turbines are more than 250 feet.\nFor large turbines, residents would have to show that noise would be minimal, viewsheds would not be disturbed and that the device would meet tough safety standards. Restrictions would be reduced for smaller devices.\nAn Oregon State University expert tells the paper that urban settings aren't generally favorable for turbines: Both wind speed and elevation are low.", "id": "<urn:uuid:70b94cd6-2b4d-4de5-87a4-586933891caa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thedove.us/news/2012/11/16/draft-proposal-accept-wind-turbines-coos-bay?page=146", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9629283547401428, "token_count": 136, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "AKBARPUR KHUDAL, village 6 km northeast of Bareta (29\u00c3\u201a\u00c2\u00b052'N. 75\u00c3\u201a\u00c2\u00b042'E), in Mansa district of the Punjab, is sacred to Guru Gobind Singh, who came here in November 1706 to rescue a Sikh from captivity. According to Giani Gian Singh, Twaiikh Guru Khalsa, Gulab Singh, a goldsmith of Akbarpur Khudal, had been imprisoned by the village chief in a basement of his house on a false charge. The news of the Sikh in distress reached Guru Gobind Singh while he was at Sirsa, 80 km away, as the crow flies, already on his way to the South. But he turned his footsteps immediately with five of his Sikhs and, reaching Khudal by a forced march, rescued Gulab Singh and instructed the chief, Nabi Bakhsh, in the path of virtue and justice. Guru Gobind Singh then returned to Sirsa. A gurdwara was later established outside the village. The Maharaja of Patiala endowed it with 50 acres of land. The house of the chief inside the village was acquired after Independence, and Gurdwara Bhora Sahib Patshahi 10 was constructed on the site in February 1951 by a Sikh landlord of the area, Harchand Singh Jeji, who also made an endowment. The Gurdwara, handed over to the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee in 1977, has a domed sanctum, within a hall, on the first floor. The bhora or underground cell, in which Gulab Singh is believed to have been kept, is a small square cellar in the basement.", "id": "<urn:uuid:eb99bba5-5f77-4e3f-acdb-78e5b176f87e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thesikhencyclopedia.com/akbarpur-khudal", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9822540879249573, "token_count": 358, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "It comes as no surprise that one forward step for man equals one big step backward for nature as studies show a link between cell phone usage and the death of bees. Apparently the radiation from cell phones is wreaking havoc on the eco system of bees and this has the potential to rock our world too - after all, bees pollinate more than flowers... they pollinate crops and crops equal food.\nThe long term effects could mean food shortages on a worldwide scale putting into effect a chain reaction of higher prices and suffering the world over.\nCell Phones Killing Bees\n9,887 clicks in 317 w\nMore Stats +/-", "id": "<urn:uuid:3a894576-2931-45a5-98cb-456d57263040>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.trendhunter.com/trends/technology-vs-nature-cell-phones-killing-bees", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.914723813533783, "token_count": 125, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "While we would all like to have the kind of healing factor that Wolverine possesses, we all know that this is but a pipe dream at the moment. What we can rely on, however, would be advances made in the medical field such as this laser-activated plaster that was specially designed to replace stitches for wounds. The \u201cmiracle\u201d patch is known as SurgiLux, where it functions as some sort of biological Band-Aid. Using a material derived from chitin, the very same substance required for crab shells and insect exoskeletons to remain stiff and rigid, SurgiLux\u2019s ultimate aim is to far outperform stitches or sutures for wounds and surgeries, considering how it remains atop the skin instead of threading underneath.\nJohn Foster, a biotech researcher at the University of New South Wales who is working on SurgiLux, said, \u201cThough sutures have a superior strength to SurgiLux, sutures are physically invasive. SurgiLux is a thin film, so you do not end up with any physical invasion or further damage to the tissue, thus allowing more complete healing.\u201d\u2018\nSounds like this is not a one-size-fits-all solution, but would come in more handy for delicate operations. Even better is if this does not leave that much of scar tissue compared to regular stitches. Will the phrase \u201ca stitch in time saves nine\u201d be relevant should the SurgiLux surge in popularity?\nMedbox Dispenses Marijuana\nMelon Headband Improves Your Focus By Reading Your Brain Waves\nHumans Welded Together Could Mean The End Of Stitches\nSmart Cover Magnets Can Apparently Disable Implanted Defibrillators", "id": "<urn:uuid:0c6c1d16-303b-4d34-881d-f17490392d38>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ubergizmo.com/2012/10/surgilux-laser-activated-plaster-ups-your-healing-factor/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9447157979011536, "token_count": 364, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Nausea and vomiting - adults\nNausea is the feeling of having an urge to vomit. It is often called being sick to your stomach.\nVomiting or throwing up is forcing the contents of the stomach up through the esophagus and out of the mouth.\nEmesis; Vomiting; Stomach upset; Upset stomach\nMany common problems may cause nausea and vomiting:\nNausea and vomiting may also be early warning signs of more serious medical problems, such as:\nOnce you and your doctor find the cause, you will want to know how to treat your nausea or vomiting\n. You may be asked to take medicine, change your diet, or try other things to make you feel better.\nIt is very important to keep enough fluids in your body. Try drinking frequent, small amounts of clear liquids\nIf you have morning sickness during pregnancy, ask your doctor about the many possible treatments.\nThe following may help treat motion sickness:\n- Lying down\n- Over-the-counter antihistamines (such as Dramamine)\n- Scopolamine prescription skin patches (such as Transderm Scop) are useful for extended trips, such as an ocean voyage. Place the patch 4 - 12 hours before setting sail. Scopolamine is effective but may produce dry mouth, blurred vision, and some drowsiness. Scopolamine is for adults only. It should NOT be given to children.\nCall your health care provider if\nCall 911 or go to an emergency room if:\n- You think vomiting is from poisoning\n- You notice blood or dark, coffee-colored material in the vomit\nCall a health care provider right away or seek medical care if you or another person has:\nBeen vomiting for longer than 24 hours\nBeen unable to keep any fluids down for 12 hours or more\nHeadache or stiff neck\nNot urinated for 8 or more hours\nSevere stomach or belly pain\nVomited three or more times in 1 day\nSigns of dehydration include:\n- Crying without tears\n- Dry mouth\n- Increased thirst\n- Eyes that appear sunken\n- Skin changes -- for example, if you touch or squeeze the skin, it doesn't bounce back the way it usually does\n- Urinating less often or having dark yellow urine\nWhat to expect at your health care provider's office\nYour health care provider will perform a physical examination, and will look for signs of dehydration.\nYour health care provider will ask questions about your symptoms, such as:\n- When did the vomiting begin? How long has it lasted? How often does it occur?\n- Does it occur after you eat, or on an empty stomach?\n- What other symptoms are present -- abdominal pain, fever, diarrhea, or headaches?\n- Are you vomiting blood\n- Are you vomiting anything that looks like coffee grounds?\n- Are you vomiting undigested food?\n- When was the last time you urinated?\nOther questions you may be asked include:\n- Have you been losing weight?\n- Have you been traveling? Where?\n- What medications do you take?\n- Did other people who ate at the same place as you have the same symptoms?\n- Are you pregnant or could you be pregnant?\nThe diagnostic tests may be performed:\nDepending on the cause and how much extra fluids you need, you may have to stay in the hospital or clinic for a period of time. You may need fluids given through your veins (intravenous or IV).\nMalagelada J-R, Malagelada C. Nausea and vomiting. In: Feldman M, Friedman LS, Brandt LJ, eds. Sleisenger & Fordtran's Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2010:chap 14.\nMcquaid K. Approach to the patient with gastrointestinal disease. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 134.\nThis article uses information by permission from Alan Greene, M.D., \u00a9 Greene Ink, Inc.\nGeorge F. Longstreth, MD, Department of Gastroenterology, Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, San Diego, California. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Inc.", "id": "<urn:uuid:75d285a6-c97b-4e25-92fc-e2e11fe8a399>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.upmc.com/health-library/Pages/ADAM.aspx?GenContentId=003117&ProductId=108&ProjectId=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8979593515396118, "token_count": 923, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Learn to make smart food choices on a limited budget. All it takes is a little planning and creativity.\nPlan out your meals to keep stress low, surprises rare, and more money in your pocket.\nLearn budget-survival strategies for the grocery store.\nShop and Save Online Course \u2014 Families can learn to save money at the grocery store with this short, free online course. Are you in the MFIP/TANF program? This course counts as one hour of Core TANF activity for Life Skills Training.\nSimply Good Eating \u2014 Classes that help people with limited income discover how to make healthy food choices while stretching food dollars and be more active.\nCooking Matters\u00ae Minnesota \u2014 Hands-on, cooking based nutrition education programs that help low-income families prepare healthy and tasty meals.\nResource Management for Daily Life \u2014 Builds personal resource management skills through decision-based education and online resources.\nFamilies in Tough Times \u2014 Resource for families experiencing, avoiding, or recovering from tough times. Materials on farm families, stress, disaster recovery, and more.\nSupplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) and Food Assistance Programs \u2014 Minnesota Department of Human Services \u2014 Learn how to apply for food assistance and other food support.\nFind Hunger and Food Resources\u2014 Hunger Solutions Minnesota \u2014 Find a food shelf, Meals on Wheels, Summer Food Service Program, food support office, or WIC program near you.\nWomen, Infants, & Children (WIC) Program \u2014 Minnesota Department of Health \u2014 Supplemental food program for pregnant women, infants and children. Find an office near you: English | Spanish | Hmong | Somali", "id": "<urn:uuid:a8179549-cd4d-443c-b08d-4b39746802ad>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www1.extension.umn.edu/family/health-and-nutrition/for-families/smart-shopping/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8721137642860413, "token_count": 333, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Annual Report to Congress FY 2004\n|MS Word (417 KB)|\nMAKING A DIFFERENCE\nCongress enacted the civil rights laws as a mandate to bring the formerly\nexcluded into the mainstream of American education. These laws also are designed\nto carry out the U.S. Department of Education's commitment to assuring access\nto equal educational opportunity for every individual.\nThe federal civil rights laws have helped bring about profound changes in American education and improved the educational opportunities of millions of students. Many barriers that once prevented minorities, women and girls, and individuals with disabilities from freely choosing the educational opportunities and careers they would like to pursue have been eliminated.\nWhile we applaud this progress, we recognize that there are persons who continue to be denied equal access to quality education. However, behind statistical data and research findings is a human face\u2014a student hoping for a chance to learn and excel. This hope is expressed eloquently in the letter below from a college student with a disability. The statement serves as a reminder of the potential impact of the civil rights laws in making a difference in improving individual lives.\nI am one of the millions of students who have a learning disability, dyslexia, and I also have health problems that make ordinary daily living a challenge\u2026.\nThe life I live is hard but not impossible. I am not looking for pity or sympathy or platitudes. I do not want undeserved special treatment. I am not an exception, a freak, a statistical abnormality. I am a real person with real disabilities. The problems I live with are hard for you to see. I have no wheelchair, white cane or hearing aid. If you use your imagination, maybe you can picture my life, wanting to talk, to listen, to read, to learn, and not being able to. Now add to that the confusion of harsh, chronic pain and frequent loss of motor control. This is my condition, a condition compounded by stress and frustration.\nAll I ask is a little respect in a world where people and institutions are allowed to discriminate against disabled persons in the interest of convenience and conformity. I can achieve anything, learn to do anything, but not in an environment of censure and bureaucratic red tape. I am asking for a chance, a fair chance, to get an education. I am willing to fight for my future. I should not be penalized by the attitudes of people who are allowed to sweep the disabled under a rug, refusing them their rights as individuals.\nI am presenting this matter to you so that you might better understand the position of disabled persons. We are fighting for our lives, every day, both literally and figuratively. We have to fight for justice, both for ourselves and for each other, because, whether our disabilities are visible or not, we are easy to ignore. I pray that you will help me complete my education and that you will work to ensure the rights of all disabled students\u2026.\nLetter from a college student forwarded to OCR", "id": "<urn:uuid:c7f95678-e7b7-4332-8b64-37c9effda9f6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www2.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/ocr/annrpt2004/report_pg20.html?exp=7", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368701852492/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516105732-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9543477892875671, "token_count": 608, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cloning coast redwoods\nWilliam J. Libby, U.C., Berkeley.\nCalifornia Agriculture 36(8):34-35. DOI: 10.3733/ca.v036n08p34b.\nNot available \u2013 first paragraph follows:\nIn a redwood breeding program, time is a problem. Between germination (or planting) and harvest as a renewable source of wood, a redwood must survive and grow in a minimally managed environment for three to eight decades. Trees in park and amenity plantings may be expected to grow for centuries, or even millenia. Redwood foresters thus, and properly, tend to be conservative.\nWilliam J. Libby, Professor, Genetics, U.C., Berkeley.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4367b58a-d5dc-4f8c-a8c8-4ae895e3701c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://californiaagriculture.ucanr.org/landingpage.cfm?article=ca.v036n08p34b&abstract=yes", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8603166341781616, "token_count": 155, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "UNIT TITLE: Integrating Website Activities in Math for Elementary Teachers\nUnit Goal: To integrate web-based activities with text and hands-on manipulatives in the teaching of mathematics content to pre-service teachers\nUnit Summary: The four modules contained in this unit represent templates for the inclusion of content based, interactive websites throughout a semester long mathematics course for pre-service teachers. The modules\u2019 sequence is based on Chapters 2-5 of Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers(Houghton Mifflin, 2nd Ed) by Tom Bassarear. This text is supplemented by the text author\u2019s Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers: Explorations and a Start with Manipulatives Kit from ETA/ Cuisenaire. In each module, students are asked to explore and reflect on a given content based website prior to classroom instruction. (A recommended site is given for each module) Following content instruction (which include additional web-based activities and hands-on manipulatives, investigations and lecture) students are required, in teams, to research other web sites which provide additional opportunities for content enhancement. Their findings are then reported back to the class at the close of the semester.\nGrade Level (K-16): 13-15\nGeneral Subject Area(s): Math for Elementary School Teachers\nMinimum time required for the unit: 1 Semester\nConcepts learned across all unit modules:\n- Accessing and evaluating interactive web sites\n- Communicating student understanding of different pedagogical styles via journal writing\n- Demonstrating competencies in addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division with respect to the given numeration system\n- Recognizing patterns and properties of the fundamental operations\n- Demonstrating competencies in whole, integer, rational and real number operations\nStandards addressed by unit modules:\nMathematics Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment\nTeaching strategies and activities that will aid in the development, delivery, and evaluation of the following:\nConceptual Knowledge and Procedural Knowledge\n- Curriculum components \u2013 for example, scope and sequence of skills and materials; appropriate materials and technology; learner objectives\n- Use of manipulatives and developmentally appropriate materials; variety and reliability\n- Pre-number and number concepts \u2013 for example, counting objects, comparing objects; classifying objects; exploring sets; ordering sets; number patterns\n- Problem solving \u2013 for example, investigate and understand content; formulate problems from everyday situations; develop strategies applicable to a wide range of problems; verify and interpret results; build student confidence; identify and solve problems that are developmentally appropriate\n- Content specific pedagogy \u2013 for example, theories necessary for implementing a sound instructional program such as accessing prior knowledge, constructing knowledge, modeling, informal reasoning, graphic organizers\n- Addition and subtraction of whole numbers \u2013 for example, computational procedures; relationships between addition and subtraction; relationship between subtraction and division; regrouping; modeling the operations; story problems\n- Multiplication and division \u2013 for example, modeling the operations, interpretations for the operations; computational procedures; skill development; story problems\n- Concepts related to number theory \u2013 for example, factors, multiples, primes and composites, remainders, odd and even\n- Rational numbers \u2013 for example, fraction and decimal equivalence; computation; modeling\nDemonstrate number sense and operation sense, that is, an understanding of the foundational ideas of numbers, number properties, and operations defined on numbers.\nFormal Mathematical Reasoning\n- Order: demonstrate an understanding of order among whole numbers, fractions, and decimals\n- Equivalence: demonstrate an understanding that a number can be represented in more than one way\n- Numeration and place value: demonstrate an understanding of how numbers are named, place value, and order of magnitude of numbers\n- Number properties: demonstrate an understanding of the properties of whole numbers without necessarily knowing the names of the properties\n- Computation: perform computations; adjust the result of a computation to fit the context of a problem; identify numbers or information or operations needed to solve a problem\n- Equations: solve simple equations and inequalities; predict the outcome of changing some number or condition in a problem\n- Estimation: estimate the result of a calculation; determine the reasonableness of an estimate\n- Algorithmic thinking: demonstrate an understanding of the algorithmic point of view \u2014 that is, follow a given procedure; recognize various ways to solve a problem; identify, complete, or analyze a procedure; discover patterns in a procedure\nDemonstrate an ability to use the basics of logic in a quantitative context.\n- Logical connectives and quantifiers: interpret statements that use logical connectives (and, or, if \u2013 then) as well as quantifiers (some, all, none)\n- Validity of arguments: use deductive reasoning to determine whether an argument (a series of statements leading to a conclusion) is valid or invalid\n- Generalization: identify an appropriate generalization, an example that disproves an inappropriate generalization, or a hidden assumption\nDemonstrate the ability to:\n- Use technology tools and information resources to increase productivity, promote creativity, and facilitate academic learning.\n- Use content-specific tools (e.g., software, simulation, environmental robes, graphing calculators, exploratory environments, Web tools) to support learning and research.\n- Use technology resources to facilitate higher order and complex thinking skills, including problem solving, critical thinking, informed decision making, knowledge construction, and creativity.\n- Use technology to locate, evaluate, and collect information from a variety of sources.\n- Observe and experience the use of technology in their major field of study.\nTechnology needed in unit modules:\n- Computer with internet access\n- Computer with Power Point software\n- Projection device for computer\nTechnology-enhanced instructional strategies employed:\n- Technology-enriched problem-based learning\n- Computer-based simulations/games/role-playing\n- Web-based learning\n- Electronic portfolio development\n- Technology-enhanced demonstrations\nTitle of Each Module:\n#1 \u2013 Fundamental Concepts\n#2 \u2013 Four Fundamental Operations\n#3 \u2013 Number Theory\n#4 \u2013 Extending the Number System\nUnit Culminating Activity: Student groups (four person) will present their website research results for the four chapters. These presentations will include: demonstrations of the web sites, evaluation of the websites, a comparison of website activity to text\u2019s and hands-on manipulatives\u2019 approaches (as applicable) to the content area, and a written commentary. The commentary is to include: a summary of the individual chapter reflections, a personal reflection of their individual process in the acquisition of their chosen websites, a comparison of website activity to text\u2019s and hands-on manipulatives\u2019 approaches (as applicable) to the content area and a description of the content skill(s) could be enhanced by a student using the web-based activities.\nView the Culminating Activity Rubric\nUnit Authors: John August", "id": "<urn:uuid:fb4afe04-7af4-4584-84e4-6a3507175b1e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://destiny.mbhs.edu/edgrid/webmath/webunit.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8647996187210083, "token_count": 1449, "score": 3.703125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- copy data to or from a kernel image or running system\ncc [ flag\u2026 ] file\u2026 -lkvm [ library\u2026] #include <kvm.h> ssize_t kvm_read(kvm_t *kd, uintptr_t addr, void *buf, size_t nbytes);\nssize_t kvm_write(kvm_t *kd, uintptr_t addr, void *buf, size_t nbytes);\nThe kvm_read() function transfers data from the kernel image specified by kd (see kvm_open(3KVM)) to the address space of the process. nbytes bytes of data are copied from the kernel virtual address given by addr to the buffer pointed to by buf.\nThe kvm_write() function is like kvm_read(), except that the direction of data transfer is reversed. To use this function, the kvm_open(3KVM) call that returned kd must have specified write access. If a user virtual address is given, it is resolved in the address space of the process specified in the most recent kvm_getu(3KVM) call.\nThe kvm_read() and kvm_write() functions are obsolete and might be removed in a future release. The functions described on the kvm_kread(3KVM) manual page should be used instead.\nOn success, these functions return the number of bytes actually transferred. On failure, they return -1.\nSee attributes(5) for descriptions of the following attributes:", "id": "<urn:uuid:292c837e-cd91-4327-99d8-a8a4aee2066c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E18752_01/html/816-5172/kvm-write-3kvm.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8223298788070679, "token_count": 330, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The ex-gay movement is a controversial movement that consists of people and organizations that seek to encourage people to refrain from entering or pursuing same-sex relationships, to eliminate homosexual desires, to develop heterosexual desires, or to enter into a heterosexual relationship. The \"ex-gay\" movement relies on the involvement of individuals who formerly identified themselves to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual but no longer do; these individuals may either claim that they have eliminated their attraction to the same sex altogether or simply that they abstain from acting on such attraction. There have been various scandals related to this movement, including some self-claimed ex-gays having been found in same-sex relationships despite having denied this, as well as controversies over gay minors being forced to go to ex-gay camps against their will, and over admissions by organizations related to the movement that conversion therapy does not work.\nA large body of research and global scientific consensus indicates that being gay, lesbian, or bisexual is compatible with normal mental health and social adjustment. Because of this, major mental health professional organizations discourage and caution individuals against attempting to change their sexual orientation to heterosexual, and warn that attempting to do so can be harmful.\nDefinition of change \nVarious ex-gay organizations have working definitions of change. Exodus International describes change as, \"attaining abstinence from homosexual behaviors, lessening of homosexual temptations, strengthening their sense of masculine or feminine identity, correcting distorted styles of relating with members of the same and opposite gender.\" People Can Change defines change as, \"any degree of change toward greater peace, satisfaction and fulfillment, and less shame, depression and darkness\", and emphasizes that for most people, heterosexuality is not the ultimate goal.When the term ex-gay was introduced to professional literature in 1980, E. Mansell Pattison defined it as describing a person who had \"experienced a basic change in sexual orientation\". Some ex-gays advocate entering (or remaining) in a heterosexual marriage as part of the process. Some in mixed-orientation marriages acknowledge that their sexual attractions remain primarily homosexual, but seek to make their marriages work anyway. The president of Exodus International said that he agrees that people cannot necessarily change their sexual orientation, but he said that they can, \"live in accord with their beliefs and faith\".\nMotivation of participants \nThe American Psychological Association reported that some ex-gay groups may help counteract and buffer minority stress, marginalization, and isolation in ways similar to other support groups, such as offering social support, fellowship, role models, and new ways to view a problem through unique philosophies or ideologies. Additionally, the same researchers also found that people joined ex-gay groups due to: a lack of other sources of social support; a desire for active coping, including both cognitive and emotional coping; and access to methods of sexual orientation identity exploration and reconstruction. The same report found that some have described the ex-gay groups as, \"a refuge for those who were excluded both from conservative churches and from their families, because of their same-sex sexual attractions, and from gay organizations and social networks, because of their conservative religious beliefs.\" According to the APA report, \"Ex-gay groups appear to relieve the distress caused by conflicts between religious values and sexual orientation and help participants change their sexual orientation identity, but not their sexual orientation.\" The APA goes on to report that some believed that by, \"taking on 'ex-gay' cultural norms and language and finding a community that enabled and reinforced their primary religious beliefs, values, and concerns\", that they could resolve identity conflicts by, \"(a) adopting a new discourse or worldview, (b) engaging in a biographical reconstruction, (c) embracing a new explanatory model, and (d) forming strong interpersonal ties.\" One of the APA's sources for the report found that, \"ex-gay groups recast homosexuality as an ordinary sin, and thus salvation was still achievable.\" Another one of their sources is summarized as having observed that, \"such groups built hope, recovery, and relapse into an ex-gay identity, thus expecting same-sex sexual behaviors and conceiving them as opportunities for repentance and forgiveness.\" The APA report warns however that, \"some [ex-gay] groups may reinforce prejudice and stigma by providing inaccurate or stereotyped information about homosexuality.\"\nEx-gay organizations \nThe first ex-gay ministry, Love in Action, was formed in 1973. Three years later, with other ex-gay organizations, it formed Exodus International, the largest ex-gay organization and the largest organization under the Exodus Global Alliance. Other ex-gay organizations cater to a specific religious groups, such as Courage International for Catholics, Evergreen International for Mormons (LDS), and JONAH for Jews.\nSome groups follow a specific technique, such as Homosexuals Anonymous, modeled after the Alcoholics Anonymous twelve-step program. Other ex-gay organizations include Parents and Friends of Ex-Gays and Gays.\nPeople associated with the ex-gay movement \n||This section has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.\n- Joe Dallas is the program director of Genesis Counseling. He has written six books on human sexuality.\n- Donnie McClurkin wrote about his experience with homosexuality in his book, Eternal Victim, Eternal Victor. He describes himself as going through a process by which he became \"saved and sanctified.\" McClurkin has been criticized for stating homosexuality is a curse. He speaks openly about sexual issues since becoming the biological father of a child with a woman to whom he was not married. He uses these experiences in his concerts and speaking engagements. In 2004, he sang at the Republican National Convention. The appearance generated criticism for the event organizers and McClurkin for his statements on homosexuality.\n- Jeffrey Satinover is an American psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and physicist. He is a member of the Scientific Advisory Committee of NARTH.\n- Charles Socarides was an American psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, physician, educator, and author. He helped found NARTH in 1992.\nPeople who no longer support the ex-gay movement \n- G\u00fcnter Baum originally founded an ex-gay ministry in Germany. Later he formed Zwischenraum, which helps gay Christians to accept their sexuality and to reconcile it with their beliefs.\n- John Paulk, then leader of Focus on the Family's Love Won Out conference and chairman of the board for Exodus International North America, was spotted visiting a Washington, D.C. gay bar in September 2000. He was photographed outside of the bar from behind by Wayne Besen, and later stepped down from the two organizations. In 2013, he formally apologized for his involvement in promoting the ex-gay concept and for the harm his work had done.\n- Anthony Venn-Brown is a former Australian evangelist in the Assemblies of God and an author whose book describes his experience in Australia\u2019s first ex-gay program. Venn-Brown co-founded \"Freedom 2 b[e]\" which offers support to GLBT people from church backgrounds and who have been displaced from the ex gay movement. In 2007 he co-ordinated the release of a statement from five Australian ex-gay leaders who publicly apologized for their past actions.\n- John Smid was the leader of Love In Action in Memphis. He resigned that position in 2008, and in 2010 apologized for any harm that he'd caused, noting that his teen program \"further wounded teens that were already in a very delicate place in life.\" He has announced that he is still homosexual and admitted never seeing a man successfully converting to heterosexuality in his group.\n- Warren Throckmorton is a past president of the American Mental Health Counselors Association. He wrote and produced the documentary I Do Exist about ex-gay people, but subsequently came to \"believe that categorical change in sexual attractions, especially for men, is rare\" and repudiated some of the claims he made in the film.\n- Peterson Toscano is an actor who was involved in the ex-gay movement for 17 years. He performs a related one-man satire titled Doin' Time in the Homo No Mo Halfway House, and with Christine Bakke co-runs Beyond Ex-Gay, a support website for people coming out of ex-gay experiences.\nSexual orientation change efforts \nSome ex-gay organizations, such as Exodus International, recommend to their members that they undertake sexual orientation change efforts, such as conversion therapy. Exodus warns against going to counselors that tells the patient that they \"can definitely eliminate all attractions to your same gender, or that you can definitely acquire heteroerotic attractions.\" Evergreen International does not advocate any particular form of therapy, and warns that \"therapy will likely not be a cure in the sense of erasing all homosexual feelings.\"\nSOCE are controversial and the American Psychological Association reported that, \"the available evidence, from both early and recent studies, suggests that although sexual orientation is unlikely to change, some individuals modified their sexual orientation identity (i.e., individual or group membership and affiliation, self-labeling) and other aspects of sexuality (i.e. values and behavior).\" Virtually all major mental health organizations have adopted policy statements cautioning the profession and the public against treatments that purport to change sexual orientation. The National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality, an ex-gay organization, argues that mainstream health and mental health organizations have, in many cases, taken public positions on homosexuality and same-sex marriage that are based on their own social and political views rather than the available science.\nIn 2012, the Pan American Health Organization (the North and South American branch of the World Health Organization) released a statement cautioning against services that purport to \"cure\" people with non-heterosexual sexual orientations as they lack medical justification and represent a serious threat to the health and well-being of affected people, and noted that the global scientific and professional consensus is that homosexuality is a normal and natural variation of human sexuality and cannot be regarded as a pathological condition. The Pan American Health Organization further called on governments, academic institutions, professional associations and the media to expose these practices and to promote respect for diversity. The World Health Organization affiliate further noted that gay minors have sometimes been forced to attend these \"therapies\" involuntarily, being deprived of their liberty and sometimes kept in isolation for several months, and that these findings were reported by several United Nations bodies. Additionally, the Pan American Health Organization recommended that such malpractices be denounced and subject to sanctions and penalties under national legislation, as they they constitute a violation of the ethical principles of health care and violate human rights that are protected by international and regional agreements.\nControversy over teenagers \nA controversial aspect of the ex-gay movement has been the focus of some ex-gay organizations on gay teenagers, including occasions where teenagers have been forced to attend ex-gay camps against their will by their parents. A 2006 report by the National Gay and Lesbian Taskforce outlined evidence that ex-gay and conversion therapy groups were at the time increasingly focusing on children. Several legal researchers have responded to these events by arguing that parents who force their children into aggressive conversion therapy programs are committing child abuse under various state statutes.\nOne case of emancipation involved Lyn Duff. Duff was admitted to Rivendell Psychiatric Center in West Jordan, Utah on December 19, 1991, at age fifteen, after being involuntarily transported there at her mother\u2019s behest. Duff was subjected to a regimen of conversion therapy, including aversion therapy, hypnosis, psychotropic drugs, solitary confinement, therapeutic messages linking lesbian sex with \"the pits of hell\", behavior modification techniques, unreasonable forms of punishment for small infractions, and \"positive peer pressure\" group sessions in which patients demeaned and belittled each other for both real and perceived inadequacies. On May 19, 1992, after 168 days of incarceration, Duff escaped from Rivendell and traveled to San Francisco, where she lived on the streets and in safe houses. In 1992, Duff initiated legal action against the facility and her mother.\nThe ex-gay organization Love in Action was involved in a controversy surrounding a teenager. In July 2005, The New York Times ran a feature story about 16-year-old Zachary Stark, whose parents forced him to attend an ex-gay camp run by the group. In July 2005, Stark was released from the camp. An investigation of the camp by the Tennessee Department of Children's Services did not uncover signs of child abuse. In September 2005, Tennessee authorities discovered that unlicensed staff had been administering prescription drugs. A settlement was reached shortly thereafer. LIA closed the camp in 2007.\nSee also \n- Environment and sexual orientation\n- Mixed-orientation marriage\n- American Family Association v. City and County of San Francisco\n- \"Just the Facts about Sexual Orientation & Youth\". American Psychological Association. Retrieved 2011-04-02.\n- \"Bachmann Silent on Allegations Her Clinic Offers Gay Conversion Therapy\". ABC News. Retrieved June 13, 2011.\n- \"What's your \"success rate\" in changing gays into straights?\". Retrieved 2007-03-27.[dead link]\n- What Do We Mean by Change[dead link]\n- Throckmorton, Warren; Pattison, M. L. (June 2002). \"Initial empirical and clinical findings concerning the change process for ex-gays\". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice (American Psychological Association) 33 (3): 242\u2013248. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.33.3.242.\n- \"No easy victory\". Christianitytoday.com. March 11, 2002. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Ex-gay or just exploited?, Orange County Register, June 17, 2007\n- APA Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation. (2009). \"Report of the Task Force on Appropriate Therapeutic Responses to Sexual Orientation.\" Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Accessed August 2, 2011\n- Levine, M., Perkins, D. D., & Perkins, D. V. (2004). Principles of community psychology: Perspectives and applications (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.\n- Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219\u2013239.\n- Ponticelli, C. M. (1999). Crafting stories of sexual identity reconstruction. Social Psychology Quarterly, 62, 157\u2013172.\n- Wolkomir, M. (2001). Emotion work, commitment, and the authentication of the self: The case of gay and ex-gay Christian support groups. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 30, 305\u2013334.\n- Erzen, T. (2006). Straight to Jesus: Sexual and Christian conversions in the ex-gay movement. Los Angeles:University of California Press.\n- History. Retrieved April 14, 2007.\n- \"Homosexuals Anonymous Fellowship Services \u2013 Home\". Ha-fs.org. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Kwon, Lillian (June 25, 2007). \"Exodus Freedom Speaker Warns of 'The Gay Gospel'\". Christian Post.\n- \"Joe Dallas l Genesis Counseling l Sexual Addiction Recovery\". Joedallas.com. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- DL Foster ((ISBN 1-56229-162-9)). \"Eternal Victim/Eternal Victor: Making the Case for Victory\".\n- Richard Leiby (August 29, 2004). \"Donnie McClurkin, Ready to Sing Out Against Gay 'Curse'\". The Washington Post.\n- Lawton, Kim (May 6, 2005). \"PROFILE: Donnie McClurkin (Interview)\". PBS Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly.\n- \"The Donnie McClurkin Story:From Darkness to Light\". Donnie McClurkin. November 23, 2004.\n- \"News :: GLBT\". EDGE Boston. October 24, 2007. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- \"Dr. Jeffrey Satinover Testifies Before Massachusetts Senate Committee Studying Gay Marriage\". April 28, 2003. Retrieved August 21, 2011.\n- \"A Tribute to Charles W. Socarides\". Retrieved August 21, 2011.\n- Evangelical Press with additional reporting by Jody Veenker (October 1, 2000). \"Ex-Gay Leader Disciplined for Gay Bar Visit\". Christianity Today. Retrieved 2007-08-29.\n- Besen, Wayne (2003). Anything but Straight: Unmasking the Scandals and Lies Behind the Ex-Gay Myth. Harrington Park Press. ISBN 1-56023-445-8.\n- \"Anthony Venn-Brown: Book\".\n- Freedom 2 b[e]\n- \"Former \"Ex-Gay\" Leaders in Australia Apologize, Claim That Ex-Gay Conversion Does More Harm Than Good\". Soulforce.org. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Branston, John. \"Fly on the Wall | The Fly-By\". Memphis Flyer. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Jason says: (March 30, 2010). \"Ex-gay leader apologises | Star Online\". Starobserver.com.au. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- \"Where is the repentance?\". Grace Rivers. October 7, 2011. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- \"I Do Exist FAQs\". 2008. Retrieved August 21, 2011.\n- \"A new test of orthodoxy\". Wthrockmorton.com. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Exodus International Policy Statements, Exodus International. Retrieved July 4, 2007.\n- \"How to Find the Right Counselor for You \u2013 Exodus International\". Exodusinternational.org. January 11, 2010. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Evergreen Myths The Bottom Line: Evergreen does not advocate any particular form of therapy.\"\n- \"Therapy-Evergreen International-Helping Latter-Day Saints overcome same-sex attraction (homosexuality)\". Evergreeninternational.org. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- \"Expert affidavit of Gregory M. Herek, PhD\" (PDF). Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Royal College of Psychiatrists: Royal College of Psychiatrists\u2019 Position Statement on Sexual Orientation\n- Letter from the Attorney General of the United States to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, RE: DOMA, February 23, 2011,\"Second, while sexual orientation carries no visible badge, a growing scientific consensus accepts that sexual orientation is a characteristic that is immutable\"\n- \"\"Therapies\" to change sexual orientation lack medical justification and threaten health\". Pan American Health Organization. Retrieved May 26, 2012. archived here.\n- Cianciotto, J.; Cahill, S. (2006). \"Youth in the crosshairs: the third wave of ex-gay activism\" (PDF). National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. Retrieved 2007-08-29.\n- Hicks, A (1999) Reparative Therapy: Whether Parental Attempts to Change a Child's Sexual Orientation Can Legally Constitute Child Abuse; Retrieved January 29, 2011\n- Talbot, T. Reparative therapy for homosexual teens: the choice of the teen should be the only choice discussed, 27 J. Juv. L. 33. 2006.\n- Cohan, J. Parental Duties and the Right of Homosexual Minors to Refuse \"Reparative\" Therapy, 11 Buff. Women's L.J. 67, 2002.\n- Mirken, Bruce (June 1994). \"Setting Them Straight\". San Francisco: 10 Percent. pp. 54\u201360.\n- PRESS CLIPSVillage Voice (New York, NY), October 06, 1998, 1595 words, by Andy Hsiao\n- Chris Holmlund & Justin Wyatt (2005) \"Contemporary American independent film: from the margins to the mainstream\" page 190. Psychology Press. http://books.google.com/books?id=9sYDqH2FAcsC&pg=PA190&dq=%22Lyn+Duff%22&hl=en&ei=dIP5TOu4IdK5hAfMmvSSCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEkQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=%22Lyn%20Duff%22&f=false\n- \"Gender identity problems; Gays angered about doctors forcing issue\" The Houston Chronicle, August 2, 1995, Wednesday, 2 STAR Edition, HOUSTON; Pg. 3, 1310 words, CAROLE RAFFERTY; Knight-Ridder Tribune News\n- Pela, Robert L. (November 11, 1997). \"Boys in the dollhouse, girls with toy trucks\". The Advocate. pp. 55\u201359.\n- . The Lambda Update. Fall 1993. p. 4. Missing or empty\n- David B. Cruz (1999) \"Controlling Desires: Sexual Conversion and the Limits of Law\" Southern California Law Review 72:1297. http://www-bcf.usc.edu/~usclrev/pdf/072502.pdf\n- CHURCHER, Sharon (1998) \"GOING STRAIGHT.\" Sunday Mail (Queensland, Australia), September 6, 1998, Sunday, NEWS; Pg. 40, 1274 words\n- Ladie Terry. (1994) 'ORPHANS' SPEAK OUT. San Jose Mercury News (California) Tuesday MORNING FINAL EDITION. December 13, 1994. EDITORIAL; Pg. 7B\n- Family Law, Public Policy and New Federalism by Steven K. Wisensale. Retrieved July 10, 2007.\n- Williams, Alex (July 17, 2005). \"Gay Teenager Stirs a Storm\". New York Times. Retrieved 2007-10-06.\n- Palazzolo, Rose (June 28, 2005). \"Ex-Gay Camp Investigation Called Off\". ABC News. Retrieved November 13, 2011.\n- Ex-GayTruth.com, presents issues related to the ex-gay movement from a conservative Christian perspective\n- Christian Perspectives on Homosexuality and Bisexuality at the Open Directory Project\n- Views Opposing Homosexuality and Bisexuality at the Open Directory Project\n- Beyond Ex-Gay Support website co-run by Peterson Toscano and Christine Bakke, for people coming out of ex-gay experiences\n- Cure for Love, a National Film Board of Canada documentary", "id": "<urn:uuid:0a602731-86d0-446c-b588-47fc66f98d5e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex-gay_movement", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9174923300743103, "token_count": 4708, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Exposure to radiation short term and infrequently does not do significant harm. Chronic long term exposure to even lower levels can cause significant cellular damage leading to mutations and cancer.\nThere are certain nutrients which protect the cells from the compounds making up radiation such as: cesium-137 and radioactive iodine. Potassium Iodide (KI) is most well-known to protect the thyroid from radioactive iodine. Given that most Americans are Iodine deficient, supplementing with 200 mcg a day of Potassium Iodide may do the general population some good in general - even without radioactive fallout concerns. Over half of pregnant women in the USA are iodine deficient which sets up the newborn to mental retardation. However, potassium iodide is by far not the only nutrient needed to protect the body from radioactive fallout.\nComplete trace minerals are needed. When the body is deficient in minerals, the more apt it is to absorb heavy metals and radiation. Sulfur compounds such as n-acetyl-l-cysteine and MSM are also useful in protecting the liver, lungs and kidneys.\nTaking hot Epsom salt baths to help sweat and pull out heavy metals is good. Adding Moor Mud to enhance sweating and detoxification is even better. Make sure to replace electrolytes and additional minerals after profuse sweating.\nProbiotics are known to protect the intestines from radiation-induced diarrhea and likey also help prevent absorption of heavy metals found in radioactive fallout. Supplementing with L-Glutamine to prevent damage and/or heal the small intestine may be necessary. Sodium Butyrate or Cal/Mag Butyrate may be needed to help heal the large intestine from radiation-induced intestinal and colon damage.\nGreens such as spirulina, wheat grass, chlorella along with Miso, tempeh, kombu and other seaweeds are excellent detoxifiers and supporters of healthy iodine levels.\nQuestions about Radiation Exposure? Please post at the Radiation Exposure Forum and your questions will be answered.\nThe Radiation Exposure Forum has some excellent documents available for download to help you prepare further. Do visit this forum and download. Again, questions, do ask.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e1beccbb-f3c6-468c-8f4d-17096b5b8e8c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://healthygoods.com/natural-treatment-products/radiation-exposure-detox.html?food_restrictions=325&hypoallergenic=32542", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9180994629859924, "token_count": 442, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cardio and weight training are two important components of well-balanced fitness plans. Knowing which types of exercises fall into which category can help you construct your workouts more effectively, and can give you more options so you don\u2019t get bored with your workouts. When designing your fitness plan, consider adding some stretching and flexibility training. Simply add a few minutes of stretching at the end of your cardio and weight training workouts.\nCardio, or aerobic, exercises require you to move the large muscle groups in your hips, legs and arms. The movement must be continuous and rhythmic, and you must move for a sustained period. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that adults get at least 2 1/2 hours of moderate-intensity cardio exercise each week. Alternately, you can perform an hour and 15 minutes of vigorous cardio exercise. By regularly performing cardio exercise, you can improve your cardiovascular health, manage your weight more easily and enjoy a sense of well-being.\nExamples of Cardio Exercises\nExamples of cardio exercise include basketball, biking, brisk walking, dancing, jogging, jumping rope, rowing, running, swimming, tennis and water aerobics. Even some household chores -- such as mowing the lawn -- can count as cardio. The intensity with which you perform these activities determines whether they are moderate or vigorous. Moderate-intensity cardio exercises will raise your heart rate and make you breathe faster, while still allowing you to talk. When performing vigorous cardio exercises, you will find it difficult to say more than just a few words before pausing to breathe.\nWeight Training Exercises\nIn weight-training exercises, you generally focus on one muscular group at a time, doing enough repetitions of the exercise to tire the muscles. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that adults do weight-training exercises at least twice a week. Ideally, target all your major muscle groups: chest, shoulders, arms, abdomen, back, hips and legs. By performing weight-training exercises, you can build strength in your muscles, increase the amount of lean muscle in your body, manage your weight more easily and lower your risk of injury.\nExamples of Weight-Training Exercises\nYou can perform weight-training exercises with free weights -- dumbbells and barbells. Examples of these exercises include biceps curls and squats. Weight machines offer other options for weight training. You can perform leg presses, standing calf raises, chest flyes and pull-down exercises on these machines. Other types of weight-training exercises require you to move your own body weight. These include triceps dips, situps and pushups. Although technically not weight-training exercises, resistance band exercises offer more options for strength training. You can perform variations on traditional weight-training exercises -- such as biceps curls, lunges, chest flyes and overhead presses -- with these resistance bands.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f10a38f2-0a57-4cdb-9af8-38889e1e30a2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://healthyliving.azcentral.com/examples-cardio-weight-training-exercises-6050.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9368956685066223, "token_count": 586, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\"Earth's north magnetic pole is drifting away from North America and toward Siberia at such a clip that Alaska might lose its spectacular Northern Lights in the next 50 years, scientists said Thursday.\nDespite accelerated movement over the past century, the possibility that Earth's modestly fading magnetic field will collapse is remote. But the shift could mean Alaska may no longer see the sky lights known as auroras, which might then be more visible in more southerly areas of Siberia and Europe.\nThe magnetic poles are part of the magnetic field generated by liquid iron in Earth's core and are different from the geographic poles, the surface points marking the axis of the planet's rotation.\nScientists have long known that magnetic poles migrate and in rare cases, swap places. Exactly why this happens is a mystery.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:ce523f79-8529-46ef-b3cd-13f41acb24f6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hisnibs.blogspot.com/2005/12/earths-magnetic-pole-drifting-quickly.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9384254217147827, "token_count": 159, "score": 3.265625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by Oliver LaM\u00e8re\nretold by Richard L. Dieterle\nWhen the villagers found out about this they went hunting for the raccoon. As hard as he tried, Raccoon could not control his laughter, and soon the villagers found him. After they shot him dead, they took his hide and fastened it to a tree trunk. \nCommentary. \"fell into the lake\" \u2014 raccoons have the odd habit of taking their prey and \"washing\" them in water before eating them. (Few scientists actually believe that they are washing their food, but just what they are doing is a subject of speculation.) Thus the raccoon causes many other animals to take an unwilling bath, in a way that looks like a cruel joke.\n\"Raccoon could not control his laughter\" \u2014 in contemporary America, raccoons are noted for the mischief they cause in invading trash cans to eat discarded food. They generally come out only in the dark when all humans are blind, but the noise they make in the course of this mischief usually gives them away, making it easy for hunters to dispatch them.\n\"a tree trunk\" \u2014 ne other waik\u0105 associates tree trunks with raccoons. The association may derive at least partly from raccoons using the water that collects in tree stumps to emerse their food before eating it. However, there is probably much more to it.\nComparative Material: A Lakota story has some interesting similarities to our Ho\u010d\u0105k tale. One day as Hare was wandering about, he encountered a solitary lodge that looked very much like an oak tree. There inside he found an old man who had gone completely blind. The grandfather told Hare that the Great Spirit had provided for him by giving him bags of food of the very best kind so that he would not be in want; furthermore, a rope path had been constructed to the lake, and another one out into the woods where firewood could be gathered. Hare thought this an idyllic life, and offered to trade his own eyes for the grandfather's lodge. The grandfather warned him, but Hare would not be dissuaded. So the two of them made the trade. Hare loved the easy and tasty food, but had to go to the lake to fetch some water. Unlike the old grandfather, Hare walked briskly and when he stumbled, he pulled half the rope down. Soon he was navigating without any guide and suddenly fell down a slippery slope into the lake. Later he went out to fetch firewood, but broke that rope too, and could not find his way back. So he called upon his brother, who could always hear him, for aid. His brother brought the grandfather back and the traded back again. The old man liked the bow and arrow, but was too feeble to easily use them and was glad to be back to his lodge in the oak tree. \nThe Hidatsa story replaces Raccoon with Coyote. One day Coyote was traveling about when he came across a lodge with a string attached to it leading down to the river bank. There he saw an old man fishing. Inside the lodge was another very old man sleeping. He soon discovered that both these men were blind. The man at the river caught a fish, but Coyote quietly scooped it up and brought it back to the lodge. The other man got up and began to prepare a kettle for the fish he found inside. Meanwhile, the other old man noticed his fish was missing. The second man told him that he had a fish, and that they could share it, but Coyote had taken the fish and eaten everything but the bones, which he threw back into the pot. When they took out the fish, they found only bones. Each accused the other of having eaten it. Coyote swatted each with a hot poker, and they were soon fighting one another. Eventually, they realized that they had been hit with a single stick, but by then Coyote had gone back to the village. \nStories: featuring raccoons as characters: The Abduction and Rescue of Trickster, The Were-fish, Lake W\u0105k\u0161ikhom\u012fgra (Mendota): the Origin of Its Name, The Spirit of Maple Bluff, Bladder and His Brothers, The Raccoon Coat, Trickster and the Mothers; mentioning blind people: A Raccoon Tricks Four Blind Men, Hare Visits the Blind Men, The Raccoon Coat, Big Eagle Cave Mystery, The Roaster, Eats the Stinking Part of the Deer Ankle, Owl Goes Hunting.\nThemes: blindness:The Raccoon Coat, A Raccoon Tricks Four Blind Men, Hare Visits the Blind Men, Big Eagle Cave Mystery, Thunderbird and White Horse; people are led astray by a raccoon: A Raccoon Tricks Four Blind Men, Bladder and His Brothers; people who can't see are misdirected: Trickster Eats the Laxative Bulb; a spirit tricks men into fighting one another: A Raccoon Tricks Four Blind Men, Hare Visits the Blind Men.\n Charles Edward Brown, Moccasin Tales (Madison, Wisc.: State Historical Museum, 1935) 4-5. Informant: Oliver LaM\u00e8re of the Bear Clan.\n Zitkala-\u1e62a, \"Mastin, the Rabbit,\" Old Indian Legends (Lincoln: Univesity of Nebraska Press, 1901) 147-151.\n Mrs. Good Bear, \"38. Coyote and Two Blind Men,\" in Martha Warren Beckwith, Mandan and Hidatsa Tales: Third Series (Poughkeepsie: Vassar College, 1934) 287.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1cd5451f-9df4-4431-b9f7-bdb97779975a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hotcakencyclopedia.com/ho.RaccoonAndBlindmen.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9748005867004395, "token_count": 1179, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Download Full Text (640 KB)\nDecision-making problems in water resources are often associated with multiple objectives and multiple stakeholders. To enable more effective and acceptable decision outcome, it is required that more participation is ensured in the decision making process. This is particularly relevant for flood management problems where the number of stakeholders could be very large. Although application of multi-objective decision-making tools in water resources is very wide, application with the consideration of multiple stakeholders is much more limited. The solution methodologies adapted for multi-objective multi-participant decision problems are generally based on aggregation of decisions obtained for individual decision makers. This approach seems somewhat inadequate when the number of stakeholders is very large, as often is the case in flood management.\nThe present study has been performed to have an overview of existing solution methodologies for multi-objective decision making approaches in water resources. Decision making by single and multiple stakeholders has been considered under both deterministic and uncertain conditions. It has been found that the use of fuzzy set theory to represent various uncertainties associated with decision making situations under multi-objective multiple-participant environment is very promising. Coupled with multi-objective methods (e. g. compromise programming and goal programming), fuzzy approach has also the ability to support group decisions, to reflect collective opinions and conflicting judgments.\nDepartment of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Western Ontario\nLondon, Ontario, Canada\nOverview, Multiple objectives, Multiple stakeholders, Decision-making, Flood management\nCivil and Environmental Engineering\nAkter, Taslima and Simonovic, Slobodan P., \"A General Overview of Multi-objective Multiple-participant Decision Making for Flood Management\" (2002). Water Resources Research Report. Book 4.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5b18e500-d11b-4eb5-a6be-701a29cd8ec5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ir.lib.uwo.ca/wrrr/4/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9200566411018372, "token_count": 352, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Contrary to what you may have heard, acne is not caused by dirty skin. Acne is caused by overactive oil glands in the skin and an accumulation of oil, dead skin cells, and bacteria, which leads to inflammation in pores.\nOil glands become stimulated when hormones become active during puberty, which is why people are likely to get acne in their teens. Because the tendency to develop acne is partly genetic, if other people in your family had (or have) acne, you may be more likely to develop it too.\nAlthough there is no surefire way to prevent acne, try these tips to help reduce the number and severity of your breakouts:\nWashing your skin is essential (it helps remove excess surface oils and dead skin cells that can clog your pores), but washing too much can actually cause damage by overdrying your skin or irritating existing acne.\nRemember to wash after exercising because sweat can clog your pores and make your acne worse. If you work around greasy food or oil or if you've been sweating from heat or because you've been working hard, wash your face and other acne-prone areas as soon as possible.\nIf you use skin products, such as lotions or makeup, look for ones that are noncomedogenic or nonacnegenic, which means that they don't clog pores.\nIf you can't live without your hair spray or styling gel, be sure to keep them away from your face as much as possible. Many hair products contain oils that can make acne worse. Try to use water-based products.\nIf you get acne on areas such as your chest or back, avoid wearing tight clothes, which can rub and cause irritation.\nFor some people, over-the-counter (OTC) products work to help clear up acne. It may take some time to find one that works best for you \u2014 some may not do the trick and others may cause irritation. OTC acne products come in different strengths. The most popular and effective OTC acne-fighting ingredient is benzoyl peroxide. Another ingredient, salicylic acid, can help to dry up pimples.\nIf you find OTC products aren't working for you, it's best to seek a doctor's advice. A doctor can prescribe special gels or creams, pills, or a combination of both. It may feel a bit awkward or embarrassing to talk about your acne with someone, but your doctor is trained to help get your skin looking its best.\nWhat about pimples you already have? It's tempting, but popping or squeezing a pimple usually won't get rid of the problem. Squeezing can actually push infected material and pus further into the skin, which can lead to more swelling and redness (not what you want before a big date!), and even scarring, which can be permanent.\nIf you're taking a prescription acne medication, finish your entire prescription even if your skin clears up, unless your dermatologist says you can stop. If you stop too early, there's a chance your skin could break out all over again.\nEating nutritious foods can help keep you healthy, of course, and your skin will benefit from getting enough vitamins and minerals. But the bottom line is that you don't need to be obsessive about what you eat or how often you wash your face to control acne. If you don't find an OTC product that works for you, talk to your doctor or a dermatologist for some advice on living through the acne years.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dd229a25-4cfa-4ed4-ba81-bf5cd254f650>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=PrimaryChildrensMedicalCenter&lic=5&cat_id=20118&article_set=20281&ps=204", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9639988541603088, "token_count": 717, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\"The Free Application for Federal Student Aid (known as the FAFSA) is a form that can be prepared annually by current and prospective college students (undergraduate and graduate) in the United States to determine their eligibility for student financial aid (including the Pell Grant, Federal student loans and Federal Work-Study).\nDespite its name, the application is not for a single federal program, being rather the gateway of consideration for:\n- the nine federal student-aid programs\n- the 605 state aid programs\n- most of the institutional aid available\" (Wikipedia)\nA searchable list of the school codes used to complete the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA). From the U.S. Department of Education.\n\"Five federal agencies -- U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Education, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, U.S. Small Business Administration, and the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs -- have come together to create this single point of access for federal loan information on the Web.\" Browse or search for loans for farming, businesses, students, disaster relief, and more. Includes a glossary of loan terms and links to additional resources.\"\nThis site from the U.S. Department of Education's Federal Student Aid (FSA) program describes funding and loan repayment considerations relating to attending schools from elementary through graduate. Also find information about preparing for college, selecting a school, and applying to a program. Provides information for students, parents, and counselors. Available in English and Spanish. Searchable.\nShelf Location: Reference LB 2337.4S3536 2010-2012\nShelf Location: Reference LB 2337.2 M663 2010-2012\nShelf Location: Reference LB 2337.2 M667 2010-2012\nShelf Location: Reference LB 2338 S35 2012\nProvides information on financial aid for the student who is completing high school; who is starting or is already enrolled in post-secondary education; who is a graduate student, a post-graduate student, a researcher, or a student of law, medicine, dentistry or veterinary medicine.\nShelf Location: General Collection LB 2338 T36 2012\nResource center for re-entry and nontraditional students, with lots of information about everything from choosing a college to using academic reference materials.\n\"National Security Education Program (NSEP) is a unique scholarship opportunity for U.S. undergraduates to gain knowledge of languages and cultures in areas of the world less frequently studied.\"\nA free website for finding scholarships. This requires an extensive registration.\nThis scholarship application site is for currently enrolled Truman students to apply for scholarships that will be awarded in subsequent semesters at Truman.\nPeterson's Undergraduate Financial Aid Database is a comprehensive source of information about college- administered financial aid sources for undergraduate students. The data elements included describe the kinds of aid these students receive at a given institution, and how much aid of each type\u2014need- based and non-need based (specific characteristics, special talents, or achievements)\u2014is typically awarded, as well as self-help options like work-study jobs and various college-administered loan programs. Also included are data describing aid awarded to the entering freshman class and undergraduate international students. Required financial aid forms and filing deadlines, notification dates, and reply deadlines are also contained in this database.\nThis site has information for Truman students about automatic scholarships; competitive scholarships and scholarship renewal.\nFeatures information about the programs, scholarships, and member colleges of this \"minority higher education assistance organization.\" Include a timeline of the organization, information about scholarships for students attending historically Black colleges and universities, and profiles of member colleges (browsable by name and discipline).\nTel: (660) 785-7417\n= Restricted resource\n= Some full text\n= OpenURL enabled\n= Video files\n= Audio files", "id": "<urn:uuid:55af01f2-9acd-4834-b978-0d7439137c94>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://library.truman.edu/subsplus/subjects/guide.php?subject=fellowships", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9201198816299438, "token_count": 802, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There's big doings down there in Corvallis, Oregon as Oregon State University begins construction on an ambitious $5 million facility to test a \"hot\" new nuclear technology. Although a number of new tech designs incorporating small size and passive water-cooled systems - making them meltdown-proof - have been tested (and Corvallis spinoff NuScale has reportedly begun marketing such modular systems), the design this facilty will test is a new \"superhot\" version, cooled by helium.\nOperating temperature is about 2000 degrees; three times hotter than other nuke plants, but the design precludes meltdowns while producing electricity some 50% more efficiently than current alternatives - with half the waste. Moreover, than can also produce hydrogen for fuel cells, and efficiently desalinate water.\nAnd the apocalyptic Greenies will love this part: it produces zero \"greenhouse gas\" emissions. Better yet, the system's being built in Newberg, Oregon. Sort of like \"farm to fork\" science. Think of the reduction in \"carbon footprint\" achieved by buying locally!\nThere is one teeny problem: the planet's running out of helium, and man-made global warming aside, we're presently too cold to make more of the stuff. If this tech takes off, we may need to send robot ships off-planet to capture and return more.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ea5fcebf-207e-4d42-8fac-30ee90da00db>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://maxredline.typepad.com/maxredline/2013/02/green-energy-at-osu.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9147199988365173, "token_count": 279, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The formation of counties was one of the first matters attended to by the Lords Proprietors  after they received their charter in 1663 from King Charles II for the vast tract of land in America he called the province of Carolina. In 1664 the Proprietors formed \"all that parte of the province which lyeth on the north east side or starboard side entering of the river Chowan now named by us Albemarle River together with the Islands and Isletts within tenn leagues thereof\" into a county that they named Albemarle County  for George Monck, the duke of Albemarle, himself one of the Proprietors. This was the site of the first permanent settlement in Carolina. They then divided the new county into four precincts: Currituck , Perquimans , Pasquotank , and Chowan . Albemarle County was subsequently enlarged, and in 1696 the area south of Albemarle Sound was removed from Albemarle and made into a new county, named Bath, which in turn was divided into the precincts of Beaufort , Hyde , Craven  and Carteret .\nThe primary reason for establishing counties (or precincts) was to provide local seats of government where citizens could record documents, such as deeds or wills, and participate in court proceedings. At the same time, the sheriff was provided with a home base from which to fulfill his basic responsibilities of collecting taxes and maintaining law and order.\nBy 1738 Albemarle and Bath Counties had been dissolved and the 14 precincts then in existence became counties, a designation that has remained since the seventeenth century. Throughout the remainder of the colonial period, as settlement spread westward and population increased, older counties were divided and new ones formed. With statehood came an even greater rate of growth, and by 1800 the number had risen to 59 counties covering all of the state. In many cases, the dividing of counties caused heated political controversy, as eastern counties were often divided to maintain that region's majority in the state legislature against expanding representation from the piedmont and mountain regions. Shifts in population continued throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth century, resulting in even more counties. Larger counties were divided, and those in turn were sometimes divided yet again, until the seemingly magical figure of 100 was reached in 1911. (For a time, the number of counties was actually greater than 100, but some of these were ceded to Tennessee in 1789 and others were absorbed into other counties or never fully developed.) The number remained at 100, although in 1933 the General Assembly authorized the consolidation of existing counties subject to approval of the electorate. This could have resulted for the first time in a decrease from the 100 county figure, but as of the early 2000s there had been no such consolidations.\nInitially, county government and judicial matters were in the hands of justices of the peace , who formed a body known as the Court of Pleas and Quarter Sessions . The justices were appointed by the governor, with strong input from the members of the colonial Assembly from the affected county, leaving the average citizen with no say as to who would run the government of the county in which he lived. At first the Court of Pleas and Quarter Sessions met wherever it was convenient to assemble a quorum, usually in a private home. A 1722 act of the Assembly instructed the justices to pick a site for a permanent seat of government for each precinct, where they were to buy an acre of land and build a courthouse. Whether in the early precinct days, or after the name of the local government entity was changed from precinct to county, the justices had the support of a sheriff for law enforcement, as well as a clerk of court and a register of deeds. Of the three, both the clerk of court and the register of deeds needed to remain in their offices in the courthouse, which left only the sheriff free to travel about the county. Accordingly, he was also designated tax collector, a position sheriffs continued to hold until the latter part of the twentieth century.\nThe general system of county government of the early colonial period, with the appointed members of the Court of Pleas and Quarter Sessions running things, was carried over into statehood, and little changed until the adoption of the North Carolina Constitution of 1868 . The system called for by the new constitution, known as the Township and County Commissioner Plan, gave control of county government to five commissioners, to be elected at large by the county's voters. In addition, each county was divided into townships whose residents elected two justices to serve as the township's governing body, as well as a three-member school committee and a constable. The new system significantly reduced the General Assembly's control of county government, since the legislators no longer appointed the justices of the peace who made up the county court.\nThe Township and County Commissioner Plan, patterned after one previously adopted in Pennsylvania, did not prove universally popular in North Carolina and lasted less than a decade. At a constitutional convention in 1875, the General Assembly was authorized to change the system, and in the session of 1877 townships were reduced to little more than geographic and administrative subdivisions of the counties. This seriously reduced the authority of county commissioners.\nThe modern system of county government, in which an elected board of commissioners is responsible for managing a county's affairs, including setting the rate and collecting taxes and determining where funds should be expended, dates to the early twentieth century. Periodically after that, the General Assembly  conferred additional authority and responsibility on the county commissioners, until at the end of the century they had been provided with such a wide range of \"home-rule\" statutes that many counties found it impossible to run their greatly expanded business without professional help. This led to the adoption by many counties of the County Manager Plan. Under this plan, commissioners employ a county manager to serve as a sort of chief executive of the county business-in some instances, the largest business in the county-with the manager having certain independent authority, including that of hiring and firing employees.\nAs with other matters, the state determines what sources the counties may tap for income. Traditionally, the real estate  tax has been the primary revenue source for North Carolina counties. However, especially in the last half of the twentieth century, counties were able to prevail on the General Assembly to let them collect from a variety of other sources, among those favored being local sales taxes, land transfer taxes, meals taxes, and occupancy taxes.\nA. Fleming Bell, ed., County Government in North Carolina (3rd ed., 1989).\nDavid LeRoy Corbitt, The Formation of the North Carolina Counties, 1663-1943 (1969).\n1 January 2006 | Stick, David", "id": "<urn:uuid:59d1379a-70ad-4360-a62a-5e2f17f7c1b4>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ncpedia.org/print/2268", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9782854318618774, "token_count": 1382, "score": 3.90625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "European Painting before 1900, Johnson Collection\nTriptych showing scenes from the Martyrdom of Saint Barbara and scenes from the Life of Christ\nMaster of the Laufen High Altarpiece, Austrian (active Salzburg), dated work 1467\nOil and gold on panels\nEW1993-127-2a--cPurchased with the W. P. Wilstach Fund, the George W. Elkins Fund, and Museum funds, 1993\nAs described in The Golden Legend, written in about 1267 by Jacopo da Voragine, Saint Barbara converted to Christianity against the wishes of her pagan father. Locked in a tower by him, she ordered workmen to construct a third window inthe building to symbolize the Christian trinity. Enraged, her father turned her over to the Roman authorities for torture, and when her execution was ordered,he himself beheaded her. The left and right panels on the front of this triptychillustrate episodes from Barbara\u2019s gruesome martyrdom.\nThese graphic depictions are intended to help the viewer equate Barbara\u2019s physical torments with those of Christ, whose crucifixion is depicted in the top center composition. The figures at the top left and right, probably the apostles John and Luke, hold sayings taken from the last words of Christ on the cross, which here apply also to Barbara\u2019s death. The bottom center panel shows Barbara enthroned in heaven, wearing a crown and holding a palm frond as symbols of victory over death. A tower and chalice, her identifying attributes, appear nearby.\nBarbara\u2019s martyrdom is paralleled on the reverse by the resurrected Christ standing in the tomb. The left and right panels of the back, which are movable and can be folded shut to appear on the front, show the angel Gabriel announcing the incarnation of Christ to the Virgin Mary.\nSocial Tags [?]austrian [x] gabriel [x] gold [x] martyr [x] three [x] trinity [x] triptych [x] [Add Your Own Tags]\n* Works in the collection are moved off view for many different reasons. Although gallery locations on the website are updated regularly, there is no guarantee that this object will be on display on the day of your visit.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d0c2650c-5237-4c11-985b-4a7f8802ba14>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/103020.html?mulR=10862%7C2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9241554737091064, "token_count": 477, "score": 2.6875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Phlebotomy training is necessary for those individuals who want to develop specialized skills in order to collect blood from the patient with least amount of pain. Phlebotomy training is relatively new specialized procedure for collecting blood from the veins. The demand for trained phlebotomist grew within last two decades. Phlebotomy classes learning has made the procedure of blood collection a very safe and sterile method. Phlebotomy training is very important for those who are willing to get an extremely good job in a reputed hospital, research laboratories, research institutes, etc. This training involves providing guidance for handling and controlling biohazardous materials such as blood sample, unused sterile needles and used needles. Phlebotomy training is all about collecting, testing and transporting the blood samples with getting them spoiled.\nPhlebotomy training classes\nIn Phlebotomy training, the students learns in detail about the human anatomy, creating patient rapport, needle technique, medical safety and the process of keeping the records. In addition to the theoretical knowledge, the student is also given practical training about handling several medical equipments including container of biohazardous waste containers, biohazardous spill kits, syringes of various sizes, dermal puncture devices, vacuum tubes, blood culture bottles, bandages, tapes, tourniquets, looking arm rest, etc. This kind of training can be done in the same way as other medical training programs. Phlebotomy training can be done as 4 year bachelors degree or a two year associate degree. Some hospitals, community colleges, research institutes also provide vocational programs from Phlebotomy training.\nPhlebotomy Training : Work and Salary\nAfter taking Phlebotomy training along with cardiopulmonary resuscitation, a person may get $10 per hour and this amount of salary increases with time and experience of the phlebotomist. It can be up to $30 per hour. The salary figure after a Phlebotomy training depends on the kind of job and the place the person is working on.\nDetails of Phlebotomy training\nPhlebotomy training is done in order to become a certified phlebotomist. Phlebotomy certification is the best certification for a person seeking a good career in hospital field in which a person can help reduce the pain of the patient in taking blood out of patient\u2019s body. It is done through venipuncture. Venipuncture is the process of collecting venous blood which is through anti cubital vein of the forearm. Depending on the test, almost five to six millimeters of blood is extracted from the patient. To take this training there are certain requirements which has to be fulfilled by the candidate. The very basic requirement includes high school graduate or GED. But there a certain other requirements which depends on the institution a person is applying for. The time limit for the training varies from state to state but the basic time limit is mainly 2 to 4 months of sincere training. During the Phlebotomy training, the candidate must do at least 100 unassisted blood withdrawals. Along with blood withdrawals, different uses of instruments are also taught. The candidate must take an entrance test after the training so that the candidate can take phlebotomy certification. Phlebotomy training comprises of theoretical as well as clinical interaction.", "id": "<urn:uuid:54233858-eae5-4f84-be35-59407a1c866d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://phlebotomytrainingschool.com/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9494549632072449, "token_count": 682, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Women who experienced a short but severe decrease in their food intake during the 1944\u20131945 Dutch famine have an increased risk of breast cancer compared with women whose caloric intake was not as greatly affected, according to a study in the April 7 issue of the Journal of the National Cancer Institute.\nSeveral animal studies have found that reducing caloric intake by one-third to one-half for the animals' lifetime prevents various types of cancer, but the implications of short-term caloric restriction are largely unknown. However, reproducing these types of studies in humans raises ethical and practical issues.\nDuring World War II, a famine in the western part of The Netherlands resulted from a food embargo imposed by German authorities. Between 1983 and 1986, about 15,000 women participating in a Dutch breast cancer screening program who were between ages 2 and 33 during the 1944\u20131945 famine responded to a questionnaire about their famine experience. Sjoerd G. Elias, Ph.D., of the Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care at the University Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands, and colleagues used data gathered from these women to study the effects of the famine on subsequent breast cancer risk.\nWomen were given a famine exposure score--absent, moderate, or severe exposure to famine--based on information about hunger, cold, and weight loss. The risk of breast cancer increased with increasing severity of famine exposure. For example, women who experienced severe exposure to famine had a 48% increased risk of breast cancer compared with women who were not affected by the famine. The association between famine exposure and breast cancer risk was highest among women who were between ages 2 and 9 during the famine compared with women exposed at older ages. The risk was also stronger among women who never gave birth compared with women who had children.\nAlthough a mechanism for the increased breast cancer risk among women exposed to short-term famine is unknown, the authors suggest that several endocrine systems may adapt to the extreme conditions of the famine, particularly while such systems are developing in young children, and are consequently inadequately developed to respond to a much higher caloric intake later on in life.\n\"Although the 1944\u20131945 famine is a black page in Dutch history, it provides a unique situation in which to study the long-term consequences of a short but severe famine in humans,\" the authors write.\nSource: Eurekalert & othersLast reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 21 Feb 2009\nPublished on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.\nIt's so hard when I have to, and so easy when I want to.\n-- Annie Gottlier", "id": "<urn:uuid:fa18dd2b-a8dd-4348-b2d1-05311016195d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psychcentral.com/news/archives/2004-04/jotn-etf040104.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9710280895233154, "token_count": 530, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "\u2190 Hinduism Test\n5 Written Questions\n5 Matching Questions\n- Rig Veda\n- a a collection of over two hundred texts composed of between 900 and 200 BC that provide philosophical commentary to the Vedas\n- b pleasure, especially sensual love; one of the four goals of life.\n- c a collections of 1, 017 Sanskrit hymns composed about 1500BC earlier; Hinduism's oldest text.\n- d the lowest of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of servants and laborers.\n- e a wandering ascetic who has advanced to the fourth and highest stage of life.\n5 Multiple Choice Questions\n- an incarnation, or living embodiment, or a deity, usually Vishnu, who is sent to earth to accomplish a divine purpose; Krishna and Rama are the most popular avatars.\n- the third of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of producers, such as farmers, merchants, and artisans.\n- the eternal essence of reality and the source of the universe, beyond the reach of human perception and thought.\n- traditional division of Hindu society into various categories; there are four main varnas; or classes:Brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra; each class contains certain subgroups, resulting in more than three thousand categories.\n- the moral law of cause and effect of actions; determines the nature of one's reincarnation.\n5 True/False Questions\nbhakti marga \u2192 - the most popular of the three Hindu paths to salvation, emphasizing loving devotion to one's chosen god or goddess.\ndharma \u2192 the moral law of cause and effect of actions; determines the nature of one's reincarnation.\nsati \u2192 cosmic illusion brought about by divine creative power.\nbrahmin \u2192 the highest of the four classes of the caste system, traditionally made up of priests.\nAtman \u2192 pleasure, especially sensual love; one of the four goals of life.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2c840f84-d407-4483-a242-3450a637b4cf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://quizlet.com/6875551/test/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8906190991401672, "token_count": 413, "score": 3.375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Wisps Before Craters\nJanuary 31, 2011\nSaturn's ''wispy'' moon Dione lies in front of the cratered surface of the moon Tethys, as seen by the Cassini spacecraft.\nDione is closest to the spacecraft here. At the top of the image, the bright ''wispy'' fractures are visible on Dione (1,123 kilometers, or 698 miles, across). See Dione's Icy Wisps and Highest Resolution View of Dione to learn more. Beyond wispy Dione, the large crater Penelope can be seen near the equator of Tethys (1,062 kilometers, or 660 miles, across). See Penelope Crater for a closer view of Penelope.\nLit terrain seen here is on the trailing hemispheres of the two moons. The image was taken in visible red light with the Cassini spacecraft narrow-angle camera on Dec. 6, 2010.\nThe view was obtained at a distance of approximately 2.1 million kilometers (1.3 million miles) from Dione and at a Sun-Dione-spacecraft, or phase, angle of 75 degrees.\nThe view was obtained at a distance of approximately 2.2 million kilometers (1.4 million miles) from Tethys and at a Sun-Tethys-spacecraft, or phase, angle of 75 degrees. Scale in the original image was 12 kilometers (7 miles) per pixel on Dione and 13 kilometers (8 miles) per pixel on Tethys. The image was contrast enhanced and magnified by a factor of two to enhance the visibility of surface features.\nThe Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate in Washington. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo.\nCredit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute", "id": "<urn:uuid:ec77cc15-10d2-4cb2-b041-e1783d5ff714>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/photos/imagedetails/index.cfm?imageId=4237", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9104049801826477, "token_count": 442, "score": 3.59375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Opossums are marsupial (carries its young in a pouch). They breed in late January or early February (some will breed again in May). Females have one to two litters per year. The average litter size is seven to eight young. The female gives birth to underdeveloped young approximately 13 days after mating. At this stage, the young are about the size of a bumblebee and they must crawl to their mother's pouch where they continue to develop. Young opossums leave the pouch when they are two to three months old but remain near the female so that they can return to her pouch to nurse. By the time they are three months old, they will be weaned and on their own. The ones you found sound like they are recently weaned and on their own (about 3 months old). Sometimes the young will buddy up together for awhile after the female has weaned them and they are on their own. The female is probably not still in the garage, but you could just use a broom to Gently direct her out the door if she's still there. They hiss and show all of their teeth, but opossums are pretty much all show.", "id": "<urn:uuid:01ff31c2-e2fd-4d66-b2c3-561415618ed9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://web.extension.illinois.edu/askextension/thisQuestion.cfm?ThreadID=17900&catID=219&AskSiteID=90", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9879398941993713, "token_count": 241, "score": 3.484375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Search for native plants by scientific name, common name or family. If you are not sure what you are looking for, try the Combination Search or our Recommended Species lists.\nSearch native plant database:\nMarcus, Joseph A.\nTecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth\nYellow bells, Yellowbells, Esperanza, Yellow trumpetbush, Yellow trumpetflower, Trumpetbush, Trumpetflower, Yellow elder\nUSDA Symbol: test\nUSDA Native Status: Native to U.S.\nEsperanza or Yellow bells is an irregularly shaped, deciduous shrub, normally 3-6 ft. tall in the US but more southerly varieties can reach 9 ft. It has several stems and slender, erect branches. Clusters of large, trumpet-shaped, yellow flowers are very showy against the lance-shaped, olive-green leaves. Long, thin pods are conspicuous in autumn. It has an enormous natural range, extending from south Texas west to Arizona and south through Mexico and Central America to South America as far as northern Argentina, as well as in southern Florida south through much of the Caribbean. Plants native to the southwestern US and adjacent Mexico are Tecoma stans var. angustata, which is shorter, more drought-tolerant, and more cold-tolerant than some of the tropical varieties sold in nurseries.\nAnyone who has seen this plant in bloom can understand why one of its names is Yellow bells, as it produces great, attention-grabbing, yellow blossoms. In recent years, it has become a popular landscaping plant, valued as much for its drought-tolerance as for its spectacular appearance.\nBloom InformationBloom Color: Yellow\nBloom Time: Apr , May , Jun , Jul , Aug , Sep , Oct , Nov\nAZ , FL , NM , TX Native Distribution:\nSouth-central Texas west to Arizona, south through Mexico and Central America to South America as far as northern Argentina. Southern Florida south through the Caribbean. Native Habitat:\nHigh elevations, hillsides, slopes, canyons USDA Native Status: L48(N), HI(I), PR(N), VI(N)\nGrowing ConditionsWater Use:\nLow Light Requirement:\nSun , Part Shade Soil Moisture:\nDry CaCO3 Tolerance:\nHigh Drought Tolerance:\nHigh Cold Tolerant:\nWell drained, rocky, limestone, sand, and loam soils Conditions Comments:\nNorth American native\nvarieties of this species can survive winters within their natural range but may die to the ground during especially harsh winters even there. Varieties sold in nurseries may be from tropical stock and not do so well in US cold. Yellow bells is drought tolerant and Southwestern varieties are adapted to monsoon rains with dry spells between. They may flower better if such conditions are emulated in planned landscapes, so allow ground to dry out between waterings. It is tolerant of confinement if containers are at least 12 inches in diameter and thus makes a good potted specimen.\nA showy, attractive, long-blooming accent shrub\nfor rock gardens, perennial\ngardens, and other home landscapes within its range Use Wildlife:\nNectar-insects, bees, hummingbirds. Seeds-Small mammals. Leaves-browsed by mammals. Conspicuous Flowers:\nButterflies , Hummingbirds Larval Host:\nDogface butterfly Nectar Source:\nButterflies and Moths of North America (BAMONA)\nis a larval host and/or nectar source for:\nPropagationPropagation Material: Seeds , Softwood Cuttings\nSeed Collection: Collect late summer to fall after pods are no longer green.\nSeed Treatment: Air dry at room temperature to store over winter. Sow soon after harvest in loose, moist-but-not-soggy, fine soil for quick germination.\nCommercially Avail: yes\nMaintenance: Cut back to the ground if dies back in winter. Prune and pinch spent flowers and pods to encourage blooming and bushiness.\nFrom the National Suppliers Directory\nAccording to the inventory provided by Associate Suppliers, this plant is available at the following locations:\nHill Country Natives\n- Leander, TX\nFrom the National Organizations Directory\nAccording to the species list provided by Affiliate Organizations, this plant is either on display or available from the following:\nLady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center\n- Austin, TXSibley Nature Center\n- Midland, TXNative Plant Society of Texas\n- Fredericksburg, TXTexas Parks and Wildlife Department\n- Austin, TXNPSOT - Fredericksburg Chapter\n- Fredericksburg, TXNPSOT - Austin Chapter\n- Austin, TXNational Butterfly Center\n- Mission, TXNative Seed Network\n- Corvallis, ORNPSOT - Williamson County Chapter\n- Georgetown, TX, TX\nHerbarium Specimen(s)NPSOT 0684\nCollected Nov 22, 1993 in Bexar County by Mike Fox\nRecommended Species Lists\nFind native plant species by state. Each list contains commercially available species suitable for gardens and planned landscapes. Once you have selected a collection, you can browse the collection or search within it using the combination search.\nView Recommended Species page\nRecord Modified: 2010-11-08\nResearch By: LAL, LAS, GDG", "id": "<urn:uuid:62203c08-465b-46f8-af8a-672dc5b9bc7e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wildflower.org/plants/result.php?id_plant=test", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8942734599113464, "token_count": 1137, "score": 3.078125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "It's been said often enough that Hindus celebrate everything. So they do. The birth of gods, death of asuras, victory of the gods, marriage of the gods, the new year, new months, full moons, new moons, harvests, birthdays, initiations, marriages, deaths, anniversaries - you name the event, and it is reason for music, dance, processions, and what have you.\nAnd there is the religious bit lurking behind it all. The reasons for this lie deep, in the origin of Hinduism as an organic religion. Its followers have over time considered anything, animate or inanimate, to be sacred and aspects of divinity.\nThat is also why even secular events like harvests take on religious overtones, with the patron deity presiding over the festivities. As soon as something happens, there is a kind of thanksgiving to the divine that follows it.\nApart from the universally celebrated festivals like Dussehra, Diwali and Ganesh Chaturthi, there are others that are observed in specific communities or geographical areas. Hindu holidays are also confined to particular regions by the importance a certain god enjoys.\nWorship of Kartikeya (as during the festival of Skanda Shashti) is predominant in Tamil Nadu, where the god is considered a patron of the region. Onam is a good example of a festival that is celebrated solely by Keralites. Another interesting aspect of Onam is that it is perhaps the only major Hindu festival that celebrates the reign of an asura king, although a benevolent one.\nThe profusion of legends and the contradictions inherent in them is reflected in festivals too. Travel around the country, and you will hear people tell you a variety of legends involving different gods behind a single festival. Besides, you will also find versions of the same festival being celebrated under different names in different regions.\nAll this adds that facet of unending novelty and constant change to the strikingly colorful kaleidoscope that is India. You might end up thinking the thought: \"The more things change, the more they remain the same\", which is something often said about India and its magical agelessness.\nWith so many holy days and more than 20 major Hindu festivals, the calendar should be liberally sprinkled with them. But it isn't so. There is a distinct festival season, which runs from late August through December. This is when there is a fever of celebrations, with a string of important festivals following one another in a rush.\nBut the major festivals are not the only ones that the people celebrate. Browse through the Hindu almanac, and you will find a mention of holiness or sacredness against almost every day of the year. Most of the lesser festivals are lesser because they have a private rather than public face. There are rituals for phases of the moon, solar and lunar eclipses, days of the week, a person's auspicious star or zodiac sign.\n|11||Thursday||Bikrami Samvat (Hindu New Year)|\n|13||Monday||Akshaya Tritiya/ Akha Teej|\n|21||Wednesday||Rakhi / Raksha Bandhan|\n|28||Wednesday||Sri Krishna Janmashtami|\n|11||Friday||Durga Puja Begins|\n|06||Wednesday||Chhath Puja Begins (Nahai Khai)|\n|08||Friday||Chhath Puja Ends (Suryodaya Argh)|", "id": "<urn:uuid:3cd7d6b3-1c52-47fa-994b-b0bd5f9ac341>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.4to40.com/culture/index.asp?p=Hindu_Festivals_Calendar&k=Deaths", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8950691819190979, "token_count": 722, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Plot Summary of Little Women |\n|\"Little Women is the story of four young girls Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy who grow into being young women during the civil war. The girls are especially self sufficent for the times on their own with their mother. The novel focuses on their growing up and the loss of innocence at the death of Beth. Jo rejects the next door neighbor as a husband and he becomes Amy's husband. \"\nDaniela Lo Presti, Resident Scholar\n|\"The four March sisters, Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy, struggle against poverty with their Marmee while their father is away serving as a doctor during the Civil War.\nThe story charts the childhood games, whims, and lessons of four young girls becoming young women. Jo faces many obstacles familiar to all of us--saying goodbye to her sister Meg when she gets married, saying goodbye to her sister Beth, who dies young, and striving to become something great in the world--a famous writer.\"\nMegan E. Davis, Resident Scholar\n|\"Little Men is the follow-up to Louisa May Alcott's book, Little Women. At the end of Little Women, Jo March inherits her Aunt March's estate, Plumfield. With the help her husband, a German professor, she turns the building into a school. The school has both rich pupils whose parents pay tuition, and pupils taken in a charity cases. Of course, all are treated with the same respect.\nSome of the main characters include the sensitive Nat, tough Dan, saintly Daisy, wise Demi, and beautiful Bess. Fans of Little Women will enjoy learning about the children of some that books characters: Daisy and Demi are Meg's children, and Bess is Amy and Laurie's daughter. There is no overriding conflict besides trying to keep the boys in some kind of order and to educate them.\nKaty Pape, Resident Scholar\n|\"Little Women is the story of four march sisters, Jo, Beth, Meg and Amy who struggle against poverty with their Marmee and grow into reponsible young women, while their father is away working as a doctor during the civil war.\nThe girls show their self sufficience during this period with their mother. This story charts the childhood games, whims and lessons of the four young girls into becoming young women.\nJo faces many challenges from bidding her sister Meg bye when she gets married, saying a painfull bye to her sister Beth who dies young and striving to become someone great who is a famous writer.\"\nTEDDY MOGAKA, Resident Scholar\n|\" Four sisters - Meg, Jo, Beth and Amy - grow up living in poverty, but their family is far more tightly knit and loving than most. The book explores the sisters' relationship with their mother (Marmee), their home-from-the-war father, each other, and friends and acquaintances who are much wealthier than they. Alcott explores the chasm between rich and poor of the era through the friendship of the Alcott's next-door neighbor, Laurie, a boy about Jo's age who becomes her best friend and the means through which two of her sisters find love. \"\nCindy Dashnaw, Resident Scholar\n|Review Analysis of Little Women |\nOur unique search engine provides a wealth of detail about books by breaking them down into many different literary elements, all of which are searchable (click here).\nRatings are on a 1-10 scale (Low to High)\nTone of book?\n- very sensitive (sigh)\nTime/era of story\n- 19th century\nFamily, loving relations\nSpecial relationship with\nIs this an adult or child's book?\n- Adult or Young Adult Book\nGROUP of women story?\n- a teen\nIs this an ordinary person caught up in events?\n- White (American)\nHow sensitive is this character?\n- sensitive to others' feelings\nSense of humor\n- Strong but gentle sense of humor\n- Average intelligence\n- average physique\nHow much descriptions of surroundings?\n- 4 ()\nSmall town people:\n- nice, like Andy/Opie/Aunt Bee\n- mostly 3rd\nAccounts of torture and death?\n- generic/vague references to death/punishment\n- No single main character?\nAmount of dialog\n- roughly even amounts of descript and dialog\n- significantly more descript than dialog", "id": "<urn:uuid:78bf7add-da26-4e47-a04e-9e4fe754b786>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.allreaders.com/Topics/Info_21251.asp", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9530941247940063, "token_count": 916, "score": 2.84375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Vocalisation has been recognised as one of the important modes of animal communication. In one anabantoid fish, the croaking gourami Trichopsis vittata, both sexes produce loud, croaking sounds during agonistic encounters and courtship. It is known that sound emission of this fish is mostly involved with the ritualised portion of the contest, which is likely to convey information between the opponents about their respective strength and status. The sound is produced by a complex mechanism that involves two modified tendons, located behind each pectoral fin. Due to the external position of these soft structures, parasites, sickness, or injury from fights can easily damage the tendons, leading to muteness. Reduction or even loss of the croaking ability may result in a substantial decreasing of the overall fitness. Experiments were designed to test whether or not croaking gouramis can repair damaged tendons and regain fully functional sound producing organs, as well as to evaluate the effect of muting and recovery on the outcomes of agonistic interactions. Fishes were muted by surgically cutting one or both the tendons that connect the \"sonic'' muscle with the fin rays. The occurrence and timing of recovery was evaluated for 30 specimens of T. vittata after surgical muting. Croaking sounds produced by the fish were recorded during staged contests after recovery. Sound from each specimen was previously recorded before and after muting as well, for comparison. The elapsed time of reconnection of each tendon to the relative fin ray was also recorded. Some fishes were found to recover completely within less than 30 days, while others needed up to three months. However, evidence for the beginning of the recovery process was noticed as early as 4 days after operation. Behavioural performance after recovery was normal. Details of sounds produced and changes of behavioural repertoires are discussed (supported by National Organization for Hearing Research, NIMH-58198, Institute of Museum and Library Service-LL90187).\nNicola Novarini, Tomonari Akamatsu & Hong Y. Yan (2002). Effects of muting and recovery on sound production in the croaking gourami Trichopsis vittata (Pisces: Anabantoidei) [abstract]. Bioacoustics 13(2): 202-203", "id": "<urn:uuid:bafd458e-5038-40d8-ba3a-0f4ec4e3a901>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bioacoustics.info/article/effects-muting-and-recovery-sound-production-croaking-gourami-trichopsis-vittata-pisces", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9719419479370117, "token_count": 469, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Yet the experience of that year was not lost. It was the first instance of a company of settlers in that northern climate passing the winter without illness, discord or trouble with the Indians. Later, in the little new settlements of Quebec and Montreal, some of the colonists met again under the wise and kindly rule of Champlain. Little Helene lived to bring her own roses to a garden in New France, and teach Indian girls the secrets which old Jacqueline taught her. And it is recorded in the history of the voyageurs, priests and adventurers of France in the New World that wherever they went they were apt to take with them seeds and plants of wholesome garden produce, which they planted along their route in the hope that they might thus be of service to those who came after them.\nAmsterdam\u2019s the cradle\nwhere the race was rocked\u2014\nAll the ships of all the world to her harbor flocked.\nRosy with the sea-wind, solid, stubborn, sweet,\nPlayed the children by canals, up and down the street.\nNeltje, Piet and Hendrik, Dirck and Myntje too,\u2014\nLittle Nick of Leyden sailed his wooden shoe.\n\u201cQuarter-deck and cabin\u2014rig\nThus he murmured wisely as he launched his craft.\n\u201cCutlass, pike and musquetoun, howitzer and shot\u2014\nBut our knives and mirrors and beads are worth the lot.\u201d\nRoom enough for cargo to last a year or two,\nIn the round amidships of a wooden shoe!\nBobbing on the waters of the\nSee the bantam galleot, short and broad and high.\nLaden for the Indies, trading all the way,\nFrank and shrewd and cautious, fiery in a fray,\u2014\nSagamore and mandarin are all the same to you,\nLittle Nick of Leyden with your wooden shoe!\nTHE FIRES THAT TALKED\nAll along the coast of Britain, from John o\u2019 Groat\u2019s to Beachey Head, from Saint Michael\u2019s Mount to Cape Wrath, twinkled the bonfires on the headlands. Henry Hudson, returning from a voyage among icebergs, guessed at once what this chain of lights meant. The son of Mary Queen of Scots had been crowned in London.\nHudson\u2019s keen eyes were unusually grave and thoughtful as the Muscovy Duck sailed up to London Pool on the incoming tide. The sailors looked even more sober, for most of them were English Protestants, with a few Flemings, and John Williams the pilot was an Anabaptist. It was he who asked the question of which all were thinking.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cc12c454-72a9-4ff7-9ae7-3fbcff68c3ba>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bookrags.com/ebooks/18038/143.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9663041234016418, "token_count": 565, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Technical Report on CDC Guidance for Responses to Influenza for Institutions of Higher Education during the 2009-2010 Academic Year\nThis website is archived for historical purposes and is no longer being maintained or updated. For updated information on the current flu season, see the CDC Seasonal Flu website.\nFebruary 22, 2010 2:00 PM ET\nCDC has released guidance to help decrease the spread of influenza (flu) among students, faculty, and staff of Institutions of Higher Education (IHE) and post-secondary educational institutions during the 2009-2010 academic year. The guidance expands upon earlier guidance for these settings by providing a menu of tools that IHE and health officials can choose from based on conditions in their area. It recommends actions to take now (during this academic year), suggests strategies to consider if flu severity is increasing compared with April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak, and provides a checklist for making decisions. Based on the severity of 2009 H1N1 flu-related illness thus far, this guidance also recommends that students, faculty, and staff with flu-like illness remain home until 24 hours after resolution of fever without the use of fever-reducing medicines. For the purpose of this document, IHE is used to refer to public and private, residential and nonresidential, degree-granting and non-degree-granting institutions providing post-secondary education in group settings regardless of the age of their students. Portions of this guidance pertaining to dormitories and residence halls may be useful for residential (boarding) schools providing primary and secondary education, with adaptations as needed for their younger population. This guidance represents CDC\u2019s current thinking on this topic. It does not create or confer any rights for or on any person or operate to bind the public.\nThis Technical Report includes a more in depth explanation of the strategies presented in the CDC Guidance for Responses to Influenza for Institutions of Higher Education during the 2009-2010 Academic Yearand gives suggestions on how to use them. The guidance is designed to decrease exposure to regular seasonal flu and 2009 H1N1 flu while limiting the disruption of day-to-day activities and the vital learning that goes on in Institutions of Higher Education (IHE).\nMore than 17 million students attend the 4,300 degree-granting post-secondary institutions in the United States and more than 3 million people work as faculty and staff. An additional 2,222 non-degree-granting institutions offer vocational post-secondary education. IHEs are extremely varied and include:\n- Public and private institutions\n- Residential and nonresidential institutions\n- Degree-granting and non-degree-granting institutions\n- Educational or training programs that last from a few weeks to 4 or more years\n- Student population sizes ranging from fewer than one hundred to tens of thousands\n- Community colleges and vocational education and training programs that serve their local communities\n- Colleges and universities with students from across the country and around the world\nInstitutions will need to tailor the guidelines to their own unique circumstances, taking into account the size, diversity and mobility of their student body, faculty, and staff; their location and physical facilities; programs; and student and employee health services.\nDecisions about which strategies to implement should balance the goal of reducing the number of people who become seriously sick or die from flu with the goal of minimizing educational and social disruption.\nIHEs should examine and revise, as necessary, their current crisis or pandemic plans and procedures, including updating contact information for students, their families, faculty, and staff. Communication plans should be shared with students, their families, faculty, and staff before an outbreak so that they know how the IHE will contact them and what types of information to expect. Establishing mechanisms to contact students\u2019 families in the event of a flu outbreak on campus, or to notify them that their student is sick, may decrease the number of inquiries coming into the IHE and therefore the burden on IHE staff.\nIHEs also should communicate with vendors who supply critical products or services to plan for continuation of those services throughout the flu season. Critical services may include food service, hygiene supplies, security, and personal protective equipment for staff. This planning is especially important when suppliers may be small businesses in the local area that could also be affected by a flu outbreak. Visit http://www.flu.gov/plan/school/collegeschecklist.html for the Colleges and Universities Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist.\nThe purpose of this document is to provide updated guidance for reducing the spread of flu in IHEs. We provide recommendations for the 2009-2010 flu season, assuming that severity of illness is similar to what was seen during April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, as well as recommendations that could be added if the severity of illness worsens. Flu is unpredictable. CDC will continue to monitor the spread of flu, the severity of the illness it is causing, and for possible changes in flu viruses; CDC will provide periodic updates of these assessments. If the information CDC gathers indicates that flu is causing more severe disease than during April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, or if other developments indicate more aggressive mitigation measures should be taken, CDC may recommend additional strategies.\nFlu Symptoms, Transmission, and Risk:\nSymptoms of flu can include fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, headache, chills, and fatigue, and sometimes diarrhea and vomiting. People may be infected with the flu, including 2009 H1N1 flu and have respiratory symptoms without a fever. Like seasonal flu, 2009 H1N1 flu infection in humans can vary in severity from mild to severe. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/H1N1flu/qa.htm for more information on flu symptoms.\nLike seasonal flu, the 2009 H1N1 flu virus is spread mainly from person to person through coughs or sneezes of infected individuals. People may also become infected by touching something \u2013 such as a surface or object \u2013 with flu virus on it and then touching their mouth, nose, or eyes.\nSome people are at higher risk than others for serious complications from flu.\nThese people include:\n- children younger than 5 years old, but especially children younger than 2 years old\n- people aged 65 years or older\n- pregnant women\n- adults and children who have:\n- neurological and neurodevelopmental conditions\n- chronic lung disease\n- heart disease\n- blood disorders\n- endocrine disorders (such as diabetes)\n- kidney, liver, and metabolic disorders\n- weakened immune systems due to disease or medication\n- people younger than 19 years of age who are receiving long-term aspirin therapy\nFor more information on people at high risk for flu complications, visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/highrisk.htm.\nThe most important things IHEs can do are to encourage flu vaccination for all those recommended for vaccination; suggest early treatment for people at higher risk for flu complications; facilitate use of respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene by students, faculty, and staff; and to separate sick and well people as soon as possible. Administrators should frequently remind students, faculty, and staff about the importance of these. Educational materials (for example, posters) to enhance compliance with recommendations should be visible in the IHE setting. Examples of these materials are available at http://www.cdc.h1n1flu/flyers.htm. There are many ways to employ these strategies; not all can be described in this document. The following recommendations provide a framework to determine the most appropriate and feasible strategies for each IHE.\nIsolating sick people is a critical strategy for addressing 2009 H1N1 flu for two reasons: (1) 2009 H1N1 flu may result in more serious complications for people at higher risk for flu complications and these measures help protect these people (see list below); and (2) a widespread pandemic may result in many more hospitalizations and medical care visits than usually associated with seasonal flu. Measures to limit the spread of flu, if effective, may reduce demand on the healthcare system. Other measures, such as suspending classes, are recommended for conditions of increased flu severity, but might also be necessary during periods of increased flu activity with the same severity as during April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak in the community, on a case-by-case basis, if the IHE is not able to maintain normal functioning.\nIHEs should review, and revise if necessary, their current crisis or pandemic plans and procedures; develop contingency plans to cover key positions when staff are absent from work; update contact information for families and staff; and share their plans with students, faculty, staff, and community. Administrators should review and revise, if necessary, their sick leave policies to remove barriers to faculty and staff staying home while sick or to care for a sick family member. For students, IHEs may consider altering policies on missed classes and examinations and late assignments so that students\u2019 academic concerns do not prevent them from staying home when sick or prompt them to return to class or take examinations while still symptomatic and potentially infectious. Do not require a healthcare provider\u2019s note for students, faculty, or staff to validate their illness or to return to work, as healthcare provider offices and medical facilities may be extremely busy and may not be able to provide such documentation in a timely way. Distance learning or web-based learning may also help students maintain self-isolation. IHEs should determine quantities of supplies and space needed to facilitate self-isolation for example, hygiene supplies, masks and other personal protective equipment.\nIHEs should take opportunities at the beginning of campus events to remind attendees about the importance of self-isolation when sick; early evaluation by a healthcare provider for those who become sick, especially for people at higher risk for flu complications; respiratory etiquette; and hand hygiene. Educational materials such as posters and flyers to enhance compliance with recommendations should be visible throughout the campus. Information and links to credible sources should be posted on the IHE website. Examples of these materials are available at www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu.\nThe recommendations that follow are divided into two groups: 1) recommendations to use now, during this academic year, assuming a similar severity to April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, and 2) recommendations to consider adding if the flu begins to cause more severe disease.\nRecommended strategies to use now, for flu conditions with severity similar to April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak\nEncourage vaccination against the flu:\nThe best way to protect against the flu is to get vaccinated. The vaccine for seasonal flu is produced every year. Groups that should be vaccinated against seasonal flu include: everyone 6 months through 18 years of age; all people 50 years of age and older; women who will be pregnant during flu season; people age 18 through 49 with certain medical conditions that put them at higher risk for flu complications; healthcare workers; and household contacts and caregivers of people who are at increased risk of severe illness from flu, including children less than 5 years of age, pregnant women, people 65 and older, and anyone with certain medical conditions.\nFacilitate self-isolation of residential students with flu-like illness in their residence halls, dormitory rooms, the campus health service, or other locations, and help them stay away from others for the full recommended period:\nPromote self-isolation at home by non-resident students, faculty, and staff:\nEmphasize respiratory etiquette:\nFlu viruses are thought to spread mainly from person to person in respiratory droplets of coughs and sneezes. This can happen when droplets from a cough or sneeze of an infected person are propelled through the air and deposited on the mouth or nose or are inhaled by people nearby. CDC recommends covering the nose and mouth with a tissue when coughing or sneezing and throwing the tissue in the trash after use. Wash hands promptly after coughing or sneezing. If a tissue is not immediately available, coughing or sneezing into one\u2019s elbow or shoulder (not into one\u2019s hand) is recommended. To encourage respiratory etiquette, students, faculty and staff should have access to tissues and must be educated about the importance of respiratory etiquette, including keeping hands away from the face.Visit: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/covercough.htm for more information on respiratory etiquette.\nPromote hand hygiene:\nPerform and encourage routine environmental cleaning:\n- Doorknobs, handrails, elevator buttons\n- Desks, tables, chairs\n- Counters and surfaces in cafeterias, meeting rooms, and offices\n- Remote controls\n- Telephone receivers and touch-tone pads\n- Promote early treatment of students and staff at higher risk for flu complications:\n- Discourage the public and visitors with flu-like illness from attending IHE events until they have been free of fever for at least 24 hours:\n- Considerations for specific student populations:\n- Students studying abroad:\n- Early/Middle College students:\n- Students with disabilities:\n- Sports teams, bands, and other large student groups:\n- Health-care profession students:\nPermit students, faculty, and staff at higher risk for flu complications to stay home:\nIncrease social distances:\nIf flu severity increases, IHEs should explore innovative methods for increasing social distances while continuing to meet their educational mission. The goal should be for there to be at least 6 feet of distance between people at most times. This is not a simple or easy strategy and would typically require considerable flexibility. Possible options to increase the amount of space between students include moving desks farther apart, leaving vacant seats between students, holding classes outdoors, and using distance learning methods.\nAt an increased level of severity, IHEs should consider whether to suspend or modify public events such as lectures, films, concerts, sporting events, worship services, and commencement or baccalaureate ceremonies. IHEs could also discourage large gatherings that are not sponsored by the IHE, such as fraternity parties.\nConsider postponing campus events:\nExtend the self-isolation period:\nConsider suspending classes:\n- Large gatherings:\n- Residential students:\n- Resuming classes:\n- CDC will continue to work with state and local partners to monitor the spread and severity of flu illness, monitor for changes in circulating flu viruses that may confer increased severity of disease, identify promising methods for reducing morbidity and mortality, assist state and local health and education agencies to implement those methods and evaluate their effectiveness, and provide timely updates on new scientific findings as well as additional guidance as the conditions warrant.\n- The U.S. Department of Education (ED) will collaborate with federal, state, and local agencies as well as non-governmental entities to disseminate new guidance, provide support to state education agencies, and work with states to provide flexibility in regulations around funding.\n- IHEs should:\n- Work with state and local public health and education agencies to decide which strategies to implement and when, collect and share data, and disseminate emerging guidance.\n- Establish collaborative relationships with local colleges of medicine, hospitals, urgent care centers, and emergency departments.\n- Assure campus health services have established plans for triage, treatment, vaccination, and education of students.\n- Examine and revise, as necessary, their current crisis or pandemic plans and procedures.\n- Examine and revise, as necessary, sick leave policies for faculty and staff to allow them to stay home when sick and policies on missed classes and examinations and late assignments so that students\u2019 academic concerns do not prevent them from staying home when sick.\n- Serve as resources for their students, parents, faculty, staff, visitors, and wider communities by providing education about ways to reduce the spread of flu.\n- Students, faculty, and staff must take personal responsibility for staying home when sick and practicing respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene.\n- Identify the decision-makers. In some communities, local and state health, education, and homeland security agencies may have relevant decision-making responsibilities. Public IHEs will have different types of decision-makers than private institutions.\n- Identify the stakeholders. Stakeholders will vary between IHEs, but may include: staff from campus health services and mental health services, emergency management, student affairs, residential life, security, communications, physical plant operations, and food service; students; faculty; other staff; community representatives; and students\u2019 families.\n- Do you have a process for regular input and collaboration on decisions?\n- Are there strong, open communication channels between decision-makers and stakeholders? Does this include frequent information sharing?\n- Do you regularly review your crisis and pandemic plans? Do you revise as needed?\n- What is the severity and extent of spread of the disease in the state or locality? How many people are making outpatient visits for flu-like illness? How many people are being hospitalized for flu-like illness? Are the numbers of hospitalizations or deaths increasing? What percent of these hospitalized patients require admission to intensive care units? How many flu deaths have occurred in the community? Are some groups being disproportionately affected?\n- How busy are local healthcare providers and emergency departments? How many visits are they getting for flu-like illness? Are they able to meet the increased demand for care from people with flu-like illness? Are local healthcare providers or emergency departments becoming overburdened?\n- Are the hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) beds full with flu patients? Is there available space in the ICUs? Are there enough ventilators?\n- Do the hospitals have enough staff to provide care? Is there increasing absenteeism in healthcare workers due to flu-like illness in themselves or their family members?\n- Is there enough antiviral medicines in the community to treat sick patients at higher risk for flu complications?\n- What are the plans for seasonal and 2009 H1N1 flu vaccination clinics?\n- What are student absenteeism rates? Rates for faculty? Staff?\n- How busy is the campus health service? How many visits are they getting for flu-like illness? Are they able to meet the increased demand for care from people with flu-like illness? Are beds available for students who need to self-isolate?\n- What resources are available? Do you have access to the funds, personnel, equipment, and space needed?\n- How long will the strategies take to implement? How long can the strategies be sustained?\n- Are changes to policy needed? How feasible are these changes?\n- How can you most clearly communicate with the IHE community about steps students, faculty, staff, and students\u2019 families need to take and the reasons for recommendations?\n- How are public concerns affecting the community? Are rumors circulating about the flu? About the strategies you are considering? What can you do to counter false rumors?\n- What can you do to empower personal responsibility for protective actions? What can you do to increase buy-in?\n- Will the community support the strategies under consideration? What can you do to increase support?\n- What secondary effects (for example, job security, financial support, health service access, and educational progress) might result from the strategies under consideration? Can these secondary effects be mitigated?\nVaccination to protect against the 2009 H1N1 flu virus should be encouraged. CDC\u2019s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) has recommended that initial doses of the 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine be prioritized for 5 primary target groups: pregnant women, people who live with or care for children younger than 6 months of age, healthcare and emergency medical services personnel, people age 6 months through 24 years, and people age 25 through 64 years who have certain medical conditions that put them at higher risk for flu complications. Due to increased vaccine availability, everyone, including those over age 65 years, can now be vaccinated.\nStudents and staff should be encouraged to receive the seasonal flu vaccine and the 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine. For more information on the ACIP recommendations, visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr58e0821.pdf.\nIHEs should contact their local health officials to determine where vaccine will be administered and to discuss the possibility of a vaccination clinic at the IHE.\nCDC recommends that individuals with flu-like illness remain at home and away from other people until at least 24 hours after they are free of fever (100\u00b0 F [37.8\u00b0 C] or greater when measured orally), or signs of a fever, without the use of fever-reducing medicines. If possible, residential students, faculty, or staff members who live relatively close to the campus should return to their home to keep from making others sick. Those leaving the IHE to go to a private home to recuperate should be instructed to do so in a way that limits contact with others as much as possible. For example, travel by private car or taxi would be preferable over use of public transportation.\nWhile the campus infirmary would be an ideal location for sick people, few IHEs have them and such facilities could be rapidly overwhelmed during a flu outbreak. Students with single rooms and private bathrooms should stay in their rooms. Students living in suite-type living quarters should remain in their own rooms and receive care and meals from a single person, if possible. Students could be asked to establish a \u201cflu buddy scheme\u201d in which students pair up as the identified caregiver if one or the other becomes sick. Sick students should limit their contact with others and, to the extent possible, maintain a distance of 6 feet from people with whom they share living space. Shared bathrooms should be avoided or receive frequent cleaning. If close contact with others cannot be avoided, CDC recommends people with known, probable, or suspected flu or flu-like illness to use a facemask if available and tolerable, or otherwise to cover their noses and mouths with a tissue when coughing or sneezing (or an elbow or shoulder if no tissue is available). For those caring for people with flu-like illness, CDC has recommendations for use of personal protective equipment. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/masks.htm for information on appropriate personal protective equipment.\nClose contact, for the purposes of this document, is defined as having cared for or lived with a person with flu-like illness or being in a setting with a high likelihood of contact with respiratory droplets and/or body fluids of such a person. Close contact typically does not include activities such as walking by an infected person or sitting across from a symptomatic patient in a waiting room or office.\nFor those who cannot leave campus, and who do not have a private room, IHEs may consider providing temporary, alternate housing where those who are sick can stay until 24 hours after they are free of fever. When logistically necessary, because sick students do not need to stay away from other sick students, some IHEs have considered temporarily converting a gym or other large space to housing for sick people. Local emergency management agencies might be able to assist with planning and arranging for necessary equipment, such as sleeping cots. Locations should have good access to bathrooms (which ideally should not be shared with well people) and security services; meals and medicines (if indicated) should be provided. Internet access might allow students to continue their class work when feeling better but still self-isolating. Some IHEs have explored pre-arranging contracts with hotels or local landlords for temporary use of off-campus space.\nIHEs should establish a method for maintaining contact with students who are in self-isolation. If resources permit, student affairs, housing staff, or healthcare providers (for example, nurses or nursing assistants) could be assigned to make daily contact with each student who is in self-isolation for flu-like illness in a dormitory or other university residential setting. For some IHEs, residential advisors also may serve this function. Possible contact methods include e-mail, text messaging, phone calls, or room visits. Sick students should be provided guidance that reinforces hygiene and self-isolation. Some IHEs may choose to also check on roommates, suitemates, and others who come in close contact with the sick person to determine if they have also fallen sick.\nStudents should be instructed to promptly seek medical attention if they have a medical condition that places them at higher risk for flu complications, are concerned about their illness, or develop severe symptoms. Severe symptoms include increased fever, shortness of breath, chest pain or pressure, rapid respirations, cyanosis (bluish skin color), vomiting, dizziness, or confusion. Campus health services can communicate to the IHE community about these symptoms, how to contact health services, and groups of people at higher risk for flu complications.\nGuidance for caring for flu patients in the home can be applied in the dormitory or residence hall as well. Visit: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance_homecare.htm for more information on caring for sick people in the home.\nStudents, faculty, and staff should be vigilant in identifying people who appear to be sick. These individuals should be encouraged by anyone who encounters them to self-isolate and to talk with a healthcare provider about whether they have flu, appropriate treatment, and actions to take if they experience severe symptoms.\nCDC recommends that individuals with flu-like illness remain at home until at least 24 hours after they are free of fever (100\u00b0 F [37.8\u00b0 C] or greater), or signs of a fever, without the use of fever-reducing medicines. If possible, students, faculty, and staff with flu-like illness should be asked to stay at home or at a friend or family member\u2019s home and avoid contact with other people until at least 24 hours after they are free of fever. Students leaving the IHE to go to a private home to recuperate should be instructed to do so in a way that limits contact with others as much as possible. For example, travel by private car or taxi would be preferable over use of public transportation. If he or she can tolerate it, the sick person should wear a facemask while in close contact with others.\nVisit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance/exclusion.htm for more information on staying home while sick.\nFlu may spread via contaminated hands or inanimate objects that become contaminated with flu viruses. CDC recommends that students, faculty, and staff be encouraged to wash their hands often with soap and water, especially after coughing or sneezing. If soap and water are not available, alcohol-based hand rubs can also be used. However, hand rubs should not be used when hands are visibly soiled.\nSoap and paper towels are critical for proper hand washing and should be readily available throughout the campus. IHEs should educate all students, faculty, and staff about good hand hygiene through direct education as well as posting and disseminating communications materials such as signs, posters, and flyers.\nVisit: www.cdc.gov/cleanhands for more information on hand hygiene.\nPromote routine cleaning of frequently touched surfaces, and ensure adequate supplies of soap and paper towels. Provide no-touch wastebaskets and empty them frequently. Establish regular schedules for frequent cleaning of high-touch surfaces:\nProvide disposable wipes so that commonly used surfaces can be wiped down by students before each use. High-use surfaces include:\nEncourage students to frequently clean their living quarters. Students living together should regularly clean frequently used surfaces such as doorknobs, refrigerator handles, remote controls, computer keyboards, countertops, faucet handles, and bathroom areas.\nIHEs should ensure that custodial staff and others who use cleaners or disinfectants read and understand all instruction labels and understand safe and appropriate use. Instructional materials and training should be provided in languages other than English as locally appropriate. CDC does not believe any additional disinfection of environmental surfaces beyond the recommended routine cleaning is required.\nThe EPA provides a list of EPA-registered products effective against flu: http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/influenza-disinfectants.html\nPeople at higher risk for flu complications who become sick with flu-like illness should speak with their healthcare provider as soon as possible to determine if they need antiviral treatment. It\u2019s very important that antiviral drugs be used early to treat flu in people who are very sick (for example people who are in the hospital) and people who are sick with flu and have a greater chance of getting serious flu complications. Other people may also be treated with antiviral drugs by their doctor this season. CDC recommends that IHEs encourage sick students, faculty, and staff at higher risk for flu complications to seek early treatment.\nStudents and staff at higher risk for flu complications who have had close contact with others who are sick with a flu-like illness should contact their healthcare provider to discuss whether they may need to take antiviral medicines.\nPeople on antiviral treatment may still shed flu viruses and therefore may still transmit the virus to others. These flu viruses may develop resistance to antiviral medicines. To lessen the chance of spreading flu viruses that are resistant to antiviral medicines, people on antiviral treatment should remain in self-isolation according to the current recommendations and adhere to good respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene.\nVisit: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/recommendations.htm for more information on antiviral medicines.\nIHE events that draw the public and other visitors, such as football games or concerts, may pose a high risk of exposure and transmission of flu. IHEs should use a variety of communication methods such as e-mail, posters, flyers, and media coverage to discourage people with flu-like illness from attending these events until they have been free of fever for at least 24 hours without the use of fever-reducing medicines and to encourage adherence to respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene. Materials should be made available in the language(s) spoken by the IHE community, including those for whom English is not their primary language. IHEs can also look for ways to modify these events to reduce close contact and increase distances between participants and may need to consider cancelling if modification is not possible and there is a high level of flu activity in the community.\nIHEs should review their policies for study abroad programs, including how students can access health services abroad, how illness will be reported to the IHE, access to resources for students abroad who are unable to travel back to the U.S., and any legal liability issues. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/travel for more information on considerations for travel.\nIHE plans and policies should consider high school students taking college classes for credit; students and families touring the IHE; and other K-12 students who regularly come to campus. IHEs should communicate with their partner K-12 schools about their plans, policies, and strategies they are implementing.\nMore than 11% of undergraduates reported some type of disability in 2003-2004; 7.5% of these students reported a specific learning disability. IHEs should determine if they need to use special communication strategies for these students.\nIHEs should review their policies for sports teams, bands, and other large groups of students who spend a great deal of time together in close proximity. IHEs may need to consider cancelling or postponing travel to off-campus events if there is a high level of flu activity in the community.\nIHEs that train healthcare professionals such as physicians, dentists, and nurses represent environments with the potential for greater exposure and to amplify transmission to populations at higher risk for flu complications. Students in the heath care professions who spend any time in a clinical setting should be reminded to self-monitor for symptoms of flu-like illness, practice respiratory etiquette and good hand hygiene, and use appropriate personal protective equipment. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/clinicians for guidance for healthcare settings.\nRecommended strategies to add in the event of increased flu severity compared to April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak\nCDC will work with state and local health departments to continue to assess the severity of illness caused by 2009 H1N1 flu and disseminate the results of these ongoing assessments. If global, national, or regional risk assessments indicate an increased level of severity compared with the April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, CDC will consider the need to recommend additional strategies.\nDecisions to add strategies should be based on information on the severity of illness reported in global, national, and regional assessments, local goals, epidemiology, and healthcare system capacity, bearing in mind the feasibility and acceptability of the strategies being considered. The following strategies use a variety of methods for increasing social distance, while attempting to maintain operability of most IHEs. Feasibility and acceptability of these strategies will vary considerably. Although the following strategies have not been scientifically tested in the IHE setting, they are grounded on basic principles of infection control. Implementing these strategies is likely to be more difficult and to have more disruptive effects than the previously described strategies. These strategies should be considered if flu severity increases and are meant for use in addition to the strategies outlined above.\nIf flu severity increases, students, faculty, and staff at higher risk for flu complications may consider staying home while flu transmission is high in their community. Such people should make this decision after consulting with their healthcare provider. People who elect to stay home should also attempt to decrease their exposure in other ways -- for example, by avoiding large public gatherings.\nIHEs should consult with their boards and legal counsel about policy accommodations that might be necessary. For example, IHEs might be able to make provisions for distance learning methods such as conference calls and internet-based lessons or students at higher risk for flu complications might be allowed to withdraw for the semester without penalty. Sick leave policies might be tailored to address the needs of faculty and staff at higher risk for flu complications. Work responsibilities and locations potentially could be modified to keep people at higher risk for flu complications from coming into contact with potentially sick individuals. To the extent possible, telecommuting and distance learning could be made more widely available.\nAt an increased level of severity, IHEs should consider whether to suspend or modify public events such as lectures, films, concerts, sporting events, worship services, and commencement or baccalaureate ceremonies. IHEs could also discourage large gatherings that are not sponsored by the IHE, such as fraternity parties.\nIf flu severity increases, individuals with flu-like illness should self-isolate at home for at least 7 days after symptom onset, even if symptoms resolve sooner. Individuals who are still sick 7 days after they become sick should continue to self-isolate until at least 24 hours after symptoms have resolved.\nThis recommendation is based on viral shedding information. Flu virus shedding generally occurs for 5 to 7 days for seasonal flu infection. Longer periods of exclusion of people who have flu symptoms also may be considered based on setting- and population-specific characteristics.\nSee information above for self-isolation for residential and non-residential students.\nVisit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance/exclusion.htm for more information about staying home while sick.\nCDC recommends that IHEs review and revise, as necessary, pandemic flu plans that can be readily implemented if flu severity increases. Officials should balance the risks of flu in their community with the disruption suspending classes will cause in both education and the wider community. IHE officials should work closely and directly with their local and state public health officials to revise their plans, to make sound decisions based on local conditions, and to implement strategies in a coordinated manner. When IHEs suspend classes, they should use multiple channels to communicate a clear message about their reasons for doing so and the implications for the students, faculty, staff, and the community.\nReactive class suspension might be appropriate when IHEs are experiencing high rates of absenteeism due to flu-like illness among students, faculty, or staff, when a large number of students are visiting campus health services for flu-like illness, or when the IHE is not able to maintain normal functioning due to severe flu conditions in the community.\nPreemptive class suspension can be used to decrease the spread of flu virus or to reduce demand on the healthcare system. IHEs might be asked to suspend classes to decrease the spread of flu virus if global, national, or regional risk assessments indicate an increased level of severity compared with the April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak. Suspending classes is likely to be more effective in decreasing the spread of flu virus in the community when used early in relation to the appearance of the virus in the community and when used in conjunction with other strategies.\nIHEs should consider whether they can allow faculty and staff to continue to use their facilities while classes are not being held. Keeping facilities open may allow faculty to develop lessons and materials, to continue teaching through distance learning methods, to advise students using methods such as telephone calls and e-mail, and to engage in other essential activities, such as research projects.\nVisit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/vaccination for more information on the 2009 H1N1 flu vaccination. If an increase in community-wide transmission occurs shortly before vaccine-induced immunity is anticipated, or before a scheduled break, some IHEs may consider suspending classes temporarily.\nIf classes are suspended preemptively, other large gatherings should be cancelled or postponed. This would include sporting events, dances, performances, commencement ceremonies, and other events that bring large groups of people into close proximity with one another. Large gatherings might also need to be cancelled, postponed, or modified during a reactive class-suspension period.\nIHEs with residential students should plan for ways to continue essential services such as meals, custodial services, security, and other basic operations for students who remain on campus. When possible, dismiss students, faculty, and staff who can drive home or who can go to the nearby home of a relative, close friend of the family, or an international student\u2019s host family. Students leaving the IHE should be instructed to do so in a way that limits contact with others as much as possible. For example, travel by private car or taxi would be preferable over use of public transportation. International students and others who do not have easy access to alternative housing should stay on campus, but increase the distance between people and minimize crowding to decrease the likelihood of flu transmission. For example, if multiple roommates remain on campus, one might be able to move to a friend\u2019s vacant room for this time period. Additionally, IHEs can explore distance-based learning methods to facilitate continued education both for students who remain on campus and those who leave. Faculty and staff should be allowed continued use of their facilities while classes are not being held.\nThe length of time classes should be suspended will vary depending on the reason for suspending classes as well as the severity and extent of illness.When the decision is made to suspend classes, CDC recommends doing so for at least 5 to 7 calendar days. Before the end of this period, the IHE, in collaboration with public health officials, should reassess the epidemiology of the disease and the benefits and consequences of continuing the suspension or resuming classes. Based on this reassessment, the IHE may decide either to extend the period for which classes are suspended (and reassess again) or to resume classes. In the event that global, national, and regional risk assessments indicate a much higher severity than that seen in April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, IHEs should plan for more prolonged periods of class suspension. Complete closing of the campus (which would include suspension of research activities) is not possible or desirable for most IHEs and is unlikely to be recommended. However, IHEs should plan for ways to care for animals and maintain critical research activities while minimizing contact between people.\nCollaboration is essential: many different stakeholders have important roles to play in the decision-making process, implementing strategies, and ensuring their effectiveness.\nTo decrease exposure of students, faculty, and staff to the flu virus, CDC recommends a combination of targeted, layered strategies applied early and simultaneously as the best means to reduce spread of flu. The selection of strategies should be based on trends in the severity of the disease, characteristics of the virus, feasibility, and acceptability. A course of action should be determined through collaborative decision-making involving public health agencies, IHE faculty and staff; students; students\u2019 families, and the wider community.\nCDC and its partners will continuously look for changes in the severity of flu and will share what is learned with state and local agencies, the public, and other stakeholders. However, states and local communities can expect to see a lot of differences in disease patterns from community to community.\nEvery IHE has to balance a variety of objectives to determine the best course of action to help decrease the spread of flu. Decision-makers should explicitly identify and communicate their objectives which might be one or more of the following: (a) protecting overall public health by reducing community transmission; (b) reducing transmission among students, faculty, and staff; and (c) protecting people at higher risk for flu complications. Some strategies can have negative consequences in addition to their potential benefits. The following questions can help begin discussions and lead to decisions.\nDecision-Makers and Stakeholders\nAre all the right people involved in the decision-making process?\nWhat is the process for working together?\nInformation Collection and Sharing\nCan local or state health officials determine and share information about the following?\nWhat does the IHE know about the following?\nDo you have the resources to implement the strategies being considered?\nHave you determined how to address the following challenges to implementing the strategies?\nGet email updates\nTo receive weekly email updates about this site, enter your email address:\n- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention\n1600 Clifton Rd\nAtlanta, GA 30333\nTTY: (888) 232-6348\n24 Hours/Every Day", "id": "<urn:uuid:ddd65ef3-3eb7-4097-b087-9f86526c6647>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cdc.gov/H1N1flu/institutions/guidance/technical.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9486066102981567, "token_count": 8825, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "These are poly-aromatic compounds, insoluble in n-heptane, with a number of carbon atoms greater than 50. The asphalthene content of a crude may be the cause of deposits in inter-changers and/or lines. In fact, the mix of a crude having a high asphalthene content with a paraffinic crude can displace the balance of the asphalthenes, precipitating them. A high asphalthene content ensures that the vacuum pitch will be suitable for producing asphalt.\nASTM D86 distillation is a test that measures the volatility of gasoline, kerosene and diesel.\nBasic Sediment and Water (BSW)\nThe BSW relates to the content of free water (not dissolved) and sediments (mud, sand) in the crude. It is important that its reading is low in order to avoid dirtiness and difficulties during the crude processing, in which the steam produced by the free water can damage the oven. It is reported as a percentage in volume over the crude.\nThis is the weight of the residue remaining after the combustion of a fuel sample. It represents the facility of a heavy fuel to produce particles during combustion.\nThis is the measurement of the mass of a volume. It is expressed in kilograms per liter, or grams per cubic centimeter. Density depends on the temperature as this affects the volume of the substances.\nTemperature at which a liquid stops flowing when cooled, through the precipitation of crystals of solid paraffin.\nThe draining temperature is very important as, in the unloading of paraffinic crudes using sea terminals with underwater pipelines of a certain length, the temperature of the crude can fall below the draining point, creating deposits of wax or solid paraffin in the pipelines, thus obstructing the flow.\nThis is the minimum temperature at which the vapors of a product flash or detonate momentarily when a flame is applied in controlled conditions. It represents the maximum temperature at which a product can be stored or transported in safe conditions.\nThis is the temperature at which the crystals formed during the cooling of a product sample disappear completely when the temperature rises in a controlled way\nThe metals content of a crude, vanadium and nickel, gives us an indication of their content in the heaviest products obtained in the refining. This is important because, for example, the metals in gas oil in vacuum are poison for the catalytic and hydro-cracking catalysts. A high vanadium content or metals in the combustible oil may cause oven and boiler tube breakage problems because they form corrosive products during combustion.\nNumber of cetane\nThis measures the ease with which the spontaneous ignition occurs of diesel oil using a standardized engine and a reference fuel.\nThe cetane rating is determined by making a comparison of the ignition time of a mix of cetane (C16)) and hepta-methyl-nonane (C 15), which has the same delay time in ignition as the fuel being examined. The cetane rating measured is the percentage of the cetane compound in the cetane/hepta-methyl-nonane mix.\nThe C16 has a cetane rating equal to 100 (it is an easily-ignited paraffin) and C15 has a cetane rating equal to 0 (as being a slow-combustion aromatic).\nA high cetane rating represents a high ignition quality or a short delay time between the fuel injection and the start of combustion.\nThe diesel engine uses a high compression ratio to produce the spontaneous ignition of the diesel, instead of a spark as in the case of the internal combustion engine. The compressed air temperature in the diesel engine is sufficiently high to fire the diesel.\nThe lineal paraffins have a high cetane rating and therefore burn well; on the other hand, the aromatics are of a low cetane rating and burn badly, producing deposits of carbon and the production of black smoke. For that reason, high-quality diesel should have an aromatic content compatible with the specified cetane rating.\nThe cetane rating can be calculated based on the volatility (corresponding to the temperature of 50% distilled) and the density of the diesel and is called Calculated Cetane Rating. The reason for using the formula is the high cost of the cetane engine.\nOctane number (NOR)\nThe RVP and NOR are the most important parameters of gasoline quality. The NOR measures the resistance of the gasoline to self-ignition or premature detonation in an engine's functioning conditions.\nSelf-ignition is noted for the hammering or noise produced when the gasoline self-ignites, detonating before the cylinder compresses all the gasoline and air mixture, losing power. The detonation produces sound waves that are detected using special microphones.\nThe octane rating is measured by comparing the noise of the detonation made by a reference fuel mixture in a standardized engine with that for which the fuel examined is made. The reference fuels are iso-octane (2, 2, 4 trimethyl pentane), with an octane rating equal to 100 (high resistance to hammering) and the n-heptane which has an octane rating of zero (very low resistance). The octane rating determined is the percentage in volume of iso-octane in the iso-octane/heptane mixture.\nFuels with a high octane rating have greater resistance to premature detonation than those of a lower octane rating. In addition, fuels with a high octane rating can be used in engines with a high compression ratio, which are more efficient.\nThere are two types of engine for the determination of the octane rating of gasoline. One uses the Research method and the other the Motor method.\nThe Research method represents the behavior of an engine in cities at low and moderate speeds. The Motor method represents situations with fast acceleration, like climbing gradients or overtaking.\nThere is another way of expressing the octane rating of a gasoline which is called Highway Octane. The Highway Octane rating is expressed as the sum of the Research octane and the Motor octane ratings divided by 2. The Highway Octane rating is used in the United States while the Research method is used in Chile.\nReid Vapor Pressure (RVP)\nThe Reid vapor pressure is an empirical test that measures the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) exercised by the vapors or light components of the crude or of an oil product, in a closed container at a temperature of 100 \u00b0F (38 \u00b0C).\nA high vapor pressure of the crude tells us that light products are present in it and that they will burn in the torch in the processing if there is no suitable recovery system. In the case of an internal combustion engine, excessive vapor pressure will cause a blockage which will impede the flow of gasoline.\nCrude oil contains salt (NaCI) which comes from the oil fields or the sea water used as ballast by oil tankers. It is necessary to extract the salt with desalination equipment before the crude oil can enter the atmospheric distillation oven in order to avoid corrosion that is produced in the upper part of the atmospheric tower. The salt decomposes and produces chlorhydric acid. It is expressed in grams of salt per cubic meter of crude.\nThe temperature at which some products inflame spontaneously in contact with the air (without flame), probably due to the heat the show oxidation produces, which accumulates, raising the temperature to the inflammation point. Fortunately, the oil distillers have very high self-ignition temperatures and are therefore difficult to achieve; this is 450\u00baC in gasoline. Oily rags, on the other hand, self-ignite easily and cause fires and so should be suitably destroyed.\nThe ratio of the weight of a substance and the weight of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. In oil, the API specific gravity is used which is measured with hydrometers that float in the liquid. The API grades are read directly on the scale that stands above the liquid at the flotation line point. The API scale arose from the facility of graduating the hydrometer rod uniformly.\n\u00b0API =141.5/(specific gravity) -131.5\nThe \u00b0API determines whether the crude or product is light or heavy and enables us to calculate the tons of this unloaded. A light crude has an API of 40-50 while a heavy one has 10-24.\nSulfur and the API are the properties with the greatest influence on the price of crude.\nThis is the resistance to degradation through heat or oxidation of an oil product. Products containing olefinic material are unstable and susceptible to degradation.\nThe sulfur content permits the foreseeing of difficulties in meeting product and atmospheric emission specifications, as treatment units are needed to meet these; it is also poison for some catalysts. It also enables us to see whether the plant metallurgy is the most suitable for processing it. It is expressed as a percentage in weight of sulfur.\nSulfuric acid (H2S)\nA prior knowledge of the sulfuric acid content of the crude permits preventive actions and avoids accidents to people. The sulfhydric acid is very dangerous because it anesthetizes the olfactory nerve which prevents people from being aware of the situation and is mortal in small quantities. Personnel working in contact with the crude have therefore to wear protection equipment and personal sulfhydric acid sensors.\nThis is the degree of resistance of a liquid to flow. The greater the viscosity, the greater the resistance to flow. Viscosity is affected by the temperature, reducing it when the latter rises. It is measured by using special viscosimeters and is expressed in USS (Universal Saybolt Seconds), FSS (Furol Saybolt Seconds) and in centi-stokes.\nViscosity is important for fuel injection in engines and burners. It is also critical in the pumping of crude oil and products by pipeline. A higher viscosity than that designed for will reduce the desired flow and make a greater pump motor capacity necessary. The viscosity also affects measuring instrument factors, altering the readings.\nThe measurement of the facility with which a product vaporizes. Volatile products have high steam pressure and a low boiling point. It is measured through the ASTM D86 test and is expressed as the temperature at which certain volumes are distilled.", "id": "<urn:uuid:af7864c1-8a24-425f-8b7a-b3fc220bcc94>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.enap.cl/english/glosario/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9173281192779541, "token_count": 2152, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Commentaries on Alice Walker's \"Everyday Use\" typically center on Mama's awakening to one daughter's superficiality and to the other's deep-seated understanding of heritage. Most readers agree that when Mama takes the quilts from Dee and gives them to Maggie, she confirms her younger daughter's self-worth: metaphorically, she gives Maggie her voice. Elaine Hedges, for example, refers to the \"reconciliation scene\" in which \"Mama's gift of the family quilts to Maggie empowers the previously silenced and victimized daughter.\" The text underscores such a reading by stating that immediately...\n(The entire page is 1609 words.)\nWant to read the whole thing?\nSubscribe now to read the rest of this article. Plus, get access to:\n- 30,000+ literature study guides\n- Critical essays on more than 30,000 works of literature from Salem on Literature (exclusive to eNotes)\n- An unparalleled literary criticism section. 40,000 full-length or excerpted essays.\n- Content from leading academic publishers, all easily citable with our \"Cite this page\" button.\n- 100% satisfaction guarantee READ MORE", "id": "<urn:uuid:6d54c81a-f419-46c3-8ba9-64e830597a94>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.enotes.com/everyday-use/alice-walkers-everyday-use", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9238918423652649, "token_count": 240, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Evolution Deceit\nThe ability to think is one of the greatest blessings granted to people because only by thinking can people be aware of Allah's boundless power and the beauty of the universe He created. Only a thinking person realizes that the world has been created by divine wisdom in every detail, that death is near, and that there are certain obligations that are required to be met in this life. We are told in a large number of Qur'anic verses that only thinking people can heed advice and that they alone are capable of seeing the proofs of Allah's existence. Indeed, the very purpose of the revelation of the Qur'an is for people to think carefully about its verses, as is stated here: \"It is a Book We have sent down to you, full of blessing, so let people of intelligence ponder its Signs and take heed.\" (Surah Sad: 29)\nHowever, a large proportion of humanity regards thinking as a hardship. These people even believe that thinking is damaging to their lives and their set ways. According to this opinion, \"the greatest damage\" lies in reminding people of their responsibilities in this life and taking them out of the slumbering, empty minded state of heedlessness in which they find themselves. Like a kind of magic spell, this sleep makes people forget why they exist, that there is a purpose in life, and that one day they will die. Another form of this sleep is to be inundated by the daily routines. Perhaps these people feel they spend a great deal of time thinking, making decisions and finding answers, but in fact what they think about does not go beyond the details of their day-to-day needs and impulses. Their thoughts are not related to the purpose of human creation, how the world came into being or the fact that one day every living thing will be buried in the ground. Actions, statements and behaviour learned by rote, taught, and become accustomed to, have such a hold on these people that they do not even feel a need to think about more fundamental realities.\nJust as they evade thought, so too do these people escape hastily from warnings given by others; they turn their faces from belief in Allah, thinking about the verses of the Qur'an, and living by His guidance.\nBut nothing and nobody has been put on the face of the earth for an empty purpose. Allah created every detail in the universe for people to think about. In fact in the Qur'an, Allah announces that he created \"\u2026 death and life to test which of you is best in action\u2026\" (Surat al-Mulk: 2) In this fleeting life, one is put to the test by all his or her deeds. A person has a great responsibility towards Allah Who created him and will resurrect him after death and call for an accounting for his deeds. Reading the Qur'an, taking heed of it, thinking about the verses and comprehending and applying them are amongst every person's principal responsibilities. Allah draws attention to this truth with the verse which reads,\"Do they not ponder these words? Has anything come to them that did not come to their ancestors the previous peoples?\" (Surat al-Mu'minun: 68)\nThinking people will conclude that such fine detail in the universe and its examples of flawless design mean that it cannot have come into being by accident and that there exists a Creator of all things. By thinking deeply about the miracles created around them and other proofs of Allah's existence, and observing the divine wisdom in the details which He has created, they will give themselves over to Him and live solely for the purpose of earning His approval. Aware of this truth, Satan wants them to live their lives in heedlessness, keep away from Allah's verses and hence to refrain from thought. Allah describes this purpose of Satan's in a verse of the Qur'an:\n[Satan said], \"\u2026 I will lie in ambush for them on your straight path. Then I will come at them, from in front of them and behind them, from their right and from their left... (Surat al-A'raf: 16-17)\nIn order to achieve this ultimate aim, Satan prepares very special situations to sink people into a state of heedlessness. For this purpose, he makes plans using people's weaker aspects, and attempts to make evil deeds attractive to people's egos. Unlike the faithful, people distanced from religious morality can end up in a state of spiritual heedlessness by forgetting Allah and not thinking about their purpose in life.\nFor example, Satan can easily waylay people in places of entertainment, because such places are conducive to wasting time and not thinking about anything. In these places what assumes the most importance are the clothes and accessories people wear, the money they spend, and the people around them. With the music so loud that people cannot hear one another, the air so full of smoke they cannot see one another, exploding flashbulbs, loud conversation and yelling, an environment is formed in which people who have no fear of Allah certainly cannot concentrate their attention or think.\nOf course it is a great blessing for people to enjoy themselves and come together with others they enjoy talking to. But these days places of entertainment are not those where the name of Allah is mentioned and where people recall their purpose in life. The purpose of creation is entirely forgotten. People who feel no fear of Allah in their hearts and spend their time in such places experience an atmosphere of heedlessness and are left in no condition to consider or understand warnings. In fact, one of the reasons why such people prefer these places is to forget everything and avoid thought, and they often say so. While a person who comes to such a place to, as he expresses it, escape from the troubles of the world, may have been behaving sensibly ten minutes earlier, now he starts to regard any excess as normal. In the name of enjoying themselves, these people see immorality of all kinds as reasonable and become insensitive to what is happening around them. In fact, in environments of this type, breaking plates, overturning tables, throwing napkins, attacks on others with obscene language, and fights reflect only a small part of the kind of heedlessness and immorality into which people can sink.\nConcert arenas, football stadiums and other places where large crowds gather only magnify this effect of heedlessness. A large number of people go to such places not to enjoy themselves or to watch an entertaining game or to listen to a beautiful voice but to shout, to fight and to cause trouble, in short to display ugly behaviour of every kind. In such environments, it is utterly impossible for people with no fear of Allah to extract from their minds a single useful thought. It only remains to be said that people in such an uncontrolled environment that encourages violence and immorality, are wide open to the whisperings of Satan so that the obedience of people to Satan's \"Don't think!\" order is ensured. Allah draws attention to this method of Satan's with this verse: \"Stir up any of them you can with your voice and rally against them your cavalry and your infantry and share with them in their children and their wealth and make them promises!..\" (Surat al-'Isra: 64)\nPeople whose lives are filled with work and going out to such places of entertainment, where heedlessness reigns, forget that one day they will meet the angel of death. And when they do, it is too late, because this person has passed his worldly life in pursuit of empty practices and has fled from consideration of the verses of the Qur'an. For a person who thinks about death, the transitory nature of life and his responsibilities towards Allah, it is impossible ever to accept such a heedless state. A person who knows that Allah can take his life at any moment and that there will be a reckoning for his every word, thought and action never lets these realities slip his mind in any environment whatsoever and does not surrender to heedlessness.\nFor a person to continue a life of heedlessness resembles his seeing a truck with brake failure hurtling towards him and failing to get out of the way-even though this is possible-while being fully aware that it is going to hit and crush him. During his life, a person can indulge in excess hundreds or thousands of times, can even spend his entire life in this way, but when death takes him, everything he has experienced is left behind. If a person has passed his time in heedlessness of the existence of Allah, he will realize on the day of his death that this way of life, described in ignorant societies as \"making the best of life,\" has brought him nothing but loss. He will feel regret for all the excesses he indulged in because he forgot Allah and the Day of Judgement. But heedless people ignore Allah's warnings:\nMankind's Reckoning has drawn very close to them, yet they heedlessly turn away. No fresh reminder comes to them from their Lord without their listening to it as if it was a game. Their hearts are distracted... 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{"text": "Storage Area Networks (SAN)\nThe management of storage has become a key issue for IT systems in the last few years. As the amount of storage increases and the demands for high availability of storage becomes more prevalent, having disparate pools of storage across many servers becomes ever more complex to manage.\nIn the last few years, we have seen an increase in the availability of the Storage Area Network (SAN). In simple terms, this takes all the local disk storage usually found in servers and consolidates it into a single, large pool. However, these devices are more than just a simple NAS box. They concentrate on making that storage highly available as well as providing the tools to carve it up into appropriate capacities.\nOne of the biggest management headaches with traditional server storage is we typically find large pools of unused storage, while pools on other servers are bursting to the seams. A lot of support time can be spent relocating data and then having to change application configurations (which point to that storage), user short-cuts, shares and drive mappings as well as backup configurations.\nThe SAN allows these key servers to be provisioned with only a small amount of local storage to hold the operating system. Using a high performance network data access protocol (iSCSI), the required storage is then carved out on the SAN and accessed across the network by the server.\nThe SAN devices can be made redundant and a well designed solution will be able to suffer the outage of a SAN server with no downtime or performance impact to the network.\nSAN is also a key component in designing a redundant VM network. The Virtual Machine hard drives are placed on the SAN storage. The Virtual Hosts then run the virtual machines from the SAN. Systems like VMware VMotion then allow these virtual machines to be moved from one host to another in real-time while they are operating.\nAfter a significant amount of market research, Exmos selected Lefthand Networks (now part of HP) as their partner for SAN. Left Hand Networks were the first SAN OEM to provide high performance iSCSI on their devices (having been built for iSCSI from the ground up).\nAs well as providing traditional SAN server appliances, HP Lefthand also makes their SAN solution available as a virtual machine (VM). While initially this may seem a somewhat strange idea, it is the ideal starter solution for building a fully redundant VM network running on as few as two traditional servers (whereas with appliances it would require two SAN appliances and two servers). This brings the benefits of SAN/VM easily into the mid range of the SME market place and giving these organisations network redundancy capabilities that just a few years ago were purely in the realm of the enterprise organisation.", "id": "<urn:uuid:257fef2d-972e-4c38-9dbd-c627a7be2345>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.exmos.com/Systems/SAN/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9548780918121338, "token_count": 548, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Allegro CL version 9.0|\nUnrevised from 8.2 to 9.0.\nThis document contains the following sections:1.0 Garbage collection introduction\nLisp does its own memory management. The garbage collector is part of the memory management system. It disposes of objects that are no longer needed, freeing up the space that they occupied. While the garbage collector is working, no other work can be done. Therefore, we have made the garbage collector as fast and unobtrusive as possible. Allegro CL uses a version of the generation-scavenging method of garbage collection. Because optimal performance of generation-scavenging garbage collection depends on the application, you have a great deal of control over how the garbage collector works. In this section, we will describe the user interface to the garbage collector, and suggest how to tune its performance for an application. In what follows, the generation-scavenging garbage collection system will be abbreviated gsgc, and the act of garbage collecting will be abbreviated gc.\nThe Allegro CL garbage collector is a two-space, generation-scavenging system. The two spaces are called newspace and oldspace. Note that, as we describe below, newspace is divided into two pieces, called areas, and oldspace may be divided into a number of pieces, also called areas. Generally, when we say newspace, we mean both newspace areas and when we say oldspace, we mean all oldspace areas. We try to use the word area when we want to refer to a single area, but please note that this naming convention is new and you may run into text that uses `oldspace' to refer to an oldspace area. Usually, the context should make this clear.\nThe two pieces of newspace are managed as a stop-and-copy garbage collector system. The two areas are the same size. At any one time, one area is active and the other is not. A newspace area is filled from one end to the other. Imagine, for example, a book shelf. Existing books are packed together on the right side. Each new book is placed just to the left of the leftmost book. It may happen that books already placed are removed, leaving gaps, but these gaps are ignored, with each new book still being placed to the left of the location of the last new book. When the shelf fills up, the other shelf (newspace area) is used. First, all books remaining are moved to the other shelf, packed tight to one side, and new books are placed in the next free location.\nSo with Lisp objects in newspace areas. All existing objects are packed together on one side of the area and new objects are placed in the free space next to the existing objects, with gaps left by objects which are no longer alive being ignored. When the area fills up, Lisp stops and copies all live objects to the other area, packing them tight. Then the process is repeated.\nThe process of copying objects from one newspace area to the other is called a scavenge. We will discuss the speed of scavenges below, but scavenges are supposed to be so fast that humans usually barely notice them.\nA scavenge happens in one of the following cases:\n:allocation :lispstatic-reclaimable, for example, see cl:make-array in implementation.htm), or a weak-vector or finalization will cause aclmalloc space to be freed (see Section 10.0 Weak vectors, finalizations, static arrays, etc.).\nThe first listed cause is under user-control. The second and third causes are under system control and the resulting scavenge cannot be prevented if the system determines it must occur.\nThe system keeps track of the age of objects in newspace by counting the number of scavenges that the object has survived. The number of scavenges survived is called the generation of an object. When objects are created, they have generation 1, and the generation is increased by 1 at each scavenge.\nOf course, many objects become garbage as time passes. (An object is garbage when there are no pointers to it from any other live object. If there are no pointers to an object, nothing can reference or access it and so it is guaranteed never to be looked at again. Thus, it is garbage.) The theory of a generation scavenging garbage collector is that most objects that will ever become garbage will do so relatively quickly and so will not survive many scavenges.\nThe problem with a stop-and-copy system is that objects that survive have to be moved and moving objects takes time. If an object is going to be around for a while (or for the entire Lisp session), it should be moved out of newspace to some place where it does not have to be moved (or is moved much less often). This is where the other half of the generation scavenging algorithm comes into play. Once an object has survived enough scavenges, it is assumed to be long-lived and is moved to oldspace. Oldspace is not touched during scavenges and so objects in oldspace are not moved during scavenges, thus saving considerable time over a pure stop-and-copy system.\nPart of a scavenge is checking the age (generation) of surviving objects and moving those that are old enough to oldspace. The remaining objects are moved to the other newspace area. The age at which objects are tenured is user-settable. Its initial value is 4 and that seems to work for many applications. We will discuss below how changing that (and many other) settings can affect gc performance.\nThe process of moving an object to oldspace is called tenuring and the object moved is said to be tenured. At one point, oldspace was also called tenured space and you may see that term occasionally in Allegro CL documents.\nNote the assumption: objects that survive a while are likely to survive a long while.\nIf one could know exactly how long an object is going to survive, one could provide the best possible garbage collection scheme. But that knowledge is not available. Objects are created all the time by different actions and users and even application writers typically do not know what actions create objects or how long those objects will live. Indeed, that information often depends on future events that are hard to control -- such as the behavior of the person running the application.\nSo the algorithm makes that assumption: if an object survives for a while, it is likely to survive for a long while, perhaps forever (forever means the length of the Lisp session). Of course, for many objects this assumption is wrong: the object may become garbage soon after it is tenured. However, as we said above, scavenges (which are automatic and cannot be prevented by a user although they can be triggered by a user) do not touch oldspace. In order to clear garbage from oldspace, a global garbage collection (global gc) must be done. An interface for automating global gc's is provided in Allegro CL and different interfaces are easy to implement (see below for more information), but the two important points about global gc's are:\nThe Lisp heap grows upwards (to higher addresses). Oldspaces are at low addresses and newspace occupies addresses higher than any oldspace area. This means that newspace can grow without affecting oldspace and oldspace can grow (usually by creating a new oldspace area) by having newspace move up as far as necessary.\nWhy might newspace grow? Suppose, for example, a newspace area is 600 Kbytes and you want to allocate a 1 Mbyte array. Newspace has to grow to accommodate this.\nWhy might oldspace grow? As objects are tenured to oldspace, it slowly fills up. Even with regular global gc's, it can fill up. When it does, newspace moves up and a new old area is created. (New areas are created rather than a single area being expanded for various technical reasons. We discuss below how to reduce sizes dynamically. See Section 3.5 Can other things be changed while running?.)\nWe will not describe the internal algorithms of the garbage collector because they cannot be changed or modified by users in any way. But let us consider how newspace might be moved, as this might make the process clearer. Suppose the current scavenge is about to move live objects to the high address area. Before anything is moved, Lisp can compute how much space the live objects need, how much space objects waiting to be allocated need, and how much space a new old area needs. From that information, it can compute the highest address of the high address newspace area. It requests from the Operating System that the area be allocated (using malloc or sbrk), and once the Operating System confirms the allocation, starts copying the live objects to that high address, filling toward lower addresses. When all live objects have been moved and new objects are allocated in the high address newspace area, the new oldspace area (if one is required) can be created and the location of the low address newspace area can be determined. Recall that high address newspace area is active so the low address newspace area does not contain anything of importance.\nA consequence of what we just said about newspace moving when it has to grow or when a new oldspace area is needed is that the size of the Lisp image can grow while it is running. This is usually normal, indeed what you want. It allows images to start small and grow as much (but no more) than they need. It also allows the same image to run effectively on machines with different configurations.\nBut, sometimes growth can be unexpected and the image can want to grow to a size larger than the Operating System can handle (usually because there is not enough swap space).\nThe growth is often necessary, because of the type of application being run. What is important is that the growth be managed and be no more than is really needed.\nIn earlier releases, space for foreign code loaded into the image, space for foreign objects, and direct calls to malloc all could cause a gap to be placed above newspace. If a new oldspace or a larger newspace was needed, it had to be placed above the gap, causing in some cases a small need for additional space to result in a multimegabyte increase in image size. Now, malloc space is placed away from the new and old spaces and so the Lisp heap (new and old spaces together) are unaffected and can grow incrementally as needed. There is a Lisp heap size specified by the lisp-heap-size argument to build-lisp-image (see building-images.htm). The OS will try to reserve this space when Lisp starts up. If more space is needed, Lisp will request it from the OS but it is possible more space will not be available. If this happens, you might increase the original request.\nThe space reserved in a running Lisp is reported as 'resrve' on the\n'Lisp heap' line of the output of\n(room t). If the\nheap grows larger than that size, gaps may appear. If you see gaps in\nyour application, you should consider starting with an image with a\nlarger heap size.\nApplication writers and users can control the behavior of the garbage collector in order to make their programs run more efficiently. This is not always easy, since getting optimal behavior depends on knowing how your application behaves and that information may be difficult to determine. Also, there are various paths to improvement, some of which work better than others (but different paths work better for different applications).\nOne thing to remember is that (unless the image needs to grow larger than available swap space), things will work whether or not they work optimally. You cannot expect optimal gc behavior at the beginning of the development process. Instead, as you gather information about your application and gc behavior, you determine ways to make it work better.\nThe automated gc system is controlled by switches and parameters (they are listed in Section 5.0 System parameters and switches below). There is not much difference between a switch and a parameter (a switch is usually true or false, a parameter usually has a value) and there probably should not be a distinction, but these things are hard to change after they are implemented. The functions gsgc-switch and gsgc-parameter can be used to poll the current value and (with setf) to set the value of switches and parameters.\nThe function gsgc-parameters prints out the values of all switches and parameters:\ncl-user(14): (sys:gsgc-parameters) :generation-spread 4 :current-generation 4 :tenure-limit 0 :free-bytes-new-other 131072 :free-percent-new 25 :free-bytes-new-pages 131072 :expansion-free-percent-new 35 :expansion-free-percent-old 35 :quantum 32 (switch :auto-step) t (switch :use-remap) t (switch :hook-after-gc) t (switch :clip-new) nil (switch :gc-old-before-expand) nil (switch :next-gc-is-global) nil (switch :print) t (switch :stats) t (switch :verbose) nil (switch :dump-on-error) nil cl-user(15):\ngsgc-switch can poll\nand set switches while gsgc-parameter can poll and set parameters:\nHere we poll and set the\ncl-user(15): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :print) nil) nil cl-user(16): (sys:gsgc-switch :print) nil cl-user(17): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :print) t) t cl-user(18): (sys:gsgc-switch :print) t cl-user(19):\nThe gc function can be used to toggle some of the switches.\nThe system will cause a scavenge whenever it determines that one is necessary. There is no way to stop scavenges from occurring at all or even to stop them from occurring for a specified period of time.\nHowever, you can cause a scavenge by calling the gc function with no arguments:\n(excl:gc) ;; triggers a scavenge\nYou can also cause a scavenge and have all live objects tenured by\ncalling the gc function with\n:tenure, like this\nGlobal gc's (a gc of old and new space) are not triggered automatically (but triggering can be automated). You can trigger a global gc by calling gc with the argument t:\n(excl:gc t) ;; triggers a global gc\nSee section Section 6.0 Global garbage collection for information on other ways to trigger a global gc and ways to automate global gc's.\nThe function room provides\ninformation on current usage (it identifies oldspaces and newspace and\nfree and used space in each). Setting the\n:verbose switches causes the system to print\ninformation while gc's are occurring. See\nSection 5.4 Gsgc switches and\nSection 3.1 How do I find out when scavenges happen?.\n(room t) provides the most\ninformation about the current state of memory management. Here is a\n(room t) output from a Allegro CL image that has\nbeen doing a fair amount of work. This is from a UNIX machine and was\ndone immediately after a global gc, so some of the oldspaces have\nsignificant free space.\nCL-USER(1): (room t) area area address(bytes) cons other bytes # type 8 bytes each (free:used) (free:used) Top #x106a0000 New #x10598000(1081344) 134:13113 340128:582984 New #x10490000(1081344) ----- ----- 1 Old #x10290000(2097152) 0:0 2095952:0 0*Old #x10000e80(2683264) 0:68273 0:2124792 Tot (Old Areas) 0:68273 2095952:2124792 * = closed old area Root pages: 61 Lisp heap: #x10000000 pos: #x106a0000 resrve: #x10fa0000 Aclmalloc heap: #x64000000 pos: #x64011000 resrve: #x640fa000 Pure space: #x2d1aa000 end: #x2d747ff8 code type items bytes 112: (SIMPLE-ARRAY T) 6586 930920 28.3% 1: CONS 80502 644016 19.6% 8: FUNCTION 8432 520192 15.8% 7: SYMBOL 17272 414528 12.6% 117: (SIMPLE-ARRAY CHARACTER) 2259 259984 7.9% 96: (SHORT-SIMPLE-ARRAY T) 17498 151736 4.6% 18: BIGNUM 2966 139928 4.3% 125: (SIMPLE-ARRAY (UNSIGNED-BYTE 8)) 31 87816 2.7% 12: STANDARD-INSTANCE 3291 52656 1.6% 9: CLOSURE 2301 39688 1.2% 15: STRUCTURE 666 24944 0.8% 127: (SIMPLE-ARRAY (UNSIGNED-BYTE 32)) 9 9920 0.3% 108: (SHORT-SIMPLE-ARRAY CODE) 16 7368 0.2% 10: HASH-TABLE 108 3456 0.1% 17: DOUBLE-FLOAT 120 1920 0.1% 111: (SHORT-SIMPLE-ARRAY FOREIGN) 51 1216 0.0% 16: SINGLE-FLOAT 141 1128 0.0% 118: (SIMPLE-ARRAY BIT) 11 296 0.0% 20: COMPLEX 11 176 0.0% 80: (ARRAY T) 7 168 0.0% 11: READTABLE 8 128 0.0% 123: (SIMPLE-ARRAY (SIGNED-BYTE 32)) 1 88 0.0% 13: SYSVECTOR 3 48 0.0% 85: (ARRAY CHARACTER) 1 24 0.0% total bytes = 3292344 aclmalloc arena: max size free bytes used bytes total 112 3472 112 3584 496 3472 496 3968 1008 2016 2016 4032 2032 0 12192 12192 4080 0 8160 8160 9200 18400 18400 36800 total bytes: 27360 41376 68736 CL-USER(2):\nNewspace is divided into two equal size parts (only one of which is\nused at any time). There can be numerous oldspaces: two are shown in\nthe example, but many more are common after Lisp has run for a\nwhile. Oldpsaces are numbered. The gsgc-parameter\n:open-old-area-fence takes such a number as an\nSection 5.1 Parameters that control generations and tenuring\nfor information on gsgc-parameters).\nThe 0th old area in the output is closed, as indicated by the\nasterisk. If there are no closed old areas\n:open-old-area-fence) returns 0) then no asterisks show\nup and the \"* = closed old area\" note isn't given. When asterisks are\nshown, they denote any old areas that are closed. See the discussion\nof :open-old-area-fence in\nSection 5.1 Parameters that control generations and tenuring\nand also the note on closed old areas after the table for information\non closed and open old areas.\nRoot pages: 61\nRoot pages contain information about pointers from oldspace to newspace.\nLisp heap: #x10000000 pos: #x106a0000 resrve: #x10fa0000 Aclmalloc heap: #x64000000 pos: #x64011000 resrve: #x640fa000 Pure space: #x2d1aa000 end: #x2d747ff8\nThe first value is the starting address of the specified heap in memory. The `Pure space' line only appears in Lisps which use a pll file (see pll-file), showing where the pll files is mapped.\nIn the first two lines, pos (position) is the highest-use location; this is one byte larger than the highest memory used by the lisp. Some operating systems will only commit (assign physical pages) to memory between base (inclusive) and position (exclusive). This is a hexadecimal address value. resrve (reserved) is the number of bytes lisp thinks is reserved to it in virtual memory space. On some operating systems which support it, addresses greater than position, but less than starting location+reserved, will not be overwritten by shared-libraries, other memory mapping operations, etc.\nThe Lisp heap reserved size is a true limit only for certain free products. With paid license images (and some free products), this value is important only because if the heap grows larger than this limit, gaps in the heap may appear. See Section 1.8 The almost former gap problem for more information. This value is not a limit in any sense on how big the image can grow.\nThe Aclmalloc heap was called the \"C heap\" in earlier releases but its name was changed to reflect its real nature. It is the aclmalloc area used for space allocated by the aclmalloc function. That function differs from malloc() in that it ensures that Lisp will remember the location of aclmalloc'ed allocations and preserve it through dumplisp and restarts, thus guaranteeing that aclmalloc addresses remain valid.\nMore information on aclmalloc and regular malloc():\nmalloc()space is always started fresh when a Lisp starts up, so addresses used by malloc calls must never be used across dumplisps.\naclmalloc()is aclmalloc. There is no Lisp interface to\nmalloc()(there is an internal function called excl::malloc, but it calls\naclmalloc(), and not\nmalloc(), which is why it is not exported). Foreign definitions for\nfree()can be made in order to gain access to these functions. However, calling\nmalloc()in a Lisp environment is dangerous, and should only be done after careful consideration of the above.\nThe type counts are as if printed by print-type-counts:\ncode type items bytes 112: (SIMPLE-ARRAY T) 6586 930920 28.3% 1: CONS 80502 644016 19.6% 8: FUNCTION 8432 520192 15.8% 7: SYMBOL 17272 414528 12.6% 117: (SIMPLE-ARRAY CHARACTER) 2259 259984 7.9% 96: (SHORT-SIMPLE-ARRAY T) 17498 151736 4.6% 18: BIGNUM 2966 139928 4.3% 125: (SIMPLE-ARRAY (UNSIGNED-BYTE 8)) 31 87816 2.7% 12: STANDARD-INSTANCE 3291 52656 1.6% 9: CLOSURE 2301 39688 1.2% 15: STRUCTURE 666 24944 0.8% 127: (SIMPLE-ARRAY (UNSIGNED-BYTE 32)) 9 9920 0.3% 108: (SHORT-SIMPLE-ARRAY CODE) 16 7368 0.2% 10: HASH-TABLE 108 3456 0.1% 17: DOUBLE-FLOAT 120 1920 0.1% 111: (SHORT-SIMPLE-ARRAY FOREIGN) 51 1216 0.0% 16: SINGLE-FLOAT 141 1128 0.0% 118: (SIMPLE-ARRAY BIT) 11 296 0.0% 20: COMPLEX 11 176 0.0% 80: (ARRAY T) 7 168 0.0% 11: READTABLE 8 128 0.0% 123: (SIMPLE-ARRAY (SIGNED-BYTE 32)) 1 88 0.0% 13: SYSVECTOR 3 48 0.0% 85: (ARRAY CHARACTER) 1 24 0.0% total bytes = 3292344\nThe aclmalloc arena describes allocation of space for aclmallocs and foreign data. It is divided into chunks of various sizes to allow allocation of requests of various sizes without fragmentation. (Space allocated by aclmalloc is freed by aclfree.)\naclmalloc arena: max size free bytes used bytes total 112 3472 112 3584 496 3472 496 3968 1008 2016 2016 4032 2032 0 12192 12192 4080 0 8160 8160 9200 18400 18400 36800 total bytes: 27360 41376 68736\nAs a user, or as an application writer, how can you get the garbage collector to work best for you? At first, you do not have to do anything. The system is set up to work as delivered. You will not run out of space, global gc's will happen from time to time (as described below, see Section 6.0 Global garbage collection), the image will grow as necessary, and assuming you do not run out of swap space, everything will work.\nOf course, it will not necessarily work as well as it could. As delivered, the garbage collector is set to work best with what we assume is a typical application: objects, none of which are too big, are created as needed. Most objects that survive a while are likely to survive a long while or perhaps forever, and so on. If your application's use of Lisp has different behavior, performance may be suboptimal.\nSo what to do? One problem is that optimizing gc behavior is a multidimensional problem. Factors that affect it include\nOptimization in a multidimensional environment is always complicated.\nThe first step is always to gather the information necessary to do the tuning. Information like:\nSection 3.1 How do I find out when scavenges happen?\nSection 3.2 How many bytes are being tenured?\nSection 3.3 When there is a global gc, how many bytes are freed up?\nSection 3.4 How many old areas are there after your application is loaded?\nSection 3.5 Can other things be changed while running?\nThere are three gsgc switches (these control the behavior of the\ngarbage collector) that affect printing information about the garbage\n(setf (sys:gsgc-switch :print) t)\nwill cause a short message to be printed whenever a scavenge\nhappens. Unless the\nt, no message will be printed.\nswitches control the amount of information printed. If the\n:stats switch is true, the message contains more\ninformation but the information is compact. If the\n:verbose switch is also true, a longer, more easily\nunderstood message is printed.\n;; In this example, we cause a scavenge with all flags off, ;; then with :print true, then :print and :stats true, ;; and finally :print, :stats, and :verbose all true. cl-user(5): (gc) cl-user(6): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :print) t) t cl-user(7): (gc) gc: done cl-user(8): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :stats) t) t cl-user(9): (gc) gc: E=17% N=17536 T+=0 A-=0 cl-user(10): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :verbose) t) t cl-user(11): (gc) scavenging...done eff: 15%, copy new: 1664 + tenure: 16064 = 17728 Page faults: gc = 0 major + 2 minor cl-user(12):\n:stats true, the message contains\nmuch more information, but it is coded -- E means Efficiency, N means\nbytes copied in newspace, T means bytes copied to oldspace (i.e. bytes\n:verbose also true, the same information is\ndisplayed in expanded form and additional information (about page\nfaults) is provided.\nEfficiency is defined as the ratio of cpu time not associated with gc to total cpu time. Efficiency should typically be 75% or higher, but the efficiencies in the example are low because we triggered gc's without doing anything else of significance.\nIt is usually desirable to have\n:stats true while developing software. This allows you to\nmonitor gc behavior and see if there seems to be a problem.\nThat information is shown when the\n:stats switches are true, but perhaps the real\nquestion is whether things are being tenured that would be better left\nin newspace (because they will soon become garbage). This often\nhappens when a complex operation (like a compile of a large file) is\nbeing carried out. This question, in combination with the next can\ntell you if that is the case.\nIn the following, copied from above, 0 bytes are tenured in the first gc (T+=0) and 16064 in the second (tenure: 16064):\ncl-user(9): (gc) gc: E=17% N=17536 T+=0 A-=0 cl-user(10): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :verbose) t) t cl-user(11): (gc) scavenging...done eff: 15%, copy new: 1664 + tenure: 16064 + aclmalloc free: 0 = 17728 Page faults: gc = 0 major + 2 minor cl-user(12):\nswitches are true, the amount of space freed by a global gc is printed\nat the end of the report. Here is an example. The form\nt) triggers a global gc.\ncl-user(13): (gc t) gc: Mark Pass...done(1,583+66), marked 128817 objects, max depth = 17, cut 0 xfers. Weak-vector Pass...done(0+0). Cons-cell swap...done(0+67), 346 cons cells moved Symbol-cell swap...done(17+0), 1 symbol cells moved Oldarea break chain...done(83+0), 40 holes totaling 6816 bytes Page-compaction data...done(0+0). Address adjustment...done(1,400+67). Compacting other objects...done(150+0). Page compaction...done(0+0), 0 pages moved New rootset...done(667+0), 20 rootset entries Building new pagemap...done(83+0). Merging empty oldspaces...done, 0 oldspaces merged. global gc recovered 9672 bytes of old space. gc: E=0% N=1504 T+=0 A-=0 pfg=54+187 cl-user(14):\nThe next to last line reports on what was recovered from oldspace (9672 bytes). The value is often much higher. It is low in this example because we have not in fact done anything significant other than test gc operations.\nThere is plenty of other information but we will not describe its meaning in detail. It is typically useful in helping us help you work out complicated gc problems.\nThe amount of space freed is a rough measure of how many objects\nare being tenured that perhaps should be left for a while longer in\nnewspace. If the number is high, perhaps things are being tenured too\nquickly (increasing the value of the\nswitch will keep objects in newspace longer, as will a larger\nThe output printed by room\nshows the two newspace areas and the various oldspace areas. Here is\nan example of room\noutput. (room takes an\nargument to indicate how much information should be displayed). The\nfollowing is the output of\n(cl:room t), which\ncauses the most information to be displayed.\ncl-user(3): (room t) area area address(bytes) cons other bytes # type 8 bytes each (free:used) (free:used) Top #x569a000 New #x5134000(5660672) 5:95781 597040:4239616 New #x4bce000(5660672) ----- ----- 7 Old #x498e000(2359296) 458:18903 31904:2170416 6 Old #x494e000(262144) 0:1019 0:253648 5 Old #x478e000(1835008) 0:41779 0:1498064 4 Old #x474e000(262144) 0:23437 0:73424 3 Old #x45ce000(1572864) 0:27513 0:1350736 2 Old #x454e000(524288) 0:7133 0:466512 1 Old #x448e000(786432) 0:4076 0:753104 0 Old #x4000d00(4772608) 0:97824 0:3983672 Tot (Old Areas) 458:221684 31904:10549576 Root pages: 158 Lisp heap: #x4000000 pos: #x569a000 resrve: 23699456 Aclmalloc heap: #x54000000 pos: #x54027000 resrve: 1024000 code type items bytes 96: (simple-array t) 76658 3864816 22.8% 108: (simple-array code) 8699 3608136 21.3% 1: cons 314901 2519208 14.9% 99: (simple-array (unsigned-byte 16)) 10938 2242320 13.2% 101: (simple-array character) 38383 1632920 9.6% 8: function 21721 1284216 7.6% 7: symbol 36524 876576 5.2% 107: (simple-array (signed-byte 32)) 264 264336 1.6% 12: standard-instance 14244 227904 1.3% 9: closure 8854 145448 0.9% 98: (simple-array (unsigned-byte 8)) 44 105184 0.6% 97: (simple-array bit) 49 103952 0.6% 15: structure 830 33144 0.2% 100: (simple-array (unsigned-byte 32)) 12 10264 0.1% 10: hash-table 225 7200 0.0% 18: bignum 410 4480 0.0% 16: single-float 505 4040 0.0% 111: (simple-array foreign) 103 2464 0.0% 17: double-float 124 1984 0.0% 64: (array t) 22 528 0.0% 65: (array bit) 13 312 0.0% 13: sysvector 14 224 0.0% 20: complex 12 192 0.0% 11: readtable 7 112 0.0% 69: (array character) 1 24 0.0% total bytes = 16939984 aclmalloc arena: max size free bytes used bytes total 48 3024 48 3072 496 3968 0 3968 1008 4032 0 4032 2032 2032 2032 4064 4080 8160 36720 44880 5104 10208 10208 20416 9200 27600 9200 36800 20464 20464 20464 40928 total bytes: 79488 78672 158160 cl-user(4):\nThe output shows the two equal size newspace areas, only one of which is being used. It also shows eight oldspaces and provides information about what is in the oldspaces. Then information is printed about other objects such as the number of root pages (a root page keeps information on pointers from oldspace to newspace -- these pointers must be updated after a scavenge), and the locations of the Lisp and C heaps. Then, there is a table showing the types and numbers of objects. Finally, used and available malloc space is displayed.\nYes. The function resize-areas can be used to rearrange things while running. It is typically useful to call this function, for example, after loading a large application. If you know desirable old- and newspace sizes for your application, it is preferable to build an image with those sizes (using the :oldspace and :newspace arguments to build-lisp-image, see building-images.htm for more information). However, you may not know until runtime what the best sizes are, in which case you can call resize-areas on application startup. Be warned that it may take some time.\nAnother use of resize-areas is when you wish to dump an image (with dumplisp) into which your application has been loaded. You call resize-areas just before dumplisp in that case.\nThe initial sizes of newspace and oldspace are determined when the image is built with build-lisp-image. See building-images.htm (where build-lisp-image is fully documented -- the page on it is brief to avoid two sources for the same complex discussion) The :newspace argument to build-lisp-image controls the initial size of newspace and the :oldspace argument the initial size of oldspace.\nAn image dumped with dumplisp inherits new and oldspace sizes from the dumping image. See dumplisp.htm.\nresize-areas will restructure old and newspace sizes in a running image.\nThe garbage collector will automatically resize old and newspace when it needs to. The amount of resizing depends on space required to allocate or move to oldspace live objects, and also on the parameters that relate to sizes.\nThe parameters and switches described under the next set of headings control the action of the garbage collector. You may change them during run time to optimize the performance of the Lisp process. All parameters and switches values may be set with setf. However, some values should not be changed by you. The descriptions of the parameters say whether you should change their values. By default, the system does automatically increase the generation number. You may find that it is useful to step it yourself at appropriate times with a call to gsgc-step-generation.\nThere is really no difference between a parameter and a switch\nother than the value of switches is typically\nnil while parameters\noften have numeric values. However, once both were implemented, it\nbecame difficult to redo the design.\nThe function gsgc-parameters prints the values of all parameters and switches. gsgc-switch and gsgc-parameter retrieve the value of, respectively, a single switch or a single parameter, and with setf can set the value as follows.\n(setf (sys:gsgc-parameter parameter) value) (setf (sys:gsgc-switch switch) value)\nSwitches and parameters are named by keywords.\nThe first three parameters relate to the generation number and when\nobjects are tenured. Please note that of the three parameters, you\nshould only set the value of\nThe fourth parameter, which is setf'able, allows closing off some old\nareas, meaning that no objects will be tenured to them. Old areas are\nnow numbered, allowing for some to be closed off.\n||The value of this parameter is a 16 bit unsigned integer. New objects are created with this generation tag. Its initial value is 1, and it is incremented when the generation is stepped. The system may change this value after a scavenge. Users should not set this value. Note: Both the current generation number and the generation of an individual object are managed in a non-intuitive way. While it is conceptually correct that the generation number increases, the actual implementation works quite differently, often resetting the generation number toward 0.|\n||The value of this parameter is a 16 bit integer. During a scavenge, objects whose generation exceeds this value are not tenured and all the rest are tenured. Users should not set this value. Its initial value is 0, and it is constantly being reset appropriately by the system.|\n||The value of this parameter is the number of distinct generations that will remain in newspace after garbage collection. Note: objects that are marked for tenuring and objects that are to stay in newspace permanently do not belong to a specific generation. Setting the value of this parameter to 0 will cause all data to be tenured immediately. This is one of the most important parameters for users to set. Its initial value is 4 and its maximum effective value is 25.|\n||The value of this\nparameter is always a non-negative integer which is the number of the\noldest old area that is open (not closed). Old areas are numbered\nwith 0 as the oldest old area.\nThis parameter is setfable,\neither with the number of the old-area that is desired to be the first\nopen-old-area, or with a negative number, for which the old-areas are\ncounted backward to set the fence. For example,\nSee the note on closed old areas just after this table for more information.\nOld areas can be marked as closed. When an old area is closed, no objects are newly tenured into a closed old-area; it is as if the area is full. Also, no dead object in a closed old area is collected while the area is closed, and data pointed to by that object is also not collected.\nSee the description of the\nthe table just above for details on how to specify old areas as\nThe intended usage model for closing old areas is this: a programmer with an application, such as a VAR, will load up their application, perform a global-gc and possibly a resize-areas, and then close most of the old-areas, leaving room for their users' data models to be loaded into the open-areas. When the user is done with the data model, it can be thrown away and a fast global-gc performed, making way for the next data model.\nThe following parameters control the minimum size of newspace and when\nthe system will allocate a new newspace. At the end of a scavenge, at\n:free-bytes-new-other bytes must be free, and at\n:free-percent-new percent of newspace must be\nfree. If these conditions are not met, the system will allocate a new\nnewspace, large enough for these conditions to be true after\nallocating the object that caused the scavenge, if there is\none. (Unless explicitly called by the user, a scavenge occurs when the\nsystem is unable to allocate a new object.) Note that there is no\nsystem reason why there are two parameters,\n:free-bytes-new-other -- differences were\nanticipated in the original specification but none was never\nimplemented. The two parameter values are added to get total free\n||The value of this parameter is a 32-bit integer which represents the minimum amount of space (in 8 Kbyte pages) that will be requested for a new new or old space and the granularity of space requested (that is space will be requested in multiples of :quantum pages). Its initial value is 32. This parameter value is overshadowed by the other size-related parameters described immediately below, and for that reason, we do not recommend that you change this value.|\n||This is one of the parameters which determine the minimum free space which must be available after a scavenge. Its initial value is 131072.|\n||This is one of the parameters which determine the minimum free space which must be available after a scavenge. Its initial value is 131072.|\n||This parameter specifies the minimum fraction of newspace which must be available after a scavenge, or else new newspace will be allocated. Its initial value is 25.|\nThe final two parameters control how large new newspace (and new oldspace) will be. If newspace is expanded or a new oldspace is allocated, then at least the percentage specified by the appropriate parameter shall be free, after, in the case of newspace, the object that caused the scavenge has been allocated, and after, in the case of oldspace, all objects due for tenuring have been allocated. There are different concerns for the newspace parameter and the oldspace parameter.\nLet us consider the oldspace parameter first. In the case where no\nforeign code is loaded, then oldspaces are carved out of newspace, and\nnewspace grows up into memory as needed. If each new oldspace is just\nlarge enough, the next time an object is tenured, another oldspace,\nagain just large enough, will be created, and the result will be a\nbunch of small oldspaces, rather than a few larger ones. This problem\nwill not occur if there is foreign code, since some oldspaces will be\nas large as previous newspaces. If the function room shows a bunch of\nlittle oldspaces, you might try increasing the\n:expansion-free-percent-old parameter to cure the\nproblem. However, resize-areas can be used instead to coalesce\nthe oldspaces into one.\nThe newspace parameter is more complicated, since newspace can grow\nincrementally (assuming growth is not blocked by foreign code). Since\ngrowing newspace takes time, you want to ensure that when newspace\ngrows, it grows enough. Therefore, it is essential that\n:expansion-free-percent-new be larger than\n:free-percent-new. Otherwise, you might find\nnewspace growing just enough to satisfy\n:free-percent-new, and then having to grow again at\nthe next scavenge, since allocating a new object again reduced the\nfree space below the\n||At least this percentage of newspace must be free after allocating new newspace. The system will allocate sufficient extra space to guarantee that this condition is met. Its initial value is 35.|\n||At least this percentage of space must be free in newly allocated oldspace (note: not the total oldspace). Its initial value is 35.|\nThere are several switches which control the action of gsgc. The\nvalue of a switch must be\nnil. The function gsgc-switch takes a switch name as an\nargument and returns its value or with setf, sets its\nalso prints out their values. The switches can be set by evaluating\n(setf (sys:gsgc-switch switch-name) nil-or-non-nil)\n||If this switch is set true, then before\nexpanding oldspace, the system will do a global garbage collection (that is, it will\ngc oldspace) to see if the imminent expansion is necessary. If enough space is free after\nthe garbage collection of oldspace the expansion will not occur. Initially\n|If true, print a message when a gc occurs. Can be set by\nexcl:gc. The length of the message is determined by the next two switches. If both are\n||If true and\n||If true, make the message printed (when :print is true) more\n||This is the most important of the switches. If true, which is its initial value, gsgc-step-generation is effectively called after every scavenge. Thus (with the default :generation-spread) an object is tenured after surviving four scavenges.|\n||If this switch is true, the function object\nbound to the variable\nIf this switch is set true, the next gc will\nbe a global gc (that is both newspace and oldspace will be gc'ed). After the global gc,\nthe system will reset this switch to\nThe difference between setting this switch and causing a global gc explicitly with the function excl:gc is that setting this switch causes the system to wait until a scavenge is necessary before doing the global gc while calling the function causes the global gc to occur at once. The system uses this switch under certain circumstances.\nThe scavenger maintains a new logical pool of memory in\nnewspace called `reserved'. When the\nIf :print and :verbose are both true, information about the action triggered by this switch is printed. The information refers to `hiding' (moving space to the reserved bucket) and `revealing' (moving space to the free bucket).\nIf this switch is set true and the operating system on which Allegro CL is running supports it, then physical memory pages that are no longer used after a garbage collection are given back to the operating system in such a fashion that paging is improved.\nSpecifically, when this switch is true and the currently used half of newspace is copied to the unused half, the following things are done with the previously-used memory area: (1) the operating system is advised to ignore the page reference behavior of those addresses, and (2) the memory is unmapped and then is remapped, after being filled with zeros. The zero filling is necessary for security reasons, since the memory given back to the operating system will potentially be given to another process that requests virtual memory, without first being cleared. If it were not for (2), then remapping would always be advantageous and there would be no switch to control this behavior. As it is, there may be certain situations where zero filling will be too expensive, especially on machines which have a very large amount of physical memory and the decrease in locality does not effect the runtime performance of the Allegro CL application, or where the mmap() implementation is flawed.\nIf this switch is set true, then a core dump is automatically taken when an internal garbage collection error occurs. The core dump will fail, however, if (1) there is a system imposed limit on the size of a core dump and dumping the image would exceed this limit or (2) there is some other system impediment to dumping core, such as the existence of a directory named core. We assume that you can prevent the second limitation. Here are a few more words on the first limitation. In the C shell, the limit command and its associates can be used to set a higher limit or no limit for the maximum size of a core dump.\nIf the value of this switch is\nThese examples show the effect on gc messages of\nnil, a message like the following is printed during a\n:verbose is also true but\nthe message is:\n:stats is true and\nnil, the message is similar to:\ngc: E=34% N=30064 T+=872 A-=0 pfu=0+101 pfg=1+0\nThe same message with\n:verbose true would be:\nscavenging...done eff: 9%, new copy: 148056 + tenure: 320 + aclmalloc free: 0 = 148376 Page faults: non-gc = 0 major + 1 minor\nabbreviations are used. Their meanings are explained when\n:verbose is true. T or Tenure\nmeans bytes tenured to oldspace. A and alcmalloc free\nrefer to malloc space (see aclmalloc).\nE or eff. is efficiency: the ratio of non-gc time and all time (the efficiency is low in our example because we forced gc's in order to produce the example; as we say elsewhere, efficiencies of less than 75% are a cause for concern when the gc is triggered by the system).\nThe copy figures are the number of bytes copied within newspace and to oldspace.\nX means \"expanding\", so XO means \"expanding oldspace\" and XN means \"expanding newspace\". XMN means \"expanding and moving newspace\".\nPage faults are divided between user (pfu or non-gc) caused and gc (pfg or gc) caused. See the Unix man page for getrusage for a description of the difference between major and minor page faults.\nHere are a couple of more examples (with\non and off in a fresh Lisp each time):\ncl-user(1): (gc :print) t cl-user(2): (setf (sys:gsgc-switch :verbose ) t) t [...] cl-user(7): (defconstant my-array (make-array 10000000)) scavenging...expanding new space...expanding and moving new space...done eff: 36%, copy new: 7533984 + old: 85232 = 7619216 Page faults: non-gc = 1 major + 0 minor my-array ;; And in a fresh image with :verbose off: cl-user(1): (gc :print) t cl-user(2): (defconstant my-array (make-array 10000000)) gc: XN-XMN-E=32% N=7522488 T+=85632 A-=0 pfu=4+0 my-array\n|Function or variable||Arguments of functions||Brief Description|\n|gsgc-step-generation||Calling this function, which returns the new value of\n:current-generation, increases the current generation number and, if necessary, the value\n|gc||&optional action||Called with no arguments, perform a scavenge; called with\n|print-type-counts||&optional (location t)||Prints a list of quantities and sizes of lisp objects in the specified location in the heap, along with type names and type codes of each object type printed. See the print-type-counts page for location details.|\n|lispval-storage-type||object||Returns a keyword denoting where object is stored. See the lispval-storage-type page for interpretation of the returned value and examples. (In earlier releases, the function pointer-storage-type performed this function. It is still supported, but its use is deprecated. lispval-storage-type is more flexible and should be used instead.)|\n|resize-areas||&key verbose old old-symbols new global-gc tenure expand sift-old-spaces pack-heap||This function resizes old and newspaces, perhaps coalescing oldspaces, according to the arguments. See the resize-areas page for details.|\n||If the gsgc switch :hook-after-gc is true,\nthen the value of this symbol, if true, will be funcalled immediately\nafter a scavenge. See the description of\n|gc-after-c-hooks||Returns a list of addresses of C functions that will be called after a gc. See gc-after-c-hooks for details.|\n|gc-before-c-hooks||Returns a list of addresses of C functions that will be called before a gc. See gc-before-c-hooks for details.|\nIn a global garbage collection (global gc), objects in oldspace are garbage collected. Doing so frees up space in oldspace for newly tenured objects. Global gc's are time consuming (they take much longer than scavenges) and they are not necessary for Lisp to run.\nThe effect of never doing a global gc is the Lisp process will slowly grow larger. The rate of growth depends on what you are doing. The costs of growth are that the paging overhead increases and, if the process grows too much, swap space is exhausted, perhaps causing Lisp to stop or fail.\nYou have complete control over global gc's. The system will keep track of how many bytes have been tenured since the last global gc. You can choose one of these options for global gc:\nThe function that records how many bytes have been tenured since\nthe last global gc is the default value of the variable\n*gc-after-hook*. If you set\nthat variable (whose value must be a function or\nnil or a function\nthat does not keep records of bytes tenured, you will not get the\nbehavior described here. (See the description of\ninformation on defining a function that does what you want and records\nbytes tenured correctly.)\nhas as its value its initial value or a function that records bytes\ntenured correctly, global gc behavior is controlled by the global\n*tenured-bytes-limit* is used in conjunction\n*global-gc-behavior*. The number of bytes\ntenured (moved to oldspace) since the last global gc is remembered and\n*global-gc-behavior* depends on when\nThe tenuring macro causes the immediate tenuring (moving to oldspace) of all objects allocated while within the scope of its body. This is normally used when loading files, or performing some other operation where the objects created by forms will not become garbage in the short term. This macro is very useful for preventing newspace expansion.\nIt is useful if possible to provide some sort of cue while garbage collections are occurring. This allows users to know that a pause is caused by a gc (and not by an infinite loop or some other problem). Typical cues include changing the mouse cursor, printing a message, or displaying something in a buffer as Emacs does when the emacs-lisp interface is running.\nUnfortunately, providing such a cue for every scavenge is a difficult problem and if it is done wrong, the consequences to Lisp can be fatal. However, we have provided an interface for the brave. The functions gc-before-c-hooks and gc-after-c-hooks return settable lists of addresses of C functions to be called before and after a gc.\nLuckily, scavenges are usually fast and so failing to provide a cue may not be noticeable. Global gc's, however can be slow but it is possible to provide a cue for a global gc even without using C functions. There are two strategies: (1) determine when a global gc is necessary and either schedule it when convenient or warn the user that one is imminent; (2) do not give advance warning but provide a cue when it happens. Looking at these examples, you can probably craft your own method of warning or cue.\nNote that in these examples, we replace the value of\n*gc-after-hook* with a new\nvalue, destroying the current value (which provides for the default\nautomated behavior). The default function is named by the (internal)\nOne way to implement the first strategy is to set a flag when a global gc is needed and then have code that acts on that flag. This code can be run at your choosing -- but be sure that it is run at some point. You might do this:\n(defvar *my-gc-count* 0) (defvar *time-for-gc-p* nil) (defun my-gc-after-hook (global-p to-new to-old eff to-be-alloc) (declare (ignore eff to-new to-be-alloc)) (if global-p (progn (setq *my-gc-count* 0) (setq *time-for-gc-p* nil)) (progn (setq *my-gc-count* (+ *my-gc-count* to-old)) (if (> *my-gc-count* excl:*tenured-bytes-limit*) (setq *time-for-gc-p* t)))))\nMake sure you compile my-gc-after-hook before\nmaking it the value of\n*gc-after-hook*. Now, define a function that\ntriggers a global gc (calls\n(gc t)) when\n*time-for-gc-p* is true. This function can be called by a\nuser of your application, or when your application is about to do\nsomething that the user expects to wait for anyway, or whenever, so\nlong as it is called at some point.\nIn the second strategy, we provide some cue to the user that a global gc is occurring. We have not included the code for the cue (you should supply that) and notice we have gone to some pains to avoid a recursive error (where the garbage collector calls itself).\n(defvar *my-gc-count* 0) (defvar *prevent-gc-recursion-problem* nil) (defun my-gc-after-hook (global-p to-new to-old eff to-be-alloc) (declare (ignore eff to-new to-be-alloc)) (when (null *prevent-gc-recursion-problem*) (if global-p (setq *my-gc-count* 0) (progn (setq *my-gc-count* (+ *my-gc-count* to-old)) (if (> *my-gc-count* excl:*tenured-bytes-limit*) (excl:without-interrupts (setq *prevent-gc-recursion-problem* t) ;; (<change the cursor, print a warning, whatever>) (gc t) ;; (<reset the cursor if necessary>) (setq *my-gc-count* 0) (setq *prevent-gc-recursion-problem* nil)))))))\n;; (<change the cursor, print a warning, whatever>) ;; (<reset the cursor if necessary>)\nwith whatever code you want, but be careful that there is no possibility of waiting (for user input, e.g.) or going into an infinite loop because you are in a without-interrupts form and waiting is wrong and an infinite loop is fatal in that case.\nThe following list contains information and advice concerning gsgc. Some of the information has already been provided above, but is given again here for emphasis.\nnilunless some other method of stepping the generation is enabled (including specific action by you). If objects are not tenured, newspace will grow, filling up with long-lived objects, and performance will degrade significantly.\n:tenure(which will cause all live objects to be tenured) or with the tenuring macro. There is no way to prevent a specific object from ever being tenured except by disabling generation stepping and thus preventing all objects from being tenured.\nIt is not easy to cause a gsgc error. Such errors are usually catastrophic (often Lisp dies either without warning or with a brief message that some unrecognizable object was discovered). Once the garbage collector becomes confused, it cannot be straightened out.\nSuch errors can be caused when Lisp code is compiled with the compiler\noptimizations set so that normal argument and type checking is\ndisabled. For example, if a function is compiled with the values of\nspeed and safety such that the compiler:verify-argument-count-switch\nnil, and that function is passed the wrong\nnumber of arguments (usually too few), it can trigger a fatal gsgc\nerror. Before you report a gsgc error as a bug (and please do report\nthem), please recompile any code where checking was disabled with\nsettings of speed and safety which allow checking. See if the error\nrepeats itself. See Declarations and optimizations in\ncompiling.htm for more information on compiler\noptimization switches and values of speed and safety.\nGarbage collector errors may also be caused by foreign code signal handlers. Note that foreign code signal handlers should not call lisp_call_address or lisp_value. See foreign-functions.htm for more information on signals.\nSee the information on the\nSection 5.4 Gsgc switches.\nThe Allegro CL image will grow as necessary while running. If it needs to grow and it cannot, a storage-condition type error is signaled (storage-condition is a standard Common Lisp condition type). While these errors might arise from insufficient swap space, the typical cause is a conflict in the virtual address space. That is, something else (a program or a library location) has grabbed virtual address space in a range that Lisp needs to grow the heap. (Allegro CL does not allow discontinuous virtual address ranges.)\nWhatever the cause, the error is triggered by a request for space which cannot be fulfilled. Here we show the error when a largish array is created (this example is contrived in order to show the error: a request for such an array does not typically cause a problem).\nCL-USER(25): (setq my-array (make-array 100000)) Error: An allocation request for 483032 bytes caused a need for 12320768 more bytes of heap. The operating system will not make the space available. [condition type: STORAGE-CONDITION]  CL-USER(26):\nA global gc may free up enough space within Lisp to continue without growing. Killing processes other than Lisp may free enough space for Lisp to grow. But it may be the case that other allocations of virtual address space conflicts with Lisp usage. Please contact Franz customer support for assistance in determining whether this is the case if the problem persists.\nYou trigger a global gc by evaluating (see gc):\nWhen the garbage collector gets confused, usually by following what it believes to be a valid pointer, but one that does not point to an actual Lisp object, Lisp fails with a two part message. The first part is a brief description of the specific problem. The second part is a general statement about the gc failures and the fact they cannot be recovered from, along with an opportunity of get a core file (which may be useful for later analysis). Here are some examples of the second part:\nThe gc's internal control tables may have been corrupted and Lisp execution cannot continue. [or] The internal data structures in the running Lisp image have been corrupted and execution cannot continue. [then] Check all foreign functions and any Lisp code that was compiled with high speed and/or low safety, as these are two common sources of this failure. If you cannot find anything incorrect in your code you should contact technical support for Allegro Common Lisp, and we will try to help determine whether this is a coding error or an internal bug. Would you like to dump core for debugging before exiting(y or n)?\nHere are some examples of the first part:\nsystem error (gsgc): Unknown object type at (0xc50ec9a) system error (gsgc): Object already pointing to target newspace half: 0x42c43400 system error (gsgc): Scavenger invoked itself recursively.\nAs the text says in the second part, there is no recovery.\nThe causes of such errors can be one or more of the following:\nDiagnosing and fixing the problem can be difficult. Here are some initial steps to take where possible:\n(gc :print), see gc.)\nIf you cannot quickly determine the cause of the problem and a solution for it, contact Franz Inc. technical support at firstname.lastname@example.org. Be sure to include the output of a call to print-system-state, and provide any information about foreign code, optimizations, etc. that you can. We may ask you for a core file (which, as said above, can be optionally generated when there is a failure).\nA Lisp object becomes garbage when nothing points to or references it. The way the garbage collector works is it finds and identifies live objects (and, typically, moves them somewhere). Whatever is left is garbage. Finalizations and weak vectors allow pointers to objects which will not, however, keep them alive. If one of these pointers exists, the garbage collector will see the item and (depending on the circumstances), either keep it alive (by moving it) or abandon it.\nIt is useful to distinguish two actions of the garbage collector. When the only pointers to an object are weak pointers or finalizations, the garbage collector follows those pointers and `identifies the object as garbage'. If it decides not to keep the object alive, it `scavenges the object away'. Note that any Lisp object can be scavenged away - that just means that the memory it used is freed and (eventually) overwritten with new objects. Only objects pointed to by a weak vector or a finalization can be identified as garbage, however. Live objects are not garbage and objects with nothing pointing to them are not even seen by the garbage collector.\nThe function lispval-storage-type applied to an object returns a keyword providing information about the storage type of the object. Weak vectors and finalizations are identified by this function which can be used to test whether an object is a weak vector.\nWeak arrays are created with the standard Common Lisp function make-array (using the non-standard weak keyword argument) or (if a vector is desired) with the function weak-vector. When you create a weak array by specifying a true value for the weak keyword argument to make-array, you cannot also:\n:displaced-tokeyword argument (weak arrays cannot be displaced into other arrays).\n:new(the non-standard allocation keyword argument allows specifying where the arrays will be created, with choices including foreign space, non-gc'ed Lisp space, or the Lisp heap, called for by\n:new, which is also the default).\nWhen make-array successfully accepts a true value for the weak keyword argument, the object that is weak is always the underlying simple-vector; if the resultant array is non-simple or is multidimensional, then the array itself is not marked as weak, but objects in the array will still be dropped by the gc when not otherwise referenced, because the simple-array that is the data portion of the array is itself weak.\nSee the discussion of extensions to make-array (in implementation.htm) for further details on the Allegro CL implementation of make-array and the weak keyword argument.\nAs we said in the brief description above, the most important feature\nabout weak arrays is that being pointed to by a weak array does not\nprevent an object from being identified as garbage and scavenged\naway. When an object is scavenged away, the entry in a weak array that\npoints to the object will be replaced with\nWeak arrays allow you to keep track of objects and to discover when\nthey have become garbage and disposed of. An application of weak\narrays might be determining when some resource external to Lisp can be\nflushed. Suppose that all references to a file external to Lisp are\nmade through a specific pathname. It may be that once all live\nreferences to that pathname are gone (i.e. the pathname has become\ngarbage) the file itself is no longer needed and it can be removed\nfrom the filesystem. If you have a weak array which points to the\npathname, when the reference is replaced by\nnil by the garbage collector, you can tell the system\nto kill the file.\nIt is important to remember that objects which have been tenured will not be identified as garbage unless a global gc is performed. If you use weak arrays, you should either arrange that global gc's are done regularly or that you do an explicit global gc before checking the status of an element of the weak array.\nWe provide a simple example of weak vectors (weak arrays differ from weak vectors only in having more dimensions) and finalizations in Section 10.3 Example of weak vectors and finalizations.\nWeak hashtables are also supported. See implementation.htm for information on an extension to make-hash-table that creates weak hashtables.\nThe function lispval-storage-type applied to an object returns a keyword providing information about the storage type of the object. Weak vectors and finalizations are identified by this function which can be used to test whether an object is a weak vector.\nA finalization associates an object with a function and optionally\nqueue. If the object\nis identified as garbage by the garbage collector, either the function\nis called with the object as its single argument before the object is\nscavenged away (if there is no associated queue) or a list consisting\nof the function and the object is placed on the queue. In the latter\ncase, no further action is taken by the system. The program must apply\nthe function call-finalizer at its convenience.\nMultiple finalizations can be scheduled for the same object; all are run or placed on queues if and when the gc identifies the object as garbage. The order of the running of multiple finalizations is unspecified.\nThe timing is important here. While the garbage collector is running, nothing else can be done in Lisp. In particular, functions (except those internal to the garbage collector itself) cannot be called. Therefore, the process of running a finalization and the eventual reclamation of the finalized object occurs over two invocations of the garbage collector. During the first gc, the object is identified as garbage. The garbage collector sees the finalization and so, instead of immediately scavenging the object away, it keeps it alive and makes a note to call the finalization function or enqueue the list of the function and the object as soon as it finishes the current scavenge (or global gc). The finalization is removed from the object after the function is run so that during a subsequent garbage collection, the object is either garbage or, if a weak vector points to it, again identified as garbage and (since it no longer has a finalization) scavenged away. See the example in Section 10.3 Example of weak vectors and finalizations.\nA finalization is not a type of Lisp object. Finalizations are implemented as vectors (but that may change in a later release). You should not write any code which depends on the fact that finalizations are implemented as vectors.\nYou schedule a finalization with the function schedule-finalization. The function unschedule-finalization removes the finalization from the object. Finalizations are only run once, either immediately after the garbage collection which identified the object as garbage or by the program. The object is not scavenged away during the garbage collection in which it is identified as garbage (since it must be around to be the argument to the finalization function).\nOn Windows, load the file after the transcript example. Typing the example into the Debug window in the Integrated Development Environment on Windows does not work as described, because tools in the IDE cause pointers to the objects to be preserved, and, as a result, the example does not work as described. On Unix, you can type the example directly to a prompt.\n;; This example can be typed to a prompt on a UNIX platform. ;; We define a weak vector and a function to be called by finalizations. CL-USER(10): (setq wv (weak-vector 1)) #(nil) CL-USER(11): (defun foo (x) (format t \"I am garbage!~%\")) foo ;; We create an object and put it in the weak vector: CL-USER(12): (setq a (cons 1 2)) (1 . 2) CL-USER(13): (setf (aref wv 0) a) (1 . 2) ;; We schedule a finalization. CL-USER(14): (schedule-finalization a 'foo) #((1 . 2) foo nil) ;; We remove the reference to the cons by setting the value of A to NIL. CL-USER(15): (setq a nil) nil ;; We evaluate unrelated things to ensure that the object ;; is not the value of *, **, or ***. CL-USER(16): 1 1 CL-USER(17): 2 2 CL-USER(18): 3 3 ;; We trigger a scavenge. The finalization function is called. ;; Note: an automatic gc might occur while you are entering the ;; forms shown. If it does, you might see the message printed by ;; our finalization sooner. CL-USER(19): (gc) I am garbage! ;; At this point, the weak vector still points to the object: CL-USER(20): wv #((1 . 2)) ;; The next gc causes the value in the weak vector to ;; be changed. CL-USER(21): (gc) CL-USER(22): wv #(nil)\nOn Windows, put this in a file finalization.cl:\n(in-package :cg-user) (setq wv (weak-vector 1)) (defun foo (x) (format t \"I am garbage!~%\")) (setq a (cons 1 2)) (setf (aref wv 0) a) (schedule-finalization a 'foo) (setq a nil)\nand do this in the Debug Window (the transcript shows the I am\ngarbage! message occurring after\nevaluated at cl-user(11) but if a gc was triggered by the\nloading of finalization.cl, you may see instead\nthe I am garbage! message sooner):\ncl-user(10): :ld finalization.cl Loading finalization.cl cl-user(11): wv #((1 . 2)) cl-user(12): (gc) I am garbage! cl-user(13): 1 1 cl-user(14): 2 2 cl-user(15): 3 3 cl-user(16): (gc) cl-user(17): wv #(nil)\nThe data in a static array is placed in an area that is not garbage collected. This means that the data is never moved and, therefore, pointers to it can be safely stored in foreign code. (Generally, Lisp objects are moved about by the garbage collector so a pointer passed to foreign code is only guaranteed to be valid during the call. See foreign-functions.htm for more information on this point.) Only certain element types are permitted (listed below). General arrays (whose elements can be any Lisp object) cannot be created as static arrays.\nThe primary purpose of static arrays is for use with foreign code. They may also be useful with pure Lisp code but only if the array is needed for the whole Lisp run and the array never has to be significantly changed. The problem is the array is not garbage collected and there is no way (within Lisp) to free up the space.\nStatic arrays are returned by make-array with the (Allegro CL-specific) allocation keyword argument specified. The data is stored in an area which is not garbage collected but the header (if any) is stored in standard Lisp space. The following element types are supported in static arrays.\nbit (signed-byte 8) (unsigned-byte 4) (unsigned-byte 8) (signed-byte 16) (unsigned-byte 16) (signed-byte 32) (unsigned-byte 32) character single-float double-float (complex single-float) (complex double-float)\nSee implementation.htm for information on this extension to make-array. See lispval-other-to-address for information on freeing static arrays.\nCopyright (c) 1998-2012, Franz Inc. Oakland, CA., USA. All rights reserved.\nDocumentation for Allegro CL version 9.0. This page was not revised from the 8.2 page.\n|Allegro CL version 9.0|\nUnrevised from 8.2 to 9.0.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b14c698d-79cb-429f-9908-bccc75d9404c>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.franz.com/support/documentation/current/doc/gc.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8739315271377563, "token_count": 16820, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Teen is on front lines of autism clinical trialShe lives in a world no one else can enter, unable to speak or interact with others. But 16-year-old Rebecca Singer may be playing an important role in science.\nBy: Barbara Williams , The Record (Hackensack N.J.)\nHACKENSACK, N.J. \u2014 She lives in a world no one else can enter, unable to speak or interact with others. But 16-year-old Rebecca Singer may be playing an important role in science.\nRebecca has become the first patient in a clinical trial testing a drug that researchers hope could pull her out of her reality and eventually lead to a groundbreaking autism treatment.\nIn the study led by the Mount Sinai School of Medicine and assisted by a research team from Rutgers University, the Tenafly, N.J., girl is taking a growth factor hormone that was shown to reverse in mice some of the deficits associated with autism.\nResearchers aren\u2019t expecting a cure but are hopeful for a \"disease modifying\" outcome, said Dr. Alex Kolevzon, one of the physicians working on the study and the pediatrics clinical director at the Seaver Autism Center at Mount Sinai.\n\"We know that humans don\u2019t always respond the way mice do, but there\u2019s the potential for significant benefit,\" Kolevzon said.\nSuch words are remarkable to parents of children with autism. \"I\u2019m trying not to get my hopes up that this could be the miracle we\u2019ve been waiting for,\" Rebecca\u2019s father, Jon Singer said. \"But there is the possibility that it could be and even if this hormone only helps in a small way, it\u2019s a start.\"\nAutism rates are rising at a startling pace. One in 88 children nationwide now has the disorder. New Jersey\u2019s rates are even higher \u2014 one in every 49 children, including one in every 29 boys \u2014 according to a report released in March by the Centers for Disease and Control and Prevention.\nRebecca and two other children in the 7-month blind study are being injected twice a day for three months with growth factor IGF-1 or a placebo, separated by a four-week resting period. The insulin-like hormone is typically used for children not growing appropriately for their age.\nIn a trial last year, IGF-1 was shown to reverse nerve cell communication damage in mice. People with autism seem to have the same type of deficits.\nAll the trial participants have a mutated or missing gene on chromosome 22, which causes Phelan-McDermid Syndrome, a rare genetic disease that causes severe disabilities and, often, autism. Chromosome 22 is involved in processes crucial for learning and memory; the loss of it can impede neuron communication.\nPeople with Phelan, estimated at fewer than 700 worldwide, typically have profound intellectual disabilities, chewing and swallowing problems, no formal language, and autism.\n\"Rebecca seems to understand certain things and can use a fork and drink from a cup, something we didn\u2019t think would ever happen,\" Singer said. \"She turns the pages of a book when we\u2019re reading to her but we\u2019re not sure how much of it she understands.\"\nThough Rebecca doesn\u2019t speak, her family understands her rudimentary method of communicating, like when she stops what she is doing to sit on a kitchen chair \u2014 meaning she\u2019s hungry. When she wants to go to her favorite place \u2014 anywhere outdoors \u2014 she stands in front of the door. Her father, her mother, Michey, and 12-year-old brother, Sam, can interpret the sounds she makes to know whether she\u2019s agitated or happy. And anyone can see her face-wide grin when she\u2019s in a pool or riding her bike.\n\"She\u2019s a real trouper \u2014 she\u2019s been poked and prodded so much and she doesn\u2019t really cry or give us a hard time,\" her mother said. \"I\u2019m cautiously hopeful this trial will be groundbreaking and even if it doesn\u2019t help Rebecca, it will help someone else down the road.\"\nNow that Rebecca is in the study, her loved ones are watching carefully for any improvements \u2014 better eye contact or more fluid movements \u2014 though no one knows whether she\u2019s taking IGF-1 or the placebo.\n\"Sometimes I think she\u2019s doing better with her fine motor skills but I have to remind myself how powerful suggestion can be,\" her father said. \"Her teachers will tell us they believe she\u2019s making longer eye contact, but we have to keep all this in perspective. Even though everyone is trying to be objective, sometimes you see what you want to see.\"\n(EDITORS: STORY CAN END HERE)\nWhile others look for hopeful signs, Michey Singer has her eyes trained on the conditions that indicate her daughter may be suffering from the growth factor\u2019s side effects \u2014 low blood sugar, light-headedness or a more pronounced limp.\n\"I test her blood sugar three times a day and watch if she\u2019s limping,\" Michey Singer said. \"Even without the trial, there\u2019s constant worry with Rebecca \u2014 she can\u2019t tell me when something is wrong so I\u2019m always listening and watching to see if something seems off.\"\nTwo years ago. scientists discovered how to create autism-like conditions in mice, altering the chromosome to disrupt nerve cell communication. Less than a year later, researchers gave the affected rodents IGF-1.\nBy Day Six of the two-week treatment, they had reversed the damage.\n\"IGF-1 promotes synaptic growth in nerve cells,\" Kolevzon said. \"You can\u2019t compare the time frame between mice and humans but if IGF-1 is successful, this may shed a broader light on autism.\"\n(EDITORS: STORY CAN END HERE)\nA psychology research team at Rutgers University may be among the first to see any improvements in Rebecca and others in the study. Elizabeth Torres, an assistant professor who leads the group, said they are creating three Avatar-like images for each patient \u2014 before the study begins, half-way through the trial, and after it is over.\nComparing the images may allow researchers to discern slight changes in movement that may not be visible in the patient, researchers said.\n\"We\u2019re collecting motion patterns \u2014 240 points of movement for each second,\" Torres said. \"These movements are like fingerprints, unique to each person, and we can track their performance gains.\"\nEmerging research points to genetic mutations as a likely cause of autism spectrum disorder. Specifically, different genetic mutations may cause the common symptoms associated with the disorder, such as problems with social interaction, language and behavior. The Mount Sinai work could trigger other studies on various gene mutations, experts say.\nIn addition to having autism, people with Phelan also have a wide range of symptoms including intellectual disabilities, sleep disorders and seizures. Infants may have very low muscle tone, poor motor control and problems with eating and swallowing.\nJon Singer works tirelessly for autism causes. He raises funds for research; helped launch the Reed Academy in Oakland, N.J., a school dedicated solely to students with autism, and publishes books for parents of special-needs children.\nHe fought hard to get Rebecca into the clinical trial. At first, it seemed her body was finished growing, making the potential side-effects too dangerous, but Singer found several doctors to review the tests and confirm she was still a good candidate.\n\"We\u2019ve wanted to get her into this study for a year-and-a-half,\" he said. \"We have no idea what the outcome will be \u2014 if there are improvements, will they be reversed when the injections stop? But I\u2019m very excited about it.\"\nDistributed by McClatchy Tribune.", "id": "<urn:uuid:c34f7d56-a8ca-4e9d-a6f8-75be7a724f4e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.grandforksherald.com/event/article/id/240158/publisher_ID/40/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9588389992713928, "token_count": 1640, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Operation Downfall was the name given to the planned invasion of Japan. Operation Downfall itself was divided into two parts - Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. By mid-1945, it was apparent that the collapse of Japan was near and the Allies had to plan for the invasion of the Japanese mainland - something that they knew would be very costly in terms of lives lost.\nAmerican military commanders were given the task of planning for the invasion - Douglas MacArthur, Chester Nimitz, Ernest King, William Leahy, Hap Arnold and George Marshall. Inter-service rivalry did occur as both army and navy wanted one of 'their men' to be supreme commander of planning. Eventually the navy accepted that MacArthur was to have total control if the invasion was to take place. The planning proceeded without taking the atomic bomb into consideration as so few knew about its existence.\nThe Americans faced one very serious problem. They knew for sure that the Japanese would defend their territory with zeal and that American casualties would be high - probably too high for the American public to accept. The fanaticism that had been shown by the kamikazes, would almost certainly be encountered in Japan and the Americans had to plan for this.\nThere was plenty of evidence to indicate that any invasion of the Japanese mainland would be very bloody for all concerned. The complexity of such an attack also led to both sides of the US military developing different ideas as to what the best plan should be. The navy believed that a blockade supported by an air campaign would suffice. They wanted to use air bases in China and Korea to launch bombing raids against key cities in Japan. The army believed that such a campaign would take too long and that the morale of the American public might suffer as a result. They supported the use of an invasion that would go to the heart of Japan \u2013 Tokyo. The army got its way.\nIt quickly became apparent that any invasion of Japan would present huge difficulties. There were very few beaches that could be used as a landing place and the Japanese knew this. Both sides knew that only the beaches in Kyushu and the beaches at Kanto, near Tokyo, could support a huge amphibious landing. The Japanese took the appropriate measures in both areas.\nThe Americans had planned to land in Kyushu first and use it as a base for planes to attack other targets in Japan. These planes would then be used to give support to the landings at Kanto. As there were so few places to land a massive force of amphibious troops, the Japanese guessed as early as 1944 where such landings would take place.\nThe actual invasion of Kyushu was known to be fraught with dangers. Therefore, there were those in the American military who advocated the use of chemical weapons on the Japanese defenders. The use of poisonous gas had been outlawed by the Geneva Convention, but neither America nor Japan had signed this. As Japan had used poisonous gas in their attack on China, there were some in the US military who felt it was perfectly justified to use it on the Japanese. The Japanese did fear a gas attack and records do show that senior military figures in Japan wanted to ensure that if there was a gas attack, that the response of the Japanese would be such that it would not make any attack worse. American Intelligence had known for a while that Japan was in no fit state to respond to a gas attack with a gas attack.\nThe main concern for the Americans was the potential for huge casualty rates. Nearly every senior officer involved in the planning did his own research regarding American casualties \u2013 this was based on the experience America had fighting the Japanese since Pearl Harbour.\nThe Joint Chiefs of Staff estimated that Olympic alone would cost 456,000 men, including 109,000 killed. Including Coronet, it was estimated that America would experience 1.2 million casualties, with 267,000 deaths.\nStaff working for Chester Nimitz, calculated that the first 30 days of Olympic alone would cost 49,000 men. MacArthur\u2019s staff concluded that America would suffer 125,000 casualties after 120 days, a figure that was later reduced to 105,000 casualties after his staff subtracted the men who when wounded could return to battle.\nGeneral Marshall, in conference with President Truman, estimated 31,000 in 30 days after landing in Kyushu. Admiral Leahy estimated that the invasion would cost 268,000 casualties. Personnel at the Navy Department estimated that the total losses to America would be between 1.7 and 4 million with 400,000 to 800,000 deaths. The same department estimated that there would be up to 10 million Japanese casualties. The \u2018Los Angeles Times\u2019 estimated that America would suffer up to 1 million casualties.\nRegardless of which figures were used, it was an accepted fact that America would lose a very large number of men. This was one of the reasons why President Truman authorised the use of the atomic bomb in an effort to get Japan to surrender. On August 6th, \u2018Little Boy\u2019 was dropped on Hiroshima and on August 9th, \u2018Fat Man\u2019 was dropped on Nagasaki. On September 2nd, Japan surrendered and America and her allies were spared the task of invading Japan with the projected massive casualties this would entail.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4b70444d-39cf-4ad0-806b-2d5ee3b66eca>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/operation_downfall.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9877657890319824, "token_count": 1058, "score": 3.515625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Peter PanLiterary Hero\nBest known as:\nFanciful boy hero of Peter Pan\nPeter Pan is the mischievous hero of J.M. Barrie's 1904 play Peter Pan. Peter is \"the boy who never grew up,\" a fantastical figure who visits the bedroom of the Darling children (Wendy, John and Michael) and flies them away to Neverland. There the children meet Peter's loyal troupe of lost boys, and have adventures and battles with the nefarious Captain Hook. The character of Peter went through several versions, from a 1902 book The Little White Bird to Barrie's hugely successful 1904 play. Barrie published the story as prose in 1911, under the title of Peter and Wendy. In 1953, Walt Disney made a hit animated movie out of a cleaned up version the story, and a 1954 Broadway musical version of the play earned a Tony award for Mary Martin, who played Peter. In films Peter has been played by Jeremy Sumpter (Peter Pan, 2003) and Robin Williams (Hook, 1991) among many others. Peter Pan is also the star of a series of adventure stories for children by Dave Barry and Ridley Pearson, starting with Peter and the Starcatcher (2004).\nPeter Pan is assisted by a tiny fairie named Tinkerbell, who carries a lighted wand; she has become one of the signature figures of the Walt Disney empire... Late singer Michael Jackson called his extravagant California ranch \"Neverland\"... In Barrie's story, Peter tells Wendy he lives \"Second to the right, then straight on till morning.\" In some productions this has been changed to \"Second star to the right, then straight on till morning\"... Peter is usually played onstage by women, a tradition started with the original 1904 production; gymnast Cathy Rigby and actress Sandy Duncan played the role often later in the 20th century... In 1929, Barrie donated the rights to Peter Pan to London's Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children.\nCopyright \u00a9 1998-2013 by Who2?, LLC. All rights reserved.\nMore on Peter Pan from Infoplease:\nInformation Please\u00ae Database, \u00a9 2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.", "id": "<urn:uuid:a425dd00-2dda-4f6a-a262-ac0cfe23a97e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.infoplease.com/biography/var/peterpan.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9433009624481201, "token_count": 444, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Forest governance and climate policies\nFred Stolle of the World Resources Institute looks at the need for REDD to address forest governance issues as well as creating market incentives.\nPolicy-makers are recognizing the essential role that the world\u2019s remaining forests play in maintaining the global climate system. The political momentum generated by the Bali Action Plan under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) will create a unique opportunity to put in place a framework of incentives that could curb deforestation, slow forest degradation, and improve the way forests are managed. To succeed, these incentives must strike at the main drivers of rampant deforestation and must also recognize the dependency of local communities on forest ecosystems for their livelihoods.\nIn the coming months, climate change negotiators have agreed to explore a mechanism for providing compensation for \u201cReducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries\u201d (REDD). Under most REDD proposals, compensation would be financed by the sale of these emission reductions as \u2018carbon offsets\u2019 to be used by regulated countries or companies to remain within their emissions limits.\nHowever, will the promise of money for carbon alone create the conditions necessary to counteract the drivers of deforestation?\nIf a REDD mechanism is to succeed, competing pressures on forests will need to be managed fairly and effectively. REDD needs to strike at the heart of the drivers, which are not always directly linked to markets, but are as often factors of problems such as illegal logging, bad planning, lack of law enforcement, the absence of tenure rights, the lack of accountability, the lack of coordination and capacity of institutions that manage forest resources and the loss of revenues and other governance factors.\nIt seems thus apparent that REDD will need to do more than create market incentives. To make REDD effective, efficient and capable of achieving lasting impacts, these governance issues need to be addressed. However, to make these difficult governance improvements countries will need assistance, while these improvements cannot be directly translated into reduced emissions and thus cannot be paid for by carbon credits. There is thus a need for a payment mechanism phase either in parallel or prior to a market mechanism, for REDD to be successful.\nAlthough this phase could not be measured by tons of carbon removed, it is clear that such a phase needs to be measured (and reported and verified), not to fall into the same trap of general development assistance (ODA) over the last decades that has had a low percentage of success. The concept of this governance phase is getting more attention lately and one option of such a phase has been described recently in the Norwegian government -Meridian Institute Options Assessment Report (2009), as the \u2018Implementation of policies and measures phase\u2019.\nTo make this governance phase measurable and successful, governance indicators (qualitative and/or quantitative) need to be developed and agreed upon to be able to identify areas of improvement and hold governments accountable (both governments that supply funds and governments that receive funds). These indicators should cover a wide range of governance topics such as institutions, management, tenure, planning, etc.\nAddressing climate change and especially deforestation worldwide will depend on the right incentives and the governance capacity to effectively use these incentives. To improve governance and ensure progress and accountability of governance, we need to develop measurable and agreed upon governance indicators.", "id": "<urn:uuid:1f534088-d817-4fe5-b528-87d4f831722f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.iucn.org/news_homepage/news_by_date/2009_news/october_2009/?3960/Forest-governance-and-climate-policies", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9548892378807068, "token_count": 672, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Named Yrvind Ten after its 10 foot length, the miniature vessel will be just 1.8 meters wide with two six meter-tall masts.\nWeighing 1.5 tons, it will be made out of a composite foam and fiberglass material which, he says, is \"excellent for insulation and floatation.\"\nPowered by wind, solar panels, gel batteries and a foot crank, Yrvind Ten will set sail from Ireland in a 48,000 kilometer return journey around the globe.\nSir Robin Knox-Johnston, the first person to sail around the world in 1969 in a 9.8 meter yacht, said there was a real possibility Yrvind would complete the voyage.\nBriton Knox-Johnston, who also founded the Clipper Round the World Yacht Race, added that many people had thought his own bid to circumnavigate the globe was impossible at the time.\n\"One of the biggest challenges he'll face is when he's coming up against these massive 25 meter waves in the Southern Ocean. In a boat that size he's just going to be rolled around and around like he's inside a giant washing machine,\" Knox-Johnston said.\n\"He might also find he's using a lot more energy -- and will need a lot more food -- being rolled around like that.\"\nThe Swede will collect rainwater in sails, funneled by a hose to a tank. With no heating equipment on board, he'll rely on 400 kilograms of muesli and sardines, supplemented with vitamin tablets and fish caught from the sea.\n\"I need just half-a-kilogram of food a day and this will give me enough food for 800 days,\" he said.\n\"In the beginning I will have fruit but obviously that will run out. I also have a friend in Melbourne with a boat who will come out with supplies.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:62da3ad0-6c80-4bab-9dd8-ea749944cbe2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.kcci.com/news/sports/Plan-to-sail-around-world-in-smallest-boat/-/9357168/17575580/-/item/1/-/625uryz/-/index.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9698269367218018, "token_count": 390, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Magic of the Canadian West\nWith a vast land area of almost 10 million square kilometres and a population of just over 30 million people, Canada has a lot of wide open spaces with huge tracts of uninhabited countryside. There is a great variety of different landform, ranging from the intensively farmed plains of the south to the evocatively named \u201cBarren Grounds\u201d of the north, which are characterised by permafrost and freezing tundra. The Yukon stretches from British Columbia in the south to beyond the Arctic Circle. To the northwest it is bordered by Alaska. The region and the state gets its name from the Yukon River, a 3000-km (1800 mile) artery that rises in BC's Coast Mountains and flows through the heart of the Yukon and Alaska to the Bering Sea. At the westernmost tip of the Yukon are located the country's highest mountains. Together with the neighbouring Wrangell National Park in Alaska, the Kluane National Park protects the St Elias Mountains, including Mount Logan (5950m) - Canada's highest point \u2013 and Mount McKinley (6193m) in Alaska, the highest point in North America. Below them, and covering half the park, is a huge basin of mile-deep glaciers and ice fields, the world's largest non-polar ice. The Canadian Rockies extend for 2000 km (1200 miles) south from the Yukon through Alberta and British Columbia. One of the most accessible parts of the range is located at the western edge of the state of Alberta, some 250 km (155 miles) west of Edmonton and closer still to the town of Calgary. Here, there are 2 adjoining national parks; Banff National Park and Jasper National Park, which together enclose more than 17,000 sq km (6,560 sq miles) of beautiful mountain scenery. Despite its ease of access, this is still a wilderness area. Endless forests, extensive tundra, powerful glaciers, and cascading rivers are overlooked by peaks almost 4000m (13,000ft) tall. The Athabasca River, which has its source in the Jasper National Park, flows for more than 1500 km (almost 1000 miles) across Canada.\nThe time in Alberta is GMT -7 hours\nThe weather in the Canadian Rocky Mountains is ever-changing and always unpredictable. Summer days are long, but the summer season is short. July is the warmest month with a mean daily maximum temperature of 22\u00b0C / 72\u00b0F. We can expect to encounter temperatures during the day ranging from 18\u00b0C / 64\u00b0F to 27\u00b0C / 80\u00b0F. Naturally, at the highest elevations, the daytime temperatures will be lower than this. At night, the temperatures will typically drop to around 10\u00b0C / 50\u00b0F or even a few degrees lower. Although the weather is relatively stable at this time of year, we can expect some rainfall.\nThe unit of currency in Canada is the Canadian dollar. For up to date exchange rates visit: www.xe.com.Canadian dollars can be easily obtained outside the country. The best and fastest way to obtain cash in-country is from ATMs using a credit or debit card. If you are carrying your travel money in travellers cheques you should use US or Canadian dollar denominations. Cheques can be cashed at Thomas Cook and other exchange bureaux or at major banks. Credit cards can be used to purchase most goods and services and at major restaurants.\nCitizens of the US, Australia, New Zealand, Switzerland, and nationals of countries within the EU do not need a visa.\nPassengers intending to fly via the USA, please note the following:\nUnder the Electronic System for Travel Authorisation (ESTA), all travellers, including children, from the 27 countries under the US visa waiver programme (VWP) will have to fill out an electronic travel authorization form online at www.esta.cbp.dhs.gov prior to boarding any US-bound aircraft or ship. You can also use this site to check whether your country is part of the visa waiver scheme.\nYou will be required to answer questions about criminal records, communicable diseases, past history of visa revocation or deportation, and basic biographical data such as name, birth date and passport information. Changes in address and itinerary can be made online after the ESTA form has been first submitted.\nYou will not be allowed to board any US bound aircraft if you have not completed the online ESTA form.\nIf you have a criminal record (including criminal driving offences), you will be required to obtain a visa in advance of entering or transiting the USA.\nYou should attend your own doctor and dentist for a check-up. Your doctor will have access to the most up to date information on the required vaccinations for the country you are visiting. For the USA and Canada, in general, you do not require any vaccinations other than standard travel jabs (Polio, Tetanus, and Hepatitus A etc). A very good online resource is the NHS travel website at www.fitfortravel.nhs.uk\nAdditional Sources of Information\nLonely Planet \u2013 Canada.\nThe Rough Guide to Canada.\nMoon Handbooks. Canadian Rockies.\nCanadian Rockies Handbook.Andrew Hempstead.\nThe Canadian Rockies. Douglas Leighton.\nThe Canadian Rockies Trail Guide. Patton and Robinson.\nCanadian Whitewater \u2013 Central Rockies.\nAlberta & British Colombia. 1:1,600,000 scale. ITMB Publishing.\nJasper and Maligne Lake (Topographic Map). Gem Trek Publishing.\nSouthwest Alberta Southeast B.C. (Explorer's Map). Gem Trek Publishing.\nLonely Planet - www.lonelyplanet.com\nRough Guides - www.roughguides.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:457b4703-de17-4df6-aa1b-eee02e22cc5e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.keadventure.com/trip/mcr/magic-of-the-canadian-west/country-profile.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.901156485080719, "token_count": 1189, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fallacy of Division\nThe fallacy of division is the reverse of the fallacy of composition. It is committed by inferences from the fact that a whole has a property to the conclusion that a part of the whole also has that property. Like the fallacy of composition, this is only a fallacy for some properties; for others, it is a legitimate form of inference.\nAn example of an inference that certainly does commit the fallacy of division is this:\n(1) Water is liquid.\n(2) H2O molecules are liquid.\nThis argument, in attributing a macro-property of water, liquidity, to its constituent parts, commits the fallacy of division. Though water is liquid, individual molecules are not.\nNote, however, that an argument with the same logical form but inferring from the fact that a computer is smaller than a car that every part of the computer is smaller than a car would not be fallacious; arguments with this logical form need not be problematic.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cbb82de9-63d2-47fc-80f3-e62d663f0644>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.logicalfallacies.info/relevance/division/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9398712515830994, "token_count": 200, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Adult students are often better motivated than traditional-age students, but many have not taken an examination for many years. Thus, finding appropriate methods of assessment poses a challenge.\nBackground and Purpose\nThe Houston Community College System's Central College has about 27,000 full-time equivalent students who have various goals including changing careers, acquiring associate degrees and transferring to programs which will result in 4-year degrees. There are no residential facilities at the college which is located in downtown Houston, Texas. Some students are homeless, physically challenged, in rehabilitation programs; and others are traditional students. The average age of our students is 27 years old.\nOlder students present the faculty member with unusual challenges since they don't necessarily respond well to traditional methods of teaching and assessment. However, they are capable of succeeding in learning mathematics if given appropriate support and opportunities to show what they have learned. Many students have personal difficulties at the beginning of the semester. They are challenged with housing arrangements, parking and transportation problems. Day care is also a problem for many single or divorced women. Although the students have social problems and economic constraints, they are motivated to strive toward the academic goals of my class. They honestly communicate their difficulties and they share their successes. I design activities and assessment in my class to address these special needs of my students. Flexibility and compassion create an environment rich with opportunities to learn, while the expectations of excellence, mastery and skills acquisition are maintained.\nThese non-traditional students usually begin my course in college algebra with little confidence in their abilities. They are reluctant to go to the board to present problems. Older students tend to do homework in isolation. Many of them do not linger on campus to benefit from interaction with their classmates. College Algebra students at Central College have no experience with mathematics software or computer algebra systems such as DERIVE, and are uncomfortable with computer technology generally. While older students may be uncomfortable with reform in college algebra, with time they do adjust and benefit from a pedagogical style which differs from the one they expected. In this article, I discuss some assessment techniques which I have found help these students grow, and allow them to show what they have learned.\nI usually start my college algebra classes with a 10 or 15 minute mini-lecture. I pose questions which encourage discussion among the students. These questions are sequenced and timed to inspire students to discover new ways of approaching a problem and to encourage them to persist toward solutions. Students are invited to make presentations of problems on the board.\nCooperative Learning offers opportunities for sharing information and peer tutoring. Students are invited to form groups of four or five. I assign the work: for example, the section of Lial's College Algebra test on word problems. Each group selects its group leader. Participants keep a journal of their work, and each member must turn in a copy of all solved problems in their own handwriting. Students are warned that each group member must be an active problem solver and no one is to be a \"sponge.\" One class period is dedicated to forming the groups and to establishing the rules for completion of the assignment, and a second to work on the assignment. If the word problems are not completed in the designated class period, the assignment become a homework assignment to be completed by each group. Approximately 30 word problems requiring the use of equations are solved using this method.\nAs a result of this activity, students become aware of their strengths and weaknesses and become better at pacing themselves and at self assessment. Although I give a group grade for projects, I do not give a group grade for classwork or participation in discussion groups: each individual receives a grade for work completed.\nProjects provide an opportunity for students to become familiar with the Mathematics Laboratory. The goal of the project is graphing and designing at least three images: a cat's face, a spirograph and a flower. Most designs are accomplished using lines and conics such as circles, ellipses and parabolas.\nSome students do library or internet research for their projects: they look up trigonometric equations and discover the appropriate coefficients to produce the best (and prettiest) flowers, or use polar coordinates or parametric equations. An objective of the research is to identify role models and people of diverse backgrounds who persisted and succeeded in mathematics courses or professions that are mathematics dependent. A second objective is to inspire students to write about mathematics and to record their attitude toward mathematics and technology. I had the students in summer school find a web page on Mathematics and Nature, and write a short report. They also did research on biomimetics and composites to become aware of the usual connections in science, mathematics and nature. Connecting mathematics to the world around them helps motivate them to work harder learning the mathematics. The Mathematics and Nature web site that the students found is the one that I have linked to my page. I encouraged the students to use e-mail and to provide feedback to me by e-mail.\nExaminations usually contain 14-20 questions requiring the students to \"show all work.\" This gives me an opportunity to see exactly what their needs are. Four examinations and a comprehensive final are administered. The student is given the option to drop the first examination, if the grade is below 70. This option provides a degree of flexibility and often relaxes tension.\nOur most successful endeavor has been the establishment of my web page, using student research and feedback to improve the design. The web page can be accessed at http://22.214.171.124. I have an instructional page (with information for my students on syllabus, expectations, etc.) and a personal page that students viewed and provided corrective feedback. This activity inspired many students to do more research using World Wide Web. Encouraging students to use this technology helps some of those who are feel bypassed by technology overcome their fears. One student sent me an e-mail message: \"This project to research your webpage was not only educational to students it gave them an opportunity to use current fast moving technology.\" Another commented, \"I have been meaning to start on my own for quite some time, and now you have inspired me to do so.\" Attitudinal learning took place and students seemed more excited about the mathematics class and the use of technology.\nThe college algebra classes have developed into a stimulating and broad intellectual experience for my students. They gained the algebra skills and a new attitude about mathematics and careers in mathematics. The drop out rate in my college algebra classes is lower than most classes in my department. Approximately 89 percent of the students passed the course with grade C or above, while others realized that they did not have the time nor dedication to do a good job and they simply dropped the course. I believe students made wise judgments about their own ability and that they will probably re-enroll at a later date to complete the coursework.\nWith persistence on the instructor's part, older students become more confident learners. For example, toward the beginning of the semester, a 62-year-old businessman would often ask me to do more problems on the board for him. He would say, \"Darling, would you work this problem for me?...I had a hell of a time with it last night.\" I didn't mind his style as long as he continued doing the work. Eventually, he would put forth more effort and go to the board to show the class how much progress he made. He would point to the area where he was challenged, and then a discussion would ensue. As I observed his change in behavior I noted that he and other students were taking more and more responsibility for their learning.\nParticipants in my classes seem more appreciative of the beauty of mathematics and mathematics in nature. Students who successfully completed their designs using DERIVE discovered the beautiful graphs resulting from various\ntypes of mathematics statements. They learned how to use scaling and shifting to design images that were symmetric with respect to a vertical axes. While designing, for example, the cat's face, they learned how to change the radius and to translate small circles to represent the eyes of the cat. Some students used a simple reflection with respect to the x-axis to obtain a portion of their design. As they pursue their work, they had conferences with me to gain more insight.\nMany students needed to learn basic computer skills: how to read the main menu of a computer, search and find DERIVE, and author a statement. Tutors were available in the Mathematics Laboratory and I assisted students when questions arose. It was the first time many of my students had ever made an attempt to integrate the use of technology into college algebra.\nMore students are enthusiastic about the use of technology in mathematics. Three years ago only about 5 percent of the Central College students owned graphing calculators or used a computer algebra system. In 1997, approximately 35 percent of them are active participants in the Mathematics Laboratory or own graphing calculators.\nUse of Findings\nAs a result of student input, via informal discussions and e-mail, I will lengthen my mini-lectures to 20-25 minutes. Furthermore, at the end of each class I will review concepts and provide closure for the entire group. More demonstrations using the TI-92 will help prepare the students for their project assignments and a bibliography on \"Diversity in Mathematics\" will assist the student research component. I usually document class attendance on the first and last day of class so that I have a photographic record of retention. The inspiration to design a more suitable attitudinal study using a pre-test and post-test to measure change in is my greatest gain as a result of these experiences.\nThe adult learner can be an exceptional student; adults\nlearn very rapidly in part, because they don't need to spend\ntime becoming adults, as traditional-aged students do.\nHowever in my experience, adults may be more terrified of tests,\nthey may feel a great sense of failure at a low grade, they may\nbe slower on tests, and they may have lost a lot of\nbackground mathematical knowledge. Also they have more\nlogistical problems which make working outside of class in\ngroups harder, thereby not benefitting from explaining and\nlearning mathematics with others. The methods I have used\nare specifically designed to bring the adult learners together,\nto relieve anxiety, to encourage group work, the \"OK-ness\"\nof being wrong.", "id": "<urn:uuid:53c11b9b-3df1-41b5-bdf5-f2287b8607a9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.maa.org/saum/maanotes49/152.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9655755162239075, "token_count": 2117, "score": 2.671875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "MGH Hotline 04.09.10 Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an intravascular imaging technology that offers the promise of revealing the microscopic characteristics of a vulnerable coronary plaque.\nThe MGH leads international study to identify vulnerable coronary plaques\nOCT PIONEER: Jang at the March 13 OCT Registry Symposium\nOptical coherence tomography (OCT) is an intravascular imaging technology that offers the promise of revealing the microscopic characteristics of a vulnerable coronary plaque. Using near-infrared light, OCT creates extremely high-resolution images from within an artery. The images have a resolution at least 20 times better than standard imaging technologies, such as computed tomography.\nMGH Heart Center researchers, together with a coalition of 20 international sites, will create the world's largest registry of patients who have had OCT of the coronary arteries. Researchers hope the data will help determine the ability of OCT to identify vulnerable plaques in patients as well as its benefits as a follow-up procedure to stent placement.\nWhen a vulnerable plaque in a coronary artery ruptures, the result can be catastrophic, blocking blood flow to the heart muscle and causing a heart attack. Cardiologists estimate that vulnerable plaques cause two-thirds to three-quarters of all fatal heart attacks. Standard imaging technologies are not able to identify the microscopic characteristics of these at-risk plaques.\nThe international research team -- led by MGH interventional cardiologist Ik-Kyung Jang, MD, PhD, a pioneer in the field of cardiac OCT -- will collect data from 3,000 patients who had cardiac OCT during a catheterization procedure and will follow them for five years with the goal of determining the effectiveness of the technique in identifying at-risk patients.\nIn a clinical study in 2002, Jang was the first physician to use OCT technology in a human heart, and he has led several studies of the technology over the years. Use of cardiac OCT has grown exponentially with more than 10,000 cases performed worldwide last year.\n\"The MGH OCT Registry is the first international effort to share information about OCT use in cardiac care,\" says Jang. \"This collaboration will bring together a wealth of information and help us facilitate scientific advancement in the field.\"\nThe registry was launched during the first MGH OCT Registry Symposium on March 13. The study's international sites in Japan, China, Korea and Australia will begin enrolling patients in June. Enrollment in the United States will begin pending clearance of the technology by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.\n\"The development of OCT and its rapid adoption are enabling clinicians to capture in vivo what was previously seen only through a pathologist's microscope,\" says Jang. \"Of course, the long-term goal is to identify plaques and prevent sudden cardiac death and heart attacks.\"\nFor more information, e-mail Iris A. McNulty, BSN, RN, of the Cardiology Division, at email@example.com.\nU.S. News & World Report ranks Mass General the #1 hospital in America based on our quality of care, patient safety and reputation in 16 different specialties. Learn more about why we're #1.\nSearch the archive for previously published news articles, press releases and publications.\nDepartments and Centers at Mass General have a reputation for excellence in patient care. View a list of all departments.", "id": "<urn:uuid:11af6544-5f4d-407f-92d5-d74ce390e6b7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.massgeneral.org/research/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=2162", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.934325098991394, "token_count": 698, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Artist's rendering of Mariner 4 in space. Credit: NASA\n\"Mariner 4 ran into a cloud of space dust,\" says Bill Cooke of the Marshall Space Flight Center Space Environments Team. \"For about 45 minutes the spacecraft experienced a shower of meteoroids more intense than any Leonid meteor storm we've ever seen on Earth.\" The impacts ripped away bits of insulation and temporarily changed the craft's orientation in space.\nFortunately, the damage was slight and the mission's main objective -- a flyby of Mars -- ad been completed two years earlier. But it could have been worse.\n\"There are many uncharted dust clouds in interplanetary space. Some are probably quite dense,\" says Cooke. Most of these clouds are left behind by comets, others are formed when asteroids run into one another. \"We only know about the ones that happen to intersect Earth's orbit and cause meteor showers such as the Perseids or Leonids.\" The Mariner 4 cloud was a big surprise.\nWhat does a piece of space dust look like? This picture shows one that is only 10 microns across. It was captured by a U2 aircraft in the stratosphere. Credit: NASA\n\"Of all NASA's Mars spacecraft, Mariner 4 was the only one we've sent with a micrometeoroid detector,\" he continued. During its journey to Mars and back, the detector registered occasional impacts from interplanetary dust grains -- as expected. The space between the planets is sprinkled with dust particles. They're harmless in small numbers. But when Mariner 4 encountered the cloud \"the impact rate soared 10,000 fold,\" says Cooke.\nMapping these clouds and determining their orbits is important to NASA for obvious reasons: the more probes we send to Mars and elsewhere, the more likely they are to encounter uncharted clouds. No one wants their spaceship to be surprised by a meteor shower hundreds of millions of miles from Earth.\nMuch of Cooke's work at NASA involves computer-modeling of cometary debris streams -- long rivers of dust shed by comets as they orbit the sun. He studies how clumps form within the streams and how they are deflected by the gravity of planets (especially giant Jupiter). He and his colleagues also watch the sky for meteor outbursts here on Earth. \"It's a good way to test our models and discover new streams,\" he says.\nOne such outburst happened on June 27, 1998. Sky watchers were surprised when hundreds of meteors streamed out of the constellation Bootes over a few-hour period. Earth had encountered a dust cloud much as Mariner 4 had done years earlier.\nThe meteors of 1998 were associated with a well-known meteor shower called the June Bootids. Normally the shower is weak, displaying only a few meteors per hour at maximum. But in 1998 it was intense. Similar outbursts had occurred, with no regular pattern, in 1916, 1921, and perhaps 1927.\nThe source of the June Bootids is comet 7P/Pons-Winnecke, which orbits the Sun once every 6.37 years. The comet follows an elliptical path that carries it from a point near the orbit of Earth to just beyond the orbit of Jupiter. Pons-Winnecke last visited the inner solar system in 2002. The comet's dusty trail is evidently clumpy. When our planet passes through a dense spot in the debris stream, a meteor shower erupts.\nMeteor forecasters D.J. Asher and V.V. Emel'yanenko (MNRAS 331, 1998, 126) have calculated that the meteors seen in 1998 might return in 2003, although 2004 is more likely. \"That's why watching for June Bootids this year is important: any activity now may herald another outburst in 2004,\" notes Robert Lunsford, Secretary-General of the International Meteor Organization, who is encouraging people to monitor the sky this week.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6ceedc25-efac-4946-976c-46508415dea1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/watchtheskies/meteor_cloud.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9629359245300293, "token_count": 803, "score": 3.734375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Ecological and Economic Foundations\nHuman well-being relies critically on ecosystem services provided by nature. Examples include water and air quality regulation, nutrient cycling and decomposition, plant pollination and flood control, all of which are dependent on biodiversity. They are predominantly public goods with limited or no markets and do not command any price in the conventional economic system, so their loss is often not detected and continues unaddressed and unabated. This in turn not only impacts human well-being, but also seriously undermines the sustainability of the economic system.\nIt is against this background that TEEB: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity project was set up in 2007 and led by the United Nations Environment Programme to provide a comprehensive global assessment of economic aspects of these issues. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity, written by a team of international experts, represents the scientific state of the art, providing a comprehensive assessment of the fundamental ecological and economic principles of measuring and valuing ecosystem services and biodiversity, and showing how these can be mainstreamed into public policies. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity and subsequent TEEB outputs will provide the authoritative knowledge and guidance to drive forward the biodiversity conservation agenda for the next decade.\n1. Integrating the Ecological and Economic Dimensions in Biodiversity and Ecosystem Service Valuation\n2. Biodiversity, Ecosystems and Ecosystem Services\n3. Measuring Biophysical Quantities and the Use of Indicators\n4. The Socio-cultural Context of Ecosystem and Biodiversity Valuation\n5. The Economics of Valuing Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity\n6. Discounting, Ethics, and Options for Maintaining Biodiversity and Ecosystem Integrity\n7. Lessons Learned and Linkages with National Policies\nAppendix 1: How the TEEB Framework Can be Applied: The Amazon Case\nAppendix 2: Matrix Tables for Wetland and Forest Ecosystems\nAppendix 3: Estimates of Monetary Values of Ecosystem Services\n\"A landmark study on one of the most pressing problems facing society, balancing economic growth and ecological protection to achieve a sustainable future.\"\n- Simon Levin, Moffett Professor of Biology, Department of Ecology and Evolution Behaviour, Princeton University, USA\n\"TEEB brings a rigorous economic focus to bear on the problems of ecosystem degradation and biodiversity loss, and on their impacts on human welfare. TEEB is a very timely and useful study not only of the economic and social dimensions of the problem, but also of a set of practical solutions which deserve the attention of policy-makers around the world.\"\n- Nicholas Stern, I.G. Patel Professor of Economics and Government at the London School of Economics and Chairman of the Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment\n\"The [TEEB] project should show us all how expensive the global destruction of the natural world has become and \u2013 it is hoped \u2013 persuade us to slow down.' The Guardian 'Biodiversity is the living fabric of this planet \u2013 the quantum and the variability of all its ecosystems, species, and genes. And yet, modern economies remain largely blind to the huge value of the abundance and diversity of this web of life, and the crucial and valuable roles it plays in human health, nutrition, habitation and indeed in the health and functioning of our economies. Humanity has instead fabricated the illusion that somehow we can get by without biodiversity, or that it is somehow peripheral to our contemporary world. The truth is we need it more than ever on a planet of six billion heading to over nine billion people by 2050. This volume of 'TEEB' explores the challenges involved in addressing the economic invisibility of biodiversity, and organises the science and economics in a way decision makers would find it hard to ignore.\"\n- Achim Steiner, Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme\nThis volume is an output of TEEB: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity study and has been edited by Pushpam Kumar, Reader in Environmental Economics, University of Liverpool, UK. TEEB is hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme (UENP) and supported by the European Commission, the German Federal Ministry for the Environment (BMU) and the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), recently joined by Norway's Ministry for Foreign Affairs, The Netherlands' Ministry of Housing (VROM), the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and also the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). The study leader is Pavan Sukhdev, who is also Special Adviser \u2013 Green Economy Initiative, UNEP.\nView other products from the same publisher", "id": "<urn:uuid:906f7240-4b78-478d-9b89-4b845237d4f3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nhbs.com/the_economics_of_ecosystems_and_biodiversity_tefno_176729.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8984841704368591, "token_count": 966, "score": 3.21875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Scaevola taccada is a dense, spreading shrub that generally grows up to 3 meter in height. The light green leaves are somewhat succulent with a waxy covering and are alternately arranged along the stem.\nThe blades are elongated and rounded at the tips, 5 to 20 cm long and 5 to 7 cm wide and the edges are often curled downward. The flowers are white or cream colored, often with purple streaks, 8 - 12 mm long, and have a pleasant fragrance. They have an irregular shape with all five petals on one side of the flower making it appear to have been torn in half. The flowers grow in small clusters from the leaf axils near the ends of the stems. The fruits of Scaevola taccada are fleshy berries. They are white, oblong, and about 1 cm long. The seeds are beige, corky and ridged. The inside of the fruit is spongy or corky and the fruits are buoyant. They can float for months in the ocean and still germinate after having been in salt water for up to a year. One study showed that the seeds germinated best after 250 days in salt water.\n(National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG). 1994. Naupaka. In Native Hawaiian plant information sheets. Lawai, Kauai: Hawaii Plant Conservation Center. National Tropical Botanical Garden. Unpublished internal papers.)\n(Rauch, Fred D., Heidi L. Bornhorst, and David L. Hensley. 1997. Beach Naupaka, Ornamentals and Flowers.)\n(Wagner, Warren L., Darrel R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the flowering plants of Hawai'i.)\n(Bornhorst, Heidi L. 1996. Growing native Hawaiian plants: a how-to guide for the gardener.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:4847de2d-8bad-482a-88bd-b2afc875fbbd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ntbg.org/plants/plant_details.php?rid=821&plantid=10272", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9102436304092407, "token_count": 395, "score": 3.109375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Stopping Carbon Pollution\nWhether you live in a city, on a farm, or anywhere in between, climate change is affecting your weather and damaging the natural world around you. In order to work towards a clean energy future, America needs carbon pollution controls on the largest industrial sources. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is taking long overdue steps to limit greenhouse gas emissions from oil refineries and coal-fired power plants, but right now, these highly polluting sources are allowed to release carbon into the atmosphere without any limits.\nThe National Wildlife Federation\u2019s top priority is to stop the primary cause of climate change \u2013 carbon pollution \u2013 before it\u2019s too late. NWF is currently fighting major campaigns to:\nElectricity generation is the single largest source of global warming pollution in the United States, representing 41 percent of all carbon dioxide emissions. EPA\u2019s newly announced plan to set standards for this sector could require the clean-up of our oldest, dirtiest, least efficient coal power plants. NWF is engaged in a major effort to finalize these rules and dramatically ratchet down our carbon pollution, and we are also supporting EPA's work to address emissions from oil refineries -- the second largest \"stationary source\" (as opposed to mobile sources like cars and trucks) of global warming pollution in the United States. Strong controls over these big sources will begin holding polluters accountable for their contribution to the climate crisis.\nReducing Emissions in the US and Worldwide\nRecognizing that this is a global problem that demands national and international leadership, NWF\u2019s long-term goal is to adopt a national plan that rapidly cuts carbon pollution from all major sources in the US, and safeguards communities and wildlife from the mounting impacts of climate change. The last effort at national legislation \u2013 the American Clean Energy and Security Act \u2013 passed the House of Representatives in 2009 but stalled in the Senate. Since that time, the impacts of climate change have rapidly escalated. NWF is working hard to get Congress to step up and take action to solve our nation\u2019s most urgent environmental issue.\nAvoiding the worst consequences of this disaster also requires a global solution. NWF is partnering with organizations around the world to promote an international agreement that clamps down on carbon pollution, while ensuring that all countries can protect their citizens and wildlife from the impacts of climate change.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5ca34e3e-8ae3-4073-898a-e4abb2d9d0ba>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.nwf.org/What-We-Do/Energy-and-Climate/Reducing-Emissions/~/link.aspx?_id=9963E404A6C54F749ABA02164F76CF07&_z=z", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9311792850494385, "token_count": 482, "score": 3.125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Breeding Timing in Cats\nBreeding Timing to Maximize Fertility in Cats\nBreeding timing refers to a technique that may be utilized to ensure conception in cats by the purposeful timing of insemination during the estrus (heat) period. A fertile female cat is referred to as a queen.\nSymptoms and Types\nIn order to maximize the odds of conception with properly timed breeding, it is best to pin-point, as close as possible, the day of ovulation for the queen. Symptoms of estrus in the queen are evident by her rubbing against objects, being vocal (much more than usual), and an interest shown by the male cat. However, timing of breeding is less critical with cats and ultimately depends on the amount of luteinizing hormone (LH) released, which is triggered via stimulation of the queen\u2019s vagina and cervix.\nBreeding timing and related fertility-maximizing techniques may be utilized for a number of reasons. This may be deemed necessary if there is an apparent failure to achieve conception in the queen.\nFor cats, the most reliable method of determining the ovulation cycle is by progesterone testing.\nA hormone that is created at the time of pregnancy\nThe process of the maturation and release of eggs\nThe period that an animal is pregnant in which the fetus develops from conception to birth\nThe time period in which a female is receptive to male attention\nOvarian Tumors in Cats\nThere are three kinds cat ovarian tumors: epithelial tumors (skin/tissue), germ cell...\nReproductive Genetic Abnormalities in Cats\nSexual development disorders in cats can occur due to errors in the genetic coding,...", "id": "<urn:uuid:57234d6c-a94c-4eef-94be-662343d0e4dc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.petmd.com/cat/conditions/reproductive/c_ct_breeding_timing", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9288606643676758, "token_count": 349, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The General Council of the Judiciary was set out in the 1978 Constitution (Article 122), following the model of other neighbouring countries such as France, Portugal, and Italy, in particular. Its creation was then a true innovation of the Spanish constituent, since it is impossible to find any direct precedent in our history of an autonomous government organ of the Judiciary which guarantees the independence thereof.\nIn the history of Spain, there are some remote precedents of institutions and attempts to create an organ which would guarantee the auto-government of the Judiciary, at least partially, however, none of these attempts had the same nature and aim as the General Council of the Judiciary. Especially because an organ of such type only finds its true raison d'\u00eatre within a democratic system, based on the separation of powers and the effective protection of the fundamental rights and freedoms of the persons.\nAmong these remote precedents there are the Central or Supreme Board (1849), the Organising Board of the Judiciary (1923) or the Judicial Council, created pursuant to the Royal Decree dated 18 May 1917, although it never started to work as it was revoked in July of the same year. It was re-established in June 1926, to be revoked in May 1931. None of these examples was a precedent stricto sensu. Neither was the Judicial Council created pursuant to the Act dated 20 December 1952, which worked until the implementation of the democratic constitutional system.\nThe Spanish constituent was influenced by the French Constitution of 1946, which regulates the High Council of Judicature in accordance with the provisions of Title IX. It constituted the precedent for the remaining organs with similar aims, set out later in the Italian Constitution of 1947 (pursuant to Articles 104 and 105), and in the Portuguese Constitution of 1976 (Article 220). The Italian model has been imported by the first Parliament in its fundamental aspects, with exception of its components, which, in the Spanish case, was set out in the Constitution.\nThe statutory development of the constitutional provisions has taken place through the Organic Act on the Judiciary mentioned in the Carta Magna. However, first the Organic Act 1/1980, dated 10 January, on the General Council of the Judiciary, due to the need to make the Constitutional Court operational, since two of its members should be appointed on a proposal by the General Council of the Judiciary, in accordance with the Constitution (Article 159.1). Subsequently, the Organic Act 6/1985 on the Judiciary, dated 1 July, was enacted, whereby the Council was definitely regulated, thus repealing the Organic Act of 1980, and which implied a change in the form of appointing the members with a judicial background. This system was reformed in 2001.\nThe Organic Act on the Judiciary in turn has undergone some subsequent partial reforms through the Organic Acts which, in some cases, have been enacted for that purpose, and in others, they affected said Organic Act due to the subject-matter (Military Jurisdiction, Tribunal of the Jury, etc.).\nThe General Council of the Judiciary is governed by the Constitution, the Organic Act on the Judiciary, and by its own internal regulations: The Regulations 1/1986, dated 22 April, on the Organisation and Operation of the General Council of the Judiciary, the approval of which is incumbent upon the Council.\nThe Spanish model has been a reference for the creation of similar constitutional organs in Latin America, especially in Argentina.", "id": "<urn:uuid:555b98ed-312e-48e2-9dcf-0a70149873ae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.poderjudicial.es/cgpj/en/Judiciary/General_Council_of_the_Judiciary/Institutional_information/History_of_the_CGPJ", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9703521728515625, "token_count": 688, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cyberattacks: A call for collaborative action\nWe need to develop a collective consciousness for coping with the growing menace of cyber attacks, says Stanton Sloane.\nNews of cyber security attacks is becoming all too familiar. Recent reports propose how to combat sophisticated, custom-created malware designed to penetrate government and private industry computer networks, and steal national security secrets. This has raised overall awareness of the problem, but not as much attention has been placed on a key business concern: the theft of commercial intellectual property. We need to develop a collective consciousness for coping with the growing menace of cyber attacks, particularly given the economic and safety issues triggered when valuable intellectual property is the target. That's why advocating a public-private industry collaboration makes the most sense. The isolated efforts of individual nations, industry groups, or companies will be ineffective against 21st century intellectual property crime. This is a bigger problem. A few examples illustrate the point:\n- According to the Office of the United States Trade Representative (USTR), intellectual property theft costs American corporations $250 billion every year. Among those affected are manufacturers, distributors, retailers, employees, artists, consumers, and governments.\n- The costs of intellectual property theft are not solely economic; the public's health and safety is also affected. For instance, intellectual property thieves can make huge profits from selling cheap counterfeit versions of products, not only where safety and reliability are essential, but also when brand recognition is key to consumer confidence and loyalty. One example: counterfeit airplane parts played a role in at least 166 U.S.-based accidents or mishaps during a recent 20-year period.\n- United States Customs and Border Protection estimates that 750,000 American jobs have been lost due to counterfeiting.\n- The U.S. Chamber of Commerce Global Intellectual Property Center estimates that intellectual property in the United States is worth between $5 trillion and $5.5 trillion. It accounts for approximately half of U.S. exports with roughly 40 percent driving U.S. economic growth. The impact of intellectual property theft on the U.S. economy is irrefutable.\n- Research from the non-profit U.S. Cyber Consequences Unit indicates that the destruction from a single wave of cyber attacks on critical infrastructure could exceed $700 billion, or the equivalent of 50 major hurricanes hitting U.S. soil at once.\nBeyond the economic impacts, theft of intellectual property provides a significant advantage in learning curve for the thief. My hypothetical example would be the time involved in developing manufacturing techniques to produce advanced jet engine components. Theft of the processes, techniques, and tools required to produce these components instantly provides the thief with years of experience, and quickly levels the competitive landscape.\nThis is not a new problem. But when we move from the realm of music \u201cpirates\u201d or theft of soft drink formulations into organized, state-led thefts of critical technologies, the threat to national security increases exponentially, even though it is not a direct attack on our defense networks.\nThere is no simple solution to this problem. The first step, however, must be recognition of the scale and scope of the problem. It is underestimated today. Given the impact an average hacker can create with a simple virus, you can appreciate what a well-financed foreign government-sponsored intelligence organization can do to penetrate a commercial company's network and extract critical intellectual information. Simple virus detection software is not an adequate defense against that type of threat. It is a complex system engineering problem, one which requires a collective government-industry collaboration to counter.\nThere also needs to be consequences for nations that conduct these activities, or who fail to pursue and prosecute criminals operating within their borders. Granted, that is a hard problem to solve in an age of globalization where international relations are very sensitive, but the alternative is an accelerating shift of technology and financial power out of this country. While current political rhetoric makes us feel good about increasing the country's investment in research and technology, it is pointless to do so if it is just going to be pirated by our foreign adversaries. We are simply saving them the time and money of doing it themselves.\nThe time for action is now. A \u201cCyber Pearl Harbor\u201d is in reality an \u201cEconomic Pearl Harbor.\u201d The only difference is that the enemy has quietly opened all the underwater valves on the ships, instead of dropping torpedoes.\nDr. Stanton Sloane was appointed president and CEO of SRA International in April 2007.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d035881f-a81a-4fc0-966c-e588c5366f30>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.scmagazine.com/cyberattacks-a-call-for-collaborative-action/article/139884/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9399220943450928, "token_count": 913, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Einstein quickly settled into his new American life in Princeton, New Jersey. His appointment at Princeton's Institute for Advanced Study could have afforded him the total solitude he always said he needed to think clearly through the great problems of physics. But Einstein refused to retreat entirely from the great problems of the moment for mankind. He continued to speak out against Nazi aggression and anti-Semitism in Europe and offered his support to the Zionist project of building a Jewish state in Israel (though he called for a policy of moderation and reconciliation when it came to the growing Jewish conflict with the Palestinian Arabs who also inhabited the ancient Holy Land). Most of all, Einstein advocated a pacifistic vision of a world dominated by peaceful internationalist institutions rather than warlike nationalistic states.\nBy the late 1930s, however, it had become clear\u2014even to the pacifist Einstein\u2014that peaceful international institutions had no hope of stopping the growing evil of Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany. In the meantime, scientists\u2014many of them German scientists\u2014had made great progress in exploring the research path laid out by E=mc2. They had achieved nuclear fission\u2014the chain-reaction splitting of atoms\u2014in laboratory tests and recognized the real-world potential for tiny masses of radioactive material to release massive amounts of energy. The wartime application of fission was the atomic bomb, a fearsome weapon that German scientists, by the late 1930s, understood was not only theoretically possible but perhaps technologically feasible to construct. Dozens of \u00e9migr\u00e9 scientists\u2014many of them, like Einstein, Jewish refugees from Hitler\u2014arrived in America in the 1930s and '40s fearing that Nazi researchers could help the f\u00fchrer conquer the globe by developing the world's first atomic super-weapon.\nIn 1939, one of those refugee scientists, Hungarian physicist Leo Szilard, tried to convince President Franklin D. Roosevelt to address the threat of German nuclear weapons by launching the Americans' own atomic bomb program. But Szilard, who at the time didn't have much stature outside the scientific community, couldn't get Roosevelt to take him seriously. So he turned to his friend Albert Einstein, the world's most famous scientist. Einstein, the pacifist, signed his name to a letter urging the president to support American research into \"extremely powerful bombs of a new type\" that might be built using fissionable uranium.\nRoosevelt, awakened by Einstein's letter to the coming reality of atomic warfare, secretly authorized the Manhattan Project, a huge (and hugely expensive) crash program of nuclear research that produced, in 1945, the world's first atomic bombs. (Ironically, we now know that the Germans abandoned their own atomic program at just about the same time FDR, fearing German superiority in the field, launched the Manhattan Project. And the first working atomic bombs only became available for use in the summer of 1945, after the Germans had surrendered and World War II in Europe was over; a weapon built to stop Hitler thus ended up being dropped on the Japanese instead.)\nThough Einstein did not participate in the Manhattan Project itself\u2014the government judged him a poor security risk for top-secret research\u2014his letter to Roosevelt proved to be the crucial turning point in the weaponization of E=mc2. Thus Albert Einstein, lifelong pacifist, might fairly be described as the father of the atomic bomb. Einstein himself recognized the irony, viewing his own role in ushering in the atomic age with a mixture of regret and resignation. In 1954, the last year of his life, he admitted to an old friend, \"I made one great mistake in my life\u2014when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification\u2014the danger that the Germans would make them.\"6", "id": "<urn:uuid:a4507a87-c3b4-43cd-a220-e357b92e5788>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.shmoop.com/albert-einstein/atomic-bomb.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9637587666511536, "token_count": 757, "score": 3.625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The South East Europe Programme Area includes 16 countries. For 14 countries the eligible area is the whole territory of the country, namely for Albania, Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Greece, Hungary, Serbia, Montenegro, Slovakia, Slovenia and Republic of Moldova. In 2 countries only certain regions are eligible: in Italy these eligible regions are: Lombardia, Bolzano/Bozen, Trento, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia, Emilia Romagna, Umbria, Marche, Abruzzo, Molise, Puglia Basilicata, and in Ukraine: Cjermovestka Oblast, Ivano-Frankiviska Oblast, Zakarpatska Oblast and Odessa Oblast.\nThe area has been undergoing a fundamental change in economic and production patterns following the 1990 changes. While some regions, especially the capital cities, are adapting well to the new challenges, others are trying to re-orientate themselves. Significant for the programme area are regional disparities in terms of economic power, innovation, competitiveness and accessibility between urban areas and rural areas.\n| ||The 16 participating countries are:|\nThe SEE Transnational Cooperation Programme has been created out of the former INTERREG IIIB CADSES Programme. In the new Structural Funds Period (2007-2013), the CADSES transnational cooperation area has been divided into two spaces: South East Europe and Central Europe, each of them benefiting as a distinct area: the South East Europe Programme and the Central programme.\nThe South-East Europe area is the most diverse, heterogeneous and complex transnational cooperation area in Europe, made up of a broad mix of countries. The emergence of new countries and with it the establishment of new frontiers has changed the patterns of political, economic, social and cultural relationships.\n|* only some of its regions |\nIn the European transportation network, South East Europe is acting as a bridge between North, South, East and West Europe. The existing networks however cannot keep pace with the rise in demand and the increasingly demanding standards specifications. A large number of instruments and concepts like the Trans-European Networks (TENs) and the Pan-European Transport Corridors cross the area, but need to be further developed.\nThere are rivers suitable for freight transportation, maritime borders and the Danube, an important international inland waterway and integrating factor in many fields, such as transport, trade and environment. South East Europe is characterised by broad biodiversity and natural resources of high environmental value. The potential for the use of environmentally friendly technologies and the assets for future economic and social development are the strong points of the area, but inherited environmental damage has to be addressed as well. Click on the map for more information about the countries\nFlash country Map.\nFlash player 7 needed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4bdeeb08-2319-49b2-8298-d1ac4b3b7606>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.southeast-europe.net/en/about_see/participating_countries/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9041654467582703, "token_count": 591, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The common name for sedums is Stonecrop. There is a Stonecrop Nursery in eastern New York which was the first garden created by Frank Cabot. Frank created the Garden Conservancy, an organization which strives to preserve some of our exceptional gardens for posterity. Each year it also runs its Open Days Program which opens gardens to the public throughout the country. Frank Cabot went on to create Les Quatre Vents, an outstanding garden at his family home in Quebec.\nThere are two sedums which most gardeners grow; Sedum acre, a tiny low-growing\ngroundcover plant with bright yellow flowers. This is being used effectively in the Peace Garden in the plaza between the library and city hall.\nThe other is Autumn Joy which is in bloom now and will continue to provide color for\nmonths to come. Some references say it requires full sun. Not so! I have it in three locations in my garden. I have several plants growing out of a south-facing wall. But there are tall oaks and maples to the south so that the only time it gets direct sun is in spring before the oaks leaf out. The rest of the year it is dappled light. Another plant is in the east-facing bed on top of my long stone wall where it gets only morning sun. The third plant is in my shrub-perennial border where it gets a bit of sun mid-day. Mine is the ordinary run-of-the-mill Autumn Joy, but there are several cultivars offered in nurseries. Among these are: Crimson, Iceberg, which has white flowers, Autumn Fire and Chocolate Drop, growing only eight inches tall with brown leaves and pink flowers.\nThere are two native sedums: Roseroot, Sedum rosa and Wild Stonecrop, Sedum ternatum. A third Wild Live-forever, Sedum teliphiodes, grows on cliffs and rocks in Pennsylvania and southward.", "id": "<urn:uuid:adef713e-3e75-42d1-ace5-ab0518d6aa74>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.the-leader.com/blogs/wild_bill/x799984409/Sedum-Autumn-Joy", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9587581753730774, "token_count": 403, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|Shah Jahan the Magnificent|\n|\"Shah Jahan on a globe\" from the Smithsonian Institution|\n|Reign||1628 - 1658|\n|Full name||Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan|\n|Born||1 May 1592|\n|Died||22 January 1666 (aged 74)|\n|Place of death||Agra|\n|Wives||Akbarabadi Mahal (d. 1677)\nKandahari Mahal (b. 1594, m. 1609)\nMumtaz Mahal (b. 1593, m. 1612, d. 1631)\nHasina Begum Sahiba (m. 1617)\nMuti Begum Sahiba\nQudsia Begum Sahiba\nFatehpuri Mahal Sahiba (d. after 1666)\nSarhindi Begum Sahiba (d. after 1650)\nShrimati Manbhavathi Baiji Lal Sahiba (m. 1626)\n|Offspring||Jahanara Begum, Dara Shukoh, Shah Shuja, Roshanara Begum, Aurangzeb, Murad Baksh, Gauhara Begum|\nShahab Uddin Muhammad Shah Jahan I (full title: Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Abu'l-Muzaffar Shihab ud-din Muhammad, Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani, Shah Jahan I Padshah Ghazi Zillu'llah [Firdaus-Ashiyani]) (also spelled Shah Jehan, Shahjehan, Urdu: \u0634\u0627\u0647 \u062c\u06c1\u0627\u06ba, Persian: \u0634\u0627\u0647 \u062c\u0647\u0627\u0646 (5 January 1592 \u2013 22 January 1666) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire in India from 1628 until 1658. The name Shah Jahan comes from Persian meaning \"king of the world.\" He was the fifth Mughal ruler after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir. While young, he was a favourite of Akbar.\nEven while very young, he could be pointed out to be the successor to the Mughal throne after the death of Jahangir. He succeeded to the throne upon his father's death in 1627. He is considered to be one of the greatest Mughals and his reign has been called the Golden Age of Mughals. Like Akbar, he was eager to expand his empire. The chief events of his reign were the destruction of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar (1636), the loss of Kandahar to the Persians (1653), and a second war against the Deccan princes (1655). In 1658 he fell ill, and was confined by his son Aurangzeb in the citadel of Agra until his death in 1666. On the eve of his death in 1666, the Mughal Empire spanned almost 750,000,000 acres (3,000,000 km2), about 2/10 the size of modern India.\nThe period of his reign was the golden age of Mughal architecture. Shah Jahan erected many splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra built as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal (birth name Arjumand Banu Begum). The Pearl Mosque at Agra , the palace and great mosque at Delhi also commemorate him. The celebrated Peacock Throne, said to be worth millions of dollars by modern estimates, also dates from his reign. He was the founder of Shahjahanabad, now known as 'Old Delhi'. The important buildings of Shah Jahan were the Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas in the fort of Delhi, the Jama Masjid, the Moti Masjid and the Taj. It is pointed out that the Palace of Delhi is the most magnificent in the East.\nShah Jahan was born as Prince Khurram Shihab-ud-din Muhammad, in 1592 in Lahore, Pakistan as the third and favorite son of the emperor Jahangir, his mother being a Rathore Rajput Princess, known as Princess Jagat Gosain who was Jahangir's second wife. The name Khurram - Persian for 'joyful' - was given by his grandfather Akbar. His early years saw him receive a cultured, broad education and he distinguished himself in the martial arts and as a military commander while leading his father's armies in numerous campaigns - Mewar (1615 CE, 1024 AH), the Deccan (1617 and 1621 CE, 1026 and 1030 AH), Kangra (1618 CE, 1027AH). He was responsible for most of the territorial gains during his father's reign. He also demonstrated a precocious talent for building, impressing his father at the age of 16 when he built his quarters within Babur's Kabul fort and redesigned buildings within Agra fort.\nIn 1607 CE (1025 AH), at the age of fifteen, Khurram was to marry Arjumand Banu Begum, the grand daughter of a Persian noble, who was 14 years old at the time. She would become the unquestioned love of his life. They would, however, have to wait five years before they were married in 1612 CE (1021 AH). After their wedding celebrations, Khurram \"finding her in appearance and character elect among all the women of the time,\" gave her the title Mumtaz Mahal (Jewel of the Palace).\nMumtaz Mahal had 14 children. Despite her frequent pregnancies, she travelled with Shah Jahan's entourage throughout his earlier military campaigns and the subsequent rebellion against his father. Mumtaz Mahal was utterly devoted \u2014 she was his constant companion and trusted confidante and their relationship was intense. She is portrayed by Shah Jahan's chroniclers as the perfect wife with no aspirations to political power. This is in direct opposition to how Nur Jahan had been perceived.\nThe intervening years had seen Khurrum take two other wives known as Akbarabadi Mahal (d.1677 CE, 1088 AH), and Kandahari Mahal (b. c1594 CE, c1002 AH), (m.1609 CE, 1018 AH).\nAccording to the official court chronicler Qazwini, the relationship with his other wives \"had nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and favor which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence [Mumtaz] exceeded by a thousand times what he felt for any other.\" Several European chroniclers suggested that Shah Jahan had an incestuous relationship with his daughter Jahanara Begum. The European traveller Francois Bernier wrote, \"Begum Sahib, the elder daughter of Shah Jahan was very handsome... Lal pointed out that Aurangzeb may have been involved in \"magnifying a rumour into a full-fledged scandal\", and wrote: \"Aurangzeb had disobeyed Shahjahan, he had incarcerated him for years, but if he really helped give a twist to Shahjahan's paternal love for Jahan Ara by turning it into a scandal, it was the unkindest cut of all his unfilial acts.\"\nInheritance of power and wealth in the Mughal empire was not determined through primogeniture, but by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court. This often led to rebellions and wars of succession. As a result, a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Khurram's formative years. In 1611 his father married Nur Jahan, the widowed daughter of a Afghan immigrant. She rapidly became an important member of Jahangir's court and, together with her brother Asaf Khan, wielded considerable influence. Arjumand was Asaf Khan's daughter and her marriage to Khurrum consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's positions at court.\nKhurram's intense military successes of 1617 CE (1026 AH) against the Lodi in the Deccan effectively secured the southern border of the empire and his grateful father rewarded him with the prestigious title 'Shah Jahan Bahadur' (Brave King of the World) which implicitly sealed his inheritance. Court intrigues, however, including Nur Jahan's decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Shah Jahan's youngest brother and her support for his claim to the throne led Khurram, supported by Mahabat Khan, into open revolt against his father in 1622.\nThe rebellion was quelled by Jahangir's forces in 1626 and Khurram was forced to submit unconditionally. Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Shah Jahan, King of the World, the latter title alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots. Shah Jahan's first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his step mother Nur Jahan. This allowed Shan Jahan to rule without contention.\nAlthough his father's rule was generally peaceful, the empire was experiencing challenges by the end of his reign. Shah Jahan reversed this trend by putting down a Islamic rebellion in Ahmednagar, repulsing the Portuguese in Bengal, capturing the Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand to the west and the northwest beyond the Khyber Pass. Under his rule, the state became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from the peasantry. It was however a period of general stability \u2014 the administration was centralised and court affairs systematised. Historiography and the arts increasingly became instruments of propaganda, where beautiful artworks or poetry expressed specific state ideologies which held that central power and hierarchical order would create balance and harmony. The empire continued to expand moderately during his reign but the first signs of an imperial decline were seen in the later years.\nUnder Shah Jahan the Mughal Empire attained its highest union of strength with magnificence. The land revenue of the Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan was 20\u00be millions. The magnificence of Shah Jahan\u2019s court was the wonder of European travelers. His Peacock Throne, with its trail blazing in the shifting natural colors of rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, was valued by the jeweler Tavernier at 6\u00bd millions sterling.\nHis political efforts encouraged the emergence of large centres of commerce and crafts \u2014 such as Lahore, Delhi, Agra, and Ahmedabad \u2014 linked by roads and waterways to distant places and ports. He moved the capital from Agra to Delhi.\nUnder Shah Jahan's rule, Mughal artistic and architectural achievements reached their zenith. Shah Jahan was a prolific builder with a highly refined aesthetic. He built the legendary Taj Mahal in Agra as a tomb for his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Among his other surviving buildings are the Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi, the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, sections of the Lahore Fort (such as Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion), and his father's mausoleum.\nLegend has it that Shah Jahan wanted to build a black Taj Mahal for himself. There is no reputable scholarship to support this hypothesis, however, nor other horrific legends that Shah Jahan maimed, blinded, or killed those responsible for designing and building his tomb.\nHis son Aurangzeb led a rebellion when Shah Jahan became ill in 1657 CE (1067 AH) and publicly executed his brother and the heir apparent Dara Shikoh. Dara was the eldest of the sons of Mumtaz Mahal. Dara had assumed the role of Regent in his father\u2019s stead which brought animosity towards him swiftly by his brothers. Upon receiving this information, his younger brothers, Shuja, Viceroy of Bengal, and Marad, Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence, and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches. Aurangzeb, the third son, the ablest and most virile of the brothers join them and being placed in chief command, attacked Dara's army close to Agra and completely defeated him. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort.\nJahanara Begum Sahib, Shan Jahan's second daughter, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage. In January of 1666 CE (1076 AH), Shah Jahan fell ill with strangury and dysentery. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on 22 January, he commanded the ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. After reciting the Kalima and verses from the Qu'ran, he died. Jahanara planned a state funeral which was to include a procession with Shah Jahan's body carried by eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy. Aurangzeb refused to accommodate such ostentation and the body was washed in accordance with Islamic rites, taken by river in a sandalwood coffin to the Taj Mahal and was interred there next to the body of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.\nShah Jahan exemplified one of the highest points in the Mughal Empire but also foreshadowed its downfall through the succession of emperors in the Mughal line. With his accession and downfall at the hands of his sons aside, Shah Jahan can clearly be seen as a leader who changed the landscape of India dramatically in the course of his reign; when you take into consideration that the legacy that brought him down as well as his great accomplishment, Shah Jahan gives us a great wealth of knowledge into the internal workings of an empire that was built from conquering, violence, and tolerance while alluding to the unstable hierarchy and the right to power in the Mughal Empire. He came to power through violence and betrayal and was ultimately brought down by the same means, exacerbating the legacy of the Mughals.\nShah Jahan has left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. The most famous of these is the Taj Mahal in Agra built to hold the tomb for his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Upon his death, his son Aurangazeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal. Among his other constructions are Delhi Fort also called the Red Fort or Lal Qila (Urdu) in Delhi, large sections of Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid (Grand Mosque), Delhi, the Wazir Khan Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan, the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), Lahore, the Shalimar Gardens in Lahore, sections of the Lahore Fort, Lahore, the Jahangir mausoleum \u2014 his father's tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and the Shahjahan Mosque, Thatta, Pakistan. He also had the Peacock Throne, Takht e Taus, made to celebrate his rule.\nNumerous accounts of Shah Jahan's personal life were recounted by contemporary European writers.\nLike all his ancestors, Shah Jahan's court included many wives, concubines, and dancing girls. Several European chroniclers have noted this. Niccolao Manucci wrote that \"it would seem as if the only thing Shah Jahan cared for was the search for women to serve his pleasure\" and \"for this end he established a fair at his court. No one was allowed to enter except women of all ranks that is to say, great and small, rich and poor, but all beautiful.\" When he was detained in the Red Fort at Agra, Aurangzeb permitted him to retain \"the whole of his female establishment, including the singing and dancing women.\" Manucci notes that Shah Jahan didn't lose his \"weakness for the flesh\" even when he had grown very old. However, most of the European travellers in India had access to such information primarily through bazaar gossip and not first hand.\nThe song Bone Marrow by Canadian band Protest the Hero makes references to/is about Shah Jahan.\nShah JahanBorn: 5 January 1592 Died: 31 January 1666\nSHAH JAHAN (fl. 1627-1658), Mogul emperor of Delhi, the fifth of the dynasty. After revolting against his father Jahangir, as the latter had revolted against Akbar, he succeeded to the throne on his father's death in 1627. It was during his reign that the Mogul power attained its greatest prosperity. The chief events of his reign were the destruction of the kingdom of Ahmadnagar (1636), the loss of Kandahar to the Persians (1653), and a second war against the Deccan princes (1655). In 1658 he fell ill, and was confined by his son Aurangzeb in the citadel of Agra until his death in 1666. The period of his reign was the golden age of Indian architecture. Shah Jahan erected many splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra, built as a tomb for his wife Mumtaz Mahal; while the Pearl Mosque at Agra and the palace and great mosque at Delhi also commemorate him. The celebrated \"Peacock Throne,\" said to have been worth 6,000,000 also dates from his reign; and he was the founder of the modern city of Delhi, the native name of which is Shahjahanabad.\n<< Shah Alam\nShah Jahan, son of Jahangir, son of Akbar, son of Humayun, son of Babur son of Unknown great grandson(?) of Taimur (Tamerlane).\nRegnal name: Ghiyasuddin Shah Jahan\nName before ascending to the throne: Shahzada (Prince) Khurram\nThe name is also spelt Shah Jehan, or just Shahjahan.\nDara Shikoh, Aurangzeb, Jahanara Begum,", "id": "<urn:uuid:4554868c-f696-4136-a250-e6990eb2aaeb>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.thefullwiki.org/Shah_Jahan", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.980241060256958, "token_count": 3861, "score": 2.921875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "TALLAHASSEE, Fla., March 16 (UPI) -- When it comes to biting, crocodiles are the heavyweight chomp champions of the animal world, Florida researchers say.\nGreg Erickson of Florida State University said he and his colleagues had wondered just how hard alligators and crocodiles can bite.\nThe answer? A bite force value of 3,700 pounds for a 17-foot saltwater crocodile, the highest bite force ever recorded, Florida State reported Thursday.\nBut it's nothing compared with the largest extinct crocodilians, Erickson said, 35- to 40-foot animals that bit at forces as great as 23,100 pounds.\nMeasuring bite force in a living crocodile or alligator is dangerous work, he said.\n\"I have to admit, the first time I placed our meter into the maw of an adult crocodile, I was nervous. It was all over in the blink of an eye.\n\"When it struck, it nearly wrested my grip from the handle. The noise of the jaws coming together was like a gunshot. The power of the animal was astounding, and the violence of the event frightening.\"\nGators and crocs have similar maximal bite-force capacity pound for pound, he said, because they basically all have the same musculoskeletal design, just different snouts and teeth.\n\"It is analogous to putting different attachments on a weed eater -- grass cutter, brush cutter, tree trimmer, they all have the same type of engine,\" Erickson said. \"There are bigger and smaller engines, with higher and lower horsepower, but they have the same attachments.\"\nIf there's one lesson to be taken from his research, he said, it's to keep a good distance between yourself and the nearest crocodile.\n\"If you can bench-press a pickup truck, then you can escape a croc's jaws,\" Erickson warned. \"It is a one-way street between the teeth and stomach of a large croc.\"\n|Additional Science News Stories|\nSANFORD, Fla., May 24 (UPI) --Pictures and texts from Trayvon Martin's cellphone show a different side of the teenager a Florida man is accused of killing unprovoked, defense attorneys say.\nNEW YORK, May 24 (UPI) --A New York judge has released Amanda Bynes on her own recognizance after the actress was arrested for throwing a bong out of her 36th-floor apartment window.\nCOLOGNE, Germany, May 24 (UPI) --An auctioneer in Germany said he has set the starting bid for an Apple-1 computer at a stunning, but not record-setting, $116,000.\nBRENTWOOD, N.Y., May 24 (UPI) --A New York state dockworker said one of his first acts as a $26.5 million lottery jackpot winner was to quit his job.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e7b770e1-c96c-405f-b819-afe86b29de6a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2012/03/16/Crocodiles-are-world-class-chompers/UPI-39071331934789/?rel=24711352410442", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9667443037033081, "token_count": 604, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "SAN DIEGO \u2014 SAN DIEGO (AP) - You'll never look at hummingbirds the same again.\nThe Pentagon has poured millions of dollars into the development of tiny drones inspired by biology, each equipped with video and audio equipment that can record sights and sounds.\nThey could be used to spy, but also to locate people inside earthquake-crumpled buildings and detect hazardous chemical leaks.\nThe smaller, the better.\nBesides the hummingbird, engineers in the growing unmanned aircraft industry are working on drones that look like insects and the helicopter-like maple leaf seed.\nResearchers are even exploring ways to implant surveillance and other equipment into an insect as it is undergoing metamorphosis. They want to be able to control the creature.\nThe devices could end up being used by police officers and firefighters.\nTheir potential use outside of battle zones, however, is raising questions about privacy and the dangers of the winged creatures buzzing around in the same skies as aircraft.\nFor now, most of these devices are just inspiring awe.\nWith a 6.5-inch wing span, the remote-controlled bird weighs less than a AA battery and can fly at speeds of up to 11 mph, propelled only by the flapping of its two wings. A tiny video camera sits in its belly.\nThe bird can climb and descend vertically, fly sideways, forward and backward. It can rotate clockwise and counterclockwise.\nMost of all it can hover and perch on a window ledge while it gathers intelligence, unbeknownst to the enemy.\n\"We were almost laughing out of being scared because we had signed up to do this,\" said Matt Keennon, senior project engineer of California's AeroVironment, which built the hummingbird.\nThe Pentagon asked them to develop a pocket-sized aircraft for surveillance and reconnaissance that mimicked biology. It could be anything, they said, from a dragonfly to a hummingbird.\nFive years and $4 million later, the company has developed what it calls the world's first hummingbird spy plane.\n\"It was very daunting up front and remained that way for quite some time into the project,\" he said, after the drone blew by his head and landed on his hand during a media demonstration.\nThe toughest challenges were building a tiny vehicle that can fly for a prolonged period and be controlled or control itself.\nAeroVironment has a history of developing such aircraft.\nOver the decades, the Monrovia, Calif.-based company has developed everything from a flying mechanical reptile to a hydrogen-powered plane capable of flying in the stratosphere and surveying an area larger than Afghanistan at one glance.\nIt has become a leader in the hand-launched drone industry.\nTroops fling a four-pound plane, called the Raven, into the air. They have come to rely on the real-time video it sends back, using it to locate roadside bombs or get a glimpse of what is happening over the next hill or around a corner.\nThe success of the hummingbird drone, however, \"paves the way for a new generation of aircraft with the agility and appearance of small birds,\" said Todd Hylton of the Pentagon's research arm, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.\nThese drones are not just birds.\nLockheed Martin has developed a fake maple leaf seed, or so-called whirly bird, loaded with navigation equipment and imaging sensors. The spy plane weighs .07 ounces.\nOn the far end of the research spectrum, DARPA is also exploring the possibility of implanting live insects during metamorphosis with video cameras or sensors and controlling them by applying electrical stimulation to their wings.\nThe idea is for the military to be able to send in a swarm of bugs loaded with spy gear.\nThe military is also eyeing other uses.\nThe drones could be sent in to search buildings in urban combat zones. Police are interested in using them, among other things, to detect a hazardous chemical leak. Firefighters could fling them out over a disaster to get better data, quickly.\nIt is hard to tell what, if anything, will make it out of the lab, but their emergence presents challenges and not just with physics.\nWhat are the legal implications, especially with interest among police in using tiny drones for surveillance, and their potential to invade people's privacy, asks Peter W. Singer, author of the book, \"Wired for War\" about robotic warfare.\nSinger said these questions will be increasingly discussed as robotics become a greater part of everyday life.\n\"It's the equivalent to the advent of the printing press, the computer, gun powder,\" he said. \"It's that scale of change.\"", "id": "<urn:uuid:736c097d-d1c6-411e-9082-4e4e160283a2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.vcstar.com/news/2011/feb/28/tiny-spy-planes-could-mimic-birds-insects/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9619914293289185, "token_count": 967, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Surface Area: 64 square kilometres\nWhat the natives are called: Alamedanos or \u201clameatos\u201d\nOutstanding Sights: Andalusian Rural Museum, Roman Baths archaeological site and visitor centre, Jos\u00e9 Mar\u00eda \u2018El Tempranillo\u2019 mausoleum and courtyard, La Camorra scenic viewpoint, Church of La Inmaculada Concepci\u00f3n, fountain at La Placeta.\nGeographical Location: in the northern part of the Antequera region, 72 kilometres from M\u00e1laga and 432 metres above sea level. Annual rainfall is about 610 litres per square metre and the average temperature is 16\u00ba C.\nThe municipality of Alameda lies in the Antequera region in the northern part of the province of M\u00e1laga and stretches over a plain on which only a few low hills interrupt a level landscape abounding with olive groves, as might be expected in a territory so close to the countryside of C\u00f3rdoba and Seville.\nDue to its location Alameda was, like other neighbouring villages, a crossroads between the provinces of M\u00e1laga, Granada and Seville, so the first human settlements date back to the Chalcolithic or Eneolithic period (2,500 B.C.), but the most numerous relics from past ages relate to the Roman domination.\nThe historian Pliny refers to the city of Astigi Vetus, which would have stood in the same place presently occupied by Alameda. Here three of the most important Roman roads converged, an unmistakable sign of the importance of this locality during that era.\nFrom that time, except for the discovery of a \"little treasure\" from the sixth century (the Visigoth period), no reliable documents exist exploring the history of Alameda until well into the sixteenth century, despite the fact that during the Arabic domination the entire region of Antequera \u2013all of Andalusia, in fact\u2013 played a significant part.\nThe village passed into the hands of the Marquises of Estepa in the sixteenth century, and for a while it belonged to the province of Seville. In the late seventeenth century, coinciding with the economic recovery of the entire region, Alameda also benefited from greater economic activity and regained a degree of importance. The municipality was finally incorporated into the province of M\u00e1laga in the nineteenth century under the new administrative regime.\nThe easiest and fastest way to get to this locality from the city of M\u00e1laga is to take the A-45 (N-331) to the outskirts of Antequera, and there to connect with the A-92 and go towards Seville. Upon arrival at Mollina, take the MA- 703, which leads to Alameda. Another option is to go to Fuente de Piedra, six kilometres beyond Mollina on the same A-92, and then take the MA-701.\nFull graphical path: http://bit.ly/MuqL9j\nYou make your own trip, Click here Add a destination to your cart\nCosta del Sol Tourist Board - Plaza de la Marina, n\u00ba4 - 29015 M\u00e1laga - Tel: +34952126272 - Fax: +34952225207 - firstname.lastname@example.org", "id": "<urn:uuid:3728b0f3-d9ce-4963-be9e-51f73941a967>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.visitcostadelsol.com/municipalities/facts-about-towns-and-villages/alameda-p9161", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8922776579856873, "token_count": 688, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "- 1. AMD64 architecture\n- AMD64 program model\n- 3. Porting applications on AMD64\nThe article briefly describes AMD64 architecture by AMD Company and its implementation EM64T by Intel Company. The architecture's peculiarities, advantages and disadvantages are described.\nDevelopment of computer-solved tasks demands more and more from the hardware these tasks are being solved on. The requirements to computer systems of personal-computer class have been growing year by year for 20 years already. It happens because people wish to solve on their personal computers more and more complex tasks which have been earlier solved only on high-performance mainframes.\nWhat are these requirements to the personal computers for solving complex tasks? Of course, these are requirements of main-memory size and processor's performance (don't mix up with frequency!). IA32 architecture (Intel Architecture 32) dominating during the last decade offers 4Gb (2^32) of main memory of which only 2Gb are usually allocated to an application; different register blocks and sets of various tricks such as branch predication block, which should increase the system's performance without increasing such an abstract parameter as processor's frequency .\nModern tasks for personal computers approach 2Gb while processors' frequency increase cannot help increase performance.\nNewly-developed 64-bit architectures SPARC64 and Intel Itanium can to some extend serve to solve the problem of modern 32-bit computers' limitations. But they are intended for hi-end systems and are not available as cheap solutions. It is AMD64 architecture by AMD Company and its implementation EM64T by Intel Company which are to become really popular. These architectures are twins and programs compiled for one of them can be launched on the other as well. But it is the solution by AMD that historically appeared first. EM64T is actually only an implementation of AMD64 by Intel. AMD64 architecture is now implemented in processors of all classes: mobiles, work-stations, servers.\nDespite evident advantages of AMD64 platform (which are described in detail in this article) it doesn't introduce anything revolutionary into computing machinery. Porting from 32 bits to 64 bits didn't lead to quality improvements while previous porting from 16 bits to 32 bits had increased systems' safety and performance significantly.\nAMD64 architecture is fully described in five documentation volumes provided by AMD Company. This chapter provides a brief description based on the first volume . Pay attention that in official documentation this architecture is defined as AMD x86-64 what underlines its backward compatibility.\nAMD x86-64 architecture is a simple but powerful backward-compatible extension of the obsolete industrial architecture x86 . It adds 64-bit address space and extends register resources for supporting more performance for recompiled 64-bit programs providing support of obsolete 16-bit and 32-bit code of applications and operational systems without modifying or recompiling them.\nNecessity of 64-bit x86 architecture is explained by applications which need large address space. These are high-performance servers, data managers, CAD-systems and of course games. Such applications will gain an advantage due to 64-bit address space and more registers. Few registers available in obsolete x86 architecture limit computing-task performance. More registers provide sufficient performance for most applications.\nx86-64 architecture introduces two new peculiarities:\n1. Extended registers (Picture 1):\n- 8 general-purpose registers;\n- all 16 general-purpose registers are 64-bit;\n- 8 new 128-bit XMM registers;\n- a new command prefix (REX) for access to extended registers.\n2. special mode \"Long Mode\" which is shown in Table 1:\n- up to 64-bit virtual addresses;\n- 64-bit command pointer (RIP);\n- flat address space.\nPicture 1. Set of x86-64 registers\nTable 1. Processor operating modes.\nTable 2 contains comparison of registers' and stack's resources available to an application in different modes. Left columns show resources provided by obsolete x86 architecture which are available only to compatibility. Right columns show resources available in 64-bit mode. The difference between the modes is marked grey.\nTable 2. Registers and stack available in different modes\nAs shown in Table 2 obsolete x86 architecture (this mode is called legacy mode in x86-64) supports 8 general-purpose registers. But actually only 4 registers are usually used: EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX. Registers EBP, ESI, EDI, ESP have a special purpose. X86-64 architecture adds 8 general-purpose registers and enlarges the register range from 32 bits to 64 bits. It allows compilers to increase code performance. A 64-bit compiler can use registers for storing variables more efficiently. The compiler also allows you to minimize memory access by locating operation inside general-purpose registers.\n- x86-64 architecture supports the whole set of x86 instructions and adds some new instructions for supporting long-mode. The commands are divided into several subsets:\n- General-purpose commands. These are main x86 integer commands used in all programs. Most of them are intended for loading, saving and processing data located in general-purpose registers or memory. Some of these commands manage the command stream providing passage from one program section to another.\n- 128-bit media-commands. These are SSE and SSE2 (streaming SIMD extension) commands intended for loading, saving or processing data located in 128-bit XMM registers. They perform integer or floating-point operations over vector (packed) and scalar data types. As vector commands can perform one operation over a data set independently they are called single-instruction, multiple-data (SIMD) commands. They are used for media- and science applications for processing data blocks.\n- 64-bit media-commands. These are multimedia extension (MMX) and 3DNow! Commands. They save, restore and process data located in 64-bit MMX registers. Like 128-bit commands described before they perform integer and floating-point operations over vector (packed) and scalar data.\n- x87 commands. They are intended for working with the floating point in obsolete x87 applications. They process data in x87 registers.\nSome of these commands connect two or more subsets of the commands described above. For example, such are commands of data transmission between general-purpose registers and XMM or MMX registers.\nLet's consider in detail the operating modes shown in Table 1 supported by x86-64. In most cases addresses' and operands' sizes can be overlayed by a command prefix.\nLet's describe long-mode at first. This is an extension of the obsolete protected mode. Long-mode consists of two submodes: 64-bit mode and compatibility mode. 64-bit mode supports all the new possibilities and register extensions introduced into x86-64. Compatibility mode supports binary compatibility with existing 16-bit and 32-bit code. Long-mode doesn't support obsolete real mode or obsolete virtual-8086 mode and it also doesn't support hardware task switching.\nAs 64-bit mode supports 64-bit address space you need to use a new 64-bit operational system for its work. Meanwhile, the existing applications can be launched without recompiling in compatibility mode under the OS working in 64-bit mode. For 64-bit command addressing a 64-bit register (RIP) and a new addressing mode with single flat address space for code, stack and data are used.\n64-bit mode implements support of extended registers through a new prefix group of REX commands.\nIn 64-bit mode addresses' size is 64 bits on default but implementations of x86-64 may have a smaller size. An operand's size is 32 bits on default. For most instructions the operand's size can be overlaid using a prefix of REX-type commands.\n64-bit mode provides data addressing relative to the 64-bit register RIP. X86 architecture provided addressing relative to IP register only in control transfer commands. RIP-relative addressing increases efficiency of position-independent code and code addressing global data.\nSome opcode commands were redefined to support extended registers and 64-bit addressing.\nCompatibility mode is intended for executing existing 16-bit and 32-bit programs in a 64-bit OS. Applications are launched in compatibility mode with the use of 32- or 16-bit address space and can have access to 4Gb of virtual address space. Commands' prefixes can switch 16- and 32-bit addresses and operands' sizes.\nFrom the application's viewpoint compatibility mode looks like the obsolete protected x86 mode but from the viewpoint of the OS (address translation, processing of interruptions and exceptions) 64-bit mechanisms are used.\nLegacy mode provides binary compatibility not only with 16- and 32-bit applications but with 16- and 32-bit operational systems as well. It includes three modes:\n- Protected mode. 16- and 32-bit programs with segmental memory organization, privilege and virtual memory support. Address space is 4Gb.\n- Virtual-8086 mode. Supports 16-bit applications launched as tasks in protected mode. Address space is 1Mb.\n- Real mode. Supports 16-bit programs with simple register addressing of segmented memory. Virtual memory and privileges are not supported. 1Mb of memory is available.\nLegacy mode is used only when 16- and 32-bit OS are operating.\nLet's outline the main advantages of AMD x86-64 architecture.\n- 64-bit address space.\n- Extended register set.\n- Developer-habitual command set.\n- Possibility of launching obsolete 32-bit applications in a 64-bit OS.\n- Possibility of using a 32-bit OS.\nThe new architecture AMD x86-64 hasn't introduced crucial disadvantages into 32-bit architecture. We can point out only a bit increased programs' memory requirements because of the larger size of addresses and operands. But it won't influence however significantly the code size or the requirements to available main memory.\nBut the fact is that AMD x86-64 hasn't introduced anything significantly new. There is no performance gain. On the average, you can expect 5-15% performance gain after recompiling a program.\nNearly all modern OS now have versions for AMD64 architecture. Thus, Microsoft presents Windows XP 64-bit, Windows Server 2003 64bit, Windows Vista 64bit. The leading UNIX system developers also provide 64-bit versions, such as, for example, Linux Debian 3.1 x86-64. But it doesn't mean that the whole code of such a system is completely 64-bit. Some OS code and many applications still can remain 32-bit as AMD64 provides backward compatibility.\n64-bit Windows version, for example, uses a special mode WoW (Windows-on-Windows 64) which translates 32-bit applications' calls to the resources of a 64-bit OS. Let's consider in detail AMD64 program model available to a programmer in 64-bit Windows [3, 4] shortly called Win64.\nLet's begin with address space. Although a 64-bit processor can theoretically address 16 exabyte (2^64) Win64 now supports 16 terabytes (2^44). There are several reasons for this. Existing processors can provide access only to 1 terabyte (2^40) of actual storage. The architecture (but not the hardware part) can extend this space up to 4 petabytes. But anyway we need a great memory size for page tables representing memory. (see Table 3).\n|32-bit mode||64-bit mode|\n|Process's general address space||4Gb||16Tb|\n|Address space available to a 32-bit process||2Gb (3Gb if the system is loaded with /3GB key)||4Gb if the application is compiled with /LARGEADDRESSAWARE key (2Gb otherwise)|\n|Address space available to a 64-bit process||Impossible||8Tb|\n|System Page Table (PTE)||660Mb - 900Mb||128Gb|\nTable 3. Main memory limitations in Windows\nLike in Win32 the addressed memory range is divided into user and system addresses. Each process receives 8Tb and 8Tb remain in the system (unlike 2Gb and 2Gb in Win32 correspondingly). Different Windows versions have different limitations shown in Table 4.\n|Actual storage and number of processors||32-bit models||64-bit models|\n|Windows XP Home||4 Gb, 1 CPU||Not present|\n|Windows XP Professional||4 Gb, 1-2 CPU||128 Gb, 1-2 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2003, Standard||4 Gb, 1-4 CPU||32 Gb, 1-4 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2003, Enterprise||64 Gb, 1-8 CPU||1 Tb, 1-8 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2003, Datacenter||64 Gb, 8-32 CPU||1 Tb, 8-64 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2008, Datacenter||64 Gb, 2-64 CPU||2 Tb, 2-64 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2008, Enterprise||64 Gb, 1-8 CPU||2 Tb, 1-8 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2008, Standard||4 Gb, 1-4 CPU||32 Gb, 1-4 CPU|\n|Windows Server 2008, Web Server||4 Gb, 1-4 CPU||32 Gb, 1-4 CPU|\n|Vista Home Basic||4 Gb, 1 CPU||8 Gb, 1 CPU|\n|Vista Home Premium||4 Gb, 1-2 CPU||16 Gb, 1-2 CPU|\n|Vista Business||4 Gb, 1-2 CPU||128 Gb, 1-2 CPU|\n|Vista Enterprise||4 Gb, 1-2 CPU||128 Gb, 1-2 CPU|\n|Vista Ultimate||4 Gb, 1-2 CPU||128 Gb, 1-2 CPU|\nTable 4. Limitations of different Windows versions\nLike in Win32 a page's size is 4Kb. First 4Kb of address space are never shown, i.e. the least true address is 0x10000. Unlike Win32 system DLL are loaded exceeding 4Gb.\nAll the processors implementing AMD64 have support for \"CPU No Execution\" bit which is used by Windows for implementing the hardware technology \"Data Execution Protection\" (DEP) which forbids execution of user data instead of code. It allows you to increase programs' safety excluding influence of such errors as execution of the buffer with data as code.\nThe peculiarity of AMD64 compilers is that they can most efficiently implement registers for passing parameters into functions instead of using the stack. It allowed Win64 architecture developers to get rid off such a notion as calling convention. In Win32 you can use different conventions (ways of passing parameters): __stdcall, __cdecl, __fastcall etc. In Win64 there is only one calling convention. Let's consider an example of how four arguments of integer-type are passed in registers:\n- RCX: first argument\n- RDX: second argument\n- R8: third argument\n- R9: fourth argument\nArguments after the first four integers are passed on the stack. For float arguments XMM0-XMM3 both the registers and the stack are used.\nThe difference in calling conventions leads to that you cannot use both 64-bit and 32-bit code in one program. In other words, if an application is compiled for 64-bit mode all the used DLL libraries must be 64-bit too.\nWhile writing 64-bit code you can get additional performance gain thanks to special optimization. This question is considered in detail in optimizing instructions .\nOne of the purposes of high-level languages is to reduce as far as possible the binding of program code to the architecture and provide the most possible portability between hardware platforms. For example, C++ programs written correctly are theoretically independent from the hardware platform. And, ideally, to compile the corresponding 32-bit applications for AMD64 platform it is enough only to change the compiler  and just recompile the program. But in practice everything is more complicated.\nSoftware using Assembler code for 32-bit processors still exists. Many programs written in high-level languages contain Assembler blocks. That's why it is often impossible just to recompile a large project. The solution of this problem is clear. Firstly, you can refuse porting an application on a new platform. It can be a very reasonable solution because, for example, Windows-family OS provide good backward compatibility due to Wow64 technology. The second variant is to rewrite the program code. Moreover, it seems reasonable to rewrite it using high-level languages. By the way, pay attention that Visual C++ compiler doesn't support compilation of Assembler blocks in 64-bit compilation mode anymore .\nPresence of Assembler program code is not the only obstacle we face while mastering 64-bit systems. While porting programs on 64-bit systems different errors occur relating to changing of the data model (type size). What's more, some errors become apparent only while using large memory size which was unavailable in 32-bit systems. Such errors are well described in the article \"20 issues of porting C++ code on the 64-bit platform\" .\nAll said above relates mostly to C/C++ applications. It is better with managed code (C#) although we can face some small problems here as well. Unfortunately, large program complexes are often built using libraries written in C/C++. And that's why in case of a large C# project it most likely contains C/C++ modules or libraries which can be unsafe and contain vulnerabilities.\nFor testing and checking program code ported on a 64-bit platform you can use different special methods and tools . For example, such static analyzers as Viva64 (for Windows systems) and PC-Lint (for Unix systems) can provide good results. To learn more about this toolkit read the article \"Comparison of analyzers' diagnostic abilities while testing 64-bit code\" .\nUndoubtedly, AMD64 architecture offered by AMD Company turned out to be needed on market. AMD64's advantage is that it allows you to smoothly switch to 64-bit programs without losing compatibility with obsolete 32-bit applications. But there is nothing revolutionary in AMD64.\nMigration of 32-bit programs on AMD64, as experiments demonstrate, allows you, firstly, to solve tasks which are much more memory-demanding and, secondly, get about 10% performance gain \"just so\" without changing code due to optimization of an application by the compiler for the new architecture.\nWe may conclude that AMD64 architecture postponed the problem of limited available main-memory size for many years but didn't solve the problem of modern personal computers' performance gain. The future is still with multi-core and multi-processor systems.\n- Intel Software Developer's Manual. Volume 1: Basic Architecture. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=212\n- AMD x86-64 Architecture Programmer's Manual. Volume 1: Application Programming. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=213\n- Mike Wall. Tricks for Porting Applications to 64-Bit Windows on AMD64 Architecture. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=214\n- Matt Pietrek. Everything You Need To Know To Start Programming 64-Bit Windows Systems. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=215\n- Software Optimization Guide for AMD Athlon 64 and AMD Opteron Processors. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=59\n- Compiler Usage Guidelines for 64-Bit Operating Systems on AMD64 Platforms. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=216\n- Daniel Pistelli. Moving to Windows Vista x64. http://www.viva64.com/go.php?url=217\n- Andrey Karpov, Evgeniy Ryzhkov. 20 issues of porting C++ code on the 64-bit platform. http://www.viva64.com/en/a/0004/\n- Andrey Karpov. Problems of testing 64-bit applications. http://www.viva64.com/en/a/0006/\n- Andrey Karpov. Comparison of analyzers' diagnostic abilities while testing 64-bit code. http://www.viva64.com/en/a/0024/", "id": "<urn:uuid:ae46e299-bf33-418d-84df-f465533f43ff>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.viva64.com/en/a/0029/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368705195219/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516115315-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8848859667778015, "token_count": 4336, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Recent acts of violence alongside pending legislation and international pressure have brought to light the pressing need for lawmaking in support of LGBT rights in Chile. Together with protests for reforms in the education system, the public seems to be increasingly impatient about what the government is doing to protect LGBT rights. These demands are important beyond the scope of gay rights, because they have brought attention to the need for Chile to recognize, accept and protect the human rights of an evolving, heterogeneous culture as a fundamental prerequisite for continued prosperity.\nThe passage of an antidiscrimination law, which remained unresolved for over seven years, by a close 58-56 vote in the Chamber of Deputies this month was a basic necessity for the country. The Chilean Movement for Sexual Minorities (MOVILH) notes that in 2011 gay, lesbian and transgender Chileans were increasingly outspoken in reporting abuse and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. However, this recently passed antidiscrimination law does not deal with hate crimes per se, but rather defines illegal discrimination. Furthermore, certain passages have yet to be finalized in a mixed commission of Senators and Deputies on May 2. The recent death of gay youth Daniel Zamudio points to precisely why legislating solely on discrimination does not suffice in this case, serving as an exceptionally violent example as to why hate crimes require specific punishment under the law.\nZamudio received not only the public\u2019s sympathy, but also worldwide attention including a briefing note from the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights\u2019 spokesman, Rupert Colville, urging Chile to enact hate crime legislation. In this regard, the MOVILH also argues that Chilean society is not opposed to legislating on issues of gay rights and antidiscrimination in its entirety, but there is a lack of bravery and willingness within Congress to approach these pending issues. The recent Inter-American Court of Human Rights\u2019 overturning of a Chilean court ruling against lesbian Judge Karen Atala, who lost custody of her children because of her same-sex relationship, is further international pressure for Chile to meet requirements stipulated by international agreements it has signed onto.\nChile\u2019s gay rights deficit is worrying as the country continues to be viewed as an example for continued economic growth despite global market volatility. President Sebastian Pi\u00f1era\u2019s administration is cautious about giving into all public demands, as Chile\u2019s Minister of Finance Felipe Larra\u00edn recently said: \u201cIf we surrender to the temptation of appeasing demands by giving in to all of them, we will never get to our final goal [development].\u201d However, most gay rights issues rely merely on political willingness rather than investment for social welfare. Furthermore, acting on gay rights is not the investment equivalent of reforming a public education system.\nOn the contrary, the lack of legislative initiative to protect gay Chileans is hindering the business community\u2019s business opportunities. Private initiatives have been taken to reach out to gay customers, like for example the granting of access to mortgages and family insurance plans to Banco de Chile customers in same-sex relationships, proving how it is not only the public that is restless, but also the private sector that recognizes the positive effects of social inclusion in business. What could potentially prove threatening to Chile\u2019s continued economic success might just be the lack of recognition given to the longstanding need for social inclusion of minorities in the country\u2019s legal framework. In contrast, Chile\u2019s neighbor Argentina has clearly reaped the benefits of gay tourism and investment since legislating on gay marriage, while Chile continues to turn a blind eye to opportunity.\nThis is not to say that Pi\u00f1era\u2019s administration has not taken basic steps to promote the rights of gay couples, like for example Pi\u00f1era\u2019s public presentation of a civil unions bill in August 2011. However, this legislative project was not only perceived as a political tool in the midst of cabinet discussions with student protest leaders, but is also minimal when considering the prominent use of gay couples in campaign ads for Sebastian Pi\u00f1era during his presidential campaign. For this reason, the inclusion of a question in the 2012 census that allows gay couples to state whether they live with a same-sex partner may become an important, confidential and unbiased figure that current and future administrations could use to advocate for legislation on gay unions.\nThis paradox persists despite the heightened quality of life of Chileans. Economic growth is creating an increasingly obvious deficit in basic human rights the country has yet to attain. In spite of continued development and well-regarded fiscal policy through the recession and into today\u2019s administration, Chile continues to be in debt to not only its citizens and the country\u2019s business community, but also to international human rights agreements on sexual orientation and gender identity. These international standards continue to be well above those demonstrated by the current state of gay rights legislation in Chile.\nEduardo Ayala is a guest blogger to AQ Online. He is Chilean-American and works at the Council of the Americas in New York. He graduated from The George Washington University, during which time he also completed coursework at The University of Chile and The Pontifical Catholic University of Chile in Santiago.", "id": "<urn:uuid:538849d2-1abb-4a38-9afe-136950fa9f61>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://americasquarterly.org/node/3598", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9554063677787781, "token_count": 1054, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Book Chapter, The New Harvest: Agricultural Innovation in Africa, pages 166-203\nAuthor: Calestous Juma, Professor of the Practice of International Development; Director, Science, Technology, and Globalization Project; Principal Investigator, Agricultural Innovation in Africa\nOther Chapters in The New Harvest: Agricultural Innovation in Africa:\n- The Growing Economy\n- Advances in Science, Technology, and Engineering\n- Agricultural Innovation Systems\n- Enabling Infrastructure\n- Human Capacity\n- Conclusions and the Way Ahead\nAfrican countries are increasingly focusing on promoting regional economic integration as a way to stimulate economic growth and expand local markets. Considerable progress has been made in expanding regional trade through regional bodies such as the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC). There are six other such Regional Economic Communities (RECs) that are recognized by the African Union as building blocks for pan-African economic integration. So far, regional cooperation in agriculture is in its infancy and major challenges lie ahead. This chapter will explore the prospects of using regional bodies as agents of agricultural innovation through measures such as regional specialization. The chapter will examine ways to strengthen the role of the RECs in promoting innovation. It adopts the view that effective regional integration is a learning process that involves continuous institutional adaptation.\nThrough extensive examples of initiatives at the national or cross-border levels, this chapter provides cases for regional collaboration or scaling up national programs to regional programs. Africa's RECs have convening powers that position them as valuable vehicles. That is, they convene meetings of political leaders at the highest level, and these leaders take decisions that are binding on the member states; the member states then regularly report on their performance regarding these decisions. Such meetings provide good platforms for sharing information and best practices. Africa's RECs have established and continue to designate centers of excellence in various areas. COMESA, for instance, has established reference laboratories for animal and plant research in Kenya and Zambia. Designation of centers of excellence for specific aspects of agricultural research will greatly assist specialization within the RECs and put to common use the knowledge from the expertise identified in the region....\nThe entire chapter may be downloaded below.\n- Full text of \"Governing Innovation\" (121K PDF)\nFor more information about this publication please contact the STG Coordinator.\nFor Academic Citation:", "id": "<urn:uuid:9244e689-1431-4f7a-87f8-18e1f94966b9>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/20578/governing_innovation.html?breadcrumb=%2Fpublication%2F21947%2Fchina_and_pakistan", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9190334677696228, "token_count": 481, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Frank Lloyd Wright\n- If you would see how interwoven it is in the warp and woof of civilization ... go at night-fall to the top of one of the down-town steel giants and you may see how in the image of material man, at once his glory and his menace, is this thing we call a city. There beneath you is the monster, stretching acre upon acre into the far distance. High over head hangs the stagnant pall of its fetid breath, reddened with light from myriad eyes endlessly, everywhere blinking. Thousands of acres of cellular tissue, the city\u2019s flesh outspreads layer upon layer, enmeshed by an intricate network of veins and arteries radiating into the gloom, and in them, with muffled, persistent roar, circulating as the blood circulates in your veins, is the almost ceaseless beat of the activity to whose necessities it all conforms. The poisonous waste is drawn from the system of this gigantic creature by infinitely ramifying, thread-like ducts, gathering at their sensitive terminals matter destructive of its life, hurrying it to millions of small intestines to be collected in turn by larger, flowing to the great sewers, on to the drainage canal, and finally to the ocean.\n- Lecture to the Chicago chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution (1904); later published as \"The Art and Craft of the Machine\" in On Architecture: Selected Writings (1894-1940) (1941)\n- Pictures deface walls oftener than they decorate them.\n- \"In the Cause of Architecture\", in The Architectural Record (March 1908)\n- It is where life is fundamental and free that men develop the vision needed to reveal the human soul in the blossoms it puts forth. ... In a great workshop like Chicago this creative power germinates, even though the brutality and selfish preoccupation of the place drive it elsewhere for bread. Men of this type have loved Chicago, have worked for her, and believed in her. The hardest thing they have to bear is her shame. These men could live and work here when to live and work in New York would stifle their genius and fill their purse.... New York still believes that art should be imported; brought over in ships; and is a quite contented market place. So while New York has reproduced much and produced nothing, Chicago\u2019s achievements in architecture have gained world-wide recognition as a distinctively American architecture.\n- Lecture to the Chicago Women\u2019s Aid (1918); later published as \"Chicago Culture\" in On Architecture: Selected Writings (1894-1940) (1941)\n- No house should ever be on a hill or on anything. It should be of the hill. Belonging to it. Hill and house should live together each the happier for the other.\n- Frank Lloyd Wright, An Autobiography (1932)\n- So here I stand before you preaching organic architecture: declaring organic architecture to be the modern ideal.\n- An Organic Architecture (1939)\n- I'm no teacher. Never wanted to teach and don't believe in teaching an art. Science yes, business of course..but an art cannot be taught. You can only inculcate it, you can be an exemplar, you can create an atmosphere in which it can grow. Well I suppose I, being an exemplar, could be called a teacher, in spite of myself. So go ahead, call me a teacher.\n- Quote from an interview on the NBC television program, Wisdom- A Conversation with Frank Lloyd Wright (1953)\n- A free America, democratic in the sense that our forefathers intended it to be, means just this: individual freedom for all, rich or poor, or else this system of government we call 'democracy' is only an expedient to enslave man to the machine and make him like it.\n- The Future of Architecture (1953), p. 174\n- Every great architect is \u2014 necessarily \u2014 a great poet. He must be a great original interpreter of his time, his day, his age.\n- The Future of Architecture (1953)\n- The physician can bury his mistakes, but the architect can only advise his clients to plant vines.\n- New York Times Magazine (4 October 1953) Sometimes paraphrased: \"A doctor can bury his mistakes, but the architect can only advise his clients to plant vines.\"\n- I doubt if there is anything in the world uglier than a Midwestern city.\n- Address at Evanston Illinois (8 August 1954)\n- Clear out 800,000 people and preserve it as a museum piece.\n- On Boston, The New York Times (27 November 1955)\n- New York: Prison towers and modern posters for soap and whiskey. Pittsburgh: Abandon it.\n- On New York and Pittsburgh, The New York Times (27 November 1955)\n- If you\u2019re going to have centralization, why not have it!\n- On his designs for \"The Illinois\" a 528-story Chicago office building (10 September 1956)\n- The scientist has marched in and taken the place of the poet. But one day somebody will find the solution to the problems of the world and remember, it will be a poet, not a scientist.\n- As quoted in The Star (1959) and Morrow's International Dictionary of Contemporary Quotations (1982) by Jonathon Green\n- I believe in God, only I spell it \"Nature\".\n- As quoted in Quote magazine (14 August 1966)\n- Nature is all the body of God we mortals will ever see.\n- As quoted in The Duality of Vision : Genius and Versatility in the Arts (1970) by Walter Sorrell, p. 28\n- Architecture is life, or at least it is life itself taking form and therefore it is the truest record of life as it was lived in the world yesterday, as it is lived today or ever will be lived.\n- As quoted in An Organic Architecture (1970)\n- Here I am, Philip, am I indoors or am I out? Do I take my hat off or keep it on?\n- On Philip Johnson\u2019s glass house, as quoted in Architectural Digest (November 1985)\n- Study nature, love nature, stay close to nature. It will never fail you.\n- As quoted in The Wright Style (1992) by Carla Lind, p. 3\n- Early in life I had to choose between honest arrogance and hypocritical humility. I chose honest arrogance and have seen no occasion to change.\n- As quoted in The World's Best Thoughts on Life & Living (1981) compiled by Eugene Raudsepp; also quoted in The Michigan Daily (10 November 1998)\n- God is the great mysterious motivator of what we call nature and it has been said often by philosophers, that nature is the will of God. And, I prefer to say that nature is the only body of God that we shall ever see. If we wish to know the truth concerning anything, we'll find it in the nature of that thing.\n- As quoted in Truth Against the World : Frank Lloyd Wright speaks for an organic architecture (1987) edited by Patrick J. Meehan\n- The thing always happens that you really believe in; and the belief in a thing makes it happen.\n- As quoted in My Favorite Quotations (1990) by Norman Vincent Peale\n- Human beings can be beautiful. If they are not beautiful it is entirely their own fault. It is what they do to themselves that makes them ugly. The longer I live the more beautiful life becomes. If you foolishly ignore beauty, you will soon find yourself without it. Your life will be impoverished. But if you invest in beauty, it will remain with you all the days of your life.\n- Quoted in A Living Architecture : Frank Lloyd Wright and Taliesin Architects (2000) by John Rattenbury\nThe Living City (1958)\n- The screech and mechanical uproar of the big city turns the citified head, fills citified ears \u2014 as the song of birds, wind in the trees, animal cries, or as the voices and songs of his loved ones once filled his heart. He is sidewalk-happy.\n- New York is the biggest mouth in the world. It appears to be prime example of the herd instinct, leading the universal urban conspiracy to beguile man from his birthright (the good ground), to hang him by his eyebrows from skyhooks above hard pavement, to crucify him, sell him, or be sold by him.\n- \u201cThe-Shadow-of-the-Wall\u2013Primitive Instincts Still Alive\u201d\n- To look at the cross-section of any plan of a big city is to look at something like the section of a fibrous tumor.\n- \u201cSocial and Economic Disease\u201d\n- All fine architectural values are human values, else not valuable.\n- I find it hard to believe that the machine would go into the creative artist\u2019s hand even were that magic hand in true place. It has been too far exploited by industrialism and science at expense to art and true religion.\n- \u201cNight Is but a Shadow Cast by the Sun\u201d\n- The present is the ever moving shadow that divides yesterday from tomorrow. In that lies hope.\n- Closing words, \u201cNight is but a Shadow Cast by the Sun\u201d\n\u2191Jump back a section\n\u2191Jump back a section\n- There is nothing more uncommon than common sense.\n- Anonymous saying, dating back at least to its citation in Natural Theology (1836) by Thomas Chalmers, Bk. II, Ch. III : On the Strength of the Evidences for a God in the Phenomena of Visible and External Nature, \u00a7 15, where the author states: \"It has been said that there is nothing more uncommon than common sense.\"; it has since become misattributed to particular people, including Frank Lloyd Wright.\nQuotes about Wright\n- He's the greatest architect of the nineteenth century.\n- His place in history is secure. His continuing influence is assured. This country's architectural achievements would be unthinkable without him. He has been a teacher to us all.\n- Tribute after his death in The Journal of the American Institute of Architects\n- So long, Frank Lloyd Wright.\nI can't believe your song is gone so soon.\nI barely learned the tune\n- Among the great modern architects, Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Louis Kahn were arguably deists. ... Wright\u2019s use of the word \u201cnature\u201d did not mean only what-we-find-outdoors. It was something deeper. Wright knew that when people speak of the \u201cnature of things\u201d they mean their very essence, the that-which-makes-them-what- they-are, which is always and only one step away from that-who-makes- them-what-they-are. ... Wright thought not that he was God but that he brought or allowed God into the world through what he did, creating and designing. ... Wright actually thought himself a prophet, which of course is a different to being God, or an angel. ... bringing God into the world in an act of something like mid-wifery from the womb of nature, is not at all Moses-like. It is not a bringing down of Law from on high after personal coaching from God, but a bringing forth of a God already there in potential. There is no presumption of having seen or met God of the Bible. One makes the God one believes in happen.\n- Professor Michael Benedikt, University of Texas at Austin, Director of the Center for American Architecture and Design, in God, Creativity, and Evolution : The Argument from Designers (2005) (PDF document)\n- Frank Lloyd Wright a PBS Television documentary by Ken Burns\n- Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation\n- Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust\n- Saving Fallingwater from Collapse\n- Fallingwater Photo Tour\n- Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy\n- Photo visits and a visit to a major work inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright\n- God, Creativity, and Evolution: The Argument from Designers (2005) by Michael L. Benedikt (PDF document, University of Texas at Austin)", "id": "<urn:uuid:23b9ab5f-c5af-42a0-bc43-37067634d402>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.m.wikiquote.org/wiki/Frank_Lloyd_Wright", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9485880136489868, "token_count": 2570, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "|2004: 150,000 to 270,000 (estimated)\n1959: 25,000 (estimated)\n|Regions with significant populations|\n|Azerbaijan, Dagestan, Israel,\nUnited States, Russia\n|Related ethnic groups|\n|Part of a series on|\n|Jews and Judaism|\nThe Mountain Jews community originated from Ancient Persia, from 5th century AD onwards, and their language, Juhuri, has close relation to the Tat language, an ancient Southwest Iranian language which integrates many elements of Ancient Hebrew. It is believed that they had arrived in Persia from Ancient Israel as early as the 8th century BCE. The Mountain Jews survived numerous historical vicissitudes by settling in extremely remote and mountainous areas. They were known to be accomplished warriors and horseback riders.\nThe Mountain Jews are believed to have inhabited Caucasia since the 5th century AD. They arrived from southwest Persia/Iran. The language of the Mountain Jews, Juhuri, is an Ancient Southwest Iranian language, which integrates many elements of Ancient Hebrew. It is believed that they had arrived in Persia, from Ancient Israel, as early as the 8th century BCE. The Mountain Jews maintained a strong military tradition. Some historians[who?] believe they may be descended from Jewish military colonists, settled by Parthian and Sassanid rulers in the Caucasus as frontier guards against nomadic incursions from the Pontic steppe.\nIn the 18th\u201319th century, the Jews resettled from the highland to the coastal lowlands but carried the name \"Highland Jews\" or \"Mountain Jews\" with them. In the villages (aouls) the Highland/Mountain Jews settled in a part of their own; in towns they did the same, although their dwellings did not differ from those of their neighbours. The Highland Jews adopted the dress of the highlanders. Judaic prohibitions ensured they retained specific dishes, and they enshrined their faith in the rules for family life.\nJews in Azerbaijan\nDuring the construction of a stadium in the town of Guba a mass grave was discovered. Two main wells and two canals with human bones were uncovered. The finds indicate that 24 skulls were of children, 28 were of women of various ages. Besides ethnic Azeris, there were also Jews and Lezgis killed and buried during March Days in 1918, when the Bolsheviks and the ARF massacred thousands of people. The names of 81 massacred Jewish civilians were found and confirmed. It's estimated by Amnesty International and Azerbaijani foreignsic scientists more than 3000 Mountain Jews were killed by Armenian Dashnaks during March Days events.\nWhile elsewhere in the Jewish diaspora, Jews were prohibited from owning land (cf. the Jews of Central Asia), at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century, the Mountain Jews owned land and were farmers and gardeners, growing mainly grain. Their oldest occupation was rice-growing, but they also raised silkworms and cultivated tobacco. The Jewish vineyards were especially notable. The Jews and their Christian Armenian neighbors were the main producers of wine, an activity prohibited for Muslims by their religion. Judaism, in turn, limited some types of meat consumption. Unlike their neighbors, the Jews raised few domestic animals. At the same time, they were renowned tanners. Tanning was their third most important economic activity after farming and gardening. At the end of the 19th century, 6% of Jews were engaged in this trade. Handicrafts and commerce were mostly practiced by Jews in towns.\nThe Soviet authorities bound the Mountain Jews to collective farms, but allowed them to continue their traditional cultivation of grapes, tobacco, and vegetables; and making wine. The former isolated lifestyle of the Jews has practically ended, and they live side by side with other ethnic groups.\nReligious and educational institutions\nOriginally, only boys were educated and they attended synagogue schools. With Sovietization, Tat became the language of instruction at newly-founded elementary schools. This policy continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1928, the first native-language newspaper, Zakhmetkesh (Working People), was published. After WWII, Russian was the required language at quba schools, and the newspaper stopped publication. Mountain Jew intellectuals are active in qubai culture.\nNotable Mountain Jews\n- Yekutiel Adam - Israeli general and former Deputy Chief of Staff of the Israeli Defense Forces.\n- Udi Adam - Israeli general and the former head of the Israeli Northern Command.\n- Yaffa Yarkoni - Israeli singer, winner of the \"Israel Prize\" in 1998.\n- Sarit Hadad - Israeli singer.\n- Telman Ismailov - Businessman and entrepreneur; owner of AST group.\n- Omer Adam - Israeli singer.\n- Albert Agarunov - A Starshina of the Azerbaijani Army who died during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.\n- Israel Tsvaygenbaum - Russian-American artist (Polish Father; Mountain Jewish Mother)\n- Semen (Zalman) Divilov (1914-1988) \u2013 scientist-economist, member of government Azerbaijan Republic from 1952 to 1982 years.\n- Khayyam Nisanov - Azerbaijani Pop Star.\n- Lior Refaelov - Israeli Football Player.\n- Mountain Jews: customs and daily life in the Caucasus, Le\u02bcah Mi\u1e33dash-Shema\u02bb\u02bcilov, Liya Mikdash-Shamailov, Muze\u02bcon Yi\u015bra\u02bcel (Jerusalem), UPNE, 2002, page 17\n- Mountain Jews: customs and daily life in the Caucasus, Le\u02bcah Mi\u1e33dash-Shema\u02bb\u02bcilov, Liya Mikdash-Shamailov, Muze\u02bcon Yi\u015bra\u02bcel (Jerusalem), UPNE, 2002, page 9\n- Mountain Jews: customs and daily life in the Caucasus, Le\u02bcah Mi\u1e33dash-Shema\u02bb\u02bcilov, Liya Mikdash-Shamailov, Muze\u02bcon Yi\u015bra\u02bcel (Jerusalem), UPNE, 2002, page 19\n- \"\u0411. \u0421\u0430\u0444\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u0423\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0445 \u0436\u0435\u0440\u0442\u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0435 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0441\u044f\". \u042d\u0445\u043e. Retrieved June 9, 2011.\n- \"Mass Grave Found in Northern Azerbaijan\". Visions. Spring 2007. Retrieved June 9, 2011.\n- \"Rovshan Mustafayev: \"More than 3000 Mountain Jews were killed by Armenians during 1918-1919\"\". news.az. Retrieved 1 June 2013.\n- Richard Butler evidence to the Krstic trial 19 July 2000 ICTY transcript p 5431 . Retrieved 7 April 2010.\n- Witness PW-139 evidence to the Popovice et al., 7 November 2006, ICTY transcript p 3690 http://www.icty.org/x/cases/popovic/trans/en/061107ED.htm\n- query.nytimes.com, New York Times\n- juhuro.com, website created by Vadim Alhasov in 2001. Daily updates reflect the life of Mountain Jewish (juhuro) community around the globe.\n- newfront.us, New Frontier is a monthly Mountain Jewish newspaper, founded in 2003. International circulation via its web site. \u00ab\u041d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u0420\u0443\u0431\u0435\u0436\u00bb \u044f\u0432\u043b\u044f\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0435\u0436\u0435\u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0447\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0433\u0430\u0437\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0413\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0415\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b \u0421\u0428\u0410. \u041e\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u043c\u0430\u044f \u043c\u0435\u0441\u044f\u0446\u0430 2003 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430. \u041e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044f \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d\u044b \u043d\u0435 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0432 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0445 \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0435\u0439 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u044b, \u043e\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u043d\u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0438\u0440\u0443\u0435\u0442 \u043e \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044f\u0445 \u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u044b\u0442\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0445 \u0432 \u0413\u043e\u0440\u0441\u043a\u043e-\u0415\u0432\u0440\u0435\u0439\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043e\u0431\u0449\u0438\u043d\u0430\u0445 \u0432\u043e \u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043c\u0438\u0440\u0435.\n- keshev-k.com, Israeli website of Mountain Jews.\n- gorskie.ru, Mountain Jews, website in Russian language.\n- \"Jud\u00e6o-Tat\", Ethnologue", "id": "<urn:uuid:77c2f100-59ec-410f-85f3-6d88469d8c3e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Jews", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9264514446258545, "token_count": 1912, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Alphabetic Index : A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z\nGasoline /\u02c8\u0261\u00e6s\u0259li\u02d0n/, or petrol /\u02c8p\u025btr\u0259l/ is a transparent, petroleum-derived liquid that is used primarily as a fuel in internal combustion engines. It consists mostly of organic compounds obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, enhanced with a variety of additives. Some gasolines also contain ethanol as an alternative fuel. In North America, the term gasoline is often shortened in colloquial usage to gas, but some people use the term petrol, which is the common name in the UK and elsewhere in the Commonwealth of Nations. Under normal ambient conditions, its material state is liquid, unlike liquefied petroleum gas or natural gas.\nGasoline is more volatile than diesel oil, Jet-A, or kerosene, not only because of the base constituents, but also because of additives. Volatility is often controlled by blending with butane, which boils at \u22120.5 \u00b0C. The volatility of petrol is determined by the Reid vapor pressure (RVP) test. The desired volatility depends on the ambient temperature. In hot weather, petrol components of higher molecular weight and thus lower volatility are used. In cold weather, too little volatility results in cars failing to start.\nIn hot weather, excessive volatility results in what is known as \"vapor lock\", where combustion fails to occur, because the liquid fuel has changed to a gaseous state in the fuel lines, rendering the fuel pump ineffective and starving the engine of fuel. This effect mainly applies to camshaft-driven (engine mounted) fuel pumps which lack a fuel return line. Vehicles with fuel injection require the fuel to be pressurized within a set range. Because the camshaft speed is nearly zero before the engine is started, an electric pump is used. It is located in the fuel tank so the fuel may also cool the high-pressure pump. Pressure regulation is achieved by returning unused fuel to the tank. Therefore, vapor lock is almost never a problem in a vehicle with fuel injection.\nIn the US, volatility is regulated to reduce the emission of unburned hydrocarbons by the use of so-called reformulated gasoline that is less prone to evaporation. In Australia, summer petrol volatility limits are set by state governments and vary among states. Most countries simply have a summer, winter, and perhaps intermediate limit.\nVolatility standards may be relaxed (allowing more gasoline components into the atmosphere) during gasoline shortages. For example, on 31 August 2005, in response to Hurricane Katrina, the US permitted the sale of nonreformulated gasoline in some urban areas, effectively permitting an early switch from summer to winter-grade gasoline. As mandated by EPA administrator Stephen L. Johnson, this \"fuel waiver\" was made effective until 15 September 2005.\nModern automobiles are also equipped with an evaporative emissions control system ( 'EVAP system' in automotive jargon), which collects evaporated fuel from the fuel tank in a charcoal-filled canister while the engine is stopped, and then releases the collected vapors to the engine for consumption when the engine is running (usually after it has reached normal operating temperature). The evaporative emissions control system also includes a sealed gas cap to prevent vapors from escaping via the fuel filler tube.Octane rating For more details on this topic, see octane rating.\nSpark ignition engines are designed to burn gasoline in a controlled process called deflagration. But in some cases, the unburned mixture can autoignite, which results in rapid heat release and can damage the engine. This phenomenon is often referred to as engine knocking or end-gas knock. One way to reduce knock in spark ignition engines is to increase the gasoline's resistance to autoignition, which is expressed by its octane rating.\nOctane rating is measured relative to a mixture of 2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (an isomer of octane) and n-heptane. There are different conventions for expressing octane ratings, so a fuel may have several different octane ratings based on the measure used. Research octane number (RON) for commercially-available gasoline varies by country. In Finland, Sweden, and Norway, 95 RON is the standard for regular unleaded petrol and 98 RON is also available as a more expensive option. In the UK, ordinary regular unleaded petrol is 91 RON (not commonly available), premium unleaded petrol is always 95 RON, and super unleaded is usually 97-98 RON. However, both Shell and BP produce fuel at 102 RON for cars with high-performance engines, and the supermarket chain Tesco began in 2006 to sell super unleaded petrol rated at 99 RON. In the US, octane ratings in unleaded fuels can vary between 86 and 87 AKI (91-92 RON) for regular, through 89-90 AKI (94-95 RON) for mid-grade (European premium), up to 90-94 AKI (95-99 RON) for premium (European super).\nThe octane rating became important as the military sought higher output for aircraft engines in the late 1930s and the 1940s. A higher octane rating allows a higher compression ratio or supercharger boost, and thus higher temperatures and pressures, which translate to higher power output. Some scientists even predicted that a nation with a good supply of high octane gasoline would have the advantage in air power. In 1943, the Rolls Royce Merlin aero engine produced 1,320 horsepower (984 kW) using 100 RON fuel from a modest 27 litre displacement. Towards the end of the second world war, experiments were conducted using 150 RON fuel.Stability\nQuality gasoline should be stable almost indefinitely if stored properly. Such storage should be in an airtight container, to prevent oxidation or water vapors mixing, and at a stable cool temperature to reduce the chance of the container's leaking. When gasoline is not stored correctly, gums and solids may accumulate, resulting in \"stale fuel\". The presence of these degradation products in fuel tank, lines, and carburetor or fuel injection components, make it harder to start the engine. Upon resumption of regular vehicle usage, the buildups should eventually be cleaned out by the flow of fresh petrol. A fuel stabilizer can be used to extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly. Fuel stabilizer is commonly used for small engines, such as lawnmower and tractor engines, to promote quicker and more reliable starting. Users have been advised to keep gasoline containers more than half full and properly capped to reduce air exposure, to avoid storage at high temperatures, to run an engine for ten minutes to circulate the stabilizer through all components prior to storage, and to run the engine at intervals to purge stale fuel from the carburetor.Energy content (high and low heating value)\nEnergy is obtained from the combustion of gasoline by the conversion of a hydrocarbon to carbon dioxide and water. The combustion of octane follows this reaction:2 C8H18 + 25 O2 \u2192 16 CO2 + 18 H2O\nGasoline contains about 35 MJ/L (9.7 kW\u00b7h/L, 132 MJ/US gal, 36.6 kWh/US gal) (higher heating value) or 13 kWh/kg. Gasoline blends differ, and therefore actual energy content varies according to the season to season and producer by up to 4% more or less than the average, according to the US EPA. On average, about 19.5 US gallons (16.2 imp gal; 74 L) of gasoline are available from a 42-US-gallon (35 imp gal; 160 L) barrel of crude oil (about 46% by volume), varying due to quality of crude and grade of gasoline. The remaining residue comes off as products ranging from tar to naptha.\nA high-octane-rated fuel, such as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) has an overall lower power output at the regular compression ratio of an engine run at on gasoline. However, with an engine tuned to the use of LPG (i.e. via higher compression ratios, such as 12:1 instead of 8:1), this lower power output can be overcome. This is because higher-octane fuels allow for a higher compression ratio, hence a higher cylinder temperature, which improves efficiency. Also, increased mechanical efficiency is created by a higher compression ratio through the concomitant higher expansion ratio on the power stroke, which is by far the greater effect. The higher expansion ratio extracts more work from the high-pressure gas created by the combustion process. The applicable formula is . An Atkinson cycle engine uses the timing of the valve events to produce the benefits of a high expansion ratio without the disadvantages, chiefly detonation, of a high compression ratio. A high expansion ratio is also one of the two key reasons for the efficiency of Diesel engines, along with the elimination of pumping losses due to throttling of the intake air flow. A high compression ratio can be viewed as a necessary evil to have a high expansion ratio.\nThe lower energy content (per litre) of LPG in comparison to gasoline is due mainly to its lower density. Energy content per kilogram is higher than for gasoline (higher hydrogen to carbon ratio, see for example Standard_enthalpy_of_formation#Examples:_Inorganic_compounds_.28at_25_.C2.B0C.29).Density\nThe specific gravity (or relative density) of gasoline ranges from 0.71\u20130.77 kg/l (719.7 kg/m3 ; 0.026 lb/in3; 6.073 lb/US gal; 7.29 lb/imp gal), higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics. Gasoline floats on water; water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire, unless used in a fine mist.Chemical analysis and productionA pumpjack in the United StatesAn oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico\nGasoline is produced in oil refineries. Material that is separated from crude oil via distillation, called virgin or straight-run gasoline, does not meet the required specifications for modern engines (in particular octane rating; see below), but will comprise part of the blend.Some of the main components of gasoline: isooctane, butane, 3-ethyltoluene, and the octane enhancer MTBE.\nThe bulk of a typical gasoline consists of hydrocarbons with between four and 12 carbon atoms per molecule (commonly referred to as C4-C12).\nThe various refinery streams blended to make gasoline have different characteristics. Some important streams are:\nThe terms above are the jargon used in the oil industry, but terminology varies.\nOverall, a typical gasoline is predominantly a mixture of paraffins (alkanes), naphthenes (cycloalkanes), and olefins (alkenes). The actual ratio depends on:\nCurrently, many countries set limits on gasoline aromatics in general, benzene in particular, and olefin (alkene) content. Such regulations led to increasing preference for high octane pure paraffin (alkane) components, such as alkylate, and is forcing refineries to add processing units to reduce benzene content.\nGasoline can also contain other organic compounds, such as organic ethers (deliberately added), plus small levels of contaminants, in particular organosulfur compounds, but these are usually removed at the refinery.Additives See also: List of gasoline additives Antiknock additivesA plastic container for storing gasoline used in Germany\nMost countries have phased out leaded fuel. Different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol).Tetraethyl lead\nGasoline, when used in high-compression internal combustion engines, has a tendency to autoignite (detonate) causing damaging \"engine knocking\" (also called \"pinging\" or \"pinking\") noise. Early research into this effect was led by A.H. Gibson and Harry Ricardo in England and Thomas Midgley and Thomas Boyd in the United States. The discovery that lead additives modified this behavior led to the widespread adoption of their use in the 1920s, and therefore more powerful, higher compression engines. The most popular additive was tetra-ethyl lead. With the discovery of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by the lead, however, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters found on virtually all newly sold US automobiles since 1975, this practice began to wane (encouraged by many governments introducing differential tax rates) in the 1980s.In the US, where lead had been blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s, standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973 \u2014 due in great part to studies conducted by Philip J. Landrigan. In 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2000 short tons (1814 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles. Possession and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum $10,000 fine in the US. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines. Similar bans in other countries have resulted in lowering levels of lead in people's bloodstreams.\nGasolines are also treated with metal deactivators, which are compounds that sequester (deactivate) metal salts that otherwise accelerate the formation of gummy residues. The metal impurities might arise from the engine itself or as contaminants in the fuel.Detergents\nGasoline, as delivered at the pump, also contains additives to reduce internal engine carbon buildups, improve combustion, and to allow easier starting in cold climates. High levels of detergent can be found in Top Tier Detergent Gasolines. These gasolines exceed the U.S. EPA's minimum requirement for detergent content. The specification for Top Tier Detergent Gasolines was developed by four automakers: GM, Honda, Toyota and BMW. According to the bulletin, the minimal EPA requirement is not sufficient to keep engines clean. Typical detergents include alkylamines and alkyl phosphates at the level of 50-100 ppm.Ethanol European Union\nIn the EU, 5% ethanol can be added within the common gasoline spec (EN 228). Discussions are ongoing to allow 10% blending of ethanol (available in Finnish and French gas stations). Most gasoline sold in Sweden has 5-15% ethanol added.Brazil\nIn Brazil, the Brazilian National Agency of Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels (ANP) requires gasoline for automobile use to have from 18 to 25% of ethanol added to its composition.Australia\nLegislation requires retailers to label fuels containing ethanol on the dispenser, and limits ethanol use to 10% of petrol in Australia. Such petrol is commonly called E10 by major brands, and its price per litre is less than that of regular unleaded petrol.United States\nIn most states, ethanol is added by law to a minimum level which is currently 5.9%. Most fuel pumps display a sticker stating the fuel may contain up to 10% ethanol, an intentional disparity which allows the minimum level to be raised over time without requiring modification of the literature/labelling. Until late 2010, fuels retailers were only authorized to sell fuel containing up to 10 percent ethanol (E10), and most vehicle warranties (except for flexible fuel vehicles) authorize fuels that contain no more than 10 percent ethanol. In parts of the United States, ethanol is sometimes added to gasoline without an indication that it is a component.India\nThe government of India in October 2007 decided to make 5% ethanol blending (with petrol) mandatory. Discussions are ongoing to increase the blending of ethanol to 10%.Dye Main article: Fuel dyes\nIn Australia, petrol tends to be dyed a light shade of purple.\nIn India petrol is dyed red.\nIn the United States, aviation gasoline (avgas) is dyed to identify its octane rating and to distinguish it from kerosene-based jet fuel, which is clear.\nIn the U.S., many rural states offer 'off road diesel' that contains a red dye. It is chemically the same as undyed diesel but can be purchased without paying a road tax. Its use is for off road vehicles, such as tractors. However, if the fuel is used in on road vehicles, the dye will be transferred to fuel filters and other components. Offenders with marked components are liable for tax evasion.\nOxygenate blending adds oxygen-bearing compounds such as MTBE, ETBE and ethanol. The presence of these oxygenates reduces the amount of carbon monoxide and unburned fuel in the exhaust gas. In many areas throughout the US, oxygenate blending is mandated by EPA regulations to reduce smog and other airborne pollutants. For example, in Southern California, fuel must contain 2% oxygen by weight, resulting in a mixture of 5.6% ethanol in gasoline. The resulting fuel is often known as reformulated gasoline (RFG) or oxygenated gasoline, or in the case of California, California reformulated gasoline. The federal requirement that RFG contain oxygen was dropped on 6 May 2006 because the industry had developed VOC-controlled RFG that did not need additional oxygen.\nMTBE use is being phased out in some states due to issues with contamination of ground water. In some places, such as California, it is already banned. Ethanol and, to a lesser extent, the ethanol-derived ETBE are common replacements. Since most ethanol is derived from biomass, such as corn, sugar cane or grain, it is referred to as bioethanol. A common ethanol-gasoline mix of 10% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called gasohol or E10, and an ethanol-gasoline mix of 85% ethanol mixed with gasoline is called E85. The most extensive use of ethanol takes place in Brazil, where the ethanol is derived from sugarcane. In 2004, over 3.4 billion US gallons (2.8 billion imp gal/13 million m\u00b3) of ethanol was produced in the United States for fuel use, mostly from corn, and E85 is slowly becoming available in much of the United States, though many of the relatively few stations vending E85 are not open to the general public. The use of bioethanol, either directly or indirectly by conversion of such ethanol to bio-ETBE, is encouraged by the European Union Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport. Since producing bioethanol from fermented sugars and starches involves distillation, though, ordinary people in much of Europe cannot legally ferment and distill their own bioethanol at present (unlike in the US, where getting a BATF distillation permit has been easy since the 1973 oil crisis).Safety Environmental considerations\nCombustion of 1 US gallon (3.8 L) of gasoline produces 8,788 grams (19.37 lb) of carbon dioxide (2.3 kg/l), a greenhouse gas.\nThe main concern with gasoline on the environment, aside from the complications of its extraction and refining, is the potential effect on the climate. Unburnt gasoline and evaporation from the tank, when in the atmosphere, react in sunlight to produce photochemical smog. Addition of ethanol increases the volatility of gasoline, potentially worsening the problem.\nThe chief risks of such leaks come not from vehicles, but from gasoline delivery truck accidents and leaks from storage tanks. Because of this risk, most (underground) storage tanks now have extensive measures in place to detect and prevent any such leaks, such as monitoring systems (Veeder-Root, Franklin Fueling).Toxicity\nThe material safety data sheet for unleaded gasoline shows at least 15 hazardous chemicals occurring in various amounts, including benzene (up to 5% by volume), toluene (up to 35% by volume), naphthalene (up to 1% by volume), trimethylbenzene (up to 7% by volume), methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) (up to 18% by volume, in some states) and about ten others. Hydrocarbons in gasoline generally exhibit low acute toxicities, with LD50 of 700 \u2013 2700 mg/kg for simple aromatic compounds. Benzene and many antiknocking additives are carcinogenic.Inhalation\nHuffed gasoline is a common intoxicant that has become epidemic in some poorer communities and indigenous groups in Australia, Canada, New Zealand,and some Pacific Islands. In response, Opal fuel has been developed by the BP Kwinana Refinery in Australia, and contains only 5% aromatics (unlike the usual 25%) which weakens the effects of inhalation.FlammabilityUncontrolled burning of gasoline produces large quantities of soot.\nLike other alkanes, gasoline burns in a limited range of its vapor phase and, coupled with its volatility, this makes leaks highly dangerous when sources of ignition are present. Gasoline has a lower explosion limit of 1.4% by volume and an upper explosion limit of 7.6%. If the concentration is below 1.4% the air-gasoline mixture is too lean and will not ignite. If the concentration is above 7.6% the mixture is too rich and also will not ignite. However, gasoline vapor rapidly mixes and spreads with air, making unconstrained gasoline quickly flammable. Many accidents involve gasoline being used in an attempt to light bonfires; the gasoline readily vaporizes after being poured and mixes with the surrounding air.Usage and pricing Main articles: Gasoline usage and pricing and Peak oilUK petrol prices\nThe United States account for about 44% of the world\u2019s gasoline consumption. In 2003 The US consumed 476.474 gigalitres (1.25871\u00d71011 US gal; 1.04810\u00d71011 imp gal), which equates to 1.3 gigalitres of gasoline each day (about 360 million US or 300 million imperial gallons). The US used about 510 billion litres (138 billion US gal/115 billion imp gal) of gasoline in 2006, of which 5.6% was mid-grade and 9.5% was premium grade.\nWestern countries have the highest usage rates per person.Europe\nUnlike the US, countries in Europe impose substantial taxes on fuels such as gasoline. The price of gasoline in Europe is typically more than twice that in the US. In Italy, due to the amendments imposed by Monti's Government in December 2011, the price of gasoline has passed, in the period of two weeks, from 1.50 \u20ac/l (7.48 US$/gal) to 1.75 \u20ac/l (8.72 US$/gal); on March, 17th, in a Gasoline Station located near Ancona, has reached the psychological threshold of 2 \u20ac/l: the price was \u20ac 2.001/l (this means 9.97 US$/gal) This chart needs to be compared to the USA national average price of gasoline of 0.71 \u20ac/l .\nFrom 1998 to 2004, the price of gasoline fluctuated between $1 and $2 USD per U.S. gallon. After 2004, the price increased until the average gas price reached a high of $4.11 per U.S. gallon in mid-2008, but receded to approximately $2.60 per U.S. gallon by September 2009. More recently, the U.S. experienced an upswing in gas prices through 2011, and by 1 March 2012, the national average was $3.74 per gal.\nUnlike most consumer goods, the prices of which are listed before tax, in the United States, gasoline prices are posted with taxes included. Taxes are added by federal, state and local governments. As of 2009, the federal tax is 18.4\u00a2 per gallon for gasoline and 24.4\u00a2 per gallon for diesel (excluding red diesel). Among states, the highest gasoline tax rates, including the federal taxes as of 2005, are New York (62.9\u00a2/gal), Hawaii (60.1\u00a2/gal), and California (60\u00a2/gal). However, many states' taxes are a percentage and thus vary in amount depending on the cost of the gasoline.\nAbout 9% of all gasoline sold in the US in May 2009 was premium grade, according to the Energy Information Administration. Consumer Reports magazine says, \u201cIf says to use regular fuel, do so\u2014there\u2019s no advantage to a higher grade.\u201d The Associated Press said premium gas\u2014which is a higher octane and costs several cents a gallon more than regular unleaded\u2014should be used only if the manufacturer says it is \u201crequired\u201d. Cars with turbocharged engines and high compression ratios often specify premium gas because higher octane fuels reduce the incidence of \"knock\", or fuel pre-detonation. If regular fuel is used the engine computer will usually switch to a less aggressive fuel map in order to protect the engine, and performance is decreased.History\nThe first automotive combustion engines, so-called Otto engines, were developed in the last quarter of the 19th century in Germany. The fuel was a relatively volatile hydrocarbon obtained from coal gas. With a boiling point near 85 \u00b0C (octanes boil about 40 \u00b0C higher), it was well suited for early carburetors (evaporators). The development of a \"spray nozzle\" carburetors enabled the use of less volatile fuels. Further improvements in engine efficiency were attempted at higher compression ratios, but early attempts were blocked by knocking (premature explosion of fuel). In the 1920s, antiknock compounds were introduced by Migley and Boyd, specifically tetraethyl lead (TEL). This innovation started a cycle of improvements in fuel efficiency that coincided with the large-scale development of oil refining to provide more products in the boiling range of gasolines. In the 1950s oil refineries started to focus on high octane fuels, and then detergents were added to gasoline to clean the jets and carburetors. The 1970s witnessed greater attention to the environmental consequences of burning gasoline. These considerations led to the phasing out of TEL and its replacement by other antiknock compounds. Subsequently, low-sulfur gasoline was introduced, in part to preserve the catalysts in modern exhaust systems.Etymology and terminology\n\"Gasoline\" is cited (under the spelling \"gasolene\") from 1863 in the Oxford English Dictionary. It was never a trademark, although it may have been derived from older trademarks such as \"Cazeline\" and \"Gazeline\".\nVariant spellings of \"petrol\" have been used to refer to raw petroleum since the 16th century. \"Petrol\" was first used as the name of a refined petroleum product around 1870 by British wholesaler Carless, Capel & Leonard, who marketed it as a solvent. When the product later found a new use as a motor fuel, Frederick Simms, an associate of Gottlieb Daimler, suggested to Carless that they register the trade mark \"Petrol\", but by this time the word was already in general use, possibly inspired by the French p\u00e9trole, and the registration was not allowed. Carless registered a number of alternative names for the product, while their competitors used the term \"motor spirit\" until the 1930s.\nIn many countries, gasoline has a colloquial name derived from that of the chemical benzene (e.g., German Benzin, Dutch Benzine, Italian benzina, Chile bencina, Thai \u0e40\u0e1a\u0e19\u0e0b\u0e34\u0e19). Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay use the colloquial name nafta derived from that of the chemical naphtha.\nThe terms \"mogas\", short for motor gasoline, or \"autogas\", short for automobile gasoline, are used to distinguish automobile fuel from aviation gasoline, or \"avgas\". In British English, gasoline can refer to a different petroleum derivative historically used in lamps, but this usage is relatively uncommon.See also", "id": "<urn:uuid:f8949293-4f2a-41cf-925b-e11fabb81fbf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://fouman.com/Y/English_Persian_History_Glossary-Gasoline.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.941209614276886, "token_count": 5911, "score": 3.28125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Whenever you see a face in a cloud or the man in the moon you\u2019re experiencing a phenomenon called \u201cpareidoliac apophenia.\u201d One example is the apparent face that emerged from the shadows of a mesa on Mars.\nThe term apophenia was coined by Klaus Conrad in 1958. It refers to our tendency to find meaningful patterns or to draw connections in random sets of data.\nIn east Asian folklore, by the way, they don\u2019t see a man in the moon; they see a rabbit.\nAnother example of apophenia is the apparent synchronicity between the 1939 film Wizard of Oz and the Pink Floyd album Dark Side of the Moon. If you watch this YouTube clip of the album playing as the movie soundtrack, meaningful connections seem to emerge.\nPareidolia is a specific kind of apophenia where faces or other patterns emerge from random shapes. The Rorschach test is a classic example. It also explains the remarkable discovery in 1978 of the face of Jesus in the burn marks of a tortilla, and the appearance of the Virgin Mary in a grilled cheese sandwich.\nIn September of 2007, a monkey god was observed in a car-damaged tree in Singapore. Pilgrims have flocked there ever since then to offer bananas to the monkey deity.\nAs artists, we can have some fun with this phenomenon. Whenever I sense a face emerging from the randomness of the world, I like to sketch it, accentuating the pareidolia just slightly. Maybe I\u2019m going crazy, but last week I saw a face in the dormer windows of a building, and did this quick sketch to push it just a little.\nAnother time on a hike I stopped in my tracks when I saw a face in the rocky cliff. I did this sketch to accentuate the forms just enough to make it apparent, but without making it too obvious, hopefully. Rackham did the same thing with tree roots.\nThough I didn\u2019t know the name for it at the time, I used the idea in The World Beneath (1995), where Lee Crabb sees a skull (center) and Oriana sees a mother figure (right) in an apparently random grouping of stalagmites (left). Designing a form that could be interpreted in two different ways was a real brain-teaser.\nWikipedia entries on pareidolia and apophenia and Dark Side of the Rainbow\nMore on the Monkey Tree phenomenon, link.\nMan in the Moon, link.\nRabbit in the Moon, link.\nAlien face in duck x-ray, link.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0f3721c5-4f9f-4ee5-a3a7-8ef3cfae8728>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://gurneyjourney.blogspot.com/2008/06/pareidolia-and-apophenia.html?showComment=1214355540000", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9300402402877808, "token_count": 546, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Copyright Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo. All rights reserved.\nReturn to contents\nJAPANESE politicians, it seems, will do anything but face their war crimes, and will even try to justify them. The Japanese Foreign Ministry has persuaded the American government not to invite Prime Minister Murayama to Pearl Harbor, arguing that it would \"harm the relationship between the two nations.\" A member of the Hosokawa cabinet said the Nanking massacre was a myth. And a steady stream of cabinet ministers, Dietmembers, and leading journalists have claimed that Japan liberated Asia from the colonial powers.\nThese statements might suggest that the Japanese, unlike the Germans, have never confronted their past in an objective manner. However, such was not always the case. Japanese \"amnesia\" about the war, exemplified in the above comments, has emerged as a part of a revisionist literature which argues that mainstream Japanese historians, and intellectuals generally, were wrong in their postwar denunciation of the Japanese military and its actions. The revisionists, such as former Minister of Education Fujio and former Minister of Justice Nagano, are so zealous that they keep whitewashing Japan's role in the war even at the risk of losing office (in fact, their insistence that little killing took place in Nanking is correct: the worst massacres happened in the suburbs of Nanking). Justification of the war is a recent development in postwar intellectual history, although one may rightly argue that the arguments are logical extensions of the infamous prewar Ajiashugi, or \"Asianism.\"\nThe new surge of nationalism has been in part fostered by the recent industrial development of East Asia. Pointing to the region's rapidly growing economies, nationalist-revisionists argue that the East has prevailed over the West, and that the Pacific War was only an initial step in this direction. By arguing this, they confirm something Namier once wrote:\n\"One would expect people to remember the past and to imagine the future, [b]ut in fact, when discoursing or writing about history, they imagine it in terms of their own experience ... they imagine the past and remember the future.\"(1)\nThe new nationalists are certainly imagining their past - in a manner that suits their egos.\nMaruyama's critique of fascism led to his famous defense of the Constitution's Article 9, which bans the maintenance of armed forces in Japan, and has served as a guiding light for a whole generation of scholars, students, and citizens. The arguments of Japanese pacifism are simple: all wars betray noble purposes, militarism is the worst enemy of democracy, and we must struggle to eliminate any legacy of militarism from our soil in order to establish a full-fledged democracy. Moreover, the establishment of democracy is essential to avoid future wars; but a government enmeshed in Cold War institutions and US-dominated foreign policy is not a democracy, even though its formal political procedures may make it seem one. Hence the rebellion against the Security Treaty with the Americans and the widespread antinuclear movements.\nI grew up in this pacifist intellectual environment, but now I am puzzled by its hypocrisies. It says little about the atrocities committed by the Japanese military abroad.(3) It also has little to say about the kind of foreign policy necessary to establish a war-free community of nations. As pacifists, we were supposed to defend our constitution against the Cold Warriors and the Americans; but it was the American Occupation forces who virtually dictated the draft of our Constitution. The Japanese almost always appeared as victims of war, victims of the irresponsible militarist government. We used Hiroshima as a symbol of antinuclear peace, but seldom referred to Nanking or, for that matter, Manila. While we proclaimed our victimization, outside Japan very few people cared to hear about Japanese suffering during the war.\nThere is something very moving, however, in the way the Japanese are horrified by memories of Hiroshima. Their passionate discussions of the atomic bombings call forth a vision of dusk and death, an age about to end, and a mankind foolish enough to exterminate itself. Perhaps this apocalyptic vision seems excessive, even bizarre. But substitute \"Japanese people\" for \"mankind,\" and the meaning of the war for the Japanese becomes clear. The war put an end to everything. The bombing of Hiroshima quite literally wiped out a whole city. Aside from any political propaganda, this stark vision of total destruction was what Hiroshima has meant to most of us.\nIt is quite possible that few Japanese care about the atrocities Japan committed overseas. At the same time, many Japanese do care about the Japanese victims, and about the grotesque violence their militarist government brought down on their heads. Hiroshima signifies the ugliest dimension of all this. Those who emphasized Hiroshima during the Cold War were not necessarily making apologies for the Soviets or parading their anti-American nationalism; Hiroshima, to many Japanese, simply showed what you get when you start a foolish war.\nMoreover, beneath the pacifism lies a fatalistic vision of a future war. This nightmare image is not confined to the intellectual argument of the sengo keimo, or \"Postwar Enlightenment.\" A strange aspect of postwar Japanese mass culture is the prevalence of a vision of doomsday, of total annihilation in a world war. Dystopic scenarios are seen not only in the likes of Akira, Japan's decadent version of Blade Runner, but also in Doraemon, a popular TV cartoon series which caters to middle-class children (including my daughters).\nBuruma is wrong in attributing the Japanese view of Hiroshima to simple hypocrisy. It is actually worse than that. Hiroshima is a lesson through which the Japanese learn a frozen, remembered version of the future. When the Americans started to reduce their military presence in Okinawa, Okinawans simply could not believe it, for a major military operation involving US forces in Okinawa was supposed to bring destruction to the whole island. When the Americans and the Soviets agreed on nuclear disarmament, pacifists (again, including myself) could not believe that either, as it threatened our remembered future, however dystopian it was. Confronting the specter of fascism and the nightmare of nuclear war were noble and necessary acts; but what future is left for a Japanese intellectual when the specters and nightmares are gone?\nThe nationalist-revisionists, with their ridiculous attempts to invent our past, are irrelevant. We should be busy constructing blueprints for a better world in the wake of the Cold War. But our ability to imagine such a world is weak, atrophied by our long past of remembering the future.\nLewis Namier, \"Symmetry and Repetition,\" in his Conflicts. London: Macmillan, 1942.\nMaruyama Masao, Thought and Behaviour in Modern Japanese Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963.\nDuring the past decade, however, Japanese historians have produced an impressive range of documents and academic studies of Japanese colonial and/or military rule in Asia. See, for example:\nKindai nihon to shokuminchi (Modern Japan and the Colonies), 8 vols., Iwanami Shoten, 1992-93.\nKURASAWA Aiko, Senryouka no Jawa nouson no henyou (Transformation of a Javanese Village under Japanese Occupation), Soushisha, 1992.\nNihon no senryouka ni kansuru shiryou chousa fooramu, ed., Nihon no Firipin senryou (The Japanese Occupation of the Philippines), Ryuukei Shosha, 1994, ISBN 4-8447-8370-X.\nIan Buruma, The Wages of Guilt: Memories of War in Germany and Japan. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux, 1994, p.96.\nElectronic mail email@example.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:9a21f1cb-1ab5-472f-b418-ca02bd19fe03>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/NanjingMassacre/fujiwara.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9533035159111023, "token_count": 1632, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "By Dasha Afanasieva\nLONDON (Reuters) - An ambitious British plan to search for minute forms of life in an ancient lake beneath Antarctica's ice has been suspended because of technical problems, the scientist leading the project said on Thursday.\nIn a move that clears the way for U.S. and Russian teams to take the lead, Professor Martin Siegert said technical problems and a lack of fuel had forced the closure on Christmas Day of the 7-million-pound ($11 million) project, which was looking for life forms and climate change clues in the lake-bed sediment.\n\"This is of course, hugely frustrating for us, but we have learned a lot this year,\" said Siegert of the University of Bristol, principal investigator for the mission, which was headed by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS).\n\"By the end, the equipment was working well, and much of it has now been fully field-tested,\" he said on the BAS website.\nExperts from Britain's Lake Ellsworth mission had expected to find minute forms of life in the lake three km (two miles) under Antarctica's ice, the most remote and extreme environment known on Earth.\nThey had also hoped that by dating bits of seashell found in the water they would have been able to ascertain when the ice sheet last broke up and to better understand the risks of it happening again.\nScientists from the United States and Russia are hot on Britain's heels when it comes to drilling through Antarctic ice to lakes that have been hidden for thousands of years.\nThe U.S. team is aiming to start drilling in Lake Whillans, one of 360 known sub-glacial lakes in Antarctica, in January or February 2013.\nRussia was the first to pierce 3,769 meters (12,365 ft) of solid ice to reach Lake Vostok early in 2012. But some scientists believe their samples may have been contaminated by drilling fluids.\nThe British scientists decided to abandon the mission after trying for 20 hours to connect two holes in the ice that were needed for the hot-water drill to work, said a BAS spokeswoman.\nWithout a connection between the two holes, the hot water would seep into the porous surface layers of ice and be lost, reducing the pressure and rendering the drill ineffective.\nThe team tried to melt and dig more snow to compensate for the water loss, but without success.\nAs a result of the extra time taken to fix the problem, fuel stocks had been depleted to such a level as to make the operation unviable.\nAsked how long the delay might be before the project could be resumed, Siegert told the BBC: \"It will take a season or two to get all our equipment out of Antarctica and back to the UK, so at a minimum we're looking at three to four, maybe five years I would have thought.\"\nHowever, he said he felt this year's mission had not been a complete loss.\nThe BAS spokeswoman said: \"It's very possible that either the U.S. or Russia may take the lead but I think the one thing we've learned here is that anything can go wrong.\"\n\"We've never depicted this as a race. All sub-glacial lakes would give different information,\" she said.\n(Editing by Andrew Osborn)", "id": "<urn:uuid:bf94e06d-72f7-4591-ab7b-9fba8802461f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ktwb.com/news/articles/2012/dec/27/britain-suspends-exploratory-drilling-of-antarctic-lake/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9776135683059692, "token_count": 678, "score": 3.0625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Natural Resources Law\nThis course provides a survey introduction to federal natural resources law, with an emphasis on living resources. In a mixed lecture and seminar format, we will examine the theoretical conflicts that underlie various approaches to resource management, as well as the special qualities of natural resource problems that render management efforts so difficult. Topics will include the legal treatment of wildlife and biodiversity, living marine resources, water, forests, protected public lands, and an introduction to energy law. Throughout the course, we will probe the interplay between environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors in natural resource decision making. In lieu of a final exam, students will produce a 20-page final paper and participate in a weekly online discussion group.\nPlease note that the paper will not meet the WIE or Capstone requirement.\nThis is a survey course that focuses on the non-public land aspects of natural resources law. The course explores the field of natural resources law on a function-by-function approach, looking at how nature is divided into use rights, allocating those use rights, resolving conflicts over use rights, integrating use rights into landscapes, and adjusting and reallocating use rights over time. The class will also consider which use rights spring from land ownership, and which are severed, available for separate acquisition. The focus is mostly on state law with an examination of numerous natural resources, including water, wildlife, oil and gas, and mining, and even ice and seaweed.", "id": "<urn:uuid:dba431b9-a6a0-4f19-8a81-fbc389a5fbbe>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://law.lclark.edu/courses/catalog/law_401.php", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9200007319450378, "token_count": 295, "score": 2.796875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Christopher C. Brown, Professor, Reference Technology Integration Librarian\nWe can think of the history of Penrose Library in terms of three historic phases of library-wide technology.\nPhase I \u2013 Card Catalog Days\nWhen Penrose Library opened in 1972 the most noticeable feature on the main level would have been the expansive card catalog furniture. Access to books was available via the \u201cdictionary catalog.\u201d\nUsers could explore the Penrose collection by author, title, subject, or series, but that was all. Since keyword searching didn\u2019t exist, all searches were \u201cleft anchored\u201d phrase searching, meaning that the filing and lookup element was the left-most part of the term. Authors names had to be inverted, of course, just like in a phone book (another relic of the past!). For title searching users had to omit initial articles (a, an, the).\nPhase II \u2013 The Online Catalog\nWhat a revolution the online catalog was! In the late 1980s Penrose went live with the CARL online catalog. The technology shift here was the fact that library catalogers didn\u2019t have to sit at typewritters hammering out numerous catalog cards. Instead, libraries could download records from a shared (union) cataloging source, such as the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC).\nThe transformational technology for public users was the ability to search library catalog records by keyword. No longer was access only possible by left-anchored phrase searching, the online environment enabled searching keywords across any searchable field, including author, title, subjects, and notes.\nPhase III \u2013 Full Discovery\nAs revolutionary as keyword searching was, it paled in significance when compared with Web search engines, full text digitization projects, and library discovery tools, such as Summon (which Penrose Library uses). Think of it this way: a very high percentange of the books Penrose Library owns are full-text searchable through one or more of the existing book scanning projects (Google Books, HathiTrust, and the Internet Archive).\nWhereas in Phase II library catalog records are searchable \u2013 in Figure 2 above fewer than 20 words are searchable for a 290 page book \u2013 every word is searchable in the full text digital projects mentioned above. Even if copyright restrictions prohibit viewing or downloading most entire works, nevertheless, with every word searchable in the not-so-distant future, deep discovery can take place in a manner never before imagined.\nPenrose Library was initially built at the end Phase I, and when the Academic Commons reopens early in 2013 the emphasis on emerging technologies will continue to push University of Denver students into Phase III discovery of primary and secondary sources.", "id": "<urn:uuid:025c762d-65b4-4095-a25a-d9456c047ffa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://library.du.edu/penrosepen/technology-shifts-in-penrose-library-history", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9185340404510498, "token_count": 549, "score": 3.09375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Language Instruction for Immigrant and Non-English Speaking Children\nTitle III of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 provides Federal financial support to state and local educational agencies to supplement English language instruction in order to ensure that all English Language Learners, including immigrant children and youth, attain English proficiency, develop high levels of academic language proficiency in English, and meet the same challenging State academic achievement standards as all Maryland students are expected to meet.\nTo comply with these requirements, the Title III office of the Maryland State Department of Education works with local school districts to ensure that quality, research based ESL programs are offered to language minority students.\nTitle III, Secs. 3101, 3102 Part A", "id": "<urn:uuid:1409dc76-7943-47eb-b75e-4a471fa7eef8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://marylandpublicschools.org/MSDE/programs/title_III/?WBCMODE=PresentationUnpublished%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E%25%3E", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9237172603607178, "token_count": 140, "score": 3.046875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Don't feel like exercise? Scientists find compound that may help you work out harderJune 12th, 2012 in Medical research /\nAs science rushes to develop safe weight loss drugs, a new research report approaches this problem from an entirely new angle: What if there were a pill that would make you want to exercise harder? It may sound strange, but a new research report appearing online in The FASEB Journal suggests that it might be possible.\nThat's because a team of Swiss researchers found that when a hormone in the brain, erythropoietin (Epo), was elevated in mice, they were more motivated to exercise. In addition, the form of erythropoietin used in these experiments did not elevate red blood cell counts. Such a treatment has obvious benefits for a wide range of health problems ranging from Alzheimer's to obesity, including mental health disorders for which increased physical activity is known to improve symptoms.\n\"Here we show that Epo increases the motivation to exercise,\" said Max Gassmann, D.V.M., a researcher involved in the work from the Institute of Veterinary Physiology, Vetsuisse-Faculty and Zurich Center for Integrative Human Physiology at the University of Zurich in Switzerland. \"Most probably, Epo has a general effect on a person's mood and might be used in patients suffering from depression and related diseases.\"\nTo make this discovery, Gassmann and colleagues used three types of mice: those that received no treatment, those that were injected with human Epo, and those that were genetically modified to produce human Epo in the brain. Compared to the mice that did not have any increase in Epo, both mouse groups harboring human Epo in the brain showed significantly higher running performance without increases in red blood cells.\n\"If you can't put exercise in a pill, then maybe you can put the motivation to exercise in a pill instead,\" said Gerald Weissmann, M.D., Editor-in-Chief of The FASEB Journal. \"As more and more people become overweight and obese, we must attack the problem from all angles. Maybe the day will come when gyms are as easily found as fast food restaurants.\"\nMore information: Beat Schuler, Johannes Vogel, Beat Grenacher, Robert A. Jacobs, Margarete Arras, and Max Gassmann. Acute and chronic elevation of erythropoietin in the brain improves exercise performance in mice without inducing erythropoiesis. FASEB J. doi:10.1096/fj.11-191197\nProvided by Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology\n\"Don't feel like exercise? Scientists find compound that may help you work out harder.\" June 12th, 2012. http://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-06-dont-scientists-compound-harder.html", "id": "<urn:uuid:67f882b4-50c6-4585-a056-180572c3d8a1>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://medicalxpress.com/print258740076.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9504386782646179, "token_count": 593, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What is More Than a Score?\nIt\u2019s not about the test. It\u2019s about kids. It\u2019s about connecting with our students so they get the education they deserve. A world-class education \u2026 For every single student \u2026 In every single school\u2026 That means we have to do more than we ever have before. It\u2019s not enough to have the best schools in Kentucky or the nation. We are preparing students to excel in a global society.\nA profound gap exists between what most U.S. students learn in school and the knowledge and skills they need for success in their communities and workplaces. Kentucky was the first state to adopt new, more rigorous, national content standards designed to ensure college and career success for all graduates.\nTo track our progress, students took more challenging state tests last spring. The new proficiency targets are harder for kids to meet. School benchmarks are more stringent. At first, scores may be lower than we\u2019ve seen before. This site provides information about the new standards, new tests, and new scores.\nMost importantly, this site provides information about what we\u2019re doing to prepare kids to enter careers that do not yet exist, using technology that has not yet been invented to solve problems that haven\u2019t even become problems yet. Because our children are more than a score. They\u2019re the future.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bcb2bb49-fba0-4308-85ae-29ef6538262d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://morethanascore.net/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9525966644287109, "token_count": 282, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "This week, Christians begin a new liturgical year and enter into the rich and ancient four-week season of Advent. For most American Christians, Advent passes virtually unnoticed, as the celebration of \"Christmas\" as a secular and intensely commercial feast begins the day after Thanksgiving. Yet the time of Advent offers us an opportunity to dive deeply into a counter-cultural time of quiet reflection, a space of hopeful and patient waiting and discernment about how God's incarnation has meaning and is at work in our world today.\nBefore the middle of the fourth century, there were no liturgical seasons, such as Advent or Lent, or any idea of a \"liturgical year,\" something many Christians take for granted today. The great Paschal Easter feast was the central focus of the Christian year, along with the Sunday gatherings, considered \"little Easters.\" Advent is first noted around the year 350, about the same time Christmas is first mentioned as being celebrated. The date of Christmas might well have been placed near the winter solstice as a replacement to the pagan solstice celebrations of the Roman Empire.\nThe liturgical year, with its broad seasons of Advent-Christmastide and Lent-Eastertide, evolved within this world of the Roman Empire -- a northern hemispheric world. People living in the empire identified and adapted parallels between the natural world they inhabited and the words, music and images of their sacred time in worship. As the daylight dwindled, they yearned and leaned toward the return of light. And as they saw God's hand in the rhythm of the seasonal changes, they believed and proclaimed that the birth of Jesus, \"the light of the world,\" would herald that longed-for return of light that presaged God's reign of peace and harmony (Isaiah 2:1-5, from Advent 1 in the \"A\" cycle).\nFirst Sunday of Advent\nAs in the other yearly liturgical cycles, the readings of this Advent season reflect a movement through the four weeks from an apocalyptic and cosmic in-breaking of God in the first Sundays to the more intimate stories, including Mary as a central figure, in the fourth Sundays that prepare us for God's incarnation in the most unexpected and unpredictable manner -- as an infant in an occupied country to a poor and unwed teenager.\nAll three of the readings this Sunday are messages of encouragement and future hope. Jeremiah prophesies to Israel and Judah that God's appointed one will bring in a reign of justice, righteousness and safety. Paul, writing to the fledgling Christian community in Thessalonika (and believing, like them, that Christ's second coming was immanent), prays they might be strengthened in their faith and abounding in love as they patiently wait. While Jesus' words of warning in the Gospel might seem stern, they are not nearly as harsh as the same message from Mark (read last Advent). Jesus' encouragement in Luke's Gospel includes, \"... [when these things take place] raise your head, because your redemption is drawing near.\" One of the challenges in choosing and introducing Advent music is to be faithful to be these texts with their diverse images while working to create a sense of prayerful engagement in the midst of a hectic time of the year.\nEven though the carols and hymns of Advent are not as familiar as Christmas carols, there is a long, diverse and beautiful repertoire of texts and music available to us. When I was working full-time as a parish musician, I often dropped much or all of the instrumental accompaniment for the hymns, songs and chants at Mass through the entire season up to Christmas, just as all singing in worship was unaccompanied for more than the first thousand years of the church. Our planning team also tried to add more silence and less artificial lighting throughout worship. It was an attempt to reflect the quietness of the natural world and help people connect to the cycles of light and darkness. Many times, members of the community showed appreciation for creating a meditative and attentive space within worship during a time when the rest of life was filled with activities, responsibilities and events.\n\"Conditor Alme Siderum\" (\"Creator of the Stars of Night\") is a beautiful Advent hymn used by religious communities for Vespers services in Advent. The original text dates to the sixth or seventh century, set to a lilting and gentle chant. The text was substantially revised in the 17th century; however, the first few lines provide a beautiful echo of both Jeremiah's vision and Jesus' call to be aware.\nHere are the first lines of the original Latin and a prose translation:\nConditor alme siderum,\naeterna lux credentium,\nChriste, redemptor omnium,\nexaudi preces supplicum.\nLoving Creator of the stars,\neternal Light of believers,\nO Christ, redeemer of all,\nhear the prayers of supplicants.\n\"My Soul in Stillness Waits\" was written at my first full-time job as a parish music director. I wanted both the music and the text to quiet and deepen our sense of waiting within worship. The text is a very loose adaptation of the \"O\" antiphons (best known in the hymn, \"O Come, O Come Emmanuel\"), which were prayed in religious communities each evening of the week immediately before Christmas.\nThe music of Advent should reflect both the cosmic dimension of Christ's reign coming in its fullness (as proclaimed last week on Christ the King Sunday) and the immanence of an incarnate God, as close as our next breath. And so we begin this holy season, in which the secular world is as frantic as any time in the year, with strong messages of hope and a call (to Israel, to early Christians in Thessalonika, to Jesus' disciples, to us) for true awareness and a deepening of faith and love in our lives and in our communities.\n[Marty Haugen is a composer of liturgical music for Roman Catholic and Protestant congregations, with more than 400 compositions published by GIA, Augsburg Fortress and other publishers.]", "id": "<urn:uuid:3535b7a0-8a20-4f83-b1d6-37671ffe0adc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ncronline.org/blogs/spiritual-reflections/first-sunday-advent-begins-season-hope-and-fulfillment", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9603553414344788, "token_count": 1255, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "by J.D. LaRock\nSenior Analyst, Innovation and Measuring Progress Division, Directorate for Education\nAs any student can attest, pursuing a higher education requires an investment in time, effort \u2013 and in a number of OECD countries, significant financial resources. But the economic costs of higher education go beyond tuition fees. Because people with higher education tend to have higher earnings, they\u2019re likely to pay more in income taxes and social welfare contributions. There\u2019s also the \u201copportunity cost\u201d of foregone earnings when people enter university instead of the labour market.\nGiven these long-term economic costs, do the long-term economic benefits of having a higher education make it worthwhile? As the latest issue of the OECD\u2019s brief series Education Indicators in Focus details, analyses based on the most recent year of available data \u2013 2007 for most countries \u2013 suggest that the return on investment is very good.\nFor example, the long-term economic advantage of having a tertiary degree instead of an upper secondary degree, minus the associated costs, is over USD 175 000 for a man and just over USD 110 000 for a woman, on average across OECD countries. The payoff is particularly strong for men in Italy, Korea, Portugal and the United States, where obtaining a higher education degree generates a long-term benefit of more than USD 300 000 for the average man, compared to a man with an upper secondary education only.\nMeanwhile, the advantage for women is strongest in Ireland, Korea, Portugal, Slovenia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, where having a tertiary education yields an average long-term benefit of USD 150 000 or more, compared to a woman with an upper secondary education.\nAs the chart above shows, OECD analyses also find that the long-term payoff on the amount of taxpayer funds used to support people in higher education generates a strong return. Taxpayer costs include funds used to lower the direct costs of higher education to individuals, as well as support for grant and loan programs. They also include indirect costs, such as foregone tax revenues and social contributions to the government while people are in university.\nOn average, OECD countries directly invest more than USD 30 000 in public sector funds to support an individual pursuing higher education. However, they\u2019ll recoup this investment \u2013 and then some \u2013 through greater tax revenues from these higher-educated people, as well as savings from the lower level of social transfers these people typically receive.\nOn average, OECD countries will receive a net return of USD 91 000 on the public costs to support a man in tertiary education \u2013 more than three times the amount of the public investment. In Belgium, Germany, Hungary, Slovenia and the United States, this return is especially high, topping USD 150 000. The net return on the public costs to support a woman in higher education is somewhat lower \u2013 USD 55 000, on average \u2013 but are still positive in almost every OECD country.\nOf course, the fallout from the global economic crisis will likely change this cost-benefit equation \u2013 but whether it will make it better or worse overall is unclear. For example, the higher unemployment rates spurred by the crisis are likely to have reduced the opportunity cost of foregoing work in order to attend university. However, they also may have reduced some of the benefits of having a higher education, because unemployment rates rose among tertiary-educated people during the crisis.\nLikewise, the continued global expansion of higher education could have different effects. As the supply of highly-educated individuals grows, the relative economic benefits of having a tertiary education may go down over time. However, if economies continue to become more knowledge-based \u2013 increasing the demand for highly-educated people even more \u2013 the economic benefits of higher education could continue to expand.\nFor more informationOn the OECD\u2019s education indicators, visit:\nEducation at a Glance 2011: OECD Indicators www.oecd.org/edu/eag2011\nOn the OECD\u2019s Indicators of Education Systems (INES) programme, visit:\nINES Programme overview brochure\nSee also: IMHE General Conference 2012 \"Attaining and Sustaining Mass Higher Education\", Paris, 17-19 September 2012\nChart Source: Education at a Glance 2011: OECD Indicators, Indicator A9 (www.oecd.org/edu/eag2011).\nNote: Data for Australia, Belgium and Turkey refer to 2005. Data for Italy, the Netherlands, Poland,\nPortugal and the United Kingdom refer to 2006. All other data refer to 2007.\nCountries are ranked in descending order of the net present value.", "id": "<urn:uuid:eb7f0c64-c3ee-41d2-af16-35aba394dc62>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://oecdeducationtoday.blogspot.fr/2012/06/higher-education-good-long-term.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9367204904556274, "token_count": 948, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "McGarvie, Dave W.; Burgess, Raymond; Tindle, Andrew G.; Tuffen , Hugh and Stevenson, John A.\nDue to copyright restrictions, this file is not available for public download\n|Google Scholar:||Look up in Google Scholar|\nThe Torfaj\u00f6kull central volcano lies in Iceland\u2019s southern flank zone (a non-rifting zone) and last erupted in the 15th century. Peralkaline rhyolites from its pre-Holocene formations have been dated by the Ar-Ar method. Ages from 67\u00b19 ka to 384\u00b120 ka indicate Pleistocene eruptions, with the oldest age (384 ka) also being from the most evolved rhyolite (a pantellerite). The oldest age indicates that a mature and evolved magmatic-volcanic system was well established by the mid-Pleistocene and that the central volcano has been active for at least 400 ka. Good correlation is found between the Ar-Ar ages of sustained rhyolite eruptions into ice sheets (i.e. rhyolite tuya formation) and oxygen isotope stages dominated by cold conditions. This is the first stage of developing a new proxy that uses rhyolitic glaciovolcanic edifices to provide estimates of past Icelandic ice sheet thicknesses. The geochemistry of the dated samples corroborates earlier work showing a simple but enigmatic trend of steadily-decreasing alkalinity towards the present (i.e. older rocks are more evolved). The new ages reveal a hitherto-unrecognised drop in rhyolite alkalinity after 83 ka, which may be linked to the evacuation of c. 16 km3 of rhyolite during a subglacial eruption into the last (Weichselian) ice sheet, for which two new and overlapping Ar-Ar ages of 67\u00b19 ka and 72\u00b17 ka have been obtained. This rhyolite eruption, which is the largest known from Torfaj\u00f6kull, heralded a major change in the magma system as all subsequent eruptions are of small volume (<0.3 km3), dominated by subalkaline compositions, and characterised by interactions with mafic magmas. This change may be linked to lower rhyolite magma replenishment rates and/or to the increasing influence of rift zone volcano-tectonics.\n|Item Type:||Journal Article|\n|Copyright Holders:||2006 Glaciological Society of Iceland|\n|Academic Unit/Department:||Science > Environment, Earth and Ecosystems\n|Interdisciplinary Research Centre:||Centre for Earth, Planetary, Space and Astronomical Research (CEPSAR)|\n|Depositing User:||Dave McGarvie|\n|Date Deposited:||13 Feb 2012 17:06|\n|Last Modified:||15 Feb 2012 12:44|\nActions (login may be required)\n|Report issue / request change|", "id": "<urn:uuid:7dbedaee-1619-4977-a0f3-5576902b6eaf>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://oro.open.ac.uk/31472/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8645259737968445, "token_count": 613, "score": 2.59375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Individual differences |\nMethods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |\nA monosexual is someone who is sexually attracted to one sex (or gender) only, monosexuality being this capacity for attraction or sexual orientation. A monosexual can be either heterosexual or homosexual. The term is fairly uncommon, mostly used in discussions of bisexuality to denote everyone other than bisexuals (with the exception of asexuals, who are sexually attracted to no-one). It is sometimes considered derogatory.\nThe proportion of people who fit into the category depends on how one uses the word. If the term is used to mean exclusively monosexual, then according to Alfred Kinsey's controversial studies, only 5% to 10% of people are in this group. If the term is used in a non-exclusive sense the proportion would be lower and many people think that Kinsey's figure is too low, saying that no-one is exclusively monosexual, and that the 90 to 95% testing as such were just in denial or closeted because of biphobia. Freud thought that no one was born monosexual and that it had to be taught by parents or society though most people appear to believe that monosexuals are in fact the majority and identify as such.\nFred Maus (2004, p.164) compares the criticism of B\u00e9la Bart\u00f3k's works for their use of tonality and nontonal methods unique to each piece to the bias towards monosexuality and against bisexuality (see biphobia).\nThe term \u201cmonosexuality\u201d has also been used to describe the sexuality of people who only wish to have sex with one specific person, regardless of gender.  This becomes important when considering partners that choose to remain in their relationship with a transsexual or transgender person. Note that this meaning is quite contradictory to the usual meaning of the term, since someone who chooses to remain in such a relationship cannot reasonably be considered either homosexual or heterosexual.\n- Maus, Fred (2004). \"Sexual and Musical Categories\", The Pleasure of Modernist Music. ISBN 1580461433.\n|This page uses Creative Commons Licensed content from Wikipedia (view authors).|", "id": "<urn:uuid:aaf392d9-e74a-4ce7-ba17-0d646459bb0e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/Monosexuality?diff=prev&oldid=28086", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9386930465698242, "token_count": 449, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "We hear a lot about the coming of the cashless society, with wave and pay stickers, apps that let you ping money to each other and more innovations trumpeting that if cash is king, then the king is dead.\nBut while children are growing up in this brave new world, they are denied access to it. Unless you have a credit or debit card, you can\u2019t pay for a single MP3.\nSo what\u2019s the solution? Well one company thinks it\u2019s giving children as young as eight their own debit cards.\nPktmny \u2013 which launched this week \u2013 offers children between the ages of eight and 16 a contactless prepaid Visa debit card. Parents can personalise the card for their children and set controls on where and how much they can spend on it. You can read more of the details on the \u201chow it works\u201d section of pktmny site.\nYou can set up a standing order to add money to the card on a weekly or monthly basis, while friends and relatives can also add money to the account. The people behind it also have smartphone apps planned that allow children to see the balance on their cards and parents top this up if needed. It costs \u00a35 to open an account and there\u2019s a \u00a31 monthly charge (that comes from the parent\u2019s account, not the child\u2019s).\nThe hope is that this will allow children to learn about spending, saving and budgeting \u2013 as well as offering them some independence \u2013 in the same way traditional pocket money has.\n\u201cChildren will live in a completely cashless world. Yet they are forced to interact with money in a way even adults have moved on from. It\u2019s time for a dramatic change,\u201d said clinical child psychologist Dr Elizabeth Kilbey.\n\u201cBy allowing children to start taking control of their money in a safe and secure environment they will be able to grow with money, learn from their mistakes and ultimately understand the value of money.\u201d\nBut would you trust a child with a card? Let us know below.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f02868bf-0962-4fb4-b023-8005c1524230>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/news/pktmny-debit-visa-card-for-children-14112012.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9667405486106873, "token_count": 431, "score": 2.546875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Now that we have burned our image of Linux we will be able to check that your existing computer is compatible with Linux by loading the Linux distribution from the CD without actually installing it. This allows you to try Linux without touching your current operating system. To check multimedia compatibility I suggest that you prepare a few audio and video files on your hard disk to test the audio and video subsystems. If you are testing with Linux Mint these can be in almost any format, but if you are using Ubuntu it is better to have then in the free OGM, OGG or WAV format, as with Ubuntu the non-free decoders have to be installed.\nThis will be a two part post. In the first part we see how to boot from the live CD, while in the second part we will see how to check that our computer is Linux compatible.\nHow to boot from the CD.\nPlace the linux Min or Ubuntu live CD in your drive and restart your computer. If your BIOS is correctly configured Linux should load when you restart your computer. If Windows loads instead this means that you Bios is not configured to start from the CD drive. This will need to be changed: restart your computer again, and when you see your computer manufacturer's logo press the \"delete\" key to enter the Bios. On some computers it's the F2 key instead. In any case you should see the mention \"hit XXX to enter setup\" XXX is the key you should push. Note that you may have to hit that key repeatedly, as it will only register during a specific part of the boot process. If you see the Windows logo it means that you were too slow and that you will have to restart the computer and start again.\nOnce in your bios try to find the \"boot order\" menu and ensure that CD/DVD is before (i.e. higher) than HDD. If you are using a nebook with an USB CD drive or thumb drive you may not have a CD/DVD option; If that is the case select USB instead. There should be instructions on how to navigate the menus on the screen, as this is different for various brands of computers I can hardly help much.\nOnce the change is done you need to \"quit and save\" the bios to make your changes effective. This is usually done by pressing the \"F10\" key.\nAfter the changes are done restart the computer, and you should notice that it boots from the CD instead of the hard disk. You should be presented with a boot menu. Select the option to start the live CD. Let the computer boot up. This may take quite some time because a CD is not designed to be used as you boot device. Rest assured that if you actually install Linux on your hard drive it will boot much faster. If you see a login prompt with a countdown just wait for the countdown to finish and the boot will proceed. At some point you should hear the little Ubuntu or Mint \"boot music\" and finally be presented with the Ubuntu or Mint desktop. Congratulation, you successfully started Linux!\nIn the next episode we will see how to check that you computer hardware is supported by Linux.\n4 millions Windows 8 upgrades, that's not much!\n7 months ago", "id": "<urn:uuid:2b904857-c53a-41df-927e-b1d5d18be256>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://windows2linux.tech-no-media.com/2009/07/how-to-boot-linux-mint-or-ubuntu-live.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9348294734954834, "token_count": 662, "score": 2.578125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Science Fair Project Encyclopedia\nAnatolia (Greek: \u03b1\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bb\u03ae anatol\u0113 or anatol\u00ed, \"rising of the sun\" or \"East\"; compare \"Orient\" and \"Levant\", by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana \"mother\" and dolu \"filled\"), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey.\nBecause of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and Europe, Anatolia has been a cradle for several civilizations since prehistoric ages, with neolithic settlements such as Catal H\u00f6y\u00fck (pottery neolithic), Cay\u00f6n\u00fc (Pre-Pottery Neolithic A to pottery Neolithic), Nevali Cori (PPN B), Hacilar (pottery neolithic), G\u00f6bekli Tepe (PPN A) and Mersin. The settlement of Troy starts in the Neolithic, but continues up into the Iron age.\nMajor civilizations and peoples that have settled in or conquered Anatolia include the Hattians, Luwians, Hittites, Phrygians, Cimmerians, Lydians, Persians, Celts, Tabals, Meshechs, Greeks, Pelasgians, Armenians, Romans, Goths, Kurds, Byzantines, Seljuk Turks and Ottomans. These peoples belonged to many varied ethnic and linguistic traditions. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken both Indo-European and Semitic languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated. Other authors have proposed an Anatolian origin for the Etruscans of ancient Italy.\nToday the inhabitants of Anatolia are mostly native speakers of the Turkish language, which was introduced with the conquest of Anatolia by Turkic peoples and the rise of the Ottoman Empire in the 13th century. However, Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early 20th century (see Young Turks). A significant Kurdish ethnic and linguistic minority still exists in the southern regions.\nThe contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details", "id": "<urn:uuid:a155f8eb-4873-43fe-922b-b1b198a4e4b6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.all-science-fair-projects.com/science_fair_projects_encyclopedia/Asia_Minor", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9233713746070862, "token_count": 494, "score": 3.609375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Phylogenetic Analysis of Mexican Cave Scorpions Suggests Adaptation to Caves is Reversible\nNEW EVIDENCE THAT SPECIALIZED ADAPTATIONS ARE NOT EVOLUTIONARY DEAD ENDS\nBlind scorpions that live in the stygian depths of caves are throwing light on a long-held assumption that specialized adaptations are irreversible evolutionary dead-ends. According to a new phylogenetic analysis of the family Typhlochactidae, scorpions currently living closer to the surface (under stones and in leaf litter) evolved independently on more than one occasion from ancestors adapted to life further below the surface (in caves). The research, currently available in an early online edition, will be published in the April issue of Cladistics.\n\"Our research shows that the evolution of troglobites, or animals adapted for life in caves, is reversible,\" says Lorenzo Prendini, Associate Curator in the Division of Invertebrate Zoology at the American Museum of Natural History. \"Three more generalized scorpion species living closer to the surface evolved from specialized ancestors living in caves deep below the surface.\"\nScorpions are predatory, venomous, nocturnal arachnids that are related to spiders, mites, and other arthropods. About 2,000 species are distributed throughout the world, but only 23 species found in ten different families are adapted to a permanent life in caves. These are the specialized troglobites.\nThis study concentrates on the family Typhlochactidae that includes nine species of scorpions endemic to the karstic regions of eastern Mexico. These species were initially grouped together by Robert Mitchell in 1971 but were elevated to the rank of family for the first time last year, based on morphological data published by Prendini and Valerio Vignoli of the Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Siena, Italy, in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. Prendini, Vignoli, and Oscar F. Francke of the Departmento de Zoologia, Instituto de Biolog\u2019a at the Universidad Nacional Aut\u2014noma de M\u00e9xico, Mexico City, also created a new genus, Stygochactas, for one species in the family and described a new surface-living species,Typhlochactas sissomi, in a separate American Museum Novitates paper. All species in the family have adapted to the dark with features such as loss of eyes and reduced pigmentation. The family contains the most specialized troglobite scorpion,Sotanochactas elliotti, one of the world's smallest scorpions, Typhlochactas mitchelli, and the scorpion found at the greatest depth (nearly 1 km below the surface), Alacran tartarus. Three of the species (including T. mitchelli) live closer to the surface and are more generalized morphologically than the other six, making this family an excellent model with which to test and falsify Cope's Law of the unspecialized (novel evolutionary traits tend to originate from a generalized member of an ancestral taxon) and Dollo's Law of evolutionary irreversibility (specialized evolutionary traits are unlikely to reverse).\nFor the current research paper, Prendini and colleagues gathered data for 195 morphological characteristics, including a detailed mapping of the positions of all trichobothria (sensory setae) on the pedipalps, among the species of Typhlochactidae. The resulting phylogenetic tree shows that adaptation to life in caves has reversed among this group of scorpions: two of the less specialized, surface-living species, T. mitchelli and T. sylvestris, share a common ancestor with a much more cave-adapted species, and a similar pattern was found for the third less specialized, surface-living species, T. sissomi.\n\"Scorpions have been around for 450 million years, and their biology is obviously flexible,\" says Prendini. \"This unique group of eyeless Mexican scorpions may have started re-colonizing niches closer to the surface from the deep caves of Mexico after their surface-living ancestors were wiped out by the nearby Chicxuluxb impact along with non-avian dinosaurs, ammonites, and other species.\"\nThe research was funded by the National Science Foundation, the Theodore Roosevelt Memorial Fund, and a SYNTHESYS grant.\nMedia Inquiries: Department of Communications, 212-769-5800", "id": "<urn:uuid:01fd82dc-292c-44ea-8c49-76842c63e612>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.amnh.org/our-research/science-news/2010/phylogenetic-analysis-of-mexican-cave-scorpions-suggests-adaptation-to-caves-is-reversible", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9237686991691589, "token_count": 940, "score": 3.578125, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Gerrymandering is the deliberate drawing of district lines in such a way as to distort representation of subgroups of the population.\nConsider Case 1: Suppose that a population is divided 60%/40% over some longstanding, continuing dispute. The A's have 60%, the B's have 40. The B's typically live in urban areas, the A's in suburbs and rural areas.\nThere are five districts, each of which elects one representative to the legislature.\nIf the A's are drawing the\u2026\nAdded by John B Hodges on January 16, 2013 at 7:16am \u2014 No Comments", "id": "<urn:uuid:8b043f24-9d13-465b-9427-a0e503cadf2f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.atheistnexus.org/profiles/blog/list?tag=gerrymandering", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9572799205780029, "token_count": 125, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Nursing animals to health\nDecember 16, 2003\nVeterinary technicians are often called animal nurses because they care for animal patients the way nurses care for humans.\nBut veterinary technicians\u2019 responsibilities extend beyond nursing, combining duties of many human healthcare jobs. In addition to providing general nursing, technicians help to administer and monitor anesthesia just as surgical nurses do, take x rays and sonograms like radiologic technicians, clean teeth like dental technicians, provide rehabilitation like physical therapy aides, monitor surgical equipment like surgical technicians, and conduct laboratory tests like clinical laboratory technicians.\nVeterinary technicians, sometimes called veterinary technologists, work as part of a healthcare team. They are supervised by veterinarians, who diagnose disease and injury, prescribe treatments, and perform surgery on animals. Technicians also work with veterinary assistants, who groom and comfort animals, clean cages, and do other nonmedical work.\nVeterinary technicians and technologists had median hourly earnings of $10.78 in 2001. That means that 50 percent of those workers earned more than that amount, and 50 percent earned less. The highest paid 10 percent were paid more than $15.97 an hour. The lowest paid 10 percent earned $7.65.\nThese data are from the Occupational Employment Statistics program. For more information, see \"Veterinary technicians: Nursing animals to health\" by Henry Kasper and Olivia Crosby, Occupational Outlook Quarterly, Fall 2003. Note about the chart: deciles divide the dataset into 10 equal-size groups and quartiles divide the dataset into 4 equal-size groups.\nBureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, The Editor's Desk, Nursing animals to health on the Internet at http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2003/dec/wk3/art02.htm (visited June 19, 2013).\nSpotlight on Statistics: Productivity\nThis edition of Spotlight on Statistics examines labor productivity trends from 2000 through 2010 for selected industries and sectors within the nonfarm business sector of the U.S. economy. Read more \u00bb", "id": "<urn:uuid:2ef5e3a8-2fa4-45fe-ae77-9da82ea86eef>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2003/dec/wk3/art02.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9308243989944458, "token_count": 421, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Reformatio ecclesiarum Hassiae\nSimply begin typing or use the editing tools above to add to this article.\nOnce you are finished and click submit, your modifications will be sent to our editors for review.\ndiscussed in biography\n...reformer Jakob Sturm, who recommended him to the landgrave Philip of Hesse, the German prince most favourably inclined toward the Reformation. Encouraged by Philip, Lambert drafted Reformatio ecclesiarum Hassiae (\u201cThe Reformation of the Churches of Hesse\u201d), which was submitted by Philip to the synod at Homberg (1526). Lambert\u2019s document called for democratic...\nWhat made you want to look up \"Reformatio ecclesiarum Hassiae\"? Please share what surprised you most...", "id": "<urn:uuid:eba885b3-10b9-48f1-b5d4-a555e7b1aef6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/495420/Reformatio-ecclesiarum-Hassiae", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8980361819267273, "token_count": 165, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Although it seems like robots modeled after snakes and worms could be used for a wide variety of applications, the majority are designed for only two uses.\nMany are created as rescue robots -- for detecting danger or victims or for taking supplies to survivors. Their shape, size, and locomotion style give them access to places people can't or shouldn't go, such as collapsed buildings and nuclear reactors that are damaged or being decommissioned.\nThe other main use for snake and worm robots is in medical applications. Skinny, snaky tubes are just right for inserting into blood vessels or abdominal cavities to assist in minimally invasive surgery. Or they can go exploring to locate problems such as tumors and send back data about size and location.\nClick the image below to see 10 examples of these writhing robots.\nThe Slim Slime Robot from the Tokyo Institute of Technology's Hirose Fukushima Lab is a pneumatically driven active cord mechanism. It is used to inspect pipes in chemical laboratories or nuclear plants, detect unexploded mines, and help first responders find victims in collapsed buildings. A series of six connected modules are driven by pneumatic actuators. Compressed air is forced from the main tube of each module into that module's bellows, or flexible pneumatic actuators, which are located along the main tube's length. The Slim Slime can creep like a snake, make pivoting turns, roll laterally, and move with a pedal-like motion that emulates snails and limpets. Its total length is 730-1,120mm (28.7-44 inches). It weighs 12kg (26.4 pounds), and its top speed is about 60mm (2.36 inches) per second. (Source: Hirose Fukushima Lab)\nrobatnorcross, I had a similar thought, although I'm not afraid of snakes--unless they're venomous, that is. This one's \"skin\" pattern is camouflage, but it looks a lot like some venomous western rattlers I've seen. Even without fear of snakes, this would still give one pause if you were trapped and couldn't move.\nEverything dates everyone, doesn't it? But I'm with you--I can imagine an engineer looking at Slinky's movements and wondering how to motorize and automate them. First there's a design that uses a helical shape, gravity, and momentum, and then the big jump to motors.\nAt the Design News webinar on June 27, learn all about aluminum extrusion: designing the right shape so it costs the least, is simplest to manufacture, and best fits the application's structural requirements.\nFor industrial control applications, or even a simple assembly line, that machine can go almost 24/7 without a break. But what happens when the task is a little more complex? That\u2019s where the \u201csmart\u201d machine would come in. The smart machine is one that has some simple (or complex in some cases) processing capability to be able to adapt to changing conditions. Such machines are suited for a host of applications, including automotive, aerospace, defense, medical, computers and electronics, telecommunications, consumer goods, and so on. This radio show will show what\u2019s possible with smart machines, and what tradeoffs need to be made to implement such a solution.", "id": "<urn:uuid:ae3de996-aa22-4f61-853c-bdf89e746ccd>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.designnews.com/author.asp?section_id=1386&doc_id=258291&itc=dn_analysis_element", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.950332522392273, "token_count": 675, "score": 3.5, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ptosis is a condition in which the upper eyelid(s) droops. The eyelid may droop only slightly or it may droop enough to partially or completely cover the pupil, restricting or obscuring the field of vision. Ptosis should not be confused with extra skin, fat or muscle in the eyelid area. Those issues are typically addressed with cosmetic blepharoplasty surgery. When ptosis can be shown to reduce peripheral vision, its surgical correction may be covered by insurance. If the degree of ptosis is not severe, it may be considered elective surgery and can be corrected as a cosmetic procedure.\nThe most common type of ptosis is adult onset, caused by a weakening or dehiscence of the attachment between the levator muscle (the muscle that raises the upper lid) and the tarsus near the eyelid margin. This typically occurs as a result of the aging process, after cataract surgery, following contact lens wear, or from an injury. In certain cases of sudden onset of ptosis, there may be other causes that should be evaluated by an oculoplastic specialist.\nPtosis surgery is an outpatient procedure that involves tightening the levator muscle that lifts the lid. The surgical approach taken depends on specific findings and testing performed during the consultation with one of our oculoplastic surgeons. Your surgeon will discuss your treatment options fully and will perform all the proper testing to determine whether your ptosis may be deemed medically necessary by your insurance carrier.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6916c842-669b-46ff-8084-5c05ed057327>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.eyeconsultants.net/site/ptosis.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9478892683982849, "token_count": 307, "score": 2.515625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academies should be congratulated for its thoughtful conclusions concerning the use of chimpanzees in a range of NIH research projects. After a careful and in-depth study of the issue, the IOM last month issued a report entitled \u201cChimpanzees in Biomedical and Behavioral Research: Assessing the Necessity.\u201d\nThe IOM stated, \u201cgiven that chimpanzees are so closely related to humans and share similar behavioral traits, the National Institutes of Health should allow their use as subjects in biomedical research only under stringent conditions including the absence of any other suitable model and inability to ethically perform the research on people \u2026 In addition, use of these animals should be permissible only if forgoing their use will prevent or significantly hinder advances necessary to prevent or treat life-threatening or debilitating conditions \u2026 Based on these criteria, chimpanzees are not necessary for most biomedical research.\u201d\nThe IOM goes on to point out that the \u201cNIH also should limit the use of chimpanzees in behavioral research to studies that provide otherwise unattainable insights into normal and abnormal behavior, mental health, emotion, or cognition \u2026 NIH should require these studies to be performed only on acquiescent animals using techniques that are minimally invasive and are applied in a manner that minimizes pain and distress. Animals used in either biomedical or behavioral studies must be maintained in appropriate physical and social environments or in natural habitats.\u201d\nIt\u2019s important to emphasize that the IOM does not call for a complete ban on the use of chimps in research. What it does is lay out a humane roadmap, long overdue in some cases.\nAs a former graduate biological anthropology student, I have taken courses that explored primate physiology and behavior. Many of my assigned readings focused on chimpanzees and the other great apes. Although I have never met a chimpanzee face-to-face in the wild, I have visited many zoos and wildlife parks over the years where chimpanzees lived in various states of captivity. On a number of occasions for my anthro and animal behavior courses, I assumed the role of observer of chimp activities and wrote reports for my classes. Granted that I was always carrying out my studies in artificial environments, I saw enough to realize that chimpanzees are truly, and significantly, different from most other animals.\nEach year we seem to be greeted with a new research report on the intelligence of chimpanzees. Most recently it was revealed that some chimps actually fashion a small branch so that it has a sharp point\u2014in essence, they are making a spear that they then use to hunt and kill small prosimians (for food) living inside trees. These and other types of behaviors have led many primatologists to conclude that chimpanzees are highly intelligent.\nPartially based on these and other attributes, the IOM issued its report. The Institute also cited the development of cell-based technologies and other animal models that make the use of chimps unnecessary in specific research projects.\nI fully understand that opinions, pro and con, on the use of chimpanzees in biomedical research make for a controversial issue. From my point of view, it would be ideal if one day we no longer need to rely on these unique and magnificent primates as research subjects. But that day probably remains way ahead in the future. For now, I applaud the IOM report.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2aec069e-f53a-4b66-bc98-f5c260ba330a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.genengnews.com/bioperspectives/chimps-get-a-break/4436", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9424023628234863, "token_count": 684, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "I do a lesson with tints and shades that requires no drawing skills.\nThe kids make a large triangular banner using their first or last\ninitial-usually 24x18 or 24x36 if you have that sized paper.\nThey make the letter on a piece of 9x12 size paper. They can embellish a\nsimple block or puffy letter with a few swirls or whatever, but keep it\nsimple enough to paint in the shape with whatever their color choice is.\nThen transfer the letter onto the triangle, near the center of the upper\npart of the wide end. I have them tape the letter in place behind the\ntriangle and trace through on the light box or at the window.\nThis is a monochromatic painting the way I do it with my 3rd graders. the\nchoose one color and use it straight from the bottle to paint the letter\nshape. This is the only shape with unmixed colors.\nThen they divide the background behind the letter into large shapes using\nstraight or curved lines (nothing too nervous, if you know what I mean. Just\nsimple lines). I usually limit the number of extra shapes to about 10-12 and\nremind the kids that the letter is the star of this show, not the background\nThen they start with tints (color plus white) and paint in half the shapes.\nDo the same with shades (color plus black) to finish the background area.\nwhen dry, we outline with a wide sharpie marker to neaten up the painted\nedges between shapes and around the letter. Sometimes we edge the whole\nthing with colored construction paper strips to make the banner a bit more\nConcepts used are always mixing from light to dark to avoid needing gallons\nof white paint to lighten up a dark blue, for example. Start with the\nlightest tint and paint a shape, progressing darker by adding into that bowl\nmore of the prime color. Same with shades, starting with a drop of black\ninto the prime color, painting a shape, and progressing with more black til\nall the shapes are done. Saves a lot of paint that way!\nThe kids usually pick a color that will match their bedroom at home . My\nthird graders love this project and look forward to it each year. If you\nneed a photo, I can take one and send it tomorrow. I am off Mondays.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3c94cfed-9902-49b3-b0c6-766238508e03>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.getty.edu/education/teacherartexchange/archive/Feb04/0459.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.914659321308136, "token_count": 498, "score": 3.0, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Active school travel is not only a great way for kids to get needed physical activity by walking, biking or wheeling but it also helps reduce the number of families driving and improves safety around schools. - HASTe\nDate: Tue. May. 29 2012 7:03 AM ET\nCanadian kids have once again earned an F for \"active play and leisure\" on a report card evaluating their physical activity levels.\nThe 2012 Active Healthy Kids Canada Report Card on Physical Activity for Children and Youth finds that Canadian kids are spending a pitiful amount of time playing, with 46 per cent of kids taking part in three hours of active play every week or less.\nOut of the four hours or so of free time that kids typically have after school and during their lunch breaks, kids are getting only 24 minutes of moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity.\nWhile active play was once a regular part of a child's day, kids are now spending the majority (63 per cent) of their free time after school and on weekends sedentary.\nThe report card was released Tuesday by Active Healthy Kids Canada and its partners, ParticipACTION and the Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute \u2013 Healthy Active Living and Obesity Research Group (HALO).\nDr. Mark Tremblay, the chief scientific officer of Active Healthy Kids Canada and director of HALO, says the amount of time that kids are spending in \"unstructured play\" is declining with each generation. And that's hurting the health of our children and youth.\n\"Kids of all ages should have regular opportunities for active play, where they can let loose, explore, run, climb, crawl and play in parks with friends, like their parents once did,\" he said in a news release.\n\"Active play is fun, but it is also shown to improve a child's motor function, creativity, decision-making, problem-solving and social skills.\"\nThere are a number of reasons kids aren't as active today as they should be, but a big one is parental concerns about safety.\nFifty-eight per cent of Canadian parents say they are very concerned about keeping their children safe and feel they have to be over-protective of them.\nSafety concerns, such as crime, traffic, neighbourhood dangers such as bullies, and a lack of supervision, discourage parents from letting their children and youth play outdoors.\nSo instead of playing outside, many kids are instead spending their time in front of screens.\nThe report found that Canadian kids are spending seven hours and 48 minutes per day in front of screens -- well above the guideline of no more than two hours per day.\nThat's despite research that says 92 per cent of Canadian kids would choose playing with friends over watching TV if they had the opportunity.\n\"We have a responsibility to get out of our children's way and give them the time, space and freedom to run around, direct their own activities and learn from their mistakes,\" Kelly Murumets, President and CEO, ParticipACTION says all Canadians said in a statement.\n\"The reward will be increased confidence, a sense of adventure and, perhaps most importantly, a love for being active.\"\nThe report urges parents and caregivers to encourage children to choose active play, especially outdoors. To address safety concerns, the report urges parents and caregivers to take turns supervising and playing with children outdoors or encourage kids to play with a buddy.\nFor the fourth year in a row, the Report Card also assigns an \"F\" for Screen-Based Sedentary Behaviour, noting that most Canadian children and youth are exceeding the recommended guideline of no more than two hours a day.\nAnd, for the sixth year in a row, the Report Card also assigns an \"F\" to Physical Activity Levels. That's because only seven per cent of Canadian children and youth meet the Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines of at least 60 minutes of daily moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity.\nGirls are still trailing the boys in this area: 28 per cent of 10- to 16-year-old boys in Canada reported accumulating at least 60 minutes of moderate-to vigorous-intensity physical activity a day compared to only 17 per cent of girls.", "id": "<urn:uuid:23578a28-0047-48ca-8c70-208fd6f4cada>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.hastebc.org/about/news/12-05-29", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9639041423797607, "token_count": 849, "score": 2.828125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A nocturnal bird of prey.\n(AM2: dp. 1,009 (f.); l. 18710; 1 b. 356; dr. 104; s. 14 k.; cpl. 78; a. 2 3; cl. Lapwing)\nThe first Owl (AM2) was laid down 25 October 1917 by the Todd Shipbuilding Corp., Brooklyn, N.Y.; launched 4 March 1918; sponsored by Miss Ruth R. Dodd; and commissioned 11 July 1918, Lt. (j.g.) Charles B. Babson in command.\nFollowing a New York to Charleston towing assignment, Owl reported to the 5th Naval District at Norfolk, 22 August 1918. Employed as a minesweeper for the remaining months of World War I, she then served as a light ship in the inner approach to Chesapeake Bay until 10 July 1919. From that time until 1936, she was primarily engaged in providing towing services along the eastern seaboard and in the Caribbean. Between June 1936 and January 1941, she operated with units of the Aircraft Division, Base Force, providing planeguard, seaplane tender, and target and mooring buoy planting services from New England to the Caribbean. Then, temporarily attached to Train, Patrol Force at Culebra, P.R., she steamed to Bermuda in May for towing and servicing duties with MinDiv 14. Redesignated AT137, 1 June 1942, she was based at Bermuda until June 1943. During that time, towing and escort duties frequently took her to the east coast, while numerous salvage and rescue missions, including aid to the submarine R1 and torpedoed Argentine tanker Victoria, kept her busy at Bermuda and in nearby convoy lanes.\nDetached from Bermudan duty in June, Owl spent the last six months of 1943 with DesRon 30 operating out of Guantanamo Bay. She then steamed back to Norfolk for overhaul, and sailed for Europe. She arrived at Falmouth, U.K., 14 March 1944 to join the Allied forces gathering for the invasion of France. Redesignated ATO137 on 15 May 1944, she arrived off the Normandy coast two days after D-Day. As ground forces pushed inland, she towed port and road construction materials to the French coast, thus aiding the all important flow of men and equipment to the front.\nAvailability at Falmouth early in the new year, 1945, preceded her return to the United States, 27 February, and midAtlantic coast towing assignments. Transferred to the Pacific Fleet, she sailed from Newport, 5 May, with YNG11 in tow, and arrived at San Diego 23 June, to join ServRon 2. In August she continued on to Pearl Harbor for four months of target towing duty, returning to the west coast 2 January 1946. Owl then provided towing services for the 19th (Reserve) Fleet until beginning inactivation in April. She decommissioned in the 13th Naval District 26 July 1946 and on 27 June 1947 was sold for scrapping to the Pacific Metal and Salvage Co. at Port of Nordland, Wash.\nOwl received 1 battle star for World War II service.", "id": "<urn:uuid:b5ce094a-a436-4fa4-bd01-7493c969d37b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/o5/owl-i.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9649341106414795, "token_count": 650, "score": 2.65625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Up next in How to Use Microsoft Excel (29 videos)\nGet a handle on Microsoft Excel -- the industry standard for spreadsheets -- with the help of computer whiz Shir Moscovitz in these Howcast videos.\nHi, my name is Shir and I'm the founder and CEO of shirconsulting.com where we focus on converting the existing data from your business into massive savings and extraordinary profits. Today we're going to learn the basics of Excel. Let's get started. So now let's talk about moving CELLS around inside of the WORKSHEET. I can do it in a number of ways. I can use the mouse to select the CELLS I want and as soon as I hover over the edge of the selected CELLS, I get four diff, four directional arrows. If I click and drag that - I'm physically moving all of those. I tend to stay away from that. I am just hitting undo to go back which is CTRL+Z. I like to do instead a CTRL+X which is a CUT and then click where I want to move it to and hit CTRL+V to paste. This CUT and PASTE will always work and that's why I recommend using it for all moving needs. You can also INSERT new CELLS in between current data. So if I want to move everything down and move some stuff around that way - I click on the CELL that I want, I right click and then I do INSERT. It then asks me in this little window - do I want to shift the CELLS to the right or down? I want to try shifting them down. I can do this all at once across these five by doing, by selecting all five, right clicking on it, hitting INSERT and shifting the CELLS down. I can do the same thing with vertical CELLS. I select all these, I right click on it, I hit INSERT and I shift them to the right. And now I have new CELLS over here. The best method to move CELLS around is to select what you want, hit CTRL+X to CUT, click where you want to PASTE it, and then hit CTRL+V to PASTE. Another important reason to do that is to maintain the CELL references. We'll go over that later but that's a very important concept. And that's how you move CELLS around in Microsoft EXCEL.", "id": "<urn:uuid:d6015b83-df32-47c9-8858-75c541ddaa75>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.howcast.com/videos/487222-How-to-Move-a-Cell-Around-Microsoft-Excel", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.948479950428009, "token_count": 511, "score": 3.140625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "2012 Highlights: UC IPM Annual Report\nWhen honey bees invade\nSpring is when bees most often swarm, which can be scary if they are too close to where people live. In May, UC IPM published a new Pest Note about how to get rid of honey bee swarms and hives in and near houses.\nIn the Pest Note, extension entomologist and author Eric Mussen describes how and why bees swarm, then advises readers how to keep a swarm from establishing itself in a home\u2014or, if it\u2019s too late to prevent establishment, what to do to remove it. Removing a swarm requires a professional, but the capture is much easier than removing bees inside a wall or attic, so prompt action is important. Local beekeepers are often willing to help, and swarming bees can often be removed without killing them. Since UC Cooperative Extension offices receive many calls about swarms, this Pest Note was particularly helpful and timely.\nRemoving Honey Bee Swarms and Established Hives is available on the home, garden, turf, and landscape pests section of the UC IPM Web site. This section also includes information about hundreds of other home and landscape pests.\n> Next article: Resource Roundup", "id": "<urn:uuid:b34cb9a8-54dc-4a75-a66c-7224ddc79036>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/IPMPROJECT/2012/honey-bees_2012.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9393302202224731, "token_count": 248, "score": 3.25, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The following are recommended books for parents and educators.\nA Guide to Collaboration for IEP Teams\nThis book contains everything necessary for establishing effective IEP meetings. The former President of the Texas Council of Administrators of Special Education, Chuck Noe, M.A., acknowledges this and says, \"Martin's ideas work\n\" and he recommends this book to \"anyone wanting to strengthen the quality of meetings and outcomes.\" The book targets the needs of administrators, teachers, resource professionals, and parents. It is a skills-based book that will help these groups to design, review, and modify IEPs for children with special education needs.\nA Parent's Guide to Special Education\nThe term 'special education' encompasses dozens of learning challenges: developmental delay, learning and physical disabilities, emotional disturbance, retardation, language impairment, autism, and others. By nature of this diversity, navigating even well-run, well-funded special education programs can be daunting. A Parent's Guide to Special Education offers invaluable information and a positive vision of special education that will help them through a potentially overwhelming process. Filled with practical recommendations, sample forms, and enlightening examples, this is a priceless resource for helping every child learn.\nMeeting the Challenge: Special Education Tools That Work for All Kids\nThis book is intended to serve as a freestanding reference for teachers whose classes include students with academic or behavioral difficulties. The recommended best practices were originally developed for students with disabilities but have been found to be effective with all students. Each chapter provides principles, suggestions and specific tools (such as sample check lists, rubrics, forms, word lists, observation guides, planning guides, and lesson plans).\nNegotiating the Special Education Maze\nNegotiating the Special Education Maze is one of the best tools available to parents and teachers for developing an effective education program for their child or student. Every step is explained, from eligibility and evaluation to the Individualized Education Program (IEP) and beyond. This edition covers changes in disability laws, including the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). It reviews early intervention services for children from birth to age three, and for those who have young adults with special needs, it also covers transitioning out of school.\nThe Complete IEP Guide: How to Advocate for Your Special Ed Child\nThe Individualized Education Program, or IEP, determines the nuts and bolts of your child's special education. This includes the specific classroom set up, curricula, support services, and program and educational goals. Understanding every aspect of the IEP process will help you avoid surprises along the way. The Complete IEP Guide walks you step-by-step through the IEP process. The book provides all the instructions, suggestions, strategies, resources and forms you need to proceed from the beginning, when you first suspect a problem, to the end, when your child completes school.\nWrightslaw: From Emotions to Advocacy\nWrightslaw: From Emotions to Advocacy, second edition will teach you how to plan, prepare, organize and get quality special education services. In this comprehensive, easy-to-read book, you will learn your child's disability and educational needs, how to create a simple method for organizing your child\u2019s file and devising a master plan for your child's special education. You will understand parent-school conflict, how to create paper trails and effective letter writing. This book includes dozens of worksheets, forms and sample letters that you can tailor to your needs\nWrightslaw: Special Education Law\nWrightslaw: Special Education Law, 2nd Edition provides a clear roadmap to the laws and how to get better services for all children with disabilities. This Wrightslaw publication is an invaluable resource for parents, advocates, educators, and attorneys. You will refer to this book again and again.\nProceeds from the sale of books purchased from our recommended books section can help support LD OnLine.", "id": "<urn:uuid:313623ba-4f20-4e9e-b33a-6d17bfc05c0b>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ldonline.org/profbooks/c667", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.934217631816864, "token_count": 816, "score": 3.203125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "(NaturalNews) According to Finnish researchers, a diet rich in carotenoids such as lycopene and beta-carotene may significantly lower the risk of stroke for men. Higher concentrations of carotenoids in the blood were associated with as much as a 55-59 percent decrease in the likelihood of having a stroke during the 12-year study of over 1,000 Finnish men aged 46-65.\nFruit and vegetable consumption and carotenoid concentration in the blood has gradually been gaining a positive reputation in maintaining cardiovascular health. Lycopene (commonly found in tomatoes and watermelon) and beta-carotene (which can be found in carrots, pumpkin, and spinach) are two of the chief carotenoids believed to help in the prevention of stroke.\nThe magic of carotenoids\nCarotenoids have numerous preventive effects. They have been renowned for their ability to help prevent lung and prostate cancer, and their antioxidant properties may be responsible for preventing the build-up of plaque in the arteries, which is a crucial contributor to heart disease and stroke.\nThese benefits may arise as much from the general diet and lifestyle that accompany the consumption of large amounts of carotenoid-containing vegetables. Because of this, scientists are unable to draw a causal connection between carotenoids and stroke. The research is promising; however, and researchers and public health advocates alike are eager to point to results of studies like this to encourage a well-rounded, veggie-heavy diet.\nThe highest concentrations of carotenoids can be found in fruits and vegetables with red, orange, and yellow skins or flesh. Heavy hitters include tomato paste, sweet potatoes, carrot juice, papayas, citrus fruits, and leafy greens. Aim for at least five servings of fruits and vegetables each day, and eat carotenoid-containing foods with a source of fat to help your body absorb the nutrients properly.\nSupplements may also be effective, although fewer studies have demonstrated a strong connection between carotenoid pills and improved cardiovascular health. Most physicians recognize the value of these amazing antioxidants but also recommend a varied, nutritious diet and regular physical activity as the best way to promote cardiovascular health.\nIn addition, although the study did not extend to women or young individuals, researchers expect that a diet high in carotenoids and fruits and vegetables will hold similar preventive effects for the general population.\nAbout the author: Katie BrindAmour is a Certified Health Education Specialist and passionate health and wellness freelance writer. She enjoys cooking, yoga, gardening, searching for the perfect wine and chocolate combination, and spending time with friends. She has a Masters in Biology and is currently pursuing her PhD in Health Services Management and Policy. She also enjoys blogging for Women's Healthcare Topics and Healthline Networks.\nFREE online report shows how we can save America through a nutrition health care\nrevolution. \"Eating healthy is patriotic!\" Click here to read it now...\nHealing Power of Sunlight and Vitamin D\nIn this exclusive interview, Dr. Michael Holick reveals fascinating facts on\nhow vitamin D is created and used in the human body to ward off chronic diseases\nlike cancer, osteoporosis, mental disorders and more. Click here to read it now...\nGet the Full Story\nThe International Medical Council on Vaccination has released, exclusively through\nNaturalNews.com, a groundbreaking document containing the signatures of physicians,\nbrain surgeons and professors, all of which have signed on to a document stating\nthat vaccines pose a significant risk of harm to the health of children.\nClick here to read it now...\nRanger Storable Organics\nGMO-free, chemical-free foods and superfoods for long-term storage and preparedness.\nSee selection at www.StorableOrganics.com", "id": "<urn:uuid:03b008af-ee18-45f1-9fdf-b5fac4ad7818>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.naturalnews.com/037501_tomatoes_stroke_prevention.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9423224329948425, "token_count": 785, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Community inDetail, Part 3\nMyths and Realities\nMyth 1: Institutions are the best setting for some individuals with severe intellectual and developmental disabilities.\nFour groups of people are often cited as the most difficult to serve in the community.\n- Medically Fragile: Some institution residents have complex medical conditions such as seizure disorder, aspiration risk, and dysphagia, requiring intensive medical support. If skilled nursing and medical planning are provided, successful community placement of people with complex medical issues can be ensured (Kozma et al., 2003).\n- Dual Diagnoses: Half of institution residents have a condition requiring psychiatric attention (Lakin et al., 2009). Often people with dual diagnoses need high levels of services and supports that require integrated interventions from both ID/DD and mental health providers. Often ID/DD providers do not have the capacity to provide treatment for mental health issues, and mental health providers do not have the capacity to provide self-care supports to address ID/DD issues. Joint system planning can be difficult because the two types of services are available through different funding streams (Day, 2009).\n- Involved with the Criminal Justice System: Developmental services agencies are expected to serve a public safety function for these individuals. This can be challenging in the context of developing a system designed to promote self-determination and community participation (Bascom, 2009).\n- Older People Who Have Spent Many Years in the Institution: Older residents who have spent many years in an institution present several challenges; they (or their parents or guardians) may feel that the institution is their home and they do not want to be uprooted. Many have never had the experience of living in the community.\nSome states have developed specific strategies to meet the needs of challenging populations, including those with the most significant challenges. People with co-occurring developmental disabilities and mental illnesses and older adults with developmental disabilities are particularly vulnerable populations. They face barriers to services related to a lack of coordination and collaboration across service systems, as well as gaps in research, clinical expertise, and access to appropriate programs. This lack of coordination has many causes, including separate systems for financing services; a reluctance by mental health and developmental disabilities systems to allocate scarce resources for a high-needs population that could be served in another service system; established provider networks that are not cross-trained; and the evolution of advocacy movements emphasizing different priorities. In many cases, specific barriers to service may be both a cause and a result of the lack of coordination across systems.\nIn 2002, the Surgeon General addressed the needs of vulnerable populations in A National Blueprint to Improve the Health of Persons with [Mental Retardation].\nStates and advocates have implemented strategies and programs to address the needs of people with complex medical needs, dual diagnoses, and older adults with development disabilities. For example:\n- To facilitate the closure of Agnews Developmental Center, California created 23 licensed homes in the community that provide sophisticated medical support (SB 962 homes). Although they are expensive (an average monthly cost of $15,000 per person), they seem to be meeting the needs of a medically fragile population (California Health and Human Service Agency ,2010).\n- In 2008, Tennessee opened a 16-bed ICF/DD with medical services including 24-hour nursing care.\n- Missouri advocates founded the Association on Aging with Developmental Disabilities to increase awareness of the importance of providing community-based services and support focusing on older adults with developmental disabilities.\n- The Florida Department of Elder Affairs sponsored training for service providers on meeting the needs of aging people with developmental disabilities. (www.adrc-tae.org/tiki-download_file.php?fileId=30426)\n- As part of a federal lawsuit settlement, the State of Hawaii is required to take specific steps to identify people with developmental disabilities within the mental health system and ensure that there are smooth discharges from the state psychiatric hospital.\n- In 2008, the New Jersey Department of Human Services convened the Dual Diagnosis Task Force to examine and resolve the serious lack of services, unmet service needs, and other significant obstacles to receiving mental health and developmental disability services. The task force made recommendations on a framework for change that would enable the service system to effectively serve the needs of children and adults with developmental disabilities and co-occurring mental health and/or behavior disorders.\n- Oregon and several other states use person-centered planning, coupled with individual budgeting, to adequately address complex individual needs.\n- Maryland\u2019s Rosewood Center placed 17 of the 30 court-committed individuals in the community and 13 in a secure residential facility to ensure public safety. In the community, the individuals were placed in small residences with a range of supports, including one-to-one supervision and/or awake overnight supervision, or creative monitoring in a small (up to three individuals) residential setting with day, vocational, or supported employment services. Monitoring may include oversight by another agency (regular reporting to a probation officer through the Department of Corrections) or monitoring devices (alarmed windows and doors) (Maryland Developmental Disabilities Administration, 2008).\nMyth 2: The quality of care cannot be assured in a community-based residential setting.\nOpponents of institutional closure argue that it is easier to monitor the quality of a small number of large institutions rather than a large number of smaller facilities. Proponents of deinstitutionalization admit that \u201cin the early phases of deinstitutionalization, efforts to develop quality assurance strategies suited to community services were sometimes subordinated in the rush to meet court-ordered deadlines\u201d (Bradley and Kimmich, 2003).\nMost states have now developed mechanisms to monitor the quality of community-based services. However, no quality assurance mechanism is foolproof, and incidents of abuse, neglect, and even death occur in the community, just as they do in institutions. We have found no studies comparing the rate of adverse incidents in the community with the rate in institutional settings.\nFamily, friends, and neighbors play important roles in assuring safety and service quality for people in community-based settings. Several researchers found that family presence and participation in the person\u2019s life can be an important safeguard for security and service quality (Lemay, 2009) and should be regarded as the most important and dependable source of quality assurance.\nAlthough there are few specific federal requirements as to how states must assure quality, states must persuade the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) that the state can assure health and welfare. CMS has established a Quality Framework that addresses access, PCP and service delivery, provider capacity, participant safeguards, rights and responsibilities, outcomes and satisfaction, and system performance. Though it is not regulatory, it provides a framework for certain expectations of quality outcomes for HCBS Waiver program services.\nIn recent years, most states and communities have increased regulation or oversight of community-based services. Most states have multifaceted systems of quality assurance, including the participation of different stakeholders in and outside government and the service system. Systems of quality assurance include the following (from Bascom, 2009):\n- Licensure: Group homes and other community residences where three or more unrelated people with disabilities live require licensure.\n- Quality Management Reviews: Reviewers assess Medicaid-funded services to ensure compliance with state and federal Medicaid standards. In Vermont, for example, site visits are conducted every two years, with follow-up as appropriate.\n- Guardianship: Public guardians who are provided to adults with developmental disabilities play distinct quality assurance functions. They are expected to have regular (in some states at least monthly) face-to-face contact with the people for whom they are guardians and to monitor their welfare and quality of life and advocate for appropriate services.\n- Safety and Accessibility Checks: All residences of people with developmental disabilities are inspected for compliance with safety and accessibility standards.\n- Consumer and Family Surveys: Annually, about 25 states participate in the National Association of State Directors of Developmental Disability Services and Human Services Research Institute NCI survey, which canvasses consumer and family members to measure the satisfaction of people receiving services and to measure what services people report receiving. (http://www2.hsri.org/nci)\n- Critical Incident Reporting Process: Most states have a critical incident reporting process, whereby developmental disability service providers report to the state developmental disability agency when certain incidents take place, such as the death of someone receiving services; use of restrictive procedures; allegations of abuse, neglect, or exploitation; or criminal behavior by or against someone receiving services.\n- Grievance and Appeals: The only formal federal requirement for developmental disability service providers is that they provide rights of appeal for eligibility decisions. However, many states require each developmental disability service provider to have written grievance and appeals procedures and to inform applicants and service recipients of that process.\n- Abuse Complaints: Any human service provider is legally required to file an immediate report of any suspected abuse, neglect, or exploitation of a vulnerable adult.\n- Medicaid Fraud Unit: The Medicaid Fraud Unit is a specially staffed unit within the Office of the Attorney General. It investigates allegations of criminal activity, including abuse, neglect, or exploitation, in any Medicaid-funded facility or involving a person receiving Medicaid-funded supports.\n- Service Coordination: The role of service coordinator or case manager often includes the functions of monitoring and advocacy. In some states, the service coordinator is the focal point for individual-based quality assurance at the local level.\n- Advocacy: Empowered service users and families are powerful components in the quality assurance chain. Self-advocacy groups work to empower people with disabilities to learn about their rights, step forward, and speak for themselves. In addition, advocacy organizations such as The Arc provide information, support, and advocacy for people with disabilities and their families.\n- Other Organizations: Other organizations develop the capacity to monitor specific groups of people. For example, the Guardianship Trust in Vermont provides regular, structured individually based citizen monitoring of residential services provided by the state. Brandon Training School Association is an alliance of parents and other people concerned with the well-being of former residents of Brandon Training School.\nMyth 3: Community-based settings do not offer the same level of safety as institutional settings.\nAll states take measures to make sure that people, whether living in institutions or in the community, are healthy, safe, and protected from harm. However, if the state\u2019s safeguards are not rigorous, closely enforced, and monitored, people with developmental disabilities are not safe, regardless of where they live. Two significant factors increase the risk of abuse and neglect: isolation from family and a system that rewards compliant attitudes among people with developmental disabilities (Valenti-Hein and Schwartz, 1995).\nThe NCI 2009\u20132010 survey shows that the majority of people with ID/DD feel safe in their home, in their neighborhood, and their work/day program/daily activity. More than 90 percent of the individuals surveyed reported that they have someone to go to when they feel afraid. Nevertheless, some opponents of deinstitutionalization claim that the safeguards offered in the community are inadequate to ensure the physical safety of a very vulnerable population.\nBased on newspaper reports, Protection and Advocacy investigations, and state investigations, it is clear that instances of abuse and neglect occur in community settings, and some of them result in unnecessary deaths. However, the same can be said about institutions. For example, the 2009 \u201cfight club\u201d incident, in which institution workers forced residents to fight one another while employees taped the incidents on their cell phones, made national news. In 2007, the Atlanta Journal-Constitution published an expos\u00e9 on state mental health hospitals that revealed more than 100 suspicious deaths of patients during the previous five years (Judd, 2010). The 2002 death of Brian Kent in Kiley Center in Waukegan, Illinois, revealed a pattern of neglect caused by unprofessional attitudes, administrative indifference, lack of competence, and caregiver fatigue (Equip for Equality, 2008).\nAs systems of care become more sophisticated and mature, states are able to move toward increasing their quality assurance efforts to protect health and safety. Missouri, for example, has instituted a Health Identification Planning System, which represents the quality monitoring process for the discovery and remediation of health and safety concerns for individuals in Division of Developmental Disability community residential services. A Health Inventory tool is completed on all people when they enter a community placement and annually, as well as when there are significant health changes. Regional Office registered nurses complete Nursing Reviews on individuals with a defined score on their health inventory. These reviews evaluate the provider\u2019s health supports and services, evaluate the individual\u2019s response to treatment, and identify unmet health care needs.\nMissouri also created an Office of Constituent Services to serve as an advocate for people with ID/DD.\nMyth 4: Mortality rates are higher in the community for individuals with ID/DD than in Institutions.\nOlder adults or adults who are medically fragile have a higher mortality rate regardless of where they live (or their geographic location). As a result, mortality comparisons are not straightforward and require complex statistical approaches. For example, a Massachusetts study on deaths showed that the average age at death varied across residential settings. The study indicated generally that the average age of death for each residential setting reflects the relative age and health status of the residents in each of the residential settings. The study also showed that mortality rates are lowest among people living at home or with family. (Center for Developmental Disabilities Evaluation and Research (CDDER), 2010). The study showed that people with developmental disabilities generally died of the same causes as the general population. Heart disease remained the leading cause of death and Alzheimer\u2019s disease the second leading cause.\nThe Massachusetts Department of Developmental Services (DDS), in collaboration with the CDDER, has focused on the health status of people with developmental disabilities. Examples of projects they have taken on in Massachusetts include the following:\n- Identification and customization of a health screening tool for use by direct supportive providers\n- Development of Preventive Health Guidelines for Individuals with Mental Retardation\n- Root Cause Analysis training and support\n- Incident Management protocol development\n- Mapping the community-based system of mental health and physical health supports\n- Annual mortality reports\n- Annual Quality Assurance reports and the development of web-based Quality Briefs\n- Implementation of the DDS STOP Falls Pilot to identify patterns and risk factors for falls among people with ID/DD\n- Implementation and evaluation of a pilot study of DDS\u2019s new Health Promotion and Coordination initiative\n- Support in development of training modules for community providers\n- Quantitative analysis of clinical service capacity within the residential provider system\n- Analysis of Medicaid pharmacy utilization claims data\nAn increasing number of states conduct mortality studies, review each death, and have proactively begun programs and initiatives to improve the health status of people with developmental disabilities. However, adults with developmental disabilities are more likely to develop chronic health conditions at younger ages than other adults due to biological factors related to syndromes and associated developmental disabilities, limited access to adequate health care, and lifestyle and environmental issues. They have higher rates of obesity, sedentary behaviors, and poor nutritional habits than the general population (Yamaki, 2005).\nMost studies find that the mortality rate is comparable across settings or is favorable in community settings. For example:\n- Conroy and Adler (1998) found improved survival for people leaving the Pennhurst Institution for life in the community and no evidence of transfer trauma.\n- Lerman, Apgar, and Jordan (2003) found the death ratio of 150 movers who left a New Jersey institution was quite comparable to a matched group of 150 stayers after controlling for critical high risk variables.\n- Heller et al. (1998) found that, although transitions from institutions or nursing homes to community settings may result in short-term stress and risks that may affect mortality (transfer trauma), the long-term survival rates improve.\n- Hsieh et al. (2009) found that, regardless of residential location, those who had a greater variation in the physical environment and greater involvement in social activities had a lower risk of mortality.\nDespite such findings, opponents of deinstitutionalization continue to use the mortality argument. In its advocacy literature, one group continues to cite Strauss, Eyman, and Grossman (1996) and Strauss, Kastner, and Shavelle (1998), who suggest that people with developmental disabilities, particularly those with severe disabilities, have higher mortality rates in the community than in institutions.\nSubsequent studies did not reproduce these results. O\u2019Brien and Zaharia (1998) question the accuracy of the database used by Strauss and colleagues, Durkin (1996) critiques Strauss\u2019s methodology, and Lerman et al. (2003) review a number of unsuccessful attempts to reproduce the results.", "id": "<urn:uuid:83f0bc79-8573-43f4-a382-d76593631bb6>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.ncd.gov/publications/2012/DIToolkit/Community/inDetail/inDetail3", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9458862543106079, "token_count": 3461, "score": 2.90625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center\nAbstract: The expansion of outdoor recreational activities has increased greatly the interaction between the public and waterfowl and waterfowl habitat. The effects of these interactions on waterfowl habitats are more visible and obvious, whereas the effects of interactions which disrupt the normal behavior of waterfowl are more subtle and often overlooked, but perhaps no less of a problem than destruction of habitat. Resource managers and administrators require information on the types, magnitude, and potential effects of disturbances that will affect human use of and access to wildlife resources. This bibliography contains excerpts or annotations from 211 articles that contained information about effects of human disturbances on waterfowl. Indices are provided for subject/keywords, geographic locations, species of waterfowl, and authors used in this bibliography.\nIncreases in human population, transportation, recreational boating, industrial and residential development, birdwatching, camping, and hiking all create conflicts with waterfowl which must use a dwindling and fragmented habitat base. Managers and administrators require information on the types, magnitude, and potential effects of disturbances that will affect human use of and access to wildlife resources. Managers responsible for waterfowl production should be aware of the problems created by human disturbance to aid them in the design of facilities and developments to increase public appreciation of waterfowl.\nThis bibliography resulted from concerns about human disturbance to flocks of canvasback ducks (Aythya valisineria) and other waterfowl that stage on navigation pools of the Upper Mississippi River during fall migration. Initially, a field study and subsequent literature search for information to use in a manuscript describing these disturbances (Korschgen et al. 1985) indicated that few specific studies had been conducted on the subject, although there were numerous anecdotal references. Aspects of human disturbance to other groups of wildlife, especially large game mammals (e.g., Bollinger et al. 1973; Ream 1980; Ferguson and Keith 1982) and nesting seabirds and shorebirds (e.g., Hunt 1972; Robert and Ralph 1975; Buckley and Buckley 1976; Manuwal 1979; Rodgers and Burger 1981; Burger 1981; Whitman 1988; Frederick and Collopy 1989; Strauss and Dane 1989; Yalden and Yalden 1990), have received considerable attention because of the increased frequency of human-wildlife interactions in national and state parks, refuges, management areas, and seashores (Foin et al. 1977; Purdy et al. 1987; Pomerantz et al. 1988). Books have been written relating to effects of human disturbance on natural resources (Edington and Edington 1986; Hammitt and Cole 1987). We decided that a consolidated information source on human disturbances to waterfowl would be of value to waterfowl managers and administrators.\nWe searched Wildlife Abstracts, Wildlife Review, Journal of Wildlife Management, Wildlife Society Bulletin, and Wildlife Monographs for titles and key words related to human disturbance. Unfortunately, few key words used by journals relate to this topic. We also searched a bibliography of waterfowl papers maintained by Kenneth J. Reinecke (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Patuxent Wildlife Research Center) that contains over 5,000 citations. Perhaps our most valuable source of information was the reference sections of publications dealing with human disturbances to waterfowl.\nSome of the bibliographic entries are papers that did not directly pertain to waterfowl, but the topics may be important for further research related to waterfowl.\nThe definition of human disturbance to waterfowl varies among authors. The following definition seems reasonable to us: a direct event, intentionally or unintentionally created by people, leading to a reaction of alertness; fright (obvious or inapparent); interruption of activities; flight, swimming, or other displacements; or death or disablement. The event may have long-term or short-term effects. We have excluded almost all references dealing with death of waterfowl including: hunter harvest or illegal harvest, waterfowl collisions with power lines, deaths from the ingestion of angler's lead sinkers, losses of diving ducks to commercial fish nets and trotlines, and losses of waterfowl to furbearer trapping during spring seasons that are no longer in existence. Sometimes it was so awkward to exclude these subjects that we included them, but our intent was to confine ourselves chiefly to disturbance caused by direct human activity (presence, traffic, flights, fishing, boating, and so forth).\nWe included several papers relating to waterfowl energetics because disturbances may hinder the acquisition of food (energy) which may affect fitness for migration and breeding. Energetics is a rapidly developing topic that will be important in answering some of the questions about the effects of disturbance that cannot now be answered.\nThe frequency of topics in the subject index is shown in Table 1. Disturbances created by water users, chiefly boaters, anglers, and hunters, are mentioned most frequently. These disturbances were serious in that they displaced waterfowl from their feeding grounds, created energetic costs associated with flight, and affected nesting or brooding waterfowl, which may have lowered productivity. Interestingly, researcher-caused disturbances also had a high frequency of occurrence. Most biologists are familiar with the desertions of females caused while conducting nesting studies.\nWe hope this bibliography will stimulate research and focus on those areas most lacking in definitive data. Despite our efforts to include all the pertinent references, this bibliography is incomplete. It provides, however, a starting point for the reader interested in human disturbances to waterfowl.\n|Subject||Number of citations|\n|Anglers (See fishing)|\n|Boating (boats, canoes, sculling, rowing, power, airboats, sailing)||66|\n|Development (industrial, petroleum, pollution, urban, construction)||24|\n|Energetic costs (flight)||23|\n|Lead weights (fishing or angler's)||2|\n|Human activity/disturbance, general||58|\n|Nest (see Investigator/research-caused)|\n|Refuge (restricting trespass, sanctuary--see Abatement)||36|\n|Research (see Investigator/research)|\n|Roads (also see Development)|\n|Shipping (see Barges/shipping)|\n|Wariness (tameness, alert, tolerance distance)||43|\nThis project was begun under the direction of R. F. Berry, Manager of the Upper Mississippi River Refuge Complex. We particularly thank the following persons for their encouragement and aid: D. V. Bell, Senior Research Officer of the Wildfowl Trust, Slimbridge, England; R. B. Kahl, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; L. A. Batten, Senior Ornithological Advisor and Chief Scientist Directorate, Nature Conservancy Council, Peterborough, England; and L. H. Fredrickson, Director of the Gaylord Memorial Laboratory, University of Missouri. We are indebted to many researchers, both in America and in Europe, who supplied reprints of their work. Most important has been the patient and thorough assistance of A. Zimmerman, librarian at the Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, who obtained many of the publications and provided editorial comments on the manuscript. J. Sauls and S. H. Thatcher, translated German papers. D. Stroud and J. Magerus, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse, translated German and French papers. We are also grateful to A. Prochowicz, L. Ames, B. Toal, C. Eloranta, and H. Sampson who typed and checked the manuscript.\nBollinger, J. G., O. J. Rongstad, A. Soom, and R. G. Eckstein. 1973. Snowmobile noise effects on wildlife, 1972-1973 report. Engineering Experiment Station, University Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 85 pp.\nBuckley, P. A., and F. G. Buckley. 1976. Guidelines for the protection and management of colonial nesting waterbirds. U.S. National Park Service, Boston, Mass. 54 pp.\nBurger, J. 1981. The effect of human activity on birds at a coastal bay. Biological Conservation 21:231-241.\nEdington, J. M., and M. A. Edington. 1986. Ecology, recreation, and tourism. Cambridge University Press, New York. 198 pp.\nFerguson, M. S. D., and L. B. Keith. 1982. Influence of nordic skiing on distribution of moose and elk in Elk Island National Park, Alberta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 96:69-78.\nFoin, T. C., E. O. Garton, C. W. Bowen, J. M. Everingham, and R. O. Schultz. 1977. Quantitative studies of visitor impacts on environments of Yosemite National Park, California, and their implications for park management policy. Journal of Environmental Management 5:1-22.\nHammitt, W. E., and D. N. Cole. 1987. Wildland recreation. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. 341 pp.\nHunt, G. L., Jr. 1972. Influence of food distribution and human disturbance on the reproductive success of herring gulls. Ecology 53:1051-1061.\nKorschgen, C. E., L. S. George, and W. L. Green. 1985. Disturbance of diving ducks by boaters on a migrational staging area. Wildlife Society Bulletin 13:290-296.\nManuwal, D. A. 1978. Effect of man on marine birds: a review. Pages 140-160 in Wildlife and People. Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, Ind.\nPomerantz, G. A., D. J. Decker, G. R. Goff, and K. G. Purdy. 1988. Assessing impact of recreation on wildlife: a classification scheme. Wildlife Society Bulletin 16:58-62.\nPurdy, K. G., G. R. Goff, D. J. Decker, G. A. Pomerantz, and N. A. Connelly. 1987. A guide to managing human activity on National Wildlife Refuges. Human Dimensions Research Unit, Department Natural Resources, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Information Transfer, 1025 Pennock Place, Fort Collins, Colo. 57 pp.\nReam, C. H. 1980. Impacts of backcountry recreationists on wildlife: an annotated bibliography. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Report INT-81. 62 pp.\nRobert, H. C., and C. J. Ralph. 1975. Effects of human disturbance on the breeding success of gulls. Condor 77:495-499.\nRodgers , J. A., Jr., and J. Burger. 1981. Symposium on human disturbance and colonial waterbirds. Colonial Waterbirds 4:1.\nStrauss, E., and B. Dane. 1989. Differential reproductive success in a stressed population of piping plovers in areas of high and low human disturbance. American Zoologist 29:42A.\nWhitman, P. L. 1988. Biology and conservation of the endangered interior least tern: a literature review. U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Biological Report 88(3). 22 pp.\nYalden, P. E., and D. W. Yalden. 1990. Recreational disturbance of breeding golden plovers Pluvialis apricarius. Biological Conservation 51:243-262.\nThis resource is based on the following source (Northern Prairie Publication 0859):\nDahlgren, Robert B., and Carl E. Korschgen. 1992. Human disturbances of waterfowl: an annotated bibliography. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 188. 62pp.\nThis resource should be cited as:\nDahlgren, Robert B., and Carl E. Korschgen. 1992. Human disturbances of waterfowl: an annotated bibliography. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Resource Publication 188. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/disturb/index.htm (Version 16JUL1997).", "id": "<urn:uuid:18669c96-51ba-4202-b0c7-bd242737dfba>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/literatr/disturb/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8655996322631836, "token_count": 2578, "score": 3.171875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fraction interpolation walking a Farey tree\nWe present an algorithm to find a proper fraction in simplest reduced terms between two reduced proper fractions. A proper fraction is a rational number m/n with m1. A fraction m/n is simpler than p/q if m <= p and n <= q, with at least one inequality strict. The algorithm operates by walking a Farey tree in maximum steps down each branch. Through monte carlo simulation, we find that the present algorithm finds a simpler interpolation of two fractions than using the Euclidean-Convergent [Matula 1980] walk of a Farey tree and terminating at the first fraction satisfying the bound. Analysis shows that the new algorithms, with very high probability, will find an interpolation that is simpler than at least one of the bounds, and thus take less storage space than at least one of the bounds.\n- download PDF (150K)\nMosko, M. ; Garcia-Luna-Aceves, J. J. Fraction interpolation walking a Farey tree. Information Processing Letters. 2006 April 15; 98 (1): 19-23.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2e9fd758-5905-48d8-89ad-40652bbfd14f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.parc.com/publication/1495/fraction-interpolation-walking-a-farey-tree.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8813337683677673, "token_count": 234, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "General Motors Company was started by William Durant in 1908. After the stock market panic of 1907, a lot of companies were in dire straits and Durant chose this opportunity to buy smaller car builders and companies that manufactured car parts. He combined these companies and created the General Motors Company. Due to mismanagement and over extending the companies in 1910 bankers were forced to step in to prevent the financial collapse of the Company. Durant was removed from the company he had founded.\nDurant had managed to start another car manufacturing company, called Chevrolet. He used this company to once again take over the reins at General Motors in 1915. This time he was successful in developing a car company that was profitable. During this time the Cadillac was introduced and became luxury car icon. Durant position as head of the company only lasted until 1920 when he was again removed from the company. General Motors went on to become one of the leaders in the auto industry.\nGeneral Motors was founded in 1908 but didn\u2019t really start to become a giant in the auto industry until the 1920\u2019s. With a new leader at the helm, Alfred Sloan, auto sales reached the 4.5 million mark and the auto industry now had three giants which were, General Motors, Ford and Chrysler. General Motors were now interested in giving the public more stylish colors, features and comfort became the new motto of the company. General Motors also came up with the option of buying on credit. General Motors had five brands, including Pontiac, Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, and Chevrolet.\nThere were some rough years for the company after the Wall Street Crash in 1929 but the company kept at it and by 1955 they were the first company to make more than a billion dollars in one year. At one time General Motors was the largest corporation in the US as well as the single largest employer in the world. Currently the company is facing financial woes and will hopefully once again make back to the top of the auto industry.\nLeave a Reply", "id": "<urn:uuid:fa4ab087-0350-4c7d-b898-8737fb51d906>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.partsandautos.com/car-brands-and-manufacturers/general-motors/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9859780669212341, "token_count": 402, "score": 2.734375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "What determines how much coverage a climate study gets?\nIt probably goes without saying that it isn\u2019t strongly related to the quality of the actual science, nor to the clarity of the writing. Appearing in one of the top journals does help (Nature, Science, PNAS and occasionally GRL), though that in itself is no guarantee. Instead, it most often depends on the \u2018news\u2019 value of the bottom line. Journalists and editors like stories that surprise, that give something \u2018new\u2019 to the subject and are therefore likely to be interesting enough to readers to make them read past the headline. It particularly helps if a new study runs counter to some generally perceived notion (whether that is rooted in fact or not). In such cases, the \u2018news peg\u2019 is clear.\nAnd so it was for the Steig et al \u201cAntarctic warming\u201d study that appeared last week. Mainstream media coverage was widespread and generally did a good job of covering the essentials. The most prevalent peg was the fact that the study appeared to reverse the \u201cAntarctic cooling\u201d meme that has been a staple of disinformation efforts for a while now.\nIt\u2019s worth remembering where that idea actually came from. Back in 2001, Peter Doran and colleagues wrote a paper about the Dry Valleys long term ecosystem responses to climate change, in which they had a section discussing temperature trends over the previous couple of decades (not the 50 years time scale being discussed this week). The \u201cAntarctic cooling\u201d was in their title and (unsurprisingly) dominated the media coverage of their paper as a counterpoint to \u201cglobal warming\u201d. (By the way, this is a great example to indicate that the biggest bias in the media is towards news, not any particular side of a story). Subsequent work indicated that the polar ozone hole (starting in the early 80s) was having an effect on polar winds and temperature patterns (Thompson and Solomon, 2002; Shindell and Schmidt, 2004), showing clearly that regional climate changes can sometimes be decoupled from the global picture. However, even then both the extent of any cooling and the longer term picture were more difficult to discern due to the sparse nature of the observations in the continental interior. In fact we discussed this way back in one of the first posts on RealClimate back in 2004.\nThis ambiguity was of course a gift to the propagandists. Thus for years the Doran et al study was trotted out whenever global warming was being questioned. It was of course a classic \u2018cherry pick\u2019 \u2013 find a region or time period when there is a cooling trend and imply that this contradicts warming trends on global scales over longer time periods. Given a complex dynamic system, such periods and regions will always be found, and so as a tactic it can always be relied on. However, judging from the take-no-prisoners response to the Steig et al paper from the contrarians, this important fact seems to have been forgotten (hey guys, don\u2019t worry you\u2019ll come up with something new soon!).\nActually, some of the pushback has been hilarious. It\u2019s been a great example for showing how incoherent and opportunistic the \u2018antis\u2019 really are. Exhibit A is an email (and blog post) sent out by Senator Inhofe\u2019s press staff (i.e. Marc Morano). Within this single email there are misrepresentations, untruths, unashamedly contradictory claims and a couple of absolutely classic quotes. Some highlights:\nDr. John Christy of the University of Alabama in Huntsville slams new Antarctic study for using [the] \u201cbest estimate of the continent\u2019s temperature\u201d\nPerhaps he\u2019d prefer it if they used the worst estimate? ;)\n[Update: It should go without saying that this is simply Morano making up stuff and doesn't reflect Christy's actual quotes or thinking. No-one is safe from Morano's misrepresentations!]\n[Further update: They've now clarified it. Sigh....]\nMorano has his ear to the ground of course, and in his blog piece dramatically highlights the words \u201cestimated\u201d and \u201cdeduced\u201d as if that was some sign of nefarious purpose, rather than a fundamental component of scientific investigation.\nInternal contradictions are par for the course. Morano has previously been convinced that \u201c\u2026 the vast majority of Antarctica has cooled over the past 50 years.\u201d, yet he now approvingly quotes Kevin Trenberth who says \u201cIt is hard to make data where none exist.\u201d (It is indeed, which is why you need to combine as much data as you can find in order to produce a synthesis like this study). So which is it? If you think the data are clear enough to demonstrate strong cooling, you can\u2019t also believe there is no data (on this side of the looking glass anyway).\nIt\u2019s even more humourous, since even the more limited analysis available before this paper showed pretty much the same amount of Antarctic warming. Compare the IPCC report, with the same values from the new analysis (under various assumptions about the methodology).\n(The different versions are the full reconstruction, a version that uses detrended satellite data for the co-variance, a version that uses AWS data instead of satelltes and one that use PCA instead of RegEM. All show positive trends over the last 50 years).\nFurther contradictions abound: Morano, who clearly wants it to have been cooling, hedges his bets with a \u201cVolcano, Not Global Warming Effects, May be Melting an Antarctic Glacier\u201d Hail Mary pass. Good luck with that!\nIt always helps if you haven\u2019t actually read the study in question. That way you can just make up conclusions:\nScientist adjusts data \u2014 presto, Antarctic cooling disappears\nNope. It\u2019s still there (as anyone reading the paper will see) \u2013 it\u2019s just put into a larger scale and longer term context (see figure 3b).\nInappropriate personalisation is always good fodder. Many contrarians seemed disappointed that Mike was only the fourth author (the study would have been much easier to demonise if he\u2019d been the lead). Some pretended he was anyway, and just for good measure accused him of being a \u2018modeller\u2019 as well (heaven forbid!).\nOthers also got in on the fun. A chap called Ross Hays posted a letter to Eric on multiple websites and on many comment threads. On Joe D\u2019Aleo\u2019s site, this letter was accompanied with this little bit of snark:\nIcecap Note: Ross shown here with Antarctica\u2019s Mount Erebus volcano in the background was a CNN forecast Meteorologist (a student of mine when I was a professor) who has spent numerous years with boots on the ground working for NASA in Antarctica, not sitting at a computer in an ivory tower in Pennsylvania or Washington State\nThis is meant as a slur against academics of course, but is particularly ironic, since the authors of the paper have collectively spent over 8 seasons on the ice in Antarctica, 6 seasons in Greenland and one on Baffin Island in support of multiple ice coring and climate measurement projects. Hays\u2019 one or two summers there, his personal anecdotes and misreadings of the temperature record, don\u2019t really cut it.\nNeither do rather lame attempts to link these results with the evils of \u201ccomputer modelling\u201d. According to Booker (for it is he!) because a data analysis uses a computer, it must be a computer model \u2013 and probably the same one that the \u201chockey stick\u201d was based on. Bad computer, bad!\nThe proprietor of the recently named \u201cBest Science Blog\u201d, also had a couple of choice comments:\nIn my opinion, this press release and subsequent media interviews were done for media attention.\nThis remarkable conclusion is followed by some conspiratorial gossip implying that a paper that was submitted over a year ago was deliberately timed to coincide with a speech in Congress from Al Gore that was announced last week. Gosh these scientists are good.\nAll in all, the critical commentary about this paper has been remarkably weak. Time will tell of course \u2013 confirming studies from ice cores and independent analyses are already published, with more rumoured to be on their way. In the meantime, floating ice shelves in the region continue to collapse (the Wilkins will be the tenth in the last decade or so) \u2013 each of them with their own unique volcano no doubt \u2013 and gravity measurements continue to show net ice loss over the Western part of the ice sheet.\nNonetheless, the loss of the Antarctic cooling meme is clearly bothering the contrarians much more than the loss of 10,000 year old ice. The poor level of their response is not surprising, but it does exemplify the tactics of the whole \u2018bury ones head in the sand\u201d movement \u2013 they\u2019d much rather make noise than actually work out what is happening. It would be nice if this demonstration of intellectual bankruptcy got some media attention itself.\nThat\u2019s unlikely though. It\u2019s just not news.", "id": "<urn:uuid:0fe1fa4f-99f0-436d-ba48-6f2e07ec325e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.realclimate.org/index.php/archives/2009/01/warm-reception-to-antarctic-warming-story/langswitch_lang/de?wpmp_switcher=desktop", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9577600955963135, "token_count": 1918, "score": 2.609375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Scientists have long held theories about the importance of proteins called B-type lamins in the process of embryonic stem cells replicating and differentiating into different varieties of cells. New research from a team led by Carnegie's Yixian Zheng indicates that, counter to expectations, these B-type lamins are not necessary for stem cells to renew and develop, but are necessary for proper organ development. Their work is published 24 November by Science Express.\nNuclear lamina is the material that lines the inside of a cell's nucleus. Its major structural component is a family of proteins called lamins, of which B-type lamins are prominent members and thought to be absolutely essential for a cell's survival. Mutations in lamins have been linked to a number of human diseases. Lamins are thought to suppress the expression of certain genes by binding directly to the DNA within the cell's nucleus.\nThe role of B-type lamins in the differentiation of embryonic stem cells into various types of cells, depending on where in a body they are located, was thought to be crucial. The lamins were thought to use their DNA-binding suppression abilities to tell a cell which type of development pathway to follow.\nBut the team - including Carnegie's Youngjo Kim, Katie McDole, and Chen-Ming Fan - took a hard look at the functions of B-type lamins in embryonic stem cells and in live mice.\nThey found that, counter to expectations, lamin-Bs were not essential for embryonic stem cells to survive, nor did their DNA binding directly regulate the genes to which they were attached. However, mice deficient in B-type lamins were born with improperly developed organs - including defects in the lungs, diaphragms and brains - and were unable to breathe.\n'Our works seems to indicate that while B-type lamins are not part of the early developmental tissue-building process, while they are important in facilitating the integration of different cell types into the complex architectures of various developing organs,' Kim, the lead author, said. 'We have set the stage to dissect the ways that a cell's nuclear lamina promote tissue organisation process during development.'", "id": "<urn:uuid:f1a40e5b-b317-4e28-bbfc-3e107fe169aa>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sciencecentric.com/news/11112502-surprise-role-nuclear-structure-protein-development.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9702752232551575, "token_count": 441, "score": 3.65625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Dec. 5, 2012 Engineers at the University of Sheffield have developed a new technique for delivering stem cell therapy to the eye which they hope will help the natural repair of eyes damaged by accident or disease. This could help millions of people across the world retain -- or even regain -- their sight.\nIn research published in the journal Acta Biomaterialia, the team describe a new method for producing membranes to help in the grafting of stem cells onto the eye, mimicking structural features of the eye itself. The technology has been designed to treat damage to the cornea, the transparent layer on the front of the eye, which is one of the major causes of blindness in the world.\nUsing a combination of techniques known as microstereolithography and electrospinning, the researchers are able to make a disc of biodegradable material which can be fixed over the cornea. The disc is loaded with stem cells which then multiply, allowing the body to heal the eye naturally.\n\"The disc has an outer ring containing pockets into which stem cells taken from the patient's healthy eye can be placed,\" explains EPSRC Fellow, Dr \u00cdlida Ortega Asencio, from Sheffield's Faculty of Engineering. \"The material across the centre of the disc is thinner than the ring, so it will biodegrade more quickly allowing the stem cells to proliferate across the surface of the eye to repair the cornea.\"\nA key feature of the disc is that it contains niches or pockets to house and protect the stem cells, mirroring niches found around the rim of a healthy cornea. Standard treatments for corneal blindness are corneal transplants or grafting stem cells onto the eye using donor human amniotic membrane as a temporary carrier to deliver these cells to the eye. For some patients, the treatment can fail after a few years as the repaired eyes do not retain these stem cells, which are required to carry out on-going repair of the cornea. Without this constant repair, thick white scar tissue forms across the cornea causing partial or complete sight loss. The researchers have designed the small pockets they have built into the membrane to help cells to group together and act as a useful reservoir of daughter cells so that a healthy population of stem cells can be retained in the eye.\n\"Laboratory tests have shown that the membranes will support cell growth, so the next stage is to trial this in patients in India, working with our colleagues in the LV Prasad Eye Institute in Hyderabad,\" says Professor Sheila MacNeil. \"One advantage of our design is that we have made the disc from materials already in use as biodegradable sutures in the eye so we know they won't cause a problem in the body. This means that, subject to the necessary safety studies and approval from Indian Regulatory Authorities, we should be able to move to early stage clinical trials fairly quickly.\"\nTreating corneal blindness is a particularly pressing problem in the developing world, where there are high instances of chemical or accidental damage to the eye but complex treatments such as transplants or amniotic membrane grafts are not available to a large part of the population.\nThe technique has relevance in more developed countries such as the UK and US as well, according to Dr Frederick Claeyssens. \"The current treatments for corneal blindness use donor tissue to deliver the cultured cells which means that you need a tissue bank. But not everyone has access to banked tissues and it is impossible to completely eliminate all risks of disease transmission with living human tissue,\" he says. \"By using a synthetic material, it will eliminate some of the risk to patients and be readily available for all surgeons. We also believe that the overall treatment using these discs will not only be better than current treatments, it will be cheaper as well.\"\nThe research is supported by a Wellcome Trust Affordable Healthcare for India Award to the University of Sheffield and the LV Prasad Eye Institute, where the work is led by Associate Director and Head of Clinical Research, Dr Virender Sangwan. The work has also been supported through a Research Fellowship for Dr Ortega from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC).\nOther social bookmarking and sharing tools:\n- \u00cdlida Ortega, Anthony J. Ryan, Pallavi Deshpande, Sheila MacNeil, Frederik Claeyssens. Combined microfabrication and electrospinning to produce 3-D architectures for corneal repair. Acta Biomaterialia, 2012; DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2012.10.039\nNote: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fb056447-0ad8-4c6c-b529-f5d8300d51f0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/12/121205103010.htm?utm_source=feedburner&utm_medium=feed&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+sciencedaily%2Fhealth_medicine%2Fstem_cells+%28ScienceDaily%3A+Health+%26+Medicine+News+--+Stem+Cells%29", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9376747012138367, "token_count": 962, "score": 3.859375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The Long Walk Home\nThe Black Worker & The Great Migration from Cape Breton\nAt the turn of the century, a mass migration occurred to Cape Breton Island of hundreds of free, skilled Black workers from Alabama, lured by what they called 'The Promise.' Their emigration back to the US is scarcely known today. In 1911, hundreds of men from the West Indies were again lured by 'The Promise'. Their descendents form the heart of the historic Whitney Pier community. Our correspondent, Paul MacDougall, files reports from Bangor, Maine, and Sydney.\nBy Paul MacDougall*\nShunpiking Magazine No. 38\nBangor, January 13/1903-About 250 Black people showed up here today at the police station looking for shelter from the fierce winter cold. They were a penniless, destitute bunch, clad mainly in rags, complaining about being hungry, and shivering from the cold. Their spokesmen seemed to be a person by the name of Griggins or Griffin, I couldn't make him out, Walter was his first name so let's stick with that. His wife was with him and she seemed awfully upset at their predicament. Walter said they needed a place for the night and planned to head on up to Bucksport the next day or so by train, then catch the steamer Penobscot to take them to Boston. From there the group planned to head down to the southern states, many back to Alabama, where they originally came from.\nI thought that some of these people looked familiar when I saw them mingling around town earlier in the day, and Walter confirmed for me they were in Bangor about two years earlier during their trek north. They had all been guaranteed work in the new steel mill that was being constructed in Sydney, Nova Scotia. The mill was the brainchild of New Englander, Henry Melville Whitney, the same fellow who had organized the Dominion Coal Company in Cape Breton around 1893.\nIn 1899, Nova Scotia Steel, a steel-producing operation out of New Glasgow, NS turned down Whitney's offer of a merger of their two companies. Whitney knew he could get easy access to coal (he already owned it) and iron ore from Bell Island off Newfoundland, so he gathered some financiers from Toronto and Montreal and formed his own company, The Dominion Iron and Steel Company or DISCO as they called it. They started building a steel plant almost immediately. By 1902 it was in operation.\nWalter claimed that he and his companions were recruited to work at DISCO through agents at steel mills they worked in throughout the country. Hundreds of skilled Black furnace men were enticed to come and help build and work in the blast furnaces at the steel plant in Sydney. The blast furnace combines coke made from coal, iron ore and limestone to produce liquid iron, which eventually becomes steel. It's hot and hellish work and DISCO officials insisted on hiring only \"first class men in every way,\" men that they could \"rely on at all times.\"\nNumerous men mentioned J.H. Means, the Superintendent of Furnaces, as instrumental in recruiting them to Cape Breton. They thought Means was from Alabama, and he was well connected with Alabama and Pennsylvanian steelmen. He recruited men from these contacts as well as from people he knew in New York and Maryland. By early 1902 many Black American steel workers had taken up residence in Sydney and were working at the steel plant.\nHousing was a problem right from the beginning, I was told. They were no fine homes with gardens, the families were housed in shacks that were nothing more than bunkhouses normally only used for single men. Skilled white employees lived in the Ashby area of Sydney or \"overtown\", while the skilled Blacks and any other unskilled labourers lived in Whitney Pier, many almost adjacent to the plant or its coke ovens. They called this area Cokovia or Cokeville (see 1902 map this page). Most of these living quarters lacked sewer or water hookup, were filthy and had poor ventilation.\nThe men claimed that even though they had important jobs at the steel plant they were at the bottom rung of the social scale. They had to open their own school in 1902 with the aid of the African Methodist Episcopal church which was formed earlier that same year. Mixing between Blacks and Whites rarely happened socially and the Black person's lot in life was not moving forward. The $2:00 a day wage was really only $1:25 and they didn't see any of this until they had worked over sixty days. Enough was enough.\nI left Walter, his wife and the rest of the Black families at the police station and roamed back down the street. A few Blacks were hanging about the restaurant at the corner, and I knew they weren't local; more displaced Cape Breton workers I thought. It was only a couple of years ago that these people were streaming through here at a fast and furious pace. It was as if they couldn't wait to leave the States and settle in Canada. They had some of the happiest looks on their faces that I'd seen on just about anybody. My how things changed. I couldn't help wonder if they'd been hoodwinked by someone in heading all the way to Cape Breton to work.\nFiled by your correspondent for the Bangor Daily News\nAfter they left a couple of days later I fired off a letter to a newspaperman I knew in Sydney. He worked for the Sydney Record and got back to me some time later. He said that a steel company official told him Alabama Blacks \"were all doing well,\" earning twice as much as they did before, and they were happy and contented.\"\nSydney, Nova Scotia, February 2001-From 1901 to 1904 hundreds of Black men and their families tramped back and forth from the steel cities of the United States to a fledgling steel plant city in Cape Breton that had been described in 1902 by the Canadian Manufacturing Association as, \"the outstanding feature of our industrial development of the past few years.\" The steel plant's founder Henry Whitney said, \"I cannot control my enthusiasm when I think of the future.\" Sadly, this future was short and bleak for the skilled migrant Black men who were sold on the dream of a new country to live and raise their families in.\nFaced with the obvious sterotypism of the day, poor despicable living conditions, and a molten stream of broken promises, almost every one of these families returned home. Many died along the way. J.H. Means left the plant in early 1903 and it may have been his leaving that influenced many Blacks to leave. He had recruited many of them and his absence may have removed any faint hope of social advancement they may have hoped for. By the end of 1904 this African-American community was all but dead. The school died, the church died, the institutions they so quickly built in Sydney all but disappeared.\nBy 1911 the plant was expanding at an incredible rate. New workers were needed and the company began to actively recruit Blacks from the British West Indies and especially the island of Barbados. Between 1911 and 1914 hundreds of these immigrants settled in Sydney and worked as mainly unskilled labourers at the steel plant. Some also worked in the mines and settled in Glace Bay and New Waterford. These people are the ancestors of the small African-Canadian community that resides in Cape Breton today.\nCommunities will always be an evolving place. The Whitney Pier region of Sydney was probably one of the most cosmopolitan areas on the planet during the early years of the last century. If you search back enough you can probably trace back dozens of different ethnic groups to a period of time when their ancestors came to work at the steel plant. But there is always an exception to every rule. The American Blacks played a crucial role in the very beginning of the Sydney steel plant, but never stayed around to reap any benefits. It may be fair to surmise that the development of Sydney over the past 100 years is owed to a few hundred Black men who got the first blast furnace operational. Their expertise cannot be underestimated.\nAt a time when Sydney Steel is on its deathbed, after 100 years of operation, the contribution of the people who built it, worked there, and raised families around it, must be recognized. The majority of these people stayed, the American Blacks left, but the legacy of steel making in Sydney needs to be remembered in a true light, not as a bargain basement sale or an environmental war zone. The men, women and children that walked from Sydney to Maine and beyond in the dead of winter in 1903 and 1904 for the hopes of a better life, need to be remembered for more than this.\nI encourage anyone to read Elizabeth Beaton's paper \"An African-American Community in Cape Breton, 1901-1904\" published in Acadiensis, XXIV, 2 Spring 1995. Elizabeth teaches history at UCCB and most of the material for this article comes from her research and she should be commended for it. I invented the correspondent from Maine, but stories of the plight of the returning Black workers were reported in the Sydney Record and the Bangor Daily News.\nWorking in Steel, The Early Years in Canada, 1883-1935 by Craig Heron is an interesting book and the quotes by the CMA and Henry Whitney regarding the future success of DISCO were taken from it.\nCommunity meeting, Melnick Labour Hall, Whitney Pier in Sydney, Cape Breton, mid-1950s. Courtesy the Coward family\nA rare though blurred 1901 photograph inside the Sydney steel works of black furnace workers on the DISCO cast house floor. Beaton Institute, photographer unknown.\nBlack steel workers marshalling blast furnace 'miniature' in coronation parade. Beaton Institute, photographer unknown.\nLillian Coward (centre) was the first wife of Arthur Coward, who emigrated from Barbados in 1911 (and great-grandfather of Justin Coward, see centrefold). Mae Crawford (on right), also from the West Indies, was a well-known community entrepreneur (West Indian dishes).\nThroughout Nova Scotia, the Black community always met on a regular basis in similar halls whenever the occasion arose.\nLucus Toussaint emigrated to the Pier in 1911 from Grenada. He is the maternal grandfather of Curtis Coward and great-grandfather of Justin Coward (see centrefold).\nAlbert Almon Plan of Sydney, 1902. Whitney Pier (Ward V), indicating \"Cokeville\". Courtesy of the Whitney Pier Historical Society and the Beaton Institute.\n*Paul MacDougall, a freelance writer and microbiology technologist, teaches\nin the Environmental Health Program at UCCB.\nComments to : email@example.com\nCopyright New Media Services Inc. \u00a9 2004. The views expressed herein are the writers' own and do not necessarily reflect those of shunpiking magazine or New Media Publications.", "id": "<urn:uuid:e9443071-5ede-4f28-ac0a-284ef529d2b3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.shunpiking.com/bhs/longwalk.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9801048636436462, "token_count": 2258, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When the National Wild Turkey Federation (NWTF) was first founded in 1973 there were only 1.5 million wild turkeys across the U.S., Canada and Mexico. Today, it is estimated there are more than 5.6 million wild turkeys.\nIn Utah, wild turkey restoration efforts continue to be the most aggressive in the nation. Over 2,800 wild turkeys have been relocated to suitable habitat areas in Utah since the winter of 1999. As a result, wild turkey permits have increased 20 percent for the spring 2002 season.\nHowever, this program will not be complete until over 200,000 wild turkeys roam the cottonwood river bottoms, pinyon/juniper, and ponderosa pine forests of the state. Whether you pursue wild turkeys as a hunter, or simply enjoy watching these magnificent birds in their natural surroundings, the time to view wild turkeys in Utah has never been better.\nAt the forefront of this dramatic return in Utah, has been the Federation's volunteers, working side-by-side with the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources.\nNow, with most restoration efforts completed in the East, all eyes have shifted to the West, where the wild turkey continues to redefine it's own idea of suitable habitat. While the release of a wild turkey into western habitat remains one of the federation's most enduring symbols, it is just one brick in a foundation of good works that are impacting people's lives and the environment in many positive ways.\nSince 1977, the NWTF has spent over 144 million dollars on over 16,000 projects nationwide. The federation helps fund transplants, research projects, habitat acquisition, education, and the equipment needed to successfully accomplish these tasks. Through the Federation's regional habitat programs, volunteers have helped improve hundreds of thousands of acres by planting trees, crops, winter food sources and grasses that provide food and shelter for not only the wild turkey, but many others species of wildlife as well. Also improved in many areas, particularly in the west, has been water quality. Projects occurring right here in southeastern Utah include a San Rafael Desert guzzler, Knolls Ranch habitat improvement, and numerous other projects on the La Sal Mountains, Blue Mountains and Book Cliffs areas.\nThis month the Price River chapter of the NWTF will be hosting it's annual Wild Turkey Banquet on January 26. For more information, please call (435) 259-9453.", "id": "<urn:uuid:75ff55fb-1d04-482b-9c4b-4e8cfec3acf0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.sunadvocate.com/print.php?tier=1&article_id=149&poll=269&vote=results", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9434491395950317, "token_count": 490, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Tightly wound: A cross-section of a new cable design shows superconducting ribbons wound around a core of copper wires.\nSource: \u201cHome Alone: Co-Residency Detection in the Cloud via Side-Channel Analysis\u201d\nYinqian Zhang et al.\nProceedings of the IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, May 2011\nResults: A prototype system allows companies that use cloud computing services to confirm that their data is safe from others using the same service provider. It can detect with 80 percent accuracy the presence of unauthorized processing on the same server; the rate of false positives is 1 percent. The system will notice both attackers and inappropriate data sharing.\nWhy it matters: Cloud computing makes it possible to access generic processing and storage resources over the Internet. But security concerns have made many companies and organizations hesitant to use these services. Data could be stored on hardware shared with competitors, they fear, or it could even be vulnerable to malicious software actively trying to steal information. Some customers, such as NASA, have demanded that cloud providers physically isolate their data from that of other users. The problem is that until now, it\u2019s been almost impossible to verify that this is being done.\nMethods: In the past, researchers have found that attackers can steal data about a virtual machine\u2019s activities\u2014even sensitive information such as passwords\u2014by watching subtle clues such as how it uses shared system resources, including the server\u2019s temporary storage system. The researchers co\u00f6pted this principle to make it work for defense. They trained a legitimate virtual machine to watch a server\u2019s cache for telltale signs of hostile virtual machines on the same server. The technique requires no modification to existing cloud technologies and no action from the cloud provider.\nNext Steps: The researchers are expanding the prototype to create a complete system that can run on a commercial cloud service, such as Amazon Web Services.\nLow-Literacy Web Search\nA form of the Web for people who can\u2019t read aims to help poor countries\nSource: \u201cSpoken Web: Creation, Navigation and Searching of Voicesites\u201d\nSheetal Agarwal et al.\n2011 International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI), February 13-16, 2011, Palo Alto, California\nResults: A search engine developed by IBM researchers makes it possible to find and access information on a spoken version of the World Wide Web. A test of the interface by 40 farmers in the Indian state of Gujarat showed that it was easy to use.\nWhy it matters: More than one billion people worldwide are illiterate, most of them in poor nations. This poses a more fundamental barrier to Web use than the cost of computers and network access. For four years, a team at IBM Research India has operated a system called the Spoken Web that uses telephone numbers in place of Web addresses so that users can dial in to \u201cupload\u201d or listen to spoken information. Several thousand people worldwide use the service to share information such as local crop prices. However, until now there hasn\u2019t been an efficient way to search and sort through that information.\nMethods: IBM\u2019s search engine relies on speech recognition to understand the word a person is searching for\u2014a pesticide name, for example\u2014and to find mentions of that word on the Spoken Web. Like a conventional search engine, it can rapidly generate a list of many results, but a user cannot skim the list to choose the best result, as is possible on the text Web. Instead, the system tells the user how many results it found and suggests ways to filter that list\u2014for example, by the name of the person who recorded a particular piece of information. This step is repeated until there are five or fewer results. That short list is read out to the user, who chooses which result to \u201cbrowse\u201d to.\nNext Steps: The researchers plan to roll out the system to all users of the Spoken Web. They are also working to improve the quality of the speech recognition software involved. Most access to the Spoken Web is in Indian languages that makers of such software have not focused on before.", "id": "<urn:uuid:7a23ff48-4a23-4a5a-a654-0480256c923e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.technologyreview.com/fromthelabs/423733/cloud-security/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9244117736816406, "token_count": 855, "score": 2.703125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "December 21, 2009\nWhat might our landscape look like in the near future? More specifically, where has urban growth occurred in the last thirty years, and where is it likely to occur over the next twenty years? Researchers at UNC Asheville and UNC Charlotte, as part of an ongoing Renaissance Computing Institute (RENCI) project, are conducting analyses that answer these types of questions, and also developing tools to help policy makers and planners understand and manage rapid urban growth. . Using historical satellite imagery, development trends, population data and population projections, they\u2019ve been able to design an Urban Growth Model that can generate visual representations of what our landscape may look like in the future.\nBuilding upon a similar study of the Greater Charlotte region, released in 2007, researchers are in the process of analyzing land conversion patterns for all of western North Carolina. The initial results of their collaborative research highlight the effect of development on four western North Carolina counties: Madison, Buncombe, Henderson and Transylvania. Those results indicate that between 1976 and 2006, development in the four-county region increased nearly 500 percent, or at an average rate of six acres of green space per day \u2013 outpacing population growth by nearly 10-to-one.\nResearchers have identified several important predictors of development patterns, including an area\u2019s proximity to nearest road or interstate interchange and proximity to nearest urban center, or major employment center. Topographical slope and \u201cdevelopment pressure,\u201d or proximity to previously developed areas, are also key indicators of where urbanization and future development are likely to occur. Development forecasts extend to 2030, utilizing all available county-level population projections for the region.\nThe Urban Growth Model indicates an additional 47,489 acres of forests and farm lands will be developed in the four-county region by 2030, which is the equivalent of losing almost 75 square miles \u2013 or more than six properties the size of the Biltmore Estate \u2013 worth of green space. That\u2019s significant for an area that draws visitors from around the globe for its natural and scenic attractions.\nThe Urban Growth Model results include statistics on the amount and rate of development as well as maps of future development patterns. These are important tools for policy makers, planners and conservationist as they provide valuable information on not only when and how much development is expected, but also where it is likely to occur.\nJames Fox, the director of RENCI at UNC Asheville and the school\u2019s National Environment Modeling and Analysis Center (NEMAC), has already witnessed local lawmakers' interest in the growth model results. \u201cIt\u2019s going to be used by several different groups of decision makers,\u201d he said, adding the study is an important tool that will make it easier for local governments to collaborate with each other when making policy and planning decisions.\n\u201cThis is another important tool we can incorporate into our work,\" said Richard Broadwell, a Land Protection Specialist for the Conservation Trust of North Carolina, which is working to preserve the scenic viewsheds along the Blue Ridge Parkway. His organization plans to use the data to help them determine which lands to protect and \"how to spend our limited funds.\"\nMost of the anticipated growth is expected to occur in Buncombe and Henderson Counties. These two counties are forecast to contribute 22,101 and 18,381 acres of developed land, respectively, between 2010 and 2030. Henderson County is predicted to experience the greatest change in total developed land relative to county area, with total number of developed acres comprising 13.5% of county area in 2010 and 21.3% of county area by 2030.\n\u201cFor every acre of land that is converted from a natural state through development, there is a really big impact on the mountains' plants and animals,\u201d said Carl Silverstein, Executive Director for the Southern Appalachian Highlands Conservancy.\nSilverstein is also concerned about development pressure on local farmers, decreased interest from tourists, and the impact urban sprawl could have on the headwaters of rivers, which provide drinking water for millions of North Carolina citizens.\nFurther, the findings demonstrate that humans require more land per person than they once did. In 1976, developed land equated to 0.06 acres per person in the four-county area. By 2030, researchers forecast per-capita land requirements will increase to over a quarter-acre in the region.\nMadison County\u2019s \"human footprint\" is projected to increase more than the other three counties, by 0.18 acres per person (a 67 percent increase) between 2006 and 2030. In comparison, per-capita land consumption in Buncombe, Henderson and Transylvania Counties is forecast to increase by 28 percent, 13 percent and 18 percent, respectively, in the same period.\nCreated in 2004, RENCI includes a statewide network of academic institutions working to solve complex problems affecting quality of life and economic competitiveness in North Carolina by tapping into university expertise and through the use of advanced technologies.\nThe study on the four-county expansion of the Urban Growth Model was conducted by researchers at UNC Charlotte\u2019s Center for Applied Geographic Information Science (CAGIS), which is one of the partners in the RENCI at UNC Charlotte team. RENCI\u2019s UNC Asheville Engagement Center is the lead regional partner for the western North Carolina expansion, with funding from the Z. Smith Reynolds Foundation, the City of Asheville, the U.S. Forest Service and RENCI\u2019s home office in Chapel Hill. The study\u2019s findings for the remaining western North Carolina counties are expected to be released in the spring of 2010.\nAdditional research findings, including animated maps of land conversion rates for the four-county region, are available at (http://renci.uncc.edu/WesternExpansion).\nRENCI operates facilities at UNC Asheville, UNC Charlotte, East Carolina University, UNC Chapel Hill, Duke University and NC State University as well as its flagship site off campus in Chapel Hill. http://www.renci.org\nRENCI at UNC Charlotte involves faculty and staff from three UNC Charlotte research centers: the Urban Institute, the Center for Applied Geographic Information Science and the Charlotte Visualization Center. www.renci.uncc.edu; www.ui.uncc.edu; www.gis.uncc.edu; www.viscenter.uncc.edu\nAbout UNC Asheville\nAs the only designated liberal arts institution in the 16-campus University of North Carolina system, UNC Asheville serves students who are prepared for academic challenges by offering an intellectually rigorous education that builds critical thinking and workforce skills. UNC Asheville's 3,400 undergraduate students select from 30 majors. The University gets high marks for educational innovation from U.S. News & World Report and is ranked among the best liberal arts colleges nationally. http://www.unca.edu\nAbout UNC Charlotte\nA public research university, UNC Charlotte is the fourth largest campus among the 17 institutions of The University of North Carolina system. It is the largest institution of higher education in the Charlotte region. The University offers 18 doctoral programs, 62 master\u2019s degree programs and 90 programs leading to bachelor\u2019s degrees. Fall 2009 enrollment surpassed 24,000 students, including 5,000 graduate students. http://www.uncc.edu\nFor more information or to schedule an interview, contact John Chesser at 704/678-2762 or email@example.com.", "id": "<urn:uuid:fd4e6649-e25c-46ad-870d-370cc595a863>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.unca.edu/news-events/news/2009/12/urban-growth-model-aid-planners-guide-development", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9255480766296387, "token_count": 1528, "score": 3.390625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The United States\nCommission on Civil Rights\nThe United States Commission on Civil Rights, first created by the Civil Rights Act of 1957, and reestablished by the United States Commission on Civil Rights Act of 1983, is an independent, bipartisan agency of the Federal Government. By the terms of the 1983 act, as amended by the Civil Rights Commission Amendments Act of 1994, the Commission is charged with the following duties pertaining to discrimination or denials of the equal protection of the laws based on race, color, religion, sex, age, disability, or national origin, or in the administration of justice: investigation of individual discriminatory denials of the right to vote; study and collection of information relating to discrimination or denials of the equal protection of the law; appraisal of the laws and policies of the United States with respect to discrimination or denials of equal protection of the law; maintenance of a national clearinghouse for information respecting discrimination or denials of equal protection of the law; investigation of patterns or practices of fraud or discrimination in the conduct of Federal elections; and preparation and issuance of public service announcements and advertising campaigns to discourage discrimination or denials of equal protection of the law. The Commission is also required to submit reports to the President and the Congress at such times as the Commission, the Congress, or the President shall deem desirable.\nThe State Advisory Committees\nAn Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights has been established in each of the 50 States and the District of Columbia pursuant to section 105(c) of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 and section 3(d) of the Civil Rights Commission Amendments Act of 1994. The Advisory Committees are made up of responsible persons who serve without compensation. Their functions under their mandate from the Commission are to: advise the Commission of all relevant information concerning their respective States on matters within the jurisdiction of the Commission; advise the Commission on matters of mutual concern in the preparation of reports of the Commission to the President and the Congress; receive reports, suggestions, and recommendations from individuals, public and private organizations, and public officials upon matters pertinent to inquiries conducted by the State Advisory Committee; initiate and forward advice and recommendations to the Commission upon matters in which the Commission shall request the assistance of the State Advisory Committee; and attend, as observers, any open hearing or conference that the Commission may hold within the State.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5337a543-52f5-4a22-8923-cbbc76c36af8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/sac/mi0300/com.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9343517422676086, "token_count": 469, "score": 3.40625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Learn something new every day More Info... by email\nThermal epoxy is any adhesive epoxy that has one or more substances added to it to enhance thermal, or heat, transfer. These epoxies can be electrically conductive or not conductive, depending on the thermal additive used. Silver and other metal-based thermal additives are usually electrically conductive, and thermal epoxies that contain these additives must be applied very carefully so as not to cause electrical shorts. Ceramic-based additives are not electrically conductive but are also not as efficient at thermal conduction.\nManufacturers make thermal epoxies that are designed to work as high-performance engineering adhesives and structural adhesives in a wide range of applications and environments. These include aircraft, boats, marine equipment, cars, surfboards, snowboards, and bicycles, among others. There are thermal formulations for almost every application imaginable, including those that cure while under water, those that remain very flexible or get quite rigid when cured, those resistant to fire or high heat, and even those certified by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) for low outgassing.\nHeat can damage or destroy electrical components, and today\u2019s high-speed computer components produce a large amount of heat that must be removed. Devices called heat sinks are used to pull heat away from an object and dissipate the heat to the air, sometimes with the help of a cooling fan. Heat sinks are made from metal alloys designed to have excellent thermal conduction properties, and they have specially designed fins to help conduct and remove the heat. They are almost always mounted to a surface using a special adhesive thermal epoxy.\nWhen used in computer applications, a thermal epoxy can help fill microscopic voids that occur in the surfaces of heat sinks and other devices. These voids occur in the manufacturing process. When two objects are mounted together, for instance a chip and a heat sink, the voids fill with air. Air is a very poor thermal conductor, so a substance is introduced to fill the voids and help conduct the heat to the heat sink for removal. The substance used can be thermal grease, thermal tape, thermal pads or, if the device needs to be secured to the mounting surface, thermal epoxy.\nWhen applying thermal epoxy it is very important to use the least possible amount required to fill any voids and make the bond. If a too-thick coat of epoxy is applied, the electrical conductivity of the epoxy will be degraded. Once the epoxy has cured, the bond between the two surfaces is permanent. Epoxies should only be used in well-ventilated areas, and the manufacturer\u2019s instructions should always be followed for best results.", "id": "<urn:uuid:48086b1a-3238-4ab2-b4f2-1d8b3a1128c0>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-thermal-epoxy.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9321891665458679, "token_count": 569, "score": 3.515625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Their Life Work Ended Their Lives\nTheir work was for the benefit of the world, but they died as a direct or indirect result of their inventions. Marie Curie won the Nobel Prize in 1903 for her work science and chemistry. She discovered two new elements including radium and polonium and the theory of radioactivity. She carried test tubes of radioactive materials in her pocket and kept them in her desk drawer. She often wrote about the pretty blue light it gave off. She died of aplastic anaemia \u2013 a direct result of her work.\nWilliam Bullock invented the rotary printing press. It completely changed the printing industry. It increased the speed and accuracy of printing especially for newspapers. But one of his machines crushed his foot when he was trying to repair it when he tried to kick a pulley in place. After his foot became infected, he died during an operation to amputate it.\nOtto Lilienthal was known as the Glider King. He studied birds and built gliders with big wings that almost made him look like a bird and he was able to glide like one. He made repeated flights until August of 1896 when he fell six stories and broke his back. He died the next day.\nAstrodome Capsule Stunt\nKarel Soucek was a Canadian stuntman who built what he called a cushioned capsule to make a successful plunge over Niagara Falls. He was arrested and prosecuted, but he made a name for himself and in 1985 convinced a promoter to put on a stunt at the Houston Astrodome. He was hoisted 180 feet to the top of the dome and the idea was to ride a cascade of water to a pool on the Astrodome floor. It didn\u2019t go as planned. His capsule hit the side of the pool and was destroyed. He was badly hurt and died the next day. Be careful what you invent. SOURCE: Listverse", "id": "<urn:uuid:4a4030e5-8e9d-47a2-b915-2efb71a536a5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://wyrk.com/their-life-work-ended-their-lives/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368708766848/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516125246-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9933279156684875, "token_count": 390, "score": 3.359375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Ticks have been bad in north central Arkansas ever since the spring of 2011, even throughout the \"winter\" months in unusual numbers. In particular, there are a lot of seed ticks, say park officials.\nComing into contact with ticks in this part of the country is normal and those who live here generally know the common-sense steps to take to minimize tick contacts and tick bites. Avoiding tick habitat, including grassy, brushy, and wooded areas, doesn't leave much else but gravel bars, parking lots, and lake surfaces.\nHowever, just knowing that you may be entering such areas will help with the next level of preventive measures:\n- Use 20%-30% DEET insect repellant on exposed skin and clothing (yes, there are risks associated with using DEET, too). Premethrin is a chemical which will kill ticks on contact but should not be applied to the skin.\n- Wear long pants, long sleeves, long socks; tuck pant legs into sock tops or wear gaiters to help keep ticks away from the skin.\n- Check clothes for ticks, preferably before going indoors, and check all skin surfaces to eliminate ticks before they begin the process of biting you. This goes for your pets, too. They often bring these hitch-hikers indoors with them where they end up in surprising places.\nAnd don't turn your back on tried and true techniques, such as keeping a roll of duct tape handy to wrap around the palm of your hand, sticky side out, to remove seed ticks. Whatever works!\nClick here for more information on ticks and their health risks to humans from the Centers for Disease Control website.\nImage courtesy: CDC website.", "id": "<urn:uuid:bf2adf6c-7041-4612-beff-233ae04c4c2f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://arkansasmatters.com/fulltext/?nxd_id=586832", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.941917896270752, "token_count": 347, "score": 3.015625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "French winemakers will harvest fewer grapes this year than in 2007 because spring frost hurt early buds and some growers uprooted vines to combat overproduction.\nThe smaller harvest in France comes at a time when California winemakers believe that the state's wine grape crop could be 15% smaller than last year.\nTotal production in France will probably fall about 5% to 1.2 billion gallons, according to Paris-based industry group Viniflhor. That's \"much lower\" than the average harvest in the last five years, Viniflhor said in a statement on its website.\nVineyards in Bordeaux, Provence and other southern regions were particularly affected after buds that had developed early thanks to mild winter temperatures froze at the outset of spring. Bourgogne, Alsace, Champagne and other northern areas were spared since vines mature later there because of a colder climate.\n\"The cold that arrived in late March had a direct impact on some vineyards,\" Viniflhor said. \"From the Bordeaux region to Provence, the frost wreaked havoc on April 6 and 7, at a critical period when the buds are very vulnerable.\"\nWinemakers also had to combat mildew after April rains, according to the statement.\n\"The health of the grapes was preserved, but only thanks to treatments that were sometimes very costly,\" the industry group said.\nSome producers chose to uproot unprofitable vineyards to receive compensation from the European Union, which seeks to limit production and improve quality. In the Rhone-Alpes region alone, vineyards covering about 3,800 acres were torn up, according to Viniflhor.", "id": "<urn:uuid:8b97e76d-88d0-4ad7-8ce8-cfacf5ec4ed3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://articles.latimes.com/2008/sep/10/business/fi-wine10", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9761709570884705, "token_count": 346, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "A fairly recent study put on by researchers at Columbia, Harvard and the University of Wisconsin sought to test the effects of internet/computer use to see if it is changing the way people remember information. For one part of the experiment, participants were asked type 40 different bits of trivia into a computer. One example of such trivia was \"an ostrich's eye is bigger than its brain.\" Half of these participants were told the computer would save what they typed in, while the other half were told their items would be erased. The study found that the participants who were told their items would not be saved were better able to recall what they typed as opposed to the participants who thought their items would be saved. In essence, the people who thought they could simply check the computer later did not make as much as an effort to remember what they typed. The experiment toys with the notion of transactive memory and our growing reliance on computers and internet. The idea behind transactive memory is that we rely on other people and materials in our lives to help recall information. The advent of computers and internet has increased our reliance on accessing information transactively. In this day and age we don't need to remember everything anymore. Google has become a household term, with the click of a mouse we can pretty much find anything we want. The validity of this experiment seems legitimate, except we aren't told how these participants were selected - some people may be better at remembering information. If you tell people something won't be saved, of course they are going to pay closer attention to the details. While people argue that the \"Google Effect\" is making us dumber, I have to disagree. Aren't we taking advantage of our resources? Isn't it making us more productive? Why spend three hours looking for a formula in a dusty book when I could find it instantly on Google? I argue that with the \"Google Effect\" we have more time to work rather than waste valuable time recalling information. There is in fact successful replicability of this experiment. All in all, there is still a lot to explore, but is this phenomenon good or bad?\nMemories or Megabytes?\nTrackBack URL: http://blog.lib.umn.edu/cgi-bin/mt-tb.cgi/159371", "id": "<urn:uuid:50dcc2a0-1109-4327-9e41-602adf082044>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://blog.lib.umn.edu/nich0185/myblog/2011/10/memories-or-megabytes.html", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9793610572814941, "token_count": 461, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "DENVER \u2013 Put on your poodle skirts and tune in Elvis on the transistor radio, because it\u2019s starting to look a lot like the 1950s.\nUnfortunately, this won\u2019t be the nostalgic \u201950s of big cars and pop music.\nThe 1950s that could be on the way to Colorado is the decade of drought.\nSo says Brian Bledsoe, a Colorado Springs meteorologist who studies the history of ocean currents and uses what he learns to make long-term weather forecasts.\n\u201cI think we\u2019re reliving the \u201950s, bottom line,\u201d Bledsoe said Friday morning at the annual meeting of the Colorado Water Congress.\nBledsoe studies the famous El Ni\u00f1o and La Ni\u00f1a ocean currents. But he also looks at other, less well-known cycles, including long-term temperature cycles in the oceans.\nIn the 1950s, water in the Pacific Ocean was colder than normal, but it was warmer than usual in the Atlantic. That combination caused a drought in Colorado that was just as bad as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s.\nThe ocean currents slipped back into their 1950s pattern in the last five years, Bledsoe said. The cycles can last a decade or more, meaning bad news for farmers, ranchers, skiers and forest residents.\n\u201cDrought feeds on drought. The longer it goes, the harder it is to break,\u201d Bledsoe said.\nThe outlook is worst for Eastern Colorado, where Bledsoe grew up and his parents still own a ranch. They recently had to sell half their herd when their pasture couldn\u2019t provide enough feed.\n\u201cThey\u2019ve spent the last 15 years grooming that herd for organic beef stock,\u201d he said.\nBledsoe looks for monsoon rains to return to the Four Corners and Western Slope in July. But there\u2019s still a danger in the mountains in the summer.\n\u201cInitially, dry lightning could be a concern, so obviously, the fire season is looking not so great right now,\u201d he said.\nWeather data showed the last year\u2019s conditions were extreme.\nNolan Doesken, Colorado\u2019s state climatologist, said the summer of 2012 was the hottest on record in Colorado. And it was the fifth-driest winter since record-keeping began more than 100 years ago.\nDespite recent storms in the San Juan Mountains, this winter hasn\u2019t been much better.\n\u201cWe\u2019ve had a wimpy winter so far,\u201d Doesken said. \u201cThe past week has been a good week for Colorado precipitation.\u201d\nHowever, the next week\u2019s forecast shows dryness returning to much of the state.\nReservoir levels are higher than they were in 2002 \u2013 the driest year since Coloradans started keeping track of moisture \u2013 but the state is entering 2013 with reservoirs that were depleted last year.\n\u201cYou don\u2019t want to start a year at this level if you\u2019re about to head into another drought,\u201d Doesken said.\nIt was hard to find good news in Friday morning\u2019s presentations, but Bledsoe is happy that technology helps forecasters understand the weather better than they did during past droughts. That allows people to plan for what\u2019s on the way.\n\u201cI\u2019m a glass-half-full kind of guy,\u201d he said.", "id": "<urn:uuid:6b5ff0a8-5351-4289-bb86-d7195a7837dc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://durangoherald.com/article/20130201/NEWS01/130209956/0/20120510/Drought-is-making-itself-at-home", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.964421808719635, "token_count": 739, "score": 2.640625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Water Conservation; Environmental Economics & Policies; Governance Indicators; Poverty Assessment; Health Economics & Finance; Community Development and Empowerment; Decentralization; Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems\nSummary: States can do much to tap community-level energies, and resources for development, if they seek to interact more synergistically with local communities. The broader spin-off is creating a developmental society, and polity. Using case studies from Asia and Latin America, the authors show how: 1) State efforts to bring about land reform, tenancy reform, and expanding non-crop sources of income, can broaden the distribution of power in rural communities, laying the basis for more effective community-driven collective action; and 2) Higher levels of government can form alliances with communities, putting pressure on local authorities from above, and below to improve development outcomes at the local level. These alliances can also be very effective in catalyzing collective action at community level, and reducing :local capture\" by vested interests. There are several encouraging points that emerge from these case studies. First, these powerful institutional changes do not necessarily take long to generate. Second, they can be achieved in a diversity of settings: tightly knit or loose-knit communities; war-ravaged, or relatively stable; democratic, or authoritarian; with land reform, or (if carefully managed) even without. Third, there are strong political payoffs in terms of legitimacy, and popular support for those who support such developmental action.\nOfficial, scanned versions of documents (may include signatures, etc.)", "id": "<urn:uuid:74b8e5dd-b383-4d05-abaf-80d3fae566f5>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&theSitePK=469382&piPK=64165421&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000094946_03020604113086", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.897921621799469, "token_count": 311, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Sarah Bernhardt as Hamlet, 1880-1885.\n|Family||King Hamlet (father)\nClaudius (uncle, stepfather)\n|Role||Prince of Denmark|\n|Quote||\"To be, or not to be, that is the question\"|\nPrince Hamlet is the title character and protagonist of Shakespeare's tragedy Hamlet. He is the Prince of Denmark, nephew to the usurping Claudius and son of King Hamlet, the previous King of Denmark. Throughout the play he struggles with whether, and how, to avenge the murder of his father, and struggles with his own sanity along the way. By the end of the tragedy, Hamlet has caused the deaths of Polonius, Laertes, Claudius and his two childhood friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. He is also indirectly involved in the deaths of his love Ophelia (drowning) and of his mother Gertrude (poisoned by mistake). Hamlet himself is the final character to die in the play.\nViews of Hamlet \nPerhaps the most straightforward view sees Hamlet as seeking truth in order to be certain that he is justified in carrying out the revenge called for by a ghost that claims to be the spirit of his father. The 1948 movie with Laurence Olivier in the title role is introduced by a voiceover: \"This is the tragedy of a man who could not make up his mind.\"\nT. S. Eliot offers a similar view of Hamlet's character in his critical essay, \"Hamlet and His Problems\" (The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism). He states, \"We find Shakespeare's 'Hamlet' not in the action, not in any quotations that we might select, so much as in an unmistakable tone...\".\nOthers see Hamlet as a person charged with a duty that he both knows and feels is right, yet is unwilling to carry out. In this view, all of his efforts to satisfy himself of Claudius' guilt, or his failure to act when he can, are evidence of this unwillingness, and Hamlet berates himself for his inability to carry out his task. After observing a play-actor performing a scene, he notes that the actor was moved to tears in the passion of the story and compares this passion for an ancient Greek character, Hecuba, in light of his own situation:\n- \"O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!\n- Is it not monstrous that this player here,\n- But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,\n- Could force his soul so to his own conceit\n- That from her working all his visage wan'd;\n- Tears in his eyes, distraction in's aspect,\n- A broken voice, and his whole function suiting\n- With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!\n- For Hecuba?\n- What's Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba,\n- That he should weep for her?\" [\u2026]\nEtymology of his name \nThe name Hamlet occurs as early as the 10th century. His name is easily derived in from Belleforest and the lost play from Amlethus of Saxo, and remaining in this form is then derived from its Latin form of the old Jutish Amlethoe. From this point the name can be divided into sections with common meanings. In terms of etymology the root name of Hamlet is an Icelandic noun, Amlooi, meaning \u2018fool.\u2019 However, this name is derived from the way that Hamlet acts in the play and is not in all actuality the true etymology of the name. The second way of translating the name is by analyzing the noun aml-ooi into \u2018raving mad\u2019 and the second half, amla into \u2018routine\u2019. Later these names were incorporated into Irish dialect as Amlodhe. As phonetic laws took their course the name\u2019s spelling changed eventually leaving it as Amlaidhe. This Irish name was given to a hero in a common folk story. The root of this name is \u2018furious, raging, wild.\u2019 These are all meanings Shakespeare would have been aware of when deciding on the name for his longest play.\nInfluence of the Reformation \nIt has also been suggested that Hamlet's hesitations may also be rooted in the religious beliefs of Shakespeare's time. The Protestant Reformation had generated debate about the existence of purgatory (where King Hamlet claims he currently resides). The concept of purgatory is a Catholic one, and was frowned on in Protestant England. Hamlet says that he will not kill his uncle because death would send him straight to heaven, while his father (having died without foreknowledge of his death) is in purgatory doing penance for his. Hamlet's opportunity to kill his uncle comes just after the uncle has supposedly made his peace with God. Hamlet says that he would much rather take a stab at the murderer while he is frolicking in the \"incestuous sheets\", or gambling and drinking, so he could be sure of his going straight to hell.\nFreudian interpretation \nErnest Jones, following the work of Sigmund Freud, held that Hamlet suffered from the Oedipus complex. He said in his essay \"The Oedipus-Complex as an Explanation of Hamlet's Mystery: A Study in Motive\":\n- His moral fate is bound up with his uncle's for good or ill. The call of duty to slay his uncle cannot be obeyed because it links itself with the call of his nature to slay his mother's husband, whether this is the first or the second; the latter call is strongly \"repressed,\" and therefore necessarily the former also.\nHarold Bloom did a \"Shakespearean Criticism\" of Freud's work in response.\nAs a mirror of the audience \nIt has also been suggested that Hamlet, who is described by Ophelia as \"th\u2019 expectancy and rose of the fair state, / The glass of fashion and the mould of form\" (Act III, Scene i, lines 148-9), is ultimately a reflection of all of the interpretations possessed by other characters in the play\u2014and perhaps also by the members of an audience watching him. Polonius, most obviously, has a habit of misreading his own expectations into Hamlet\u2019s actions (\"Still harping on my daughter!\"), though many other characters in the play participate in analogous behaviour.\nGertrude has a similar tendency to interpret all of her son\u2019s activities as the result of her \"o\u2019erhasty marriage\" alone. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern tend to find the stalled ambitions of a courtier in their former schoolmate\u2019s behaviour, whereas Claudius seems to be concerned with Hamlet\u2019s motivation only so far as it reveals the degree to which his nephew is a potential threat. Ophelia, like her father, waits in vain for Hamlet to give her signs of affection, and Horatio would have little reason to think that Hamlet was concerned with anything more pressing than the commandment of the ghost. And the First Gravedigger seems to think that Prince Hamlet, like that \"whoreson mad fellow\u201d Yorick, is simply insane without any need for explanation. Several critics, including Stephen Booth and William Empson have further investigated the analogous relationship between Hamlet, the play, and its audience.\nParallels with other characters \nOne aspect of Hamlet's character is the way in which he reflects other characters, including the play's primary antagonist, Claudius. In the play within a play, for instance, Gonzago, the king, is murdered in the garden by his nephew, Lucianus; although King Hamlet is murdered by his brother, in The Murder of Gonzago - which Hamlet tauntingly calls \"The Mousetrap\" when Claudius asks \"What do you call the play?\" - the regicide is a nephew, like Prince Hamlet. However, it is also worth noting that each of the characters in the play-within-a-play maps to two major characters in Hamlet, an instance of the play's many doubles:\n- Lucianus, like Hamlet, is both a regicide and a nephew to the king; like Claudius, he is a regicide that operates by pouring poison into ears.\n- The Player King, like Hamlet, is an erratic melancholic; like King Hamlet, his character in The Murder of Gonzago is poisoned via his ear while reclining in his orchard.\n- The Player Queen, like Ophelia, attends to a character in The Murder of Gonzago that is \"so far from cheer and from [a] former state\"; like Gertrude, she remarries a regicide.\nHamlet is also, in some form, a reflection of most other characters in the play (or perhaps vice versa):\n- Hamlet, Laertes, Fortinbras and Pyrrhus are all avenging sons. Hamlet and Laertes both blame Claudius for the death of their fathers. Hamlet and Pyrrhus are both seized by inaction at some point in their respective narratives and each avenges his father. Hamlet and Fortinbras both have plans that are thwarted by uncles that are also kings.\n- Hamlet, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, Osric and Polonius are all courtiers.\n- Hamlet, his father, Bernardo, Marcellus, Francisco, Fortinbras and several other characters are all soldiers.\n- Hamlet and his father share a name (as do Fortinbras and his father).\n- Hamlet, Horatio, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and Laertes are all students.\n- Hamlet, his father, Gertrude and Claudius are all members of the Royal Family. Each of them is also killed by poison\u2014poison that Claudius is responsible for.\n- Hamlet and Ophelia are each rebuked by their surviving parent in subsequent scenes; the surviving parent of each happens to be of the opposite gender. Both also enter scenes reading books and there is a contrast between the (possibly) pretend madness of Hamlet and the very real insanity of Ophelia.\n- Hamlet, Horatio, Polonius, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and Claudius are each \"lawful espials\" at some point in the play.\nHamlet's age \nIn Act V, scene I of Shakespeare's Hamlet, the First Gravedigger is asked by Hamlet at about line 147 and following, how long he has \"been a grave-maker.\" His reply appears to determine the age of Hamlet for us in a roundabout but very explicit manner. The Gravedigger says that he has been in his profession since the day that Old Hamlet defeated Old Fortinbras, which was \"the very day that young Hamlet was born.\" Then, a little later, he adds that \"I have been sexton here, man and boy, thirty years.\" According to this logic, Hamlet must be thirty years old. Yorick, the dead jester whose skull Hamlet holds during this scene, is said to have been in the earth \"three-and-twenty years,\" which would make Hamlet no more than seven years old when he last rode on Yorick's back.\nThis view of Hamlet's age is supported by the fact that Richard Burbage, the actor who originally played the role, was thirty-two at the time of the play's premiere.\nHowever, a case has been made that at an early stage in Hamlet \u2014 with its apparent history of multiple revisions \u2014 Hamlet was presented as a sixteen-year-old. Several pieces of evidence support this view. Hamlet attends the University of Wittenberg, and royals and nobles (Elizabethan or medieval Danish) did not attend university at age 30. Additionally, a 30-year old Prince Hamlet would clearly have been of ruling age. Given his great popularity (mentioned by Claudius), this would raise the question of why it was not he, rather than his uncle, who was elected to succeed to the throne upon the death of King Hamlet.\nThe line about the length of the Gravedigger's career does not appear in the First Quarto of Hamlet; in that text Yorick is said to have been in the ground only twelve years. Furthermore, in Belleforest, Shakespeare's source for the story, it is said that Amleth has \"not attained to man's estate.\" And in the original spelling of the Folio text, one of the two authoritative texts for the play, the Gravedigger's answer to how long he has \"been a grave-maker\" reads \"Why heere in Denmarke: I haue bin sixeteene heere, man and Boy thirty yeares..\" \"Sixteene\" is usually rendered as \"sexton\" (a modernization of the second quarto's \"sexten\"), even in modern texts that take F1 as their \"copy text.\" But modernizing the punctuation \u2014 a normal practice in modernized texts \u2014 renders \"Why heere in Denmarke: I haue bin sixeteene heere \u2014 man and Boy thirty yeares.\" In other words, this reading suggests that he has been a grave-digger for sixteen years, but that he has lived in Denmark for thirty. According to this logic, then, it is the Grave-digger who is thirty, whereas Hamlet is only sixteen.\nHowever, this reading has the disadvantage that in the Folio the length of time Yorick has been in the ground is said to be twenty-three years, meaning that he had been dead seven years by the time Hamlet was born. Another theory offered is that the play was originally written with the view that Hamlet was 16 or 17, but since Shakespeare wrote his plays to be performed, and not read, these lines were likely changed so Burbage (who was almost always the protagonist in Shakespeare's plays) could play the role.\nBelow are listed some of the notable acting portrayals of Hamlet.\n- Richard Burbage originated the role of Hamlet at the Globe Theatre.\n- David Garrick made the role one of the centerpieces of his repertory in the 18th century.\n- Master Betty played the role at the height of his popularity in 1805, and the House of Commons once adjourned early so that members of Parliament could see him play it.\n- Edwin Booth was famous for the role in New York in the 1860s and 1870s.\n- Sir Henry Irving, the first actor to be knighted, played Hamlet for an unprecedented 200 consecutive performances at the Lyceum Theatre in London in 1874.\n- Johnston Forbes-Robertson played the role in 1898.\n- John Barrymore created a sensation with his performance on Broadway in 1922 and again when he took it to London in 1925.\n- John Gielgud played Hamlet over 500 times between 1930 and 1945.\n- Gustav Gr\u00fcndgens played Hamlet in the Staatliches Schauspielhaus in Berlin in 1936.\n- Laurence Olivier first played Hamlet at the Old Vic in 1937, later performing the production at Elsinore Castle.\n- Maurice Evans first played the part at the Old Vic Theatre in 1935 and had a triumph on Broadway in 1938 and 1945.\n- Paul Scofield (actor) played Hamlet at the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1948 and again in 1955, directed by Peter Brook.\n- Richard Burton first played the role at the Old Vic Theatre in 1953 and returned to it in a 1964 Broadway production that became notorious when he married Elizabeth Taylor during its out-of-town tryout.\n- David Warner starred in Peter Hall's Hamlet in the RSC's August 1965 production at Stratford-Upon-Avon.\n- Richard Chamberlain was the first American actor to play the role in London since John Barrymore. This occurred in the late 1960s, immediately after the run of Dr. Kildare, the TV-series in which Chamberlain first made his name, ended.\n- Vladimir Vysotsky played Hamlet in Moscow's Taganka Theatre between 1971 and 1980.\n- Derek Jacobi played the role for the Prospect Theatre Company in 1978.\n- Christopher Walken played the role for the American Shakespeare Theatre in 1982.\n- Kenneth Branagh played the role for the Royal Shakespeare Company in 1992\n- Ralph Fiennes won the Best Actor Tony Award in 1995 for his portrayal.\n- Samuel West played Hamlet for the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2001-2 and won the Critic's Circle Award.\n- Christopher Eccleston played the role for the West Yorkshire Playhouse in 2002.\n- Toby Stephens played the role for the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2004.\n- Ben Whishaw played the role for the old Vic in 2004.\n- David Tennant played the role for the Royal Shakespeare Company in 2008-9.\n- Jude Law played the role for the Donmar West End and later on Broadway.\n- Michael Brando (grandson of Marlon Brando) played the role for a special TED event in 2010; he had played the role previously in 2008-9.\n- Michael Sheen played the role at the Young Vic in 2011-12.\n- Gustaf Skarsg\u00e5rd played Hamlet in Stockholm City Theatre's Hamlet in 2010.\n- Pat O'Neill played the role for the Melbourne Theatre Company in 2011.\n- Johnston Forbes-Robertson immortalized scenes from his performance in a highly truncated silent film made in 1913.\n- Danish actress Asta Nielsen portrayed Hamlet in a loose 1921 adaptation which re-imagines Hamlet as a woman.\n- Laurence Olivier directed himself as Hamlet in the 1948 film.\n- Richard Burton portrayed Hamlet in a 1964 filmed version of the stage play.\n- Innokenty Smoktunovsky played Hamlet in the 1964 Russian film Hamlet (1964 film), directed by Grigori Kozintsev.\n- Nicol Williamson portrayed Hamlet in Tony Richardson's 1969 version.\n- Mel Gibson played Hamlet in Franco Zeffirelli's 1990 version.\n- Iain Glen portrayed Hamlet in the 1990 film Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead, directed by Tom Stoppard and based on his play.\n- Kenneth Branagh directed himself as Hamlet in a 1996 film version, which is the only full length version of the play on film.\n- Ethan Hawke played Hamlet in an adaptation released in 2000.\n- Maurice Evans was the first to play the role on American television, in 1953 on the Hallmark Hall of Fame.\n- Christopher Plummer received an Emmy Award nomination for a television version filmed at Elsinore Castle in 1964.\n- Richard Chamberlain played Hamlet in a Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation in 1970.\n- Derek Jacobi played Hamlet in the 1980 BBC Television Shakespeare production.\n- Kevin Kline played the role in a 1990 PBS television production which he also directed, and which originated at the New York Shakespeare Festival.\n- Campbell Scott played the role in a U.S. 2000 television production set during the American Civil War, in which Polonius, Ophelia, and Laertes were portrayed as an African-American family.\n- David Tennant and the rest of the original cast from the 2008-9 Royal Shakespeare Company production reprised their roles for a BBC film version, which aired in the UK in December 2009.\nOther versions \nIn the comic book series Kill Shakespeare, Hamlet is the central character. After he is exiled from Denmark, his ship is attacked and he washes up on England. He is encountered by Richard III of England, who tells him that he is the \"Shadow King\", a figure of prophecy. He tells Hamlet that he must find and kill the wizard William Shakespeare and retrieve his quill. He goes off, but is relentlessly pursued by assassins from Richard and his lieutenant, Iago. He is eventually captured by the fool known as Falstaff, who helps him get out of the woods after an encounter with a being known as a Prodigal. He is shot in the leg by Iago, but is saved by Juliet Capulet and Othello. Hamlet stops Othello from killing Iago, but is taken captive by Juliet and her resistance army. After going with them into a town and seeing the cruelty of Richard, Hamlet flees into the woods, where he is forced to face the ghost of his father. He defeats the ghost and is eventually picked up by two travellers: Lysander and Demetrius.\n- Kemp Malone The Review of English Studies, Vol. 3, No. 11 (Jul.,1927),pp.257-271 <http://www.jstor.org/view/00346551/ap020014/02a00000/0>\n- The American Journal of Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 1. (Jan., 1910), pp. 72-113.\n- Roth, Steve Hamlet: The Undiscovered Country <http://www.princehamlet.com/chapter_1.html>\n- Writing in La Jeune Belgique in 1890; quoted by Braun (1982, 40).\n- Braun, Edward. 1982. The Director and the Stage: From Naturalism to Grotowski. London: Methuen. ISBN 978-0-413-46300-5.\n- Jenkins, Harold. Hamlet. Ed. Methuen, 1982. (The Arden Shakespeare)\n- Wilson, J. Dover, What Happens in Hamlet. Cambridge University Press; 3rd edition, 1951. (First published in 1935)\n- \"The Women Who Have Played Hamlet\" - Interview with Tony Howard on research into female Hamlets", "id": "<urn:uuid:40c8cc15-bc40-4fb0-8e87-509ff71996be>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Hamlet", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9725338816642761, "token_count": 4609, "score": 2.765625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "VLTI observations of the radii of four small stars\nThe radii and masses of the four very-low-mass stars now observed with the VLTI, GJ 205, GJ 887, GJ 191 (also known as \"Kapteyn''s star\") and Proxima Centauri (red filled circles; with error bars). For comparison, planet Jupiter's mass and radius are also plotted (blue triangle). The two curves represent theoretical models for stars of two different ages (400 million years - red dashed curve; 5 billion years - black fully drawn curve; models by Gilles Charier and collaborators at the Ecole Normale Sup\u00e9rieur de Lyon, France). As can be seen, theory and observations fit very well.\nAbout the Image\n|Release date:||29 November 2002|\n|Size:||800 x 789 px|", "id": "<urn:uuid:0fe245f7-49df-4a89-861a-e329222c30b8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://eso.org/public/images/eso0232c/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8366706371307373, "token_count": 180, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "In an era when almost every energy technology is unpopular with somebody, the people who don\u2019t want wind turbines, generating stations or new transmission lines installed in their neighborhoods often raise the idea of improving energy efficiency as an alternative.\nThat argument is particularly common in New York State and in Vermont, where state governments are trying to close nuclear reactors within their borders. So, how effectively can efficiency replace a reactor, making up for the loss of this zero-carbon energy source?\nNot very, according to a new study of carbon dioxide output in Japan in the months around the Fukushima disaster.\nFigures collected by the Breakthrough Institute, a group that often presents contrarian views on environmentalism and energy conservation, found that despite stringent efforts to use less energy, Japan emitted 4 percent more carbon dioxide in November 2011 than it did in the same month the previous year. After a quake and tsunami in March 2011 led to three meltdowns at the Fukushima nuclear plant, Japan began closing other plants as well, one because it appeared vulnerable to tsunami and others because local officials did not want them running.\nEnergy consumption dropped sharply and was nearly 10 percent lower last November than in November 2010, the institute\u2019s figures show. But with natural gas, oil and coal substituting for about 46 reactors, the production of carbon dioxide per unit of energy produced ran about 15 percent higher.\nThe pattern was the same all year after the March 11 tsunami and quake: consumption dropped but fuel burn increased. This was true even though Japan ran office air-conditioners at far reduced levels last summer and some demand had disappeared because of damage from the disaster.\nWhat analogy can be drawn at Indian Point, 30 miles north of New York City, or Vermont Yankee, near Brattleboro? This month, a New York State Assembly committee concluded that Indian Point was replaceable, an assertion sharply disputed by a business consumer group.\nJason Grumet, an air pollution expert and founder of the Bipartisan Policy Center, said it was hard to draw direct parallels. \u201cThe circumstances in the United States are obviously different from Japan,\u2019\u2019 he said. For one thing, Japan was parsimonious in its use of electricity even before Fukushima, and American consumers probably have more fat to cut.\nBut in either country, he said, it is true that \u201ca decrease in nuclear production in favor of fossil fuels will increase carbon intensity of the power sector, and total carbon dioxide emissions.\u2019\u2019\n\u201cIt\u2019s an incredibly difficult public policy challenge\u2019\u2019 for the United States, Mr. Grumet said, with different imperatives colliding. \u201cOne is to ensure that the aging fleet of nuclear plants is held to the highest safety standards, and the second is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,\u2019\u2019 he said. \u201cAnd the third is to keep the lights on.\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:4cda4899-535c-49d1-ba21-2625b4bde643>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/13/can-efficiency-counter-a-loss-of-nuclear-power/?ref=sustainableliving", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9636873006820679, "token_count": 594, "score": 3.34375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "4 Nero ascended to the Roman throne.\n1332 Rinchinbal Khan, Emperor Ningzong of Yuan became the Khagan of the Mongols and Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty, reigning for only 53 days.\n1775 The United States Continental Congress orders the establishment of the Continental Navy (later renamed the United States Navy).\n1777 British General John Burgoyne\u2019s Army at The Battles of Saratoga was surrounded by superior numbers, setting the stage for its surrende which inspired France to enter the American Revolutionary War against the British.\n1792 The cornerstone of the United States\u2019 Executive Mansion (known as the White House ) was laid.\n1812 War of 1812: Battle of Queenston Heights \u2013 As part of the Niagara campaign in Ontario, United States forces under General Stephen Van Rensselaer were repulsed from invading Canada by British and native troops led by Sir Isaac Brock.\n1843 Henry Jones and 11 others founded B\u2019nai B\u2019rith (the oldest Jewish service organization in the world).\n1845 A majority of voters in the Republic of Texas approved a proposed constitution, that if accepted by the U.S. Congress, would make Texas a U.S. state.\n1862 Mary Kingsley, English writer and explorer, was born (d. 1900).\n1885 The Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech) was founded in Atlanta.\n1904 Wilfred Pickles, English actor and broadcaster, ws born (d. 1978).\n1915 The Battle for the Hohenzollern Redoubt marked the end of the Battle of Loos in northern France, World War I.\n1917 The \u201cMiracle of the Sun\u201d was witnessed by an estimated 70,000 people in the Cova da Iria in F\u00e1tima, Portugal.\n1918 Mehmed Talat Pasha and the Young Turk (C.U.P.) ministry resigned and signed an armistice, ending Ottoman participation in World War I.\n1923 Ankara replaced Istanbul as the capital of Turkey.\n1925 Lenny Bruce, American comedian (d. 1966)\n1925 \u2013 Margaret Thatcher, former British Prime Minister, was born.\n1934 Nana Mouskouri, Greek singer and politician, was born.\n1941 Paul Simon, American singer and musician (Simon & Garfunkel), was born.\n1943 World War II: The new government of Italy sided with the Allies and declared war on Germany.\n1946 France adopted the constitution of the Fourth Republic.\n1959 Marie Osmond, American entertainer, was born.\n1962 The Pacific Northwest experienced a cyclone the equal of a Cat 3 hurricane. Winds measured above 150 mph at several locations; 46 people died.\n1968 Carlos Marin, Spanish baritone (Il Divo), was born.\n1969 Nancy Kerrigan, American figure skater, was born.\n1970 Paul Potts, British opera singer, was born.\n1972 An Aeroflot Ilyushin Il-62 crashed outside Moscow killing 176.\n1972 Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crashed in the Andes mountains. By December 23, only 16 out of 45 people were still alive to be rescued.\n1975 Dame Whina Cooper led a land march to parliament.\n1976 A Bolivian Boeing 707 cargo jet crashed in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, killing 100 (97, mostly children, killed on the ground).\n1976 The first electron micrograph of an Ebola viral particle was obtained by Dr. F.A. Murphy.\n1977 Four Palestinians hijacked Lufthansa Flight 181 to Somalia and demanded the release of 11 members of the Red Army Faction.\n1983 Ameritech Mobile Communications (now AT&T) launched the first US cellular network in Chicago, Illinois.\n1990 End of the Lebanese Civil War. Syrian forces launched an attack on the free areas of Lebanon removing General Michel Aoun from the presidential palace.\n1992 An Antonov An-124 operated by Antonov Airlines crashed near Kiev.\n1999 \u2013 The United States Senate rejected ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).\n2010 \u2013 The 2010 Copiap\u00f3 mining accident in Copiap\u00f3, Chile came to an end as all 33 miners arrived at the surface after surviving a record 69 days underground awaiting rescue.\nSourced from NZ History Online & Wikipedia", "id": "<urn:uuid:b28b2cbf-876a-4a44-a54b-96fdcf2050a7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://homepaddock.wordpress.com/2012/10/13/october-13-in-history-4/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9460285902023315, "token_count": 901, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "EPO is a nootropicWednesday, 10 September, 2008\nErythropoietin (EPO), a hormone that increases red blood cells and is used as a performance enhancer for athletic performance, has now been shown to enhance memory in normal, healthy mice. Mice that received EPO injections had enhanced memory for 3-4 weeks afterwards, which is longer than the elevation in red blood cell count lasts.\nThis effect isn\u2019t actually novel, as other researchers had noticed that EPO improved brain function over 18 years ago (Grimm et al, 1990), and research into mental illness has also suggested that EPO has an effect on brain function (Ehrenreich et al, 2004). But it was always thought to be dependent on the change in red blood cells, but more recent evidence has suggested it works independently of effects on blood cells (Miskowiak et al, 2007). This mouse model confirms this.\nOf course, the researchers have been focusing on this as a treatment, but anyone can see that this is a promising enhancement too. This mouse research showed that EPO enhanced memory and athletic function in healthy mice. It enhances both athletic and mental performance \u2013 how good is that?\nThen again, if EPO becomes a common cognitive enhancer, it will mean that few of us normal people would ever be able to compete in the Olympics. It was only in 2004 that caffeine was allowed in professional competition, but pretty soon college students will be doping themselves with EPO as a biochemical study aid. It will be interesting when almost all normal people would not be able to pass an Olympic-level drug test.\nThe possibility exists, however, that we may want the cognitive boost without increasing our red blood cells too much. And now that we know the cognitive effects of EPO are independent of red blood cell production, this may be possible too. Make a drug that stimulates the brain like EPO does, but doesn\u2019t effect an increase in red blood cells. And this study has gone a long way to unraveling the relevant effects of EPO on neuronal plasticity that underly the enhancement to memory circuitry in the brain, which means that we may be able to find drugs that do so more effectively than EPO or act on other brain functions.", "id": "<urn:uuid:4b6d67c9-bf43-419d-bd2a-90f5140e91f2>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hplusbiopolitics.wordpress.com/2008/09/10/epo-is-a-nootropic/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.960157573223114, "token_count": 465, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Resources - Homeschool Groups - Article\nThis article was published in the HSLDA Discount Groups E-Zine, March 2007.\nGuest Article: A Mom Shares Her Perspective\u2014\nMaking Families of Handicapped Students Welcome\nBy Esther Mast\nGiven that homeschoolers come in all shapes and sizes, it is not surprising to find a few in wheelchairs. The local homeschool group is in a position to make these students feel as valued and included as possible. There are a few practical ways to do this:\nFirst of all, keep the physical limitations of handicapped students in mind when planning group activities. Try to arrange at least a couple events a year that can include everyone, even those who can\u2019t kick a ball or run races. Such awareness of limitations is especially important when planning a field trip. A considerate coordinator will research the proposed location well beforehand and inform the pupil\u2019s parents about accessibility issues, so that there is less chance of an unpleasant surprise on arrival.\nIn addition, all students must be treated with respect by their homeschooled peers. Even if the venue of an activity is physically accessible, a handicapped student may feel out of place if other people constantly stare, ask awkward questions, or try to be too helpful by pushing the wheelchair for him. Remember, it is not the responsibility of the handicapped family to educate the entire group on demand, they have enough stress as it is. Make it a priority to teach proper courtesy to your own able-bodied children; if you must ask, direct a tactful question to the parents privately. If a handicapped student senses that others are uncomfortable around him, he will also feel very uncomfortable.\nA wheelchair indeed places certain restrictions on the student and her family and homeschool group. With thoughtful planning and good manners, however, it need not be a hindrance to the homeschool experience.\nThe Masts have homeschooled eight children, four of whom have graduated and gone on to college. One of these college students is in a wheelchair.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cf203a3e-c499-44d2-8ad0-8eae725d987d>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://hslda.org/GroupServices/Leaders.aspx/Handicapped", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9669954180717468, "token_count": 416, "score": 2.71875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Cancer of the Throat\nAlternative NamesSquamous Cell Carcinoma of the Tonsil\nWhat is Cancer of the Throat\nThroat cancer takes its beginning in your throat (pharynx), voice box (larynx) or tonsils. The throat is the passage from the back of your mouth to the top tubes that go down to your stomach and lungs. Voice box is the part of your throat that you use to produce the sounds when you speak. Both the throat and the voice box are located below the throat.\nThroat cancer is subdivided into different types:\n- Nasopharyngeal cancer originates just behind your nose.\n- Oropharyngeal cancer starts behind your mouth that includes your tonsils.\n- Hypopharyngeal cancer (laryngopharyngeal cancer) develops in the hypopharynx (the lower part of your throat, just above your esophagus and windpipe).\n- Glottic cancer located in the vocal cords.\n- Supraglottic cancer begins in the upper portion of the larynx (the part of your throat where the voice produced).\n- Subglottic cancer. This type of the cancer is found in the lower portion of your voice box, below your vocal cords.\nSigns and symptoms\nThe symptoms below may signal that the person has got a throat cancer:\n- A cough\n- A hoarseness (when you speak in a low rough voice)\n- Swallowing problems\n- Feeling pain in your ear\n- Open wound\n- A sore throat\nThe patients with throat cancer can have possible complications:\n- Swallowing problems\n- Airway obstruction\n- Disfigured neck or face\n- Stiff skin of the neck\n- Speaking disability\n- Metastasis of the cancer\nThe main reasons leading to the occurrence of throat cancer is the development of genetic mutations in your throat. As a result uncontrolled growth of tumour cells happen which can live longer than healthy cells.\nUnfortunately there are no proper ways which help to prevent the disease. But in order to avoid your risk of occurrence of throat cancer, you should:\n- Get rid of smoking\n- Avoid drinking alcohol\n- Keep to a healthy diet rich in fruits and vegetables\n- Don\u2019t contact chemicals\n- Avoid breathing hazardous chemical fumes\n- Air your room and working place\nThere are the following ways of throat cancer treatments:\n- Surgery \u2013 can help to get rid of tumour alone, either combined with radiation therapy, especially when it\u2019s of small size. Some patients are offered operations which can help to remove the tumor, including all or part of the vocal cords.\n- Radiotherapy is used when the tumor reached the second stage and became larger. If the tomour has spread to lymph nodes in the neck, a combination of radiation and chemotherapy is recommended.\n- Speech therapy can be effective if you\u2019ve got laryngectomy. There exist some other ways to talk that are leant.\n- Swallowing therapy helps patients adjust to the changes in the structure of the throat.", "id": "<urn:uuid:cd307985-1ff7-42b0-9b48-26c1d2b76fae>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://intermanews.com/pages/diseases/Cancer-of-the-Throat-20/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9155924320220947, "token_count": 648, "score": 3.671875, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Jacob loves books. His mom knows this because when she sits down to read to him every night, he waves his arms excitedly.\nHis favorite page of \"Goodnight Moon\" shows a cow jumping over the moon. He squeals and reaches for the book every time he sees it. When she is done reading, his mom usually lets him hold the sturdy board book, which he promptly sticks into his mouth.\nJacob is only 6 months old, but he is already well on his way to becoming a reader.\nWhy Read to My Baby?\nYou may wonder about the benefits of reading to your baby. An infant won't understand everything you're doing or why. But you wouldn't wait until your child could understand what you were saying before you started speaking to him or her, right? Nor would you bypass lullabies until your baby could carry a tune or wait until he or she could shake a rattle before you offered any toys.\nReading aloud to your baby is a wonderful shared activity you can continue for years to come \u2014 and it's an important form of stimulation.\nteaches a baby about communication\nintroduces concepts such as numbers, letters, colors, and shapes in a fun way\nbuilds listening, memory, and vocabulary skills\ngives babies information about the world around them\nBelieve it or not, by the time babies reach their first birthday they will have learned all the sounds needed to speak their native language. The more stories you read aloud, the more words your child will be exposed to and the better he or she will be able to talk.\nHearing words helps to build a rich network of words in a baby's brain. Kids whose parents frequently talk/read to them know more words by age 2 than children who have not been read to. And kids who are read to during their early years are more likely to learn to read at the right time.\nWhen you read, your child hears you using many different emotions and expressive sounds, which fosters social and emotional development. Reading also invites your baby to look, point, touch, and answer questions \u2014 all of which promote social development and thinking skills. And your baby improves language skills by imitating sounds, recognizing pictures, and learning words.\nBut perhaps the most important reason to read aloud is that it makes a connection between the things your baby loves the most \u2014 your voice and closeness to you \u2014 and books. Spending time reading to your baby shows that reading is a skill worth learning. And, if infants and children are read to often with joy, excitement, and closeness, they begin to associate books with happiness \u2014 and budding readers are created.\nYoung babies may not know what the pictures in a book mean, but they can focus on them, especially faces, bright colors, and contrasting patterns. When you read or sing lullabies and nursery rhymes, you can entertain and soothe your infant.\nBetween 4 and 6 months, your baby may begin to show more interest in books. He or she will grab and hold books, but will mouth, chew, and drop them as well. Choose sturdy vinyl or cloth books with bright colors and repetitive or rhyming text.\nBetween 6 and 12 months, your child is beginning to understand that pictures represent objects, and most likely will develop preferences for certain pictures, pages, or even entire stories. Your baby will respond while you read, grabbing for the book and making sounds, and by 12 months will turn pages (with some help from you), pat or start to point to objects on a page, and repeat your sounds.\nWhen and How to Read\nHere's a great thing about reading aloud: It doesn't take special skills or equipment, just you, your baby, and some books. Read aloud for a few minutes at a time, but do it often. Don't worry about finishing entire books \u2014 focus on pages that you and your baby enjoy.\nTry to set aside time to read every day \u2014 perhaps before naptime and bedtime. In addition to the pleasure that cuddling your baby before bed gives both of you, you'll also be making life easier by establishing a routine. This will help to calm your baby and set expectations about when it's time to sleep.\nIt's also good to read at other points in the day. Choose times when your baby is dry, fed, and alert. Books also come in handy when you're stuck waiting, so have some in the diaper bag to fill time sitting at the doctor's office or standing in line at the grocery store.\nHere are some additional reading tips:\nCuddling while you read helps your baby feel safe, warm, and connected to you.\nRead with expression, pitching your voice higher or lower where it's appropriate or using different voices for different characters.\nDon't worry about following the text exactly. Stop once in a while and ask questions or make comments on the pictures or text. (\"Where's the kitty? There he is! What a cute black kitty.\") Your child might not be able to respond yet, but this lays the groundwork for doing so later on.\nSing nursery rhymes, make funny animal sounds, or bounce your baby on your knee \u2014 anything that shows that reading is fun.\nBabies love \u2014 and learn from \u2014 repetition, so don't be afraid of reading the same books over and over. When you do so, repeat the same emphasis each time as you would with a familiar song.\nAs your baby gets older, encourage him or her to touch the book or hold sturdier vinyl, cloth, or board books. You don't want to encourage chewing on books, but by putting them in his or her mouth, your baby is learning about them, finding out how books feel and taste \u2014 and discovering that they're not edible!\nBooks for babies should have simple, repetitive text and clear pictures. During the first few months of life, your child just likes to hear your voice, so you can read almost anything, especially books with a sing-song or rhyming text. As your baby gets more interested in looking at things, choose books with simple pictures against solid backgrounds.\nOnce your baby begins to grab, you can read vinyl or cloth books that have faces, bright colors, and shapes. When your baby begins to respond to what's inside of books, add board books with pictures of babies or familiar objects like toys. When your child begins to do things like sit up in the bathtub or eat finger foods, find simple stories about daily routines like bedtime or bathtime. When your child starts talking, choose books that invite babies to repeat simple words or phrases.\nBooks with mirrors and different textures (crinkly, soft, scratchy) are also great for this age group, as are fold-out books that can be propped up, or books with flaps that open for a surprise. Board books make page turning easier for infants and vinyl or cloth books can go everywhere \u2014 even the tub. Babies of any age like photo albums with pictures of people they know and love. And every baby should have a collection of nursery rhymes!\nOne of the best ways you can ensure that your little one grows up to be a reader is to have books around your house. When your baby is old enough to crawl over to a basket of toys and pick one out, make sure some books are included in the mix.\nIn addition to the books you own, take advantage of those you can borrow from the library. Many libraries have storytime just for babies, too. Don't forget to pick up a book for yourself while you're there. Reading for pleasure is another way you can be your baby's reading role model.", "id": "<urn:uuid:44d24959-e00e-4115-9176-6d35de417abc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://kidshealth.org/PageManager.jsp?dn=Nemours&lic=60&cat_id=20054&article_set=44730&tracking=P_RelatedArticle", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.966012716293335, "token_count": 1573, "score": 2.9375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Check out our new Video Podcast -- Math Snacks!\nThis hands-on activity uses manipulatives to help students physically trade in one unit for another, larger unit of measure. By manipulating the tiles, students can find all types of conversions. To download the entire lesson plan, click on file attachments below. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to email me email@example.com\nUsing the 200 Chart For Division\nUsing the 200 Chart to Count Money\nThe other day I saw the neatest way of using a 200 Chart (a hundreds chart that goes through 200) to help students as they were learning to count money. I would have never came up with this idea, but it worked so well for students who were struggling keeping track of how much money they were counting. Directions for how it works:\nThese easy-to-use cards let students explore place value concepts\u2014from ones to one hundred thousand. Just cut off the extra white to the left of the digits. These cards can be used to teach standard and expanded form of a number. Download the files below. If you have any questions, don't hesitate to contact me at firstname.lastname@example.org\nMy Kids Turn is a website which hosts 6 different shows which provides quick ideas for parents to use with their children. This would be awesome to share with parents as a follow up to parent teacher conferences.\nMy Kids Turn is about our kids -- yours and ours -- and how we're going to make sure that they have the best opportunity we can give them to succeed at school.\nI often get asked the question, why do students need to learn how to find the LCM of two or more numbers. I can only think of two mathematical examples, the first is to find common denominators for fractions so that we can add the fractions more easily. For example, if we have the fractions 1/4, 1/3, and 1/6, we could use the LCM to create equivalent fractions to add quickly and easily.\nComparing and ordering numbers is an important skill for students at any grade level. But there is more to comparing and ordering numbers than comparing the individual digits in each of the placeholders. When we teach children to look a the first number, furthest to the left, and then if they are the same, look at the second number, we are teaching children a rote procedure to compare and order numbers.\nThe goal of this math lesson is for students, using dice, to create four-digit numbers which become larger and larger. This can be adjusted easily for older students (add more dice) to younger students (use fewer dice).\nLesson can be downloaded below.\nThis lesson is designed to help students learn the representational value of numbers. This lesson is accompanied with pictorial representation of base ten blocks, numerals, and numbers written in expanded form. Students match the cards to identify several representations. An example of a card, match 5 hundreds, 13 tens, and 4 ones to 634. Sometimes the order is mixed around, this gets to true understanding of the value of the number.", "id": "<urn:uuid:de01e758-7124-4e73-a420-6f0cb04babce>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://michellef.essdack.org/blog?page=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9458636045455933, "token_count": 641, "score": 3.984375, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Part 1: North Carolina's First Radio Stations, Part 2: Radio Enters Its \"Golden Age\" in North Carolina, Part 3: National Networks and Popular Local Shows and Personalities, Part 4: Radio Broadcasting and the Civil Rights Movement, Part 5: Growth of FM Stations and Increasing Corporate Ownership\nPart 3: National Networks and Popular Local Shows and Personalities\nWith the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 came a temporary freeze on radio station applications, which hampered smaller carriers. Through the 1940s, the airwaves were dominated by the four major broadcast networks:NBC, ABC, CBS, and the now-defunct Mutual Broadcasting System. In addition to war-related news, the networks provided a wealth of block programming-from serialized dramas to live performances. Comedy shows featuring Fred Allen, Jack Benny, George Burns, and Gracie Allen, along with dramas such as the Lux Radio Theater, Orson Welles's Mercury Theatre on the Air, and The Guiding Light, made radio the centerpiece of family entertainment. Kay Kyser joined the ranks of big band leaders like Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller, and Duke Ellington on nationally broadcast shows.\nDespite the networks' seeming monopoly of radio real estate, small stations still managed to spring up across North Carolina. Mount Airy's WPAQ, after its birth in 1948, began broadcasting live string band performances at 10,000 watts while also amassing a sizable catalog of traditional and folk music. In 1947 the North Carolina Association of Broadcasters was founded to provide support and information to state radio talent. Recognizable on-air personalities carved out reputations in the region. Greensboro native Edward R. Murrow moved on to a national audience, but local color ruled the state's airwaves. Commentators such as WBT's fiery, pulpit-tested J. S. Nathaniel Tross and WRAL's Fred Fletcher, known for his children's programming and traffic reports, were radio fixtures for years. Although by the 1950s television replaced radio as America's \"everyday\" medium, local radio fought the advance of network TV by filling spots on the airwaves normally overlooked by larger corporations, such as early morning time slots. For 30 years Grady Cole, beloved as \"Mr. Dixie,\" was the voice of WBT's sunrise schedule, providing farm reports, community announcements, weather reports, and more into the early 1960s.\nDevotion to certain broadcasters induced listeners to continue tuning in, either for a chance of catching the \"Voice of the Duke Blue Devils,\" announcer Lee Kirby, or the sweet sounds of Crackerjacks bandleader Arthur Smith. In addition to Grady Cole, WBT helped bring Charles H. Crutchfield, a station program director and the eventual president of Jefferson-Pilot Broadcasting, to prominence in the postwar years.\nKay Kyser and his band entertain U.S. Navy personnel during a live NBC radio broadcast of Kay Kyser's Kollege of Musical Knowledge, ca. 1943. North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Library.\n1 January 2006 | McFee, Philip; Williams, Wiley J.", "id": "<urn:uuid:2db9530b-1eef-408b-b391-307e06a9bc8f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://ncpedia.org/part-3-national-networks-and-popula", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9396709203720093, "token_count": 642, "score": 3.1875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Fri October 12, 2012\nFor Sale: A Chunk Of Mars\nOriginally published on Tue October 23, 2012 2:31 pm\nFew things are as rare as a piece of rock that falls from outer space and crashes onto Earth.\nAmong the most prized of these meteorites are from Mars. Friday, scientists describe the latest one discovered: It's called Tissint, and this weekend you can buy a piece of it.\nFirst, it's clear to experts that Tissint is extraordinary as well as extraterrestrial. It contains a unique story about Mars. Says meteoriticist Caroline Smith of the London Museum of Natural History: \"Many people think that this meteorite may well be one of the most important meteorites that have actually fallen in the last century.\"\nShe's one of those people.\nThe museum owns the biggest piece of Tissint, and Smith is one of the scientists who described it in the journal Science on Friday.\nTissint's journey began as basaltic volcanic rock on the Martian surface. Smith says scientists can tell liquid washed over the rock and weathered it. It deposited elements from Martian soil inside cracks in the rock. Then an object \u2014 probably an asteroid \u2014 smacked into Mars and blasted the rock into space. In July 2011, it flamed through the Earth's atmosphere and smashed into the Moroccan desert.\n\"The thing is, no matter how fantastic the robotic missions are, it's still not the same as being able to actually analyze a piece of rock in a laboratory on Earth,\" she says. \"So I think the big message here is that the meteorite is almost ground-truthing what we're actually seeing on Mars.\"\nThere are a few other Martian meteorites. But Tissint is special for several reasons. The impact that blew it off Mars melted part of its surface into smooth, black glass. That trapped bubbles of Martian atmosphere and elements inside, including cerium, an element scientists thought might be on Mars but weren't sure of. Also, its fragments were found quickly, so it hasn't been too contaminated by elements on Earth. It's also one of only five Martian meteorites that was observed hitting the Earth.\nScientists have just begun to tease out its story.\n\"Whenever I pick up a meteorite,\" says Smith, \"I get excited. Each of those stones is a little time capsule and a little space probe to actually help us understand how our solar system formed.\"\nBut the piece in London is just one of many that broke off Tissint as it hurtled through Earth's atmosphere. Where they ended up is a story that begins in Morocco.\nMeteorite scientist Hasnaa Chennaoui Aoudjehane at Hassan II Casablanca University had heard news of the fireball that lit up the sky in the summer of 2011. Last January she traveled 700 miles from Casablanca, over the Sahara, to find the \"strewn field\" \u2014 where pieces spread across the sand. She was not the first one there. \"The first thing that I see is hundreds of people in the middle of nowhere. And this is something that I will never forget.\"\nMen, women and children were camped out, hunting for the pieces. Meteorites are often found in North Africa \u2014 unusual rocks stand out in the desert \u2014 and they bring a good price.\nPeople brought pieces to her to identify. \"On the first view of the first sample, it's clear that it's a Martian meteorite,\" she says. Professional dealers scooped up most of the pieces. Aoudjehane bought some small pieces for her university in Casablanca, where laboratory tests confirmed what she'd recognized on sight \u2014 Martian rock. She's a co-author on the paper in Science.\nAbout the time Aoudjehane was collecting pieces, a meteorite collector and dealer in New York City named Darryl Pitt got a tip about fragments of Mars for sale. Pitt, who is curator of the Macovich Collection of meteorites, got money from a group of investors. A Moroccan dealer sold him a piece, dispatching his au pair to fly with it to New York City. \"Immediately after she clears customs, she reaches into her purse and gives me a packet and I'm looking around and looking at the cameras and thinking, 'Oh my golly, this is going to be a problem.' \" Not that it was illegal; the transaction just made it look suspicious.\nPitt bought or brokered the sale of more pieces, including the one that went to the London's Natural History Museum. \"It's important to make the material available to scientists and researchers first and foremost,\" he says. Collectors like Pitt have the time and means to cultivate contacts in places like Morocco, where the trade has flourished, especially among the Berber nomads. \"Several of these fellows that I know have become rich. A couple own hotels now. They're no longer trekking the desert. ... it's been really fantastic.\"\nThe museum's Caroline Smith agrees that collectors and scientists do help each other \u2014 the collectors to find meteorites, the scientists to analyze them. \"I would be not telling the truth if I said there was no tension with anything where large amounts of money is involved,\" she says. \"But I would like to stress that, you know, on the whole relationships are very good, it's a mutually beneficial arrangement in many cases.\" The trade does push up prices, sometimes beyond what scientists can afford. But Smith says sometimes collectors sell them to museums at a discount.\nOn Sunday, a piece of Tissint will be offered at a meteorite auction in Manhattan. It's billed as the biggest ever, and Pitt helped Heritage Auctions arrange it. There are pieces from the moon and from the asteroid belt. But Pitt says the Martian meteorites are the stars because they are so rare. All told on Earth, he says, \"You're talking like about 300 pounds of material. That's it. Mars is among the rarest substances on Earth.\"\nThe Tissint fragment at the auction starts at $230,000. As for potential buyers, Pitt says they're \"most anyone who has an appreciation for the exotic, the romantic. Anyone who wants to enthrall a child or anyone's sense of wonder. Radio hosts? Everyone.\" Pitt notes that the piece at the auction actually fits exactly into the piece at the London museum. He's hoping whoever buys it will reunite the two.", "id": "<urn:uuid:3b39cdc3-16a0-4ea5-990c-b8ddc934816f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://nipr.fm/post/sale-chunk-mars", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9701271057128906, "token_count": 1329, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Go to these sites to learn about a person in the news. Use the information you learn to answer the questions on your sheet:\nFOR FRIDAY ONLY:\nFirst, search for an interesting news story or article on anything you want. Use the news source links above to find it.\nNext, copy the web address of the article and paste it on Crocodoc.\nPaste the web address on Crocodoc. Use the highligher to highlight important or interesting information. Highlight five-to-seven words in each paragraph.\nNext, use the \u201cnotes\u201d to write two questions and two connections.\nFinally, copy and paste the web address of your page to the comments section of this post.", "id": "<urn:uuid:eb415896-bdc8-4170-81ed-454b2f298af3>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://sacschoolblogs.org/burbankeld/2010/04/20/learning-about-people-in-the-news/comment-page-1/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.8532810807228088, "token_count": 150, "score": 2.625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Photo by Brad Otto\nOne of the world\u2019s most technologically advanced floating nautical survey platforms has been anchored off Birch Bay for the past few weeks collecting data to update national nautical charts.\nThe Rainier, one of the research ships in the Pacific fleet of the National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA), is in the middle of a mission collecting data to update NOAA\u2019s nautical charts for the Strait of Georgia. Its work will eventually take it up the coast of Alaska.\nThe data will provide more information on the shoals in the vicinity of Cherry Point, which is the largest tanker port in Washington. This information will be helpful to the Puget Sound pilots who steer large tankers through the sound and the Strait of Georgia. The area has seen changes in vessel traffic recently due to the increased capacity of the facilities at Cherry Point, according to the NOAA website for the ship.\nThe Rainier, originally launched in 1967, is 231 feet long and weighs about 1,500 tons. It can house a total of 25 crew members and stay at sea for 22 days at a time. For more information on the Rainier, visit the ship\u2019s website.", "id": "<urn:uuid:04321915-588a-41c4-808e-13eafabed202>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://thenorthernlight.com/news/article.exm/2011-08-10_research_ship_anchored_off_birch_bay_collecting_data_for_nautical_charts", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9219110608100891, "token_count": 243, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "When Pablo Picasso presented his first cubist paintings to the world, even most educated people thought them hideous and irrational, yet his peers saw them to be ingenious.\nLikewise, Albert Einstein\u2019s theory of relativity was equally baffling to the uninitiated.\nBut to those who were knowledgeable about both art and physics, parallels would have been recognized between Einstein\u2019s new visions of reality and Picasso\u2019s paintings that could be viewed from multiple points of view in simultaneous space and time. They also would have guessed correctly that Picasso\u2019s revolutionary paintings were influenced by Einstein\u2019s visionary physics.\nAnd it has become evident to me, after working with science and art students for two years on collaborative projects, that the humanities and sciences must be united \u2013 for our collective future success.\nAt the highest levels of innovative thought, art and physics share one common goal: the investigation of reality.\nArt tends to communicate through metaphor and poetics. Science communicates through logic and mathematics. Both disciplines seek to foster and produce creative and innovative problem solvers.\nOne way students of the arts and sciences can communicate with one another to enhance opportunities for success and educational enrichment is through collaborative activities.\nTwo almost overlapping events in Orlando \u2013 a UCF/National Science Foundation-sponsored art exhibition and a national physics-students convention \u2013 serve as examples where both disciplines were enhanced by the other.\nOne event is a STEAM Exhibition, \u201cSearching for Ultimate Truth in Science and Art,\u201d to be held Thursday, Nov. 15, from 5:30 to 9 p.m. at UCF\u2019s Center for Emerging Media in downtown Orlando. STEAM stands for Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts and Mathematics, and the exhibition of paintings, posters and sculptures responds to and attempts to interpret current breakthroughs and issues in science.\nThe posters are a result of collaborations between science and art students. The works attempt to visually illustrate the complex concepts behind cutting-edge scientific research, some literally and others abstractly.\nThe paintings and sculptures are inspired by various presentations in science and engineering by UCF scientists and their students. In these pieces the art students have attempted to communicate their own imaginative conceptions of reality through visual metaphor. Some serve as commentaries on the potentials for both good and harm to humanity and the earth.\nThe other event was the Quadrennial Physics Congress, \u201cConnecting Worlds through Science and Service,\u201d this past weekend in Orlando. The theme was \u201cScientific Citizenship.\u201d\nAs a brochure announced: \u201cFrom global warming to Facebook to the International Space Station, we\u2019re realizing now, more than ever, how connected we all are \u2013 as physicists, as scientists, as members of society, as humans, and as part of a vast universe.\u201d\nAt the congress, it was repeatedly acknowledged that as scientific research and knowledge become increasingly more specialized and complex, outreach and education becomes more important.\nTwo popular sessions during the gathering highlighted that one way to communicate complex ideas is through art and emerging media.\nAn example of a professional who has crossed both disciplines is Henry Reich, the creator and animator of a popular YouTube video series called \u201cMinutePhysics\u201d that explains \u201ccool topics in physics.\u201d Another example in which science and the humanities converge in contemporary pop culture is the TV sitcom \u201cThe Big Bang Theory.\u201d At the Physics Congress we met David Saltzberg, who is the science consultant to the show. His contribution is to work with the artists \u2013 the script writers, art directors, prop designers and actors \u2013 to make sure the science behind the show is correct.\nUniversity undergraduate and graduate arts programs across the country are encouraging and teaching students to reach out into their communities to initiate and facilitate public art and collaborative art-related activities among citizens.\nLike scientists, artists realize their discipline is in no way isolated.\nJordan Guzman, a Bachelor of Fine Arts painting major, won a first-place award in the art contest at the Physics Congress in the category of \u201cConnecting Worlds.\u201d She and many other art students at UCF are becoming increasingly intrigued with science, especially physics, because of educational collaborations between the arts and sciences through UCF\u2019s 2-year-old STEAM project.\nThe first UCF STEAM exhibition of science-themed artworks was last spring. More than 500 visitors attended the two-day exhibition, many of whom were K-12 students.\nThe artworks provided a visual doorway to the science behind the images, sparking enthusiasm and conversation about both the science and the art. The show illustrated how images that emerge from collaborations between science and art students can provide provocative points of view to contemplate and discuss outside the traditional science classroom.\nAs Florida and other states wrestle with current pressing issues of how best to fund and facilitate effective educational preparedness for future students, perhaps legislators could take a larger view of the long-term issues facing our young people.\nA solid education offers opportunities for students to become innovative problem solvers by encouraging them to seek out unanticipated interdisciplinary connectedness and by exposing students to more \u2013 not less \u2013 diversity.\nUCF Forum columnist Carla Poindexter is an associate professor of fine art at the University of Central Florida and can be reached at Carla.Poindexter@ucf.edu.", "id": "<urn:uuid:30ebcc02-6fea-4854-85ff-95f5862a69c7>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://today.ucf.edu/ucf-forum-humanities-sciences-must-be-united-for-our-collective-success/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9638907313346863, "token_count": 1105, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Wed December 5, 2012\nHow History Created The Cult Of The Catcher\nNEAL CONAN, HOST:\nEarlier this week, Deacon White was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. And yes, we know, you've never heard of him. White's career began in 1871, at the dawn of professional baseball. He played catcher in the days when catchers use no equipment at all: no glove, no pads, no facemask. They became heroes celebrated for their courage and their wits, and Deacon White stood out as one of the best.\nBaseball historian Peter Morris serves on what used to be called the Veteran's Committee at Cooperstown. It's now called the Pre-Integration Era Committee. He's also the author of \"Catcher: How the Man Behind the Plate Became an American Folk Hero\" and joins us now from the studios at Michigan Radio in Ann Arbor. Good to have you with us today.\nPETER MORRIS: My pleasure to be here, Neal.\nCONAN: And in your book, you argue that the generation that came of age after the Civil War looked around for some heroes and found them behind home plate.\nMORRIS: Yeah. It's hard to understand today just how much the catcher, especially in the 1870s, dominated the baseball game. A single baseball game was - really revolved around the catcher's ability to harness what the pitcher was pitching, and everything revolves around that. The pitcher couldn't use his best pitches if he had - he didn't have confident - confidence in the catcher.\nSo he really was a sort of iconic folk hero, dominated the game in a way that I think no player ever has before or since and - at a point to where people resented it and would say, you know, this is a game played by two players while the other seven just kind of watch.\nCONAN: The pitcher and the catcher and everybody else watches. The catcher's - well, we are familiar with the crouched position right behind home plate. That was not what they did in the 1870s.\nMORRIS: No. They stood, sometimes a little stooped but mostly straight up, and they would just catch the ball and be ready to throw it to bases immediately. And the way that they would throw it sort of made them look like gunslingers. And so that really fed into the whole icon of them, the whole idea of them as American folk heroes.\nCONAN: Folk heroes. Give us some idea. You quote any number of sources, literary and otherwise, in your book who worshipped these men.\nMORRIS: Yeah. One of the most prominent was Stephen Crane, the great American novelist, and he really - most of his preparation for writing the \"The Red Badge of Courage\" and his other novels was spent being a catcher. And in fact, he really had two very unsuccessful stints in college where he spent most of his time trying to be the catcher for the college nine and didn't go to too many classes. And really, all he developed was a kind of love of baseball and a sense of what it took to be - to have great courage. And I think both of those really fed into \"The Red Badge of Courage.\"\nCONAN: And courage, we see the beating that catchers take today. They got the same foul tips and balls off their various parts of their body back then too.\nMORRIS: Oh, it was tremendously difficult position to be in. You were right in the line of fire, and of course, you know, you could be the most prepared possible and then the batter might foul tip it. And it would just, you know, the angle will change just enough that it would, you know, hit your forehead usually. And a few of them had such great reflex. I mean, Deacon White was known for his great reflexes and became an incredibly durable catcher. But it was sort of known that, you know, if you put a neophyte behind a plate, he would usually get injured within an inning or two. That was - the danger was so great.\nCONAN: And the early history of baseball is replete with teams that raided other teams for their catchers.\nMORRIS: Oh, and particularly in the 1870s that the best teams were the ones with the best catchers. You really couldn't be successful without one. And Deacon White stood above everybody else to the point where he played on five consecutive championship teams. And he went from team to team and the championship just followed him around wherever he went.\nCONAN: He was quite a good hitter too.\nMORRIS: He was a great hitter. He was a way above-average hitter, playing a position where, you know, the defense was so all-encompassing as a skill that you could, you know, you could really just put anybody there if they could field the position and not worry about their bat. But he was a consistent .300 and above hitter.\nCONAN: And I wonder - statistics then and now are so different. The game essentially was so different. When you were talking with the people on the Veterans Committee about Deacon White, what were you saying that finally convinced them that this man, at long last, deserves to be in the Hall of Fame?\nMORRIS: Well, we had some great conversations about what it took to play the position. And you know, Bob Watson, who started out as a catcher, was one of the committee members. Phil Niekro, Bert Blyleven and Don Sutton, Pat Gillick, all pitchers, all Hall Famers, were really able to add a lot of insight to what it must have been like.\nAnd the other - one of the main things we talked about was just how they played much shorter schedules in the 1870s. So when you look at career statistics, that's a huge distortion. Deacon White ended up with 2,000 career hits, but he was playing in a - in an average of 40, 50, 60-game schedules a year. So there was no way to generate the kind of career milestones that we look at as benchmarks today. You know, 3,000 hits would be all but impossible. And 2,000 was a terrific accomplishment.\nCONAN: And the number of errors he recorded even as a great defensive catcher would have been, you know, totally unacceptable by today's standards.\nMORRIS: Oh, exactly. Yeah. And again, an issue where we had to really sort of look at what - compare him to people from his own era. And when we did that, you know, it became really obvious just how much he stood above his contemporaries.\nCONAN: Are the records from those days good enough that you have reliable accounts of who was good and who was great?\nMORRIS: Well, they're getting a lot better. I mean, we have a very good full statistical record now. We're getting a better sense - it's becoming easier and easier to get back to the contemporary accounts of them in the newspapers and generate an idea from it then. And you know, the trouble over the years in putting people in the Hall of Fame has been that that's been either on a partial statistical record or, you know, after all their contemporaries are dead, so we don't have that record. And of course we can never bring those people back to life.\nBut by accessing the newspaper accounts, we can get a better sense of it, and I think it's really encouraging to be able - to be able to - to be on a committee that, I think, did such great work in bringing back an era that happened so long ago that even when the Hall of Fame was founded in 1939, it was ancient history back then.\nCONAN: And it's interesting, your book had pictures of the hands of some of the great catchers of those days, gnarled and twisted. Anybody who played catcher could expect to be crippled - their hands - for the rest of their lives.\nMORRIS: Exactly. And people would say, you know, I don't know what this guy looks like but just look for a catcher's hands. And as soon as you'll see - you see those hands, you recognize, oh, that's - that must be who it was.\nCONAN: Are there stories about Deacon White? You mentioned he traveled from team to team. I guess he had one fantastic year in Boston. But what kind of a man was he? Do we know?\nMORRIS: He was a really high-character man. In a time when baseball had a lot of guys who spent their evenings drinking and carousing, Deacon - he was known as Deacon because he went to church and he was a Sunday school teacher. And family came absolutely first for him.\nAnd so the only season in his first 15 years in the big leagues where he missed any significant amount of time was when his father was ill. And when his father passed away, he signed a new contract to come back and play. But he actually signed it - he signed a very unique contract that said he would only have to play for two months, and then he could decide for himself whether he needed to go back home when the harvest was ready to (unintelligible) ready and his mother would need help around the house. So he was a man of family.\nHe was - family came first and his religion came first. He never played on a Sunday. And he was teammates with Connie Mack and Billy Sunday towards the end of his career. So...\nCONAN: Two other well-known gentleman of the game, yes.\nCONAN: And it's interesting, you talked about the hero worship these catchers generated in the 1870s. When protective equipment did start to come in, gloves and then masks and pads, Roger Bresnahan and shin guards, that - the view of the catcher began to change.\nMORRIS: Exactly. It really - in a way it almost emasculated what had been this ultimate American hero. And instead of, you know, being able to look at themselves as this sort of ultimate warrior, this ultimate gunslinger, they started to see themselves, you know, they would - people would make fun of them, you know, this man with a mattress on, this man with a bustle on his face. You know, people would compare the mask to a bustle, which is part of a woman's dress, and it was very, you know, very insulting. And a lot of catchers had a really hard time adjusting to that.\nCONAN: And the gloves were pretty primitive by today's standards, but even the first ones were no more than just a pad, I guess, on the palm of the hand. The fingers were left exposed.\nMORRIS: Exactly. Because the idea was you really - you had to catch the ball with both hands and then throw it with one. So catchers would have really very light gloves on both hands. And often they just cut the fingers off altogether because the idea was you would catch it, you would catch it like a spring, kind of like a receiver catches the ball where you just - you let it hit your hands and your hands moved back. And then you have to immediately adjust into the throwing position. So again, very much like a gunslinger.\nCONAN: And it's interesting. As you talk about this, the catcher today has regained some of that reputation from those days.\nMORRIS: I think so. I think the catcher's toughness is really recognized. And also, the catcher's unique position, as somebody who's part of the offense and part of the defense, plays a key role in what the pitcher throws and the pitcher's ability to throw, you know, particularly balls in the dirt, which are very hard.\nYou know, if you don't have a good catcher back there, then the whole team is lost. And so I think the catcher has really started to regain the reputation of being a key contributor to both, and I think that's why so many great managers are former catchers.\nCONAN: We've been talking about Deacon White, the newest member of baseball's Hall of Fame. Baseball historian Peter Morris, thanks very much for your time today.\nMORRIS: You're very welcome. Thank you.\nCONAN: Peter Morris wrote the book \"Catcher: How the Man Behind the Plate Became an American Folk Hero\" and joined us from the studios at Michigan Radio in Ann Arbor. It's the TALK OF THE NATION from NPR News. 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{"text": "- Historic Sites\nThe Great Diamond Fraud\nTwo slick miners fooled Tiffanys and Rothschilds until a geologist found the fake \u201cmountain of gems\u201d\nFebruary 1956 | Volume 7, Issue 2\nIn England, Baron Rothschild was watching developments. After the testimony of Tiffany and Janin, the Baron ordered his agents to get control of the gem enterprise. Ralston laughed at this move but he had Rothschild\u2019s agent, A. Gansel, elected to the board of directors.\nMeanwhile, Arnold and Slack decided they had had enough of the last company. After showing several corporation officials how to locate the diamond field, they sold out. They took for their interest $300,000 each and a percentage of the future profits.\nKing and Gardner still were sure that the mine was fraudulent, and they decided that they must talk to Henry Janin. Since they did not expect Janin to want to talk to them, they learned where he customarily ate dinner and waited for two days until he appeared. When he entered the restaurant, King invited Janin to eat with them.\nTo their astonishment, Janin opened the conversation by asking if they had heard about the Arizona diamond discovery. He was proud that his name was associated with it.\nHe related that the journey on horseback had followed an erratic course. Even with their blindfolds, he could tell that at times Arnold and Slack seemed lost. Perplexed, they argued about the position of the sun; Arnold left the party to climb a high peak in search of landmarks. Long after the San Franciscans were ready to give up the search, the guides removed their blindfolds and announced that they had reached their goal. The spot was at a high elevation, about 7,000 feet above sea level, and near a conical mountain.\nImmediately all fatigue and irritation disappeared. The party began to scratch and dig where Arnold and Slack pointed. Within ten minutes a San Franciscan found a diamond. Then they all began to have fantastic success. Diamonds were everywhere; occasionally the hunters found a ruby, a garnet, a sapphire, or an emerald. Janin swore that twenty rough laborers could wash out a million dollars\u2019 worth of diamonds per month indefinitely.\nWhen Janin was spent, King and Gardner began a cross-examination. \u201cOf course, you know exactly where the place is?\u201d King asked.\n\u201cNo. No, I don\u2019t. I was taken a long distance on a train, about 36 hours. Then we left the railroad at some small station where there was no attendant. We were brought out of the station blindfolded and put on horses which our guides secured in some way. For two days we rode, and at last they took our blinds off when we got to this mountain. If I hadn\u2019t gone through it all myself, I should hardly believe it.\u201d\n\u201cWhy?\u201d Gardner asked.\n\u201cIt\u2019s a curious place, a desert with a conical but flattopped mountain rising right out of it, and on the mountain you find everything from garnets to diamonds!\u201d\nKing then commented, \u201cIt\u2019s a pity you had such had weather to ride in.\u201d\n\u201cWhy, we had splendid weather,\u201d Janin said. \u201cIn fact, we had the sun in our laces for the entire two days during the trip; it was quite too hot.\u201d\nWhen the mining expert left, King explained to Gardner why he had asked Janin about the weather, Janin was fooled about the mine\u2019s location, or he had not been entirely frank with them. It was impossible to get to Arizona by a 36-hour train trip followed by a two-day ride on horseback. Thirty-six hours on the Central Pacific would have taken the party east of Promontory Point in Utah and on into Wyoming. This checked with some information they had about rainfall. Almost all the mountainous areas in Nevada and Utah had been covered with rains and storms at the time of the trip, yet Janin had said that his trip was dry. Only southwestern Wyoming and northern Utah had escaped the deluge. The party must have been traveling generally southward since Janin made such a point about facing the sun for the entire day. Unless they had wound and twisted a great deal, two days\u2019 trip to the south would have taken them into Utah.\nKing and Gardner studied their maps. They had a faint recollection ol the mountain Janin had described, but neither could place it exactly. In a few minutes, they found such a mountain on the edge of the Uinta Range east of Salt Lake City, which they had surveyed only a year before.\nThirty-six hours later, King arrived at Rawlings Springs, near what is now Green River, Wyoming. Here he hired an elderly German prospector who had some horses to carry the barometers, transits, sextants, food and books King found necessary for all his trips. King and the German cut across Red Canyon and the valley of the Green River and up into the gulches and ravines of the Uinta foothills, about 140 miles east of Salt Lake City. Finally they climbed onto the mountain of their destination, Table Rock, a plateau of 6,840 feet elevation. They arrived on November 2.\nAt first they found nothing. Quickly satisfied that their search was profitless. King quit scratching around in the rocks and began to took supper; the old prospector, however, still continued digging, just as the meal was ready, the German called from a spot several hundred feet from their camp site. He had discovered what |an!n and the San Francisco reports had promised: raw diamonds, emeralds, rubies and sapphires.\nThe geologist and the prospector pitched camp and went to bed, but neither of them slept much. At sunrise, the prospector was again scurrying around picking up the valuable stones. Suddenly he held up a stone and shouted, \u201cLook, Mr. King. This diamond field not only produces diamonds but cuts them also!\u201d", "id": "<urn:uuid:98155224-27f8-4e16-87d3-adf529b28e1f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.americanheritage.com/content/great-diamond-fraud?page=3&nid=50757", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.986162543296814, "token_count": 1281, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Family Maps of Hancock County, Illinois\nby Gregory A. Boyd, J.D. 328 pages with 83 total maps\nLocating original landowners in maps has never been an easy task-until now. This volume in the Family Maps series contains newly created maps of original landowners (patent maps) in what is now Hancock County, Illinois\n, gleaned from the indexes of the Illinois State Archives. But it offers much more than that. For each township in the county, there are two additional maps accompanying the patent map: a road map and a map showing waterways, railroads, and both modern and many historical city-centers and cemeteries.\nIncluded are indexes to help you locate what you are looking for, whether you know a person's name, a last name, a place-name, or a cemetery. The combination of maps and indexes are designed to aid researchers of American history or genealogy to explore frontier neighborhoods, examine family migrations, locate hard-to-find cemeteries and towns, as well as locate land based on legal descriptions found in old documents or deeds.\nThe patent-maps are essentially plat maps but instead of depicting owners for a particular year, these maps show original landowners, no matter when the transfer from the federal government was completed. Dates of patents typically begin near the time of statehood and run into the early 1900s.\nList of Details Found Below . . . What's Mapped in his book? What YEARS are these maps for? What Cities and Towns are in Hancock County, Illinois (and in this book)? Acts of Congress Authorizing . . . Indexes in this book Reviews by the Experts . . . Surnames found in this book Book Specifications\nWhat's Mapped in this book (that you'll not likely find elsewhere) . . .\n3877 Parcels of Land (with original landowner names and patent-dates labeled in the relevant map)\n93 Cemeteries plus . . .\nRoads, and existing Rivers, Creeks, Streams, Railroads, and Small-towns (including some historical), etc.Back to Top of Description\nWhat YEARS are these maps for?\nHere are the counts for parcels of land mapped, by the decade in which the patent applications were made:\nBack to Top of Description\nWhat Cities and Towns are in Hancock County, Illinois (and in this book)?\nAdrian, Augusta, Basco, Bentley, Bowen, Breckenridge, Burnside, Carthage, Chili, Colusa, Dallas City, Denver, Disco, Durham, Elderville, Elvaston, Ferris, Fountain Green, Hamilton, Joetta, La Crosse, La Harpe, McCall, Middle Creek, Nauvoo, Niota, Old Niota, Plymouth, Pontoosuc, Powellton, Pulaski, Quashquema (historical), Saint Mary, Sonora (historical), Stillwell, Sutter, Tioga, Warsaw, Webster, West PointBack to Top of Description\nActs of Congress Authorizing the Land Patents in this book:\nApril 24, 1820: Sale-Cash Entry (3 Stat. 566)\nMay 6, 1812: ScripWarrant Act of 1812 (2 Stat. 728)Back to Top of Description\nIndexes in this book\n-Surnames in the County * number of times each Surname occurs\n-Surname/Township Index * every Surname and the frequency in which each appears in relevant Township-level Maps\n-Full-Name Index (of Original Landowners) for each Township\n-Multi-Patentees (Groups of people who acquired land together)Back to Top of Description\nReviews by the Experts\nWhat they are saying about the Family Maps\nBack to Top of Description\n- instant gratification! - Elizabeth Shown Mills, Author, Evidence Explained: Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace\n- incredible on-going series . . . - Christine Rose, Author, Courthouse Research for Family Historians\n- must have publications . . . - Dick Eastman, Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter\n- a great service . . . - Sharon Tate Moody, former President, Association of Professional Genealogists\nSURNAMES found in this Book:\nABBOT, ABBOTT, ABEL, ABERNATHY, ABERNETHY, ACCOR, ADAMS, AGNEW, AIRS, ALBRIGHT, ALDRICH, ALEXANDER, ALLARD, ALLEN, ALLISON, ALLTON, ALTERFIET, AMBLER, AMES, AMOS, ANDERSON, ANDREWS, ANGEL, ANNIS, ANSON, ARCHDEACON, ARCHER, ARMSTRONG, ASHER, ASHLEY, ATCHISON, ATHERTON, ATKINS, AUGUR, AUSTIN, AUTINGER, AVERY, AVISE, AYERS, AYLWARD, AYRES, BABBIT, BABCOCK, BABCOOK, BACON, BAGBY, BAILES, BAILEY, BAINTER, BAKER, BALDWIN, BALL, BANCROFT, BANGS, BARBER, BARGER, BARKER, BARLOW, BARNES, BARNETHY, BARNUM, BARR, BARRET, BARRETT, BARROW, BARTLETT, BARTOL, BARTON, BASELY, BASS, BATES, BATTELL, BAYARD, BEALS, BEAMER, BEAN, BEARD, BEASELY, BEATTLE, BEATY, BEAUSSEIR, BECK, BECKWITH, BEDELL, BEDINGER, BEEBE, BEEBEE, BEEDE, BEEDLE, BEEHLER, BELKNAP, BEMAR, BENBOW, BENDER, BENNETT, BENNUM, BENSON, BENTON, BERLSTEIN, BERNARD, BERRY, BERTHOLD, BESOM, BETTESWORTH, BETTING, BETTISWORTH, BIBB, BIGFORD, BINGHAM, BIRD, BISBEE, BISSELL, BITHER, BIXBY, BIXLEY, BLACK, BLACKBURN, BLACKMAN, BLACKWELL, BLAGG, BLAKE, BLAND, BLAUVELT, BLOOMFIELD, BLOYD, BLYTHE, BOBBIT, BOBBITT, BOCKOUR, BODWELL, BOHANNAN, BOID, BOLDEN, BOLTON, BONCK, BOND, BONE, BONNER, BONNY, BOOTH, BOOTHE, BOSTROM, BOTHWICK, BOTTS, BOUCK, BOURNE, BOWEN, BOWLES, BOWLSBY, BOWMAN, BOWTELL, BOX, BOYD, BOYDE, BOYLE, BOYNTON, BRADBURY, BRADFORD, BRADISH, BRADLEY, BRADLY, BRADY, BRAFFORD, BRAGDON, BRAGG, BRANSFORD, BRANTON, BRATTAIN, BRENT, BREWER, BREWSTER, BRIANT, BRIDGES, BRIGGS, BRIGHT, BRILEY, BRINKMAN, BRINN, BRISLOW, BROCK, BROCKWAY, BRODHEAD, BROOK, BROOKS, BROSS, BROUGHTON, BROWER, BROWN, BROWNELL, BROWNING, BRUMLEY, BRUNSON, BRYANT, BRYERLY, BUCHANAN, BUCK, BUCKALEW, BUCKALLEW, BUCKELS, BUCKEN, BUDD, BUGBY, BULLARD, BUNDAGE, BUNNELL, BUNTON, BURGAN, BURGESS, BURGMAN, BURK, MCALLISTER, MCARTHUR, MCATEE, MCAULEY, ST CLAIR, BURKE, BURKLOW, BURNHAM, BURNS, BURROWS, BURRS, BURTON, BUSAN, BUSEY, BUSHNELL, BUTCHER, BUTLER, BYER, BYRAM, BYRE, CABAN, CAIN, CALL, CALLIGHAN, CALLISON, CALUMBER, CALVER, CAMBSON, CAMBURN, CAMEREN, CAMPBELL, CAMPUNELL, CAMREN, CAMRON, CANE, CANNON, CAPPENGER, CARELS, CARGILL, CARL, CARMACK, CARMEAN, CARNS, CARPENTER, CARR, CARRIER, CARSON, CARTEN, CARTER, CASE, CASH, CASON, CASS, CASSON, CASTLEBERRY, CASTLEBURY, CASWELL, CATLIN, CAUGHLAN, CAULDER, CAVAN, CAVEN, CAZE, CHADBOURN, CHADWICK, CHAMBERLAIN, CHAMBERS, CHAMPINOISE, CHAMPLIN, CHANDLER, CHANEY, CHAPMAN, CHARLES, CHASE, CHATTIN, CHEDAL, CHENEY, CHILDERS, CHILDRESS, CHITTENDEN, CHRISTEE, CLANDENNING, CLAPP, CLARK, CLARKSON, CLAUGES, CLAY, CLAYBORN, CLEAVELAND, CLEMANS, CLEMENTS, CLEMONS, CLEWLEY, CLOSE, COARSER, COCHRAN, COCHRANE, COCKRUM, COFFIN, COFFMAN, COFRAN, COLBURN, COLBY, COLE, COLEBY, COLEMAN, COLFIX, COLLINGS, COLLINS, COMBS, COMINGS, COMLEY, CONANT, CONDER, CONKLIN, CONNALLY, CONNELL, CONNER, CONNOR, CONRAD, COOK, COOKE, COOLEY, COOLIDGE, COON, COOPER, CORDLE, COREY, CORMICK, CORSON, COSGROVE, COSNER, COSSAGE, COTTON, COUNSE, COURSAN, COURTNEY, COX, CRABBIN, CRAFT, CRAIG, CRAMPSEY, CRANDALL, CRANE, CRAVEN, CRAWFORD, CRENSHAW, CROCKETT, CROSIER, CROSS, CROUCH, CROW, CROWLEY, CROZIER, CRULL, CRUMB, CRUSON, CRUTCHFIELD, CUDDEBACK, CULKIN, CULPEPPER, CUMMINGS, CUMMINS, CUNNINGHAM, CURL, CURRAN, CURTIS, CUSHING, CUSHMAN, CUTERAL, CUTLER, CYRUS, DABLER, DACKER, DAILEY, DALE, DALTON, DAME, DANIELS, DARBY, DARNALL, DARRAH, DAUBENHEYER, DAVIS, DAWSON, DAY, DE GAFFARELLY, DE LONG, DE WITT, DEAKINS, DEAN, DECOSTER, DEDMAN, DELANY, DELLICA, DELLING, DELONGE, DEMING, DEMPSEY, DENISON, DENNEY, DENNINGSBURY, DENNIS, DENNISTON, DENNY, DENTON, DENYKE, DESNOYER, DEVOLLD, DEWEY, DEWING, DICKENS, DICKERSON, DICKINSON, DICUS, DIETZ, DILDAY, DILL, DILLETT, DILLON, DILTS, DIMICK, DIMOND, DISNEY, DOANE, DODD, DODGE, DODSON, DOLEBY, DOLIBAR, DONELLY, DONMEAD, DONOHO, DOOLITTLE, DORMAN, DOROTHY, DOSS, DOTY, DOUD, DOUGHERTY, DOUGHTY, DOUGLASS, DOW, DOWELL, DOWNING, 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VANGEESEN, VANNEST, VARNEY, VAWTER, VENARD, VERMULE, VICKORY, VINEYARD, VINICA, VINTON, VITTUM, VIVRETT, VOWELL, VULGERMITT, WADDILL, WADE, WADKINS, WAGGONER, WAITE, WAKEMAN, WALDO, WALDREN, WALKER, WALLACE, WALTER, WALTON, WARD, WARENER, WARNER, WARREN, WASHBURN, WASSOM, WASSON, WATERHOUSE, WATSON, WATT, WATTS, WAY, WAYBOURN, WEAKLEY, WEAVER, WEBB, WEBBER, WEBSTER, WEDGE, WEED, WEEKS, WELCH, WELDON, WELLINGTON, WELLS, WELP, WELSH, WENTWORTH, WEST, WESTBROOK, WESTON, WHALEY, WHEELER, WHEELOCK, WHETSTONE, WHIDDEN, WHIPPLE, WHITAKER, WHITCOMB, WHITE, WHITEMAN, WHITFORD, WHITING, WHITMORE, WHITNEY, WHITTAKER, WHITTALL, WHITTEMORE, WHITTINGTON, WHITTLESEY, WHITTON, WIGGINS, WIGHTMAN, WILCOX, WILDS, WILKE, WILKENSON, WILKIE, WILKINS, WILKINSON, WILLETT, WILLEY, WILLIAMS, WILLIAMSON, WILLIS, WILLS, WILLSON, WILSEY, WILSON, WILTON, WIMP, WINN, WINSHIP, WINSLOW, WINSTEAD, WINTERS, WISE, WITTON, WOLCOTT, WOOD, WOODARD, WOODBURN, WOODCOCK, WOODEN, WOODRAM, WOODS, WOODSWORTH, WOODY, WOOLWORTH, WORK, WORKMAN, WORRELL, WORTH, WRIGHT, WYATT, WYNE, WYRE, YAGER, YARBOROUGH, YATES, YEATON, YETTER, YORK, YOUNG, YOUNGBLOOD, ZELLERS, ZERBYBack to Top of Description\nBack to Top of Description\n|Binding Option||Copyright Year||Dimensions||ISBN||ISBN13|\n|Paperback||2010||8-5/16\" x 10-3/4\"||1420311654||9781420311655|\n|Spiral-bound||2005||8-1/2\" x 11\" (plus coil)||1420301543||9781420301540|\n|Hardbound||2009||8-1/2\" x 11\"||1420301535||9781420301533|", "id": "<urn:uuid:4c310970-4539-4291-b9c4-0b5f625adc9a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.arphax.com/store/index.php?route=product/product&path=59_65&product_id=109", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.6960692405700684, "token_count": 8154, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Toddlers are just like the rest of us \u2013 they don't always listen. In fact, at their age they need you to teach them how to pay attention. \"But what often happens,\" says Roni Leiderman, associate dean of the Family Center at Nova Southeastern University in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, \"is that parents say something ten times, then they start counting down to punishment. What this does is actually condition the child not to listen until the tenth time.\"\nBy not listening, your child is getting your attention (though constant nagging isn't the best form of it). But being a good listener helps your child learn more effectively, obey warnings, get along better with you and her teachers and other adults she'll be expected to heed, and make better friends.\nThere are many simple strategies that, when consistently followed, teach toddlers the skills they need to become good listeners. And, as Leiderman points out, \"It's never too early to begin teaching your child. A toddler may not listen as well as a 5-year-old, but she still has lots of these skills.\"\nGet on his level.\nAs every parent realizes sooner or later, bellowing from a great height (much less from the other room) rarely has the desired effect. Squat down or pick your child up, so you can look him in the eye and grab his attention.\nHe'll listen much more closely if you sit down next to him at the breakfast table when reminding him to eat up his cornflakes, or perch on his bed at night when telling him you're about to turn out the light. Eye contact is critical and most effective when you're face-to-face with your child.\nState your message clearly, simply, and authoritatively. Your child will zone out if you harp on a topic too long. It's hard to find the point of a wordy message such as \"It's really cold outside, and you've been sick lately, so I want you to put on your sweater before we go to the store.\"\nOn the other hand, \"It's time to get your sweater\" is unmistakable. And don't phrase something as a question if your child doesn't actually have a choice. \"It's time to climb into your car seat\" has a lot more impact than \"Come climb into your car seat, okay, honey?\"\nIt's good to give toddlers choices, too. Just be sure you're okay with the options you offer \u2013 and stick with only two. By allowing your toddler to make limited choices, she'll feel empowered (and you'll be satisfied with the result).\nFollow through \u2014 quickly.\nMake it clear that you mean what you say, and don't make threats \u2013 or promises \u2013 you won't keep. If you tell your 2-year-old, \"You need to drink some milk at dinnertime,\" don't waffle five minutes later and let him have juice instead. If you warn him he'll have a time-out if he hits his brother, give him that time-out when the blow comes.\nMake sure your spouse or partner shares your rules and respects them as well, so that neither of you undermines the other. And if there's a disagreement, talk it through so you're both clear about what needs to be said or done when the issue comes up again (as it surely will).\nIn addition, make your follow-through speedy. You would never expect to have to shout \"Don't run across the street!\" five times before your child stops.\nIt's also important for your child to know when something is especially dangerous and for you to demonstrate a safe way to approach the situation. For example, when your child crosses the street, always hold his hand \u2013 that way he'll associate the danger of cars with being careful.\nAnd don't fall into the trap of repeating less urgent instructions, such as \"Set your cup on the table,\" over and over again before expecting your child to comply. Gently guide your child's hand to place the cup on the table so he knows exactly what you want him to do.\nReinforce your message.\nIt often helps to follow up your verbal statement with a number of other kinds of messages, especially if you are trying to pull your child away from an absorbing activity. Say \"Time for bed!\" and then give a visual cue (flicking the light switch on and off), a physical cue (laying a hand on her shoulder to gently pull her attention away from her doll and toward you), and a demonstration (steering her toward her bed, pulling down the covers, and patting the pillow).\nGive your child some advance notice before a big change will take place, especially if he's happily involved with toys or a friend. Before you're ready to leave the house, say, \"We're going to leave in a few minutes. When I call you, it's time to come out of the sandbox and wash your hands.\"\nGive realistic instructions \u2013 and make them fun.\n\"If you tell a 2-year-old to put her toys away, she looks around the room and says, 'Sheesh!'\" says Leiderman. \"Give realistic tasks, like 'Let's put the yellow blocks away.' Then you can make it into play: 'Good, now let's put the blue blocks away.'\"\nYelling orders may produce results (in some children), but no one will enjoy the process. Most children respond best when you treat them with confident good humor. For example, occasionally use a silly voice or a song to deliver your message. You might sing, \"Now it's time to brush your teeth\" to the tune of \"London Bridge.\"\nStress the benefits of complying over mere dutifulness (\"Brush your teeth and then you can pick out your favorite jammies\" instead of \"You have to brush your teeth or you'll get cavities\" or \"Brush your teeth now!\"). Praise him when he finishes brushing, with \"Good listening!\"\nThe good humor, affection, and trust you demonstrate to your child when speaking to him this way will make him want to listen to you, because he'll know that you love him and think he's special. This is an important aspect of even those strategies that require firmness.\nGiving straightforward, authoritative instructions does not mean you have to be crabby \u2013 such messages are much more powerful when accompanied by a hug or a smile. Then your child learns that paying attention to you is worthwhile.\nModel good behavior.\nPreschoolers will be better listeners if they see that you are a good listener, too. Make it a habit to listen to your child as respectfully as you would to any adult. Look at her when she talks to you, respond politely, and let her finish without interrupting whenever possible.\nWhile it may seem like a tall order when you're cooking dinner and your toddler is being especially chatty, try not to walk away from her or turn your back on her while she's talking. As with so many other behaviors, the old advice \"Do as I say, not as I do\" has no value when teaching your children to listen.\nCatch your child being good.\nHow often do you talk to your child about what he's doing wrong? Would you want to listen to someone \u2013 like your boss, for example \u2013 who only gave you negative guidance? Your child is more likely to listen to you if you notice when he's behaving well and comment on it. \"You put your blocks away the first time I asked. Good job!\" or \"You were very gentle with the puppy. I'm proud of you!\" Make sure you give your toddler plenty of positive reinforcement and he'll be less likely to tune you out when you need to steer him back on course.\nNumerous books provide sound advice in this area. Among the most popular are How to Talk So Kids Will Listen, and Listen So Kids Will Talk, by Adele Faber and Elaine Mazlish, Discipline Without Spanking or Shouting, by Jerry Wyckoff and Barbara Unell, and Raising Your Spirited Child, by Mary Sheedy Kurcinka.", "id": "<urn:uuid:808d1345-3e20-4e86-b2b6-1693f756111f>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.babycenter.com/0_getting-your-toddler-to-listen_11531.bc?intcmp=Nav_HP_Hero4", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9732331037521362, "token_count": 1682, "score": 2.890625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Gamification is about taking the essential ingredients of a game and applying them to real-world, non-game situations. By introducing game mechanics such as rules, challenges and rewards for achievements; businesses can not only increase the fun factor, but most importantly motivate and engage their audience.\nEarly endeavors have proven that a healthy dose of competition really can make all the difference. Training, for example, is key to any business, yet traditional teaching methods are often more likely to induce slumber than an expansion of expertise. Here, gamification can provide a very real solution; but it\u2019s not as simple as providing points or badges for a job well done \u2013 effective gamification is something of an art form.\nThe psychology of play\nIn any context, a game is only as good as it\u2019s design. When training, a clear understanding of how game elements can drive learning behavior must be gained before a gamified framework can be constructed.\nOne of the most powerful aspects of games is their ability to ignite a player\u2019s emotions, producing everything from frustration to pride and therefore deeply engaging them in the task at hand. Beyond raw emotion - rules, for example, provide the player with boundaries within which they are free to explore and discover \u2013 testing theories and learning through trial and error. Problem solving can also be approached from a fresh perspective as players are provided with the opportunity to assume new identities and tackle challenges from within that new role.\nOnce considered, a game designer has to work out how to harness these drivers by carefully selecting the basic building blocks of a gamified system and placing them within the framework. These mechanics can include anything from points and leaderboards to levels, achievements and virtual goods. Each of these blocks have to satisfy basic human motivations, such as that for status, recognition and self-expression that are important to the player.\nThe secret of successful gamified training is to accurately pinpoint the motivations of the learner and provide them with the perfect balance between challenge and reward. These small rewards represent only part of the overall gain, as they come accompanied by a reinforcement of learning objectives, constructive feedback and dynamic classroom environment.\nPlaying games in the workplace\nTypically, having fun doesn\u2019t trump deadlines on the to-do list of business executives \u2013 but gamification can be a potent way to dispel the tedium of training and boost the talent pool \u2013 without trivializing the learning content.\nDeloitte, for example, created a Leadership Academy \u2013 an innovative digital training program that is currently accessed by more than 50,000 users in over 14 different countries around the world. The academy provides content from leading educational and training institutions using an online portal and mobile applications. By signing up to the academy, senior executives can deepen their knowledge of effective self-development, communication methods, talent management, developing strategy and innovation. Most recently, collaborating with software company Badgeville, users who complete course modules, share ideas or reach notable leaderboard statuses are rewarded with badges - and can share their achievements through social networks, such as Linkedin and Twitter.\nGetting serious about gaming\nGamified mechanics, such as these are only the tip of the iceberg. Serious games can also involve the use of simulations that immerse the learner in a virtual world, allowing them to put theoretical knowledge to the test within a safe environment. The learning value of games such as these is marked. Research carried out by the Federation of American Scientists revealed that, \u201cStudents remember only 10 percent of what they read; 20 percent of what they hear; 30 percent if they see visuals related to what they hear; 50 percent if they watch someone do something while explaining it; but almost 90 percent if they do the job themselves, even if only as a simulation\".\nWith such effective learning outcomes - it\u2019s easy to understand why the aviation industry, the military and medical teams have for decades relied on the strength simulations when training their experts; and finally companies have caught up.\nWith the seeds of potential having been sown, it is increasingly clear that with careful development and commitment, gamification could reinvent the way we train and learn \u2013 helping industries meet the complex challenges presented by the modern world and taking them to the next level.\nMichelle Katics is the CEO of BankersLab", "id": "<urn:uuid:da39d70c-ae8b-403f-bf5d-0a4f5674fc7e>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.banktech.com/management-strategies/can-the-gamification-of-training-take-ba/240012778?cid=SBX_banktech_related_commentary_default_mobile_payments_investment_to_grow_in_20&itc=SBX_banktech_related_commentary_default_mobile_payments_investment_to_grow_in_20", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9613474607467651, "token_count": 868, "score": 2.5625, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "About Lead-free Crystal\nFrom the Illustrated Glass Dictionary at GlassOnLine.com:\nThe type of glass produced when lime in the batch is replaced by lead oxide. The composition of lead crystal is 54-65% silicon dioxide (SiO2), 18-38% lead oxide (PbO), 13-15% soda (Na2O) or potash (K2O), and other oxides. Such glass has a high refractive index and is particularly suited for decoration by cutting.\nBarium oxide derived from BaCO3 (witherite) is used principally in optical and crystal glass instead of lime or red lead. Glass which contains barium is lighter than lead crystal but gives comparable brilliance due to its high refractive index.", "id": "<urn:uuid:f78e3fae-fd02-46f5-bade-9c672d7f67bc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.bottegadelvinocrystal.com/about_lead_free_crystal.htm", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9220580458641052, "token_count": 154, "score": 2.875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "You exercise your body to stay physically in shape, so why shouldn't you exercise your brain to stay mentally fit? With these daily exercises you will learn how to flex your mind, improve your creativity and boost your memory. As with any exercise, repetition is necessary for you to see improvement, so pick your favorite exercises from our daily suggestions and repeat them as desired. Try to do some mentalrobics every single day!\nWhat you eat can have a large impact on how your mind operates. After all, the brain accounts for 20% of your body's total energy consumption. The brain needs a steady supply of glucose throughout the day to keep in tip-top working order, so be sure to not skip any meals, especially breakfast.\nSalads contain antioxidants such as beta-carotene and vitamins C and E, which help your brain stay healthy.\nYogurt contains the amino acid tyrosine, which is needed for some essential brain chemistry.\nFish contains Omega-3 fatty acids, which help prevent dementia and keep your brain working in tip-top shape.\nCurry contains a spice called turmeric which can help prevent Alzheimer's Disease.\nTry to avoid junk food high in sugar and fat. There have been some studies that imply a connection between junk food and mental disorders such as dyslexia, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism.\nShort Term Memory Test\nInteractively test your short term memory.\nMentalrobics Public Forums\nChat about these articles and other mind related topics.\nSudoku Logic Puzzle\nThis puzzle requires logic and a good memory.", "id": "<urn:uuid:9ca7533b-1836-478a-bd44-7ba4bbe3addc>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.braingle.com/mind/index.php?yes=175&id=175", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.92616206407547, "token_count": 325, "score": 2.8125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The concept of a welfare pedestal has been popularized by Noel Pearson. As a lawyer and passionate advocate for the interests of aboriginal people who live on the Cape York Peninsula of North Queensland, some readers might expect that he would spend his time arguing for more government hand-outs to remedy social problems in aboriginal communities. However, Pearson recognizes that the welfare programs are actually a major cause of the social problems in those communities and his main focus is on finding ways to stop hand-outs from harming his clients. He is not against government help for his clients, he just wants to ensure that it does them more good than harm.\nThe insight behind the welfare pedestal is that welfare payments can provide perverse incentives by encouraging some people to remain on welfare rather than to seek paid employment. Over the last decade or so, concern about an emerging problem of inter-generational welfare dependency (in non-indigenous communities as well as indigenous communities) has led to some tightening up in the provisions attached to unemployment benefits. It is too soon to claim that the problems associated with unemployment benefits and pretend work schemes have all been resolved, but the problems are now widely recognized and some appropriate remedial action is being taken.\nThe example of a government program contributing to the welfare pedestal that Pearson gives in his recent lecture, \u2018Pathways to Prosperity for Indigenous People\u2019, is family benefits. He suggests:\n\u2018Life on the welfare pedestal in a country that distributes money through a generous family tax benefit system is quite a rational choice\u2019 (The Sir Ronald Trotter Lecture, New Zealand Business Roundtable, 2010).\nI had not previously thought of the family tax benefit in that way. I have tended to view the family tax benefit as a kind of negative income tax, providing net benefits for families with low and modest incomes. I was previously aware of adverse incentives resulting from fairly high effective marginal tax rates for people on fairly modest family incomes above the point where the means test begins to cut in (about $45,000). According to the way economists usually look at these things, however, a family with four children obtaining $19,600 per annum from family benefits has no disincentive to obtaining additional income from work of more than $25,000.\nIn another paper Pearson acknowledges that the absence of punitive marginal tax rates is probably not an important consideration when people in Cape York Peninsula make their decisions about how many hours of the week they allocate to work or leisure. He writes:\nPearson argues that \u2018conditions and incentives to make active and beneficial life choices should apply to family payments\u2019 even though he acknowledges that problems arise because such payments \u2018are not indigenous-specific schemes\u2019.\nThat poses a question: If people make the choice to live on generally available family benefits rather than to earn higher incomes, why should we view this as a problem? I see no problem in individuals choosing to live on low incomes. We should respect the choices that some individuals make to live a life of poverty (and of chastity too, if that is their choice). I can\u2019t see why anyone should have a problem with individuals making whatever income/leisure choice that they desire.\nI can see a problem, however, in governments providing family benefits to people who do not have adequate regard for the well-being of their children. I think we (taxpayers/voters) should insist that family assistance should only be provided to parents when they meet conditions such as ensuring that their children attend school regularly. Perhaps it would not be too difficult for a prime minister who has a special interest in educational opportunity to find a simple way for such a condition to be applied to family tax benefits across all sections of the community.", "id": "<urn:uuid:465dbbdc-b8bc-4e6f-8dc8-a262851aa310>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.citizeneconomists.com/blogs/2011/02/01/", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9744461178779602, "token_count": 761, "score": 2.75, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "The people of Georgia having dissolved their political connection with the Government of the United States of America, present to their confederates and the world the causes which have led to the separation. For the last ten years we have had numerous and serious causes of complaint against our non-slave-holding confederate States with reference to the subject of African slavery. They have endeavored to weaken our security, to disturb our domestic peace and tranquility, and persistently refused to comply with their express constitutional obligations to us in reference to that property, and by the use of their power in the Federal Government have striven to deprive us of an equal enjoyment of the common Territories of the Republic.\nIn the momentous step which our State has taken of dissolving its connection with the government of which we so long formed a part, it is but just that we should declare the prominent reasons which have induced our course.\nOur position is thoroughly identified with the institution of slavery-- the greatest material interest of the world. Its labor supplies the product which constitutes by far the largest and most important portions of commerce of the earth. These products are peculiar to the climate verging on the tropical regions, and by an imperious law of nature, none but the black race can bear exposure to the tropical sun. These products have become necessities of the world, and a blow at slavery is a blow at commerce and civilization. That blow has been long aimed at the institution, and was at the point of reaching its consummation. There was no choice left us but submission to the mandates of abolition, or a dissolution of the Union, whose principles had been subverted to work out our ruin.\nTexas abandoned her separate national existence and consented to become one of the Confederated Union to promote her welfare, insure domestic tranquility and secure more substantially the blessings of peace and liberty to her people. She was received into the confederacy with her own constitution, under the guarantee of the federal constitution and the compact of annexation, that she should enjoy these blessings. She was received as a commonwealth holding, maintaining and protecting the institution known as negro slavery-- the servitude of the African to the white race within her limits-- a relation that had existed from the first settlement of her wilderness by the white race, and which her people intended should exist in all future time. Her institutions and geographical position established the strongest ties between her and other slave-holding States of the confederacy. Those ties have been strengthened by association. But what has been the course of the government of the United States, and of the people and authorities of the non-slave-holding States, since our connection with them?\nThe controlling majority of the Federal Government, under various pretences and disguises, has so administered the same as to exclude the citizens of the Southern States, unless under odious and unconstitutional restrictions, from all the immense territory owned in common by all the States on the Pacific Ocean, for the avowed purpose of acquiring sufficient power in the common government to use it as a means of destroying the institutions of Texas and her sister slaveholding States.\nDeclaration of Causes of Seceding States\nThe constitution, it is true, secured every essential guarantee to the institution while it should last, and hence no argument can be justly urged against the constitutional guarantees thus secured, because of the common sentiment of the day. Those ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error. It was a sandy foundation, and the government built upon it fell when the \"storm came and the wind blew.\"\nOur new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its corner- stone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery subordination to the superior race is his natural and normal condition. This, our new government, is the first, in the history of the world, based upon this great physical, philosophical, and moral truth.\n~ Alexander H. Stephens March 21, 1861 Savannah, Georgia\nThe American Civil War was not fought to end slavery; it was fought to preserve it. The people who started it just lost.", "id": "<urn:uuid:580cb76f-5be4-4052-9b72-a4da729b1b91>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.conservativeunderground.com/forum505/showthread.php?53229-CU-Civil-War-Debate-Thread&p=536528&viewfull=1", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9725602865219116, "token_count": 852, "score": 2.96875, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Hepatitis A is a preventable disease. A vaccine is currently available for people at risk for hepatitis A. It is also recommended as a routine childhood immunization. Hepatitis A, at the top of the alphabet of viruses causing liver disease, puts travelers at risk and, until recently, worried parents of children in day care.\nAside from immunization, hand washing before eating or preparing food and after using the bathroom or changing a baby's diaper, remains one of the best preventions against getting or spreading hepatitis A virus (HAV), according to the CDC.\nThe disease is spread by feces-to-mouth contact. The virus can be carried on an infected person's hands and spread by direct contact or by consuming food or drink the infected person handled. HAV also can be transmitted through oral-anal sex or by consuming water or raw shellfish contaminated by sewage.\nHow is it spread?\nHAV is not spread by coughing, sneezing, or other casual contact, such as sitting next to a person or being in the same room.\nPeople at increased risk for hepatitis A include travelers to developing countries, injecting drug users, men who have sex with men, and possibly children and workers in day care centers where outbreaks occasionally occur.\nWhat are the symptoms?\nSymptoms include fatigue (tiredness), mild fever, flu-like illness, nausea and vomiting, stomach ache, and loss of appetite. Some people also have jaundice (yellow eyes and skin), dark urine, and light-colored bowel movements. Children, especially young ones, may have few if any symptoms. Diagnosis is made through a blood test.\nThe average incubation period is 30 days, but it can range from 15 to 50 days, and people can be contagious up to 14 days before symptoms appear.\nWhat is the treatment?\nTreatment is mainly rest, a low-fat diet and plenty of liquids. Antibiotics aren't useful, because hepatitis A is a virus. This is not a chronic disease; once you get it, you will never get it again. People who have recovered from hepatitis A do not continue to carry the virus.\nHealthy people rarely die from hepatitis A, and most people recover in a few weeks. People who already have a chronic liver disease when they get hepatitis A are at higher risk of developing liver failure.\nThe hepatitis A vaccine has become part of the routine childhood immunization schedule, and, as of 2006, is recommended for all children, not just those at risk.\nThese adults should consider immunization:\nTravelers who will be visiting or living in high-risk areas, including countries in Latin and South America and many parts of Africa and Asia\nMen who have sex with men\nInjecting drug users\nPeople working in institutions and day care centers\nPeople with chronic liver disease or who have clotting-factor disorders also may want to get the vaccine.\nTips for prevention\nIf you are not immunized against hepatitis A, here are suggestions on how to avoid infection:\nWash hands thoroughly with soap and running water after using the bathroom, changing diapers, and before preparing or eating food. This is the most important step in preventing hepatitis A.\nTeach children to wash their hands.\nChange diapers on surfaces that can be cleaned and disinfected after each use. A good disinfectant is one tablespoon liquid household bleach to one quart of water.\nNever change diapers on eating or food preparation surfaces.\nCook shellfish thoroughly before eating, especially if you already have a chronic liver disease.\nDrink water from approved sources only.\nLet your doctor or health department workers know if someone in your family has hepatitis A.\nGet the vaccine if you are in a high-risk group or are planning an extended trip to a country with a high rate of hepatitis A.", "id": "<urn:uuid:5c4f4d0d-32c0-4c23-b5ba-59a9cb74e17a>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cprmc.com/health-education/1,714", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9521490931510925, "token_count": 787, "score": 3.90625, "int_score": 4, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Information contained on this page is provided by NewsUSA, an independent third-party content provider. WorldNow and this Station make no warranties or representations in connection therewith.\n/Sylvan Learning ) - Summer outdoor play is central to a child's development. Many experts agree that reading, however, is just as important.\nAccording to Richard E. Bavaria, Ph.D., senior vice president of education outreach for Sylvan Learning, summer is the perfect time for learning and discovery. \"It's very important that children continue to practice their academic skills in summer as strong reading skills are incredibly important for all subjects in school. The more children read, the more they'll enjoy reading, and the better readers they're likely to become.\"\nHere are some reading tips from the brain-trust at the National Summer Learning Association\nand tutoring authority, Sylvan Learning.\n* Be a reading role model. By spending time reading at the beach or using the lengthy directions to put the grill together, you show your child that reading is both fun and useful.\n* Set aside a consistent time each day for reading. Depending on your family's schedule, reading time might be in the morning, afternoon or before bed. Whatever time you choose, stick to it! Consistency is key to building good habits.\n* Let your child make their reading choices. Let kids read whatever they want. Now is a good time to encourage reading about topics they don't study during school to explore new interests, discover new talents or delve into old hobbies.\n* Get your child to savor the book she or he is reading. Don't rush through a book -- take time to enjoy it. Have your child stop and think about plot points and characters. This will develop their analytical skills.\n* Set goals and reward effort. Reward reading with more reading. Download the next book in your child's favorite series on your tablet or Kindle. Let your child peruse library catalogues online for e-books.\n* Read the book, then watch the movie. Few things make kids feel more \"superior\" than comparing and contrasting a movie to the book it's based on. \"That's not the way it was in the book!\" Let them explain the differences, guess why a director made those changes and then discuss which version they preferred.\n* Go online for ideas. There are lots of websites for kids' book choices. Visit www.BookAdventure.com\nfor reading tips, book suggestions and educational games.", "id": "<urn:uuid:871836d8-88d1-4246-86e8-0c413f5d5eab>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.cw15kxvo.com/story/19043776/summer-reading-tips-from-the-experts", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9538039565086365, "token_count": 509, "score": 3.234375, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "There is a \"quick\" method of estimating time to harvest a drought damaged corn field: the \"squeeze test\".\n- Select a few stalks (like described in the previous paragraph) and chop them into pieces about the same size that the silage chopper would using a heavy knife or cleaver. Also, you could chop a round of the field with a silage chopper and sample the chopped material. Grab a hand full of the chopped material and squeeze it for 30 seconds.\n- If the juices drip easily from the material, then it is too wet. In this situation, wait to chop in a couple of days or test again in a couple of days.\n- If the sample doesn't drip any juices from the squeezed material, then slowly open your hand.\n- If the stalk material remains compacted and doesn't fall apart or quickly expand back , the moisture level is acceptable for ensiling.\n- If your hand is not wet and the stalk material falls apart when you open your hand, the material is too dry to ensile.\nIf the chopped silage is too wet:\n- Stop chopping and allow the field to dry.\n- OR -\n- Add whole corn, dried distillers grains, or ground dry forage.\nTo avoid the nitrates, the chopper head could be set to leave an 8 inch stubble. This will result in a reduction in yield. The ensiling process will reduce nitrate 30 to 60 percent, so a compromise is leaving a 6 inch stubble.\nDroughted corn silage will be 85% to 95% the energy value of regular corn silage depending on the number of ears on the stalk. The protein content can be slightly greater than regular corn silage.\nBefore feeding, sample and test for moisture, energy (TDN), crude protein, and nitrates.\nPricing drought corn silage is a bit of a challenge. Rule of thumb has been that each ton of 65% moisture corn silage in the bunker is priced at 9 to 10 times price of a bushel of corn (normal, well-eared corn). Pricing the standing crop is a little more difficult to determine. Below are two ways some have priced it in the field.\n- Ton price is 5 times price of a bushel of corn (earless corn)\n- Ton price is 6 to 7 times price of a bushel of corn (low grain corn - less than 100 bu/A).\nIt is hard to estimate the amount of silage that will be produced in a corn field that has been droughted out. The National Corn Handbook estimates the tonnage of a drought damaged corn field is related to the corn yield if the field were allowed to be harvested. For each 5 bu/acre corn yield results in a ton of corn silage per acre. If the droughted corn field were going to yield 15 bu/acre it would produce 3 tons of corn silage per acre.", "id": "<urn:uuid:68d33b01-d554-41cf-8fcc-9005c5e3dfa8>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.dairyherd.com/dairy-resources/forage/ration-management/Options-for-drought-damaged-corn-fields-164746276.html?page=2", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9109742045402527, "token_count": 611, "score": 2.53125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}
{"text": "Through education, outreach, legal reform, and direct support for on-the-ground conservation programs, Defenders is working to enhance the conservation of six of the world's seven endangered species of sea turtles that nest in Mexico. We have succeeded in getting new regulations adopted to protect sea turtle nesting sites from disruption by light sources, vegetation removal, dune destruction and mishandling of nests and newborn sea turtles.\nVisit our Species at Risk: Sea Turtles  page for more information about what we\u2019re doing to help sea turtles.\nDespite a moratorium on commercial whaling that began in the 1980s, every year some countries try to overturn the moratorium and remove international protections for whales. Defenders continues to fight these attempts through our work with international treaties.\nAnother major threat to whales accidental trapping in fishing gear. In 2007, Defenders was successful in getting drift nets and surface nets banned in the shark fishery in Mexico.\nMangroves are a very important coastal ecosystem that supports many endangered species like sea turtles, manatees, parrots and many types of fish. They also support 70% of all commercial fisheries serving as breeding, refuge and feeding sites\u2014for example the shrimp fishery. Defenders has been instrumental in getting landmark legislation adopted in Mexico to protect mangroves from tourist and industrial developments, shrimp farms and other threats.\nMigratory birds face many threats during their migration as a result of habitat destruction and pollution. In Mexico, wild birds are still being trapped for the pet trade and, in some parts, are still hunted for food. Defenders of Wildife has launched a campaign to promote birdwatching to encourage bird conservation. We are working alongside environmental and tourism authorities and helping produce bird guides to help state and local governments and local conservation groups promote birdwatching in their areas. Our goal is to change the way Mexicans perceive birds and put an end to bird trapping for the pet trade.", "id": "<urn:uuid:14477ebf-a35f-4c75-9140-2adb628d6062>", "dump": "CC-MAIN-2013-20", "url": "http://www.defenders.org/print/5156", "file_path": "s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368698207393/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516095647-00000-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz", "language": "en", "language_score": 0.9335978031158447, "token_count": 383, "score": 3.03125, "int_score": 3, "domain": "HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT"}