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The combination drug dextromethorphan/quinidine (AVP-923), traditionally used to treat pseudobulbar affect, is under investigation for the treatment of a variety of other neurological and neuropsychiatric conditions including agitation associated with Alzheimer's disease, among others. In 2013, a randomized clinical trial found that dextromethorphan may reduce the overall discomfort and duration of withdrawal symptoms associated with opioid use disorder. When combined with clonidine, dextromethorphan reduced the overall time needed for withdrawal symptoms to peak by 24 hours while reducing severity of symptoms compared to clonidine alone. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
A 2018 Cochrane review found that it produced moderate improvement in sleep onset and maintenance. The authors suggest that where preferred non-pharmacological treatment strategies have been exhausted, eszopiclone provides an efficient treatment for insomnia. In 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration asked that the starting dose be lowered from 2 milligrams to 1 milligram after it was observed in a study that even eight hours after taking the drug at night, some people were not able to cope with their next-day activities like driving and other activities that require full alertness.
Eszopiclone is slightly effective in the treatment of insomnia where difficulty in falling asleep is the primary complaint. The benefit over placebo was found to be of questionable clinical significance. Although the drug effect and the placebo response were rather small and of questionable clinical importance, the two together produce a reasonably large clinical response. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The compressibility of water is a function of pressure and temperature. At 0 °C, at the limit of zero pressure, the compressibility is . At the zero-pressure limit, the compressibility reaches a minimum of around 45 °C before increasing again with increasing temperature. As the pressure is increased, the compressibility decreases, being at 0 °C and .
The bulk modulus of water is about 2.2 GPa. The low compressibility of non-gasses, and of water in particular, leads to their often being assumed as incompressible. The low compressibility of water means that even in the deep oceans at 4 km depth, where pressures are 40 MPa, there is only a 1.8% decrease in volume.
The bulk modulus of water ice ranges from 11.3 GPa at 0 K up to 8.6 GPa at 273 K. The large change in the compressibility of ice as a function of temperature is the result of its relatively large thermal expansion coefficient compared to other common solids. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Cefazaflur stands out among this group of analogues because it lacks an arylamide C-7 side chain (see cephacetrile for another example).
Cefazaflur is synthesized by reaction of 3-(1-methyl-1-tetrazol-5-ylthiomethylene)-7-amino-cephem-4-carboxylic acid (1) with trifluoromethylthioacetyl chloride (2). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chlorprothixene is an antagonist of the following receptors:
* 5-HT, 5-HT, 5-HT: antipsychotic effects, sedation/anxiolysis, antidepressant effect, weight gain
* D, D, D, D, D: antipsychotic effects, sedation, extrapyramidal side effects, prolactin increase, depression, apathy/anhedonia, weight gain
* H: sedation, weight gain
* Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors: anticholinergic effects, inhibition of extrapyramidal side effects
* α-Adrenergic: hypotension, sedation, anxiolysis
Because of its potent serotonin 5-HT and muscarinic acetylcholine receptor antagonism, chlorprothixene causes relatively mild extrapyramidal symptoms. This is in contrast to most other typical antipsychotics. For this reason, chlorprothixene has sometimes been described instead as an atypical antipsychotic.
Chlorprothixene has also been found to act as FIASMA (functional inhibitor of acid sphingomyelinase). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
*Bacterial meningitis; an aminoglycoside can be added to increase efficacy against gram-negative meningitis bacteria
*Endocarditis by enterococcal strains (off-label use); often given with an aminoglycoside
*Gastrointestinal infections caused by contaminated water or food (for example, by Salmonella)
*Genito-urinary tract infections
*Healthcare-associated infections that are related to infections from using urinary catheters and that are unresponsive to other medications
*Otitis media (middle ear infection)
*Prophylaxis (i.e. to prevent infection) in those who previously had rheumatic heart disease or are undergoing dental procedures, vaginal hysterectomies, or C-sections. It is also used in pregnant woman who are carriers of group B streptococci to prevent early-onset neonatal infections.
*Respiratory infections, including bronchitis, pharyngitis
*Sinusitis
*Sepsis
*Whooping cough, to prevent and treat secondary infections
Ampicillin used to also be used to treat gonorrhea, but there are now too many strains resistant to penicillins. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Cefalexin can treat a number of bacterial infections including otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, bone and joint infections, pneumonia, cellulitis, and urinary tract infections. It may be used to prevent bacterial endocarditis. It can also be used for the prevention of recurrent urinary-tract infections.
Cefalexin does not treat methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections.
Cefalexin is a useful alternative to penicillins in patients with penicillin intolerance. For example, penicillin is the treatment of choice for respiratory tract infections caused by Streptococcus, but cefalexin may be used as an alternative in penicillin-intolerant patients. Caution must be exercised when administering cephalosporin antibiotics to penicillin-sensitive patients, because cross-sensitivity with β-lactam antibiotics has been documented in up to 10% of patients with a documented penicillin allergy. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
When drugs are covered under patent protection, only the pharmaceutical company that holds the patent is allowed to manufacture, market, and eventually profit from them. The lifetime of the patent varies between countries and also between drugs; in the United States, most drug patents last about twenty years. Once the patent has expired, the drug can be manufactured and sold by other companies - at which point, it is referred to as a generic drug. Its availability on the market as a generic drug removes the monopoly of the patent holder, thereby encouraging competition and causing a significant drop in drug prices, which ensures that life-saving and important drugs reach the general population at fair prices. However, the company holding the initial patent may get a new patent by forming a new version of the drug that is significantly changed compared to the original compound. Patentability of different isomers has been controversial over the past ten years and there have been a number of related legal issues. In making their determinations, courts have looked at factors including: (i) Whether the racemate was known in the prior art. (ii) The difficulty in resolving the enantiomers. (iii) The stereoselectivity of the relevant receptor. (iv) Other secondary considerations of non-obviousness such as commercial success, unexpected results, and satisfaction of long-felt needs in the art. The decisions made regarding these issues have varied and there is no clear answer to the legality of patenting stereoisomers. These issues have been resolved on a case-by-case basis. With the number of current pharmaceuticals currently being marketed as racemic mixtures, it is likely that patentability will continue to be debated in the near future.
There are examples of common drugs, like ibuprofen, where the use of chiral switching has caused controversy. Ibuprofen is a racemic mixture where the S-enantiomer is known to play a major role in reducing inflammation as it inhibits COX-2 (cooxygenase 2) compared to the R-enantiomer; the fact that the S-enantiomer is stronger is what led to the chiral switching. But, when the racemic ibuprofen enters the body, a little over half of the R-enantiomers experience chiral inversion and transform into the favored S-enantiomer. This observation has led to a conclusion that the racemic and the S-enantiomer are potentially biologically equivalent. Because of this and the more recent evidence suggesting that the R-enantiomer may actually contribute to COX-2 inhibition, as well, but at a slower rate, there is still debate on whether or not the chiral switching seen in ibuprofen is really advantageous or if it is just to give patent protections to the manufacturers. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Flucloxacillin can reduce the excretion of methotrexate, potentially resulting in a risk of methotrexate toxicity. The level of flucloxacillin in the blood may rise in kidney failure and with the use of probenecid. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Escitalopram is the (S)-enantiomer (left-handed version) of the racemate citalopram, which is responsible for its name: escitalopram. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Australian rangelands cover approximately 75% of the nations land mass. Characteristically arid and semi arid the rangelands offer wide variations in climate, land and soil. The pastoral industry and particularly pastoral practices equate to 60% of rangeland usage. Subsequently, Australias 25.5 million beef cattle generate a gross average of $7.4 million per year. The Northern Rangelands are the centre for beef productivity in Australia, producing 70% of national beef in the year 2005 - 2006. The grazing of cattle is the primary use of Australias Northern Rangelands, and as such, it has enabled them to become a central organ for Australian agricultural enterprises. The production of beef in these rangelands draws upon a traditional low input-low output system of land management. Australias Northern rangelands have engaged in recent innovations to increase beef productivity whilst reducing greenhouse gas emissions. These strategies include; improving herd genetics, utilising feed bases, and promoting both feedlot finishing and property infrastructure. Species of cows such as the Red Angus, Tuli, Belmont Reds, Senapol and Brahman bulls are common species utilised in the Northern Rangeland industry for sustained productivity and carcass yields given Australia's arid and semi arid climate.
NAPCO has adopted these strategies and complemented them by utilising solar energy systems, perennial pastures and minimum tillage to increase productivity and limit carbon emissions. Further, the company has significantly contributed to developing a genetic improvement program which has introduced a tropically adapted cattle breed which has improved fertility and growth. NAPCO's composite cattle breeds, the Alexandria and Kynuna composites, are suited to arid and semi arid climates which are the product of the environmental conditions in the northern rangelands. The composite cattle proves to be more durable compared to the Shorthorn cow variations, due to their increased drought and disease resistance and heat tolerance. The composites are a more profitable long term species for NAPCO that has ensured beef productivity has been maintained whilst minimising environmental degradation. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
In April 2024 the SBTi Board of Trustees released a statement setting out an intention to permit the use of environmental attribute certificates (EACs) for abatement purposes against Scope 3 emissions reduction targets. SBTi did not previously permit the use of EACs due to the difficulties faced in tracing, measuring and validating their impact.
The statement led to a response letter signed by various teams within the SBTi and media speculation about the policy change. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
As in simpler alkanes, carbon in the CFCs bond with tetrahedral symmetry. Because the fluorine and chlorine atoms differ greatly in size and effective charge from hydrogen and from each other, the methane-derived CFCs deviate from perfect tetrahedral symmetry.
The physical properties of CFCs and HCFCs are tunable by changes in the number and identity of the halogen atoms. In general, they are volatile but less so than their parent alkanes. The decreased volatility is attributed to the molecular polarity induced by the halides, which induces intermolecular interactions. Thus, methane boils at −161 °C whereas the fluoromethanes boil between −51.7 (CFH) and −128 °C (CF). The CFCs have still higher boiling points because the chloride is even more polarizable than fluoride. Because of their polarity, the CFCs are useful solvents, and their boiling points make them suitable as refrigerants. The CFCs are far less flammable than methane, in part because they contain fewer C-H bonds and in part because, in the case of the chlorides and bromides, the released halides quench the free radicals that sustain flames.
The densities of CFCs are higher than their corresponding alkanes. In general, the density of these compounds correlates with the number of chlorides.
CFCs and HCFCs are usually produced by halogen exchange starting from chlorinated methanes and ethanes. Illustrative is the synthesis of chlorodifluoromethane from chloroform:
:HCCl + 2 HF → HCFCl + 2 HCl
Brominated derivatives are generated by free-radical reactions of hydrochlorofluorocarbons, replacing C-H bonds with C-Br bonds. The production of the anesthetic 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane ("halothane") is illustrative:
:CFCHCl + Br → CFCHBrCl + HBr | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Much of the current interest in oil exploration in the Arctic regions is directed towards the Azolla deposits . The burial of large amounts of organic material provides the source rock for oil, so given the right thermal history, the preserved Azolla blooms might have been converted to oil or gas. In 2008 a research team was set up in the Netherlands devoted to Azolla. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Sulfuryl fluoride is marketed in the U.S. by three manufacturers, under four different brand names. Vikane (Dow) (EPA Reg. No. 62719- 4-ZA) has been commercially available since the early 1960s, with Zythor (marketed by competitor Ensystex of North Carolina) (EPA Reg. No. 81824- 1-AA) being more recently introduced gradually as its use is approved by individual states (in Florida circa 2004, but not in California until October 2006, for example). Sulfuryl fluoride has been marketed as a post-harvest fumigant for dry fruits, nuts, and grains under the trade name ProFume (U.S. EPA Reg. No. 62719- 376-AA). Most recently Drexel Chemical Company has registered Master Fume (EPA Reg. No. 19713-596-AA) for the structural market, competing against Vikane and Zythor. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Dexlansoprazole is used to heal and maintain healing of erosive esophagitis and to treat heartburn associated with gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). It lasts longer than lansoprazole, to which it is chemically related, and needs to be taken less often. There is no good evidence that it works better than other PPIs. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Following the discovery in 1952 that the tuberculosis drug iproniazid elevated the mood of people taking it, and the subsequent discovery that the effect was likely due to inhibition of MAO, many people and companies started trying to discover MAO inhibitors to use as antidepressants. Selegiline was discovered by Zoltan Ecseri at the Hungarian drug company, Chinoin (part of Sanofi since 1993), which they called E-250. Chinoin received a patent on the drug in 1962 and the compound was first published in the scientific literature in English in 1965. Work on the biology and effects of E-250 in animals and humans was conducted by a group led by József Knoll at Semmelweis University which was also in Budapest.
Deprenyl is a racemic compound (a mixture of two isomers called enantiomers). Further work determined that the levorotatory enantiomer was a more potent MAO-inhibitor, which was published in 1967, and subsequent work was done with the single enantiomer -deprenyl.
In 1971, Knoll showed that selegiline selectively inhibits the B-isoform of monoamine oxidase (MAO-B) and proposed that it is unlikely to cause the infamous "cheese effect" (hypertensive crisis resulting from consuming foods containing tyramine) that occurs with non-selective MAO inhibitors. A few years later, two Parkinsons disease researchers based in Vienna, Peter Riederer and Walther Birkmayer, realized that selegiline could be useful in Parkinsons disease. One of their colleagues, Prof. Moussa B.H. Youdim, visited Knoll in Budapest and took selegiline from him to Vienna. In 1975, Birkmayers group published the first paper on the effect of selegiline in Parkinsons disease.
In the 1970s there was speculation that it could be useful as an anti-aging drug or aphrodisiac.
In 1987 Somerset Pharmaceuticals in New Jersey, which had acquired the US rights to develop selegiline, filed a new drug application (NDA) with the FDA to market the drug for Parkinsons disease in the US. While the NDA was under review, Somerset was acquired in a joint venture by two generic drug companies, Mylan and Bolan Pharmaceuticals. Selegiline was approved for Parkinsons disease by the FDA in 1989.
In the 1990s, J. Alexander Bodkin at McLean Hospital, an affiliate of Harvard Medical School, began a collaboration with Somerset to develop delivery of selegiline via a transdermal patch in order to avoid the well known dietary restrictions of MAO inhibitors. Somerset obtained FDA approval to market the patch in 2006. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
A chiral switch is a chiral drug that has already approved as racemate but has been re-developed as a single enantiomer. The term chiral switching was introduced by Agranat and Caner in 1999 to describe the development of single enantiomers from racemate drugs. For example, levofloxacin is a chiral switch of racemic ofloxacin. The essential principle of a chiral switch is that there is a change in the status of chirality. In general, the term chiral switch is preferred over racemic switch because the switch is usually happening from a racemic drug to the corresponding single enantiomer(s). It is important to understand that chiral switches are treated as a selection invention. A selection invention is an invention that selects a group of new members from a previously known class on the basis of superior properties. To express the pharmacological activities of each of the chiral twins of a racemic drug two technical terms have been coined eutomer and distomer. The member of the chiral twin that has greater physiological activity is referred to as the eutomer and the other one with lesser activity is referred to as distomer. The eutomer/distomer ratio is called the eudisimic ratio and reflects the degree of enantioselectivity of the biological activity.
In case of stereoselectivity in action only one of the components in the racemic mixture is truly active (eutomer). The other isomer, the distomer, should be regarded as impurity or isomeric ballast not contributing to the effects aimed at. It is well documented that the pharmacologically inactive isomer (distomer) may contribute to the toxic or adverse effects of the drugs. There is a wide spectrum of possibilities of distomer actions, many of which are confirmed experimentally. Sometimes the single enantiomer version lacks certain side-effects that the racemate exhibits. And where the two enantiomers are sufficiently different in pharmacological effects, it may be possible to get a patent on one or both isomers (for instance, as in the case of propoxyphene). The chiral twins of propoxyphene are separately sold by Eli Lilly and company. Dextropropoxyphene is an analgesic agent (Darvon) and levopropoxyphene an effective antitussive (Novrad). Interestingly the reversed trade names of the drugs, DARVON and NOVRAD, also reflect the chemical mirror-image relationship. A positive consequence of this redesigning approach is that it has given a new life to an old drug, minimizing or avoiding the undesirable side-effect profile. Whether to go in for a chiral switch is normally made on a case-by-case basis. A pragmatic solution could be in favor of a decision-tree approach, incorporating various factors such as pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, toxicological profile of the enantiomers, enantiomer-enantiomer interaction potential, safety, efficacy, risk-benefit ratio, chiral inversion, distomer liability, physicochemical properties, cost of separation and production, quality control criteria, marketing edge, etc. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Perindopril is a medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, or stable coronary artery disease.
As a long-acting ACE inhibitor, it works by relaxing blood vessels and decreasing blood volume. As a prodrug, perindopril is hydrolyzed in the liver to its active metabolite, perindoprilat. It was patented in 1980 and approved for medical use in 1988.
Perindopril is taken in the form of perindopril arginine (with arginine, trade names include Coversyl, Coversum) or perindopril erbumine (with erbumine (tert-Butylamine), trade name Aceon). Both forms are therapeutically equivalent and interchangeable, but the dose prescribed to achieve the same effect differs between the two forms. It is also often combined with another medication, sometimes in the same tablet (see below). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Selegiline, also known as -deprenyl and sold under the brand names Eldepryl, Emsam, Selgin, among other names, is a medication which is used in the treatment of Parkinsons disease and major depressive disorder. It is provided in the form of a capsule or tablet taken by mouth or orally disintegrating tablets taken on the tongue for Parkinsons disease and as a patch applied to skin for depression.
Selegiline acts as a monoamine oxidase inhibitor, and increases levels of monoamine neurotransmitters in the brain. At typical clinical doses used for Parkinson's disease, selegiline is a selective and irreversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), increasing levels of dopamine in the brain. In larger doses (more than 20 mg/day), it loses its specificity for MAO-B and also inhibits MAO-A, which increases serotonin and norepinephrine levels in the brain. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the dew point temperature, or when the water vapor equilibrium in air has been exceeded. When water vapor condenses onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface. The water molecule brings heat energy with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly. In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation (usually only when facilitated by cloud condensation nuclei). The dew point of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapor in the air begins to condense. Condensation in the atmosphere forms cloud droplets.
Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the surface is at or below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere. Deposition is a phase transition separate from condensation which leads to the direct formation of ice from water vapor. Frost and snow are examples of deposition.
There are several mechanisms of cooling by which condensation occurs:
1) Direct loss of heat by conduction or radiation.
2) Cooling from the drop in air pressure which occurs with uplift of air, also known as adiabatic cooling.
Air can be lifted by mountains, which deflect the air upward, by convection, and by cold and warm fronts.
3) Advective cooling - cooling due to horizontal movement of air. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
There is a strong scientific consensus that greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide is a main driver of climate change. Following is an illustrative model meant for a pedagogical purpose, showing the main physical determinants of the effect.
Under this understanding, global warming is determined by a simple energy budget: In the long run, Earth emits radiation in the same amount as it receives from the sun. However, the amount emitted depends both on Earths temperature and on its albedo: The more reflective the Earth in a certain wavelength, the less radiation it would both receive and emit in this wavelength; the warmer the Earth, the more radiation it emits. Thus changes in the albedo may have an effect on Earths temperature, and the effect can be calculated by assuming a new steady state would be arrived at.
In most of the electromagnetic spectrum, atmospheric carbon dioxide either blocks the radiation emitted from the ground almost completely, or is almost transparent, so that increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, e.g. doubling the amount, will have negligible effects. However, in some narrow parts of the spectrum this is not so; doubling the amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide will make Earth's atmosphere relatively opaque to in these wavelengths, which would result in Earth emitting light in these wavelengths from the upper layers of the atmosphere, rather from lower layers or from the ground. Since the upper layers are colder, the amount emitted would be lower, leading to warming of Earth until the reduction in emission is compensated by the rise in temperature.
Furthermore, such warming may cause a feedback mechanism due to other changes in Earth's albedo, e.g. due to ice melting. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Originally developed by the Dow Chemical Company, sulfuryl fluoride is in widespread use as a structural fumigant insecticide to control drywood termites, particularly in warm-weather portions of the southwestern and southeastern United States and in Hawaii. Less commonly, it can also be used to control rodents, powderpost beetles, deathwatch beetles, bark beetles, and bedbugs. Its use has increased as a replacement for methyl bromide, which was phased out because of harm to the ozone layer. It is an alternative to the use of phosphine, which is acutely toxic. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Arformoterol, sold under the brand name Brovana among others, is a medication used for the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).
It is a long-acting β adrenoreceptor agonist (LABA) and it is the active (R,R)-(−)-enantiomer of formoterol. It was approved for medical use in the United States in October 2006. It is available as a generic medication. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Chloromethane has been detected in the low-mass Class 0 protostellar binary, IRAS 16293–2422, using the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA). It was also detected in the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (67P/C-G) using the Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis (ROSINA) instrument on the Rosetta spacecraft. The detections reveal that chloromethane can be formed in star-forming regions before planets or life is formed. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Cefamandole (INN, also known as cephamandole) is a second-generation broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic. The clinically used form of cefamandole is the formate ester cefamandole nafate, a prodrug which is administered parenterally. Cefamandole is no longer available in the United States.
The chemical structure of cefamandole, like that of several other cephalosporins, contains an N-methylthiotetrazole (NMTT or 1-MTT) side chain. As the antibiotic is broken down in the body, it releases free NMTT, which can cause hypoprothrombinemia (likely due to inhibition of the enzyme vitamin K epoxide reductase)(vitamin K supplement is recommended during therapy) and a reaction with ethanol similar to that produced by disulfiram (Antabuse), due to inhibition of aldehyde dehydrogenase.
Cefamandole has a broad spectrum of activity and can be used to treat bacterial infections of the skin, bones and joints, urinary tract, and lower respiratory tract. The following represents cefamandole MIC susceptibility data for a few medically significant microorganisms.
* Escherichia coli: 0.12 - 400 μg/ml
* Haemophilus influenzae: 0.06 - >16 μg/ml
* Staphylococcus aureus: 0.1 - 12.5 μg/ml
CO is generated during the normal constitution of cefamandole and ceftazidime, potentially resulting in an explosive-like reaction in syringes. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Certain constituents of volcanic gases may show very early signs of changing conditions at depth, making them a powerful tool to predict imminent unrest. Used in conjunction with monitoring data on seismicity and deformation, correlative monitoring gains great efficiency. Volcanic gas monitoring is a standard tool of any volcano observatory. Unfortunately, the most precise compositional data still require dangerous field sampling campaigns. However, remote sensing techniques have advanced tremendously through the 1990s. The Deep Earth Carbon Degassing Project is employing Multi-GAS remote sensing to monitor 9 volcanoes on a continuous basis. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Ramipril, sold under the brand name Altace among others, is an ACE inhibitor type medication used to treat high blood pressure, heart failure, and diabetic kidney disease. It can also be used as a preventative medication in patients over 55 years old to reduce the risk of having a heart attack, stroke or cardiovascular death in patients shown to be at high risk, such as some diabetics and patients with vascular disease. It is a reasonable initial treatment for high blood pressure. It is taken by mouth.
Common side effects include headaches, dizziness, feeling tired, and cough. Serious side effects may include liver problems, angioedema, kidney problems, and high blood potassium. Use in pregnancy and breastfeeding is not recommended. It is an ACE inhibitor and works by decreasing renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activity.
Ramipril was patented in 1981 and approved for medical use in 1989. It is available as a generic medication. In 2021, it was the 201st most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Overdosing experiments in animals showed loss of body control and drooping, difficulty breathing, tremors, and convulsions. Doses in excess of 1500 mg/kg orally and 250 mg/kg IV produced significant mortality in rodents.
In the event of an acute overdosage, authorities recommend unspecific standard procedures such as emptying the stomach, observing the patient and maintaining appropriate hydration. Levofloxacin is not efficiently removed by hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dextrorphan has a notably longer elimination half-life than its parent compound, and therefore has a tendency to accumulate in the blood after repeated administration of normally dosed dextromethorphan formulations. It is further converted to 3-HM by CYP3A4 or glucuronidated. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The PFT can be released in a variety of ways, depending on the application, and may be as simple as spraying into the air. Samples are then collected at set times and locations, and either taken to a laboratory for analysis, or analysed in the field.
Analysis of the samples typically involves three parts; preparation, chromatography and detection. Preparation involves removal of other impuries, for example, mixing with hydrogen then passing over a catalyst to convert oxygen to water, which is then removed with silica gel. The sample is then admitted to a gas chromatograph. This splits up the different PFTs, so a concentration value can be determined for each one.
There are two ways PFTs are then detected; using an electron capture detector or negative ion mass spectrometry. Both techniques involve bombarding the sample with electrons, and measuring the negative ions produced. Perfluorocarbons have a particularly high affinity for electrons, so are detected in low concentrations.
An alternative set up; the chromatograph can be omitted, and the different PFTs determined from their different masses in the mass spectrum.
PFTs can be detected in concentrations as low a 1 part in 10 by volume (1 femtolitre in a litre). | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Charles Kettering, vice president of General Motors Research Corporation, was seeking a refrigerant replacement that would be colorless, odorless, tasteless, nontoxic, and nonflammable. He assembled a team that included Thomas Midgley, Jr., Albert Leon Henne, and Robert McNary. From 1930 to 1935, they developed dichlorodifluoromethane (CClF or R12), trichlorofluoromethane (CClF or R11), chlorodifluoromethane (CHClF or R22), trichlorotrifluoroethane (CClFCClF or R113), and dichlorotetrafluoroethane (CClFCClF or R114), through Kinetic Chemicals which was a joint venture between DuPont and General Motors. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Fluoroform was first obtained by Maurice Meslans in the violent reaction of iodoform with dry silver fluoride in 1894. The reaction was improved by Otto Ruff by substitution of silver fluoride by a mixture of mercury fluoride and calcium fluoride. The exchange reaction works with iodoform and bromoform, and the exchange of the first two halogen atoms by fluorine is vigorous. By changing to a two step process, first forming a bromodifluoromethane in the reaction of antimony trifluoride with bromoform and finishing the reaction with mercury fluoride the first efficient synthesis method was found by Henne. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Escitalopram is among the most effective and well-tolerated antidepressants for the short-term (acute) treatment of major depressive disorder in adults. It is also the safest one to give to children and adolescents.
Controversy existed regarding the effectiveness of escitalopram compared with its predecessor, citalopram. The importance of this issue followed from the greater cost of escitalopram relative to the generic mixture of isomers of citalopram, prior to the expiration of the escitalopram patent in 2012, which led to charges of evergreening. Accordingly, this issue has been examined in at least 10 different systematic reviews and meta analyses. , reviews had concluded (with caveats in some cases) that escitalopram is modestly superior to citalopram in efficacy and tolerability. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Injectable semi-synthetic cephalosporin antibiotic related to cefamandole, q.v.
Cefonicid is synthesized conveniently by nucleophilic displacement of the 3-acetoxy moiety of 1 with the appropriately substituted tetrazole thiole 2. The mandelic acid amide C-7 side chain is reminiscent of cefamandole. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levosalbutamol is the INN while levalbuterol is the USAN.
Levalbuterol was approved in the United States as a solution to be used with a nebulizer device in March 1999 and in March 2015 became available in a formulation with a metered-dose inhaler under the trade name Xopenex HFA (levalbuterol tartrate inhalation aerosol). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
No interaction studies have been conducted except with digoxin, which slightly decreases imidapril levels, possibly because it reduces its absorption from the gut. Other potential interactions are not well studied: Rifampicin reduces the activation of imidapril to its active metabolite imidaprilat. Like other ACE inhibitors, imidapril increases potassium levels in the blood and can therefore cause hyperkalaemia, especially when combined with potassium-sparing diuretics or potassium substitution. Other diuretics, vasodilators, tricyclic antidepressants and antipsychotics can add to the antihypertensive effect of imidapril. Lithium can reach toxic levels when combined with imidapril. The effect of antidiabetic drugs can be increased, potentially causing hypoglycaemia (low blood glucose levels). | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levomilnacipran has a high oral bioavailability of 92% and a low plasma protein binding of 22%. It is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP3A4, thereby making the medication susceptible to grapefruit-drug interactions. The drug has an elimination half-life of approximately 12 hours, allowing for once-daily administration. Levomilnacipran is excreted in urine. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Because water molecules absorb microwaves and other radio wave frequencies, water in the atmosphere attenuates radar signals. In addition, atmospheric water will reflect and refract signals to an extent that depends on whether it is vapor, liquid or solid.
Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication experience the same effect.
Water vapor reflects radar to a lesser extent than do water's other two phases. In the form of drops and ice crystals, water acts as a prism, which it does not do as an individual molecule; however, the existence of water vapor in the atmosphere causes the atmosphere to act as a giant prism.
A comparison of GOES-12 satellite images shows the distribution of atmospheric water vapor relative to the oceans, clouds and continents of the Earth. Vapor surrounds the planet but is unevenly distributed. The image loop on the right shows monthly average of water vapor content with the units are given in centimeters, which is the precipitable water or equivalent amount of water that could be produced if all the water vapor in the column were to condense. The lowest amounts of water vapor (0 centimeters) appear in yellow, and the highest amounts (6 centimeters) appear in dark blue. Areas of missing data appear in shades of gray. The maps are based on data collected by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor on NASA's Aqua satellite. The most noticeable pattern in the time series is the influence of seasonal temperature changes and incoming sunlight on water vapor. In the tropics, a band of extremely humid air wobbles north and south of the equator as the seasons change. This band of humidity is part of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, where the easterly trade winds from each hemisphere converge and produce near-daily thunderstorms and clouds. Farther from the equator, water vapor concentrations are high in the hemisphere experiencing summer and low in the one experiencing winter. Another pattern that shows up in the time series is that water vapor amounts over land areas decrease more in winter months than adjacent ocean areas do. This is largely because air temperatures over land drop more in the winter than temperatures over the ocean. Water vapor condenses more rapidly in colder air.
As water vapor absorbs light in the visible spectral range, its absorption can be used in spectroscopic applications (such as DOAS) to determine the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. This is done operationally, e.g. from the Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME) spectrometers on ERS (GOME) and MetOp (GOME-2). The weaker water vapor absorption lines in the blue spectral range and further into the UV up to its dissociation limit around 243 nm are mostly based on quantum mechanical calculations and are only partly confirmed by experiments. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The drug is contraindicated in premenopausal women, which of course includes pregnant and lactating women. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Because dextromethorphan can trigger a histamine release (allergic reaction), atopic children, who are especially susceptible to allergic reactions, should be administered dextromethorphan only if absolutely necessary, and only under the strict supervision of a healthcare professional. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Halon 1301 was developed in a joint venture between the U.S. Army and Purdue University in the late 1940's, and became a DuPont product in 1954. It was introduced as an effective gaseous fire suppression fixed systems agent in the 1960s, and was used around valuable materials, such as aircraft, mainframe computers, and telecommunication switching centers, usually in total flooding systems. It was also widely used in the maritime industry to add a third level of protection should the main and emergency fire pumps become inoperable or ineffective. Halon 1301 was never widely used in portables outside marine, military and spacecraft applications, due to its limited range, and invisible discharge. It does not produce the characteristic white cloud like CO and is difficult to direct when fighting large fires. Halon 1301 is ideal for armored vehicles and spacecraft, because it produces fewer toxic by-products than does Halon 1211, which is critical for combat or space conditions where a compartment may not be able to be ventilated immediately. Halon 1301 is widely used by the U.S. Military and NASA in a 2-3/4 lb portable extinguisher with a sealed, disposable cylinder for quick recharging. Other agents such as CO and FE-36 (HFC-236fa) wet chemical are largely replacing halon 1301 for environmental concerns. Civilian models in 2-3/4, 3, and 4 lb sizes were also made.
It is considered good practice to avoid all unnecessary exposure to Halon 1301, and to limit exposures to concentrations of 7% and below to 15 minutes. Exposure to Halon 1301 in the 5% to 7% range produces little, if any, noticeable effect. At levels between 7% and 10%, mild central nervous system effects such as dizziness and tingling in the extremities have been reported. In practice, the operators of many Halon 1301 total flooding systems evacuate the space on impending agent discharge.
Halon systems are among the most effective and commonly used fire protection systems used on commercial aircraft. Halon 1301 is the primary agent used in commercial aviation engine, cargo compartments, and auxiliary power unit fire zones. Efforts to find a suitable replacement for Halon 1301 have not produced a widely accepted replacement.
Bromotrifluoromethane was also used as a filling of the bubble chamber in the neutrino detector Gargamelle.
Before the dangers of Halon 1301 as an ozone depleter were known, many industrial chillers used it as an efficient refrigerant gas. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Selegiline has an oral bioavailability of about 10%, which increases when ingested together with a fatty meal, as the molecule is fat soluble. Selegiline and its metabolites bind extensively to plasma proteins (at a rate of 94%). They cross the blood–brain barrier and enter the brain, where they most concentrated at the thalamus, basal ganglia, midbrain, and cingulate gyrus.
Selegiline is mostly metabolized in the intestines and liver; it and its metabolites are excreted in the urine.
Buccal administration of selegiline results in 5-fold higher bioavailability, more reproducible blood concentration, and produces fewer amphetamine metabolites than the oral tablet form. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Common side effects associated with the use of flucloxacillin include: diarrhoea, nausea, rash, urticaria, pain and inflammation at injection site, superinfection (including candidiasis), allergy, and transient increases in liver enzymes and bilirubin.
Rarely, in fewer than 1 in 1,000 people, cholestatic jaundice (also referred to as cholestatic hepatitis) has been associated with flucloxacillin therapy. It may appear as pale stool with dark urine, and yellowish eyes and skin. The reaction may occur up to several weeks after treatment has stopped, and takes weeks to resolve. The estimated incidence is one in 15,000 exposures, and is more frequent in people over the age of 55, females, and those with a treatment duration of longer than two weeks.
Flucloxacillin is contraindicated in those with a previous history of allergy to penicillins, cephalosporins, or carbapenems. It should also not be used in the eye, or administered to those with a history of cholestatic hepatitis associated with the use of dicloxacillin or flucloxacillin.
It should be used with caution in the elderly, patients with renal impairment where a reduced dose is required, and those with hepatic impairment, due to the risk of cholestatic hepatitis.
It should be taken on an empty stomach, one half to one hour before food, as absorption is reduced when taken with food, though some studies suggest that this does not compromise flucloxacillin plasma concentrations in most circumstances.
The UK's National Health Service recommends taking at least 30 minutes before food and at least 2 hours after. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Like the closely related progestins hydroxyprogesterone caproate and 19-norprogesterone, gestonorone caproate shows poor activity orally and must be administered parenterally; specifically, via intramuscular injection. Gestonorone caproate is administered by intramuscular injection, and acts as a long-lasting depot by this route. After an intramuscular injection, gestonorone caproate is completely released from the local depot and is highly bioavailable. A single intramuscular injection of 25 to 50 mg gestonorone caproate in oil solution has been found to have a duration of action of 8 to 13 days in terms of clinical biological effect in the uterus in women. At high doses, the duration of action of gestonorone caproate by intramuscular injection has been found to be at least 21 days. Clinical studies have found gestonorone caproate to be satisfactorily effective as a progestogen when injected once a month, whereas it was poorly effective as an injectable contraceptive when it was injected once every two months.
Following a single intramuscular injection of 200 mg radiolabeled gestonorone caproate in 1 mL of solution in men with prostate cancer, maximal levels of gestonorone caproate occurred after 3 ± 1 days and were 420 ± 160 ng/mL. The elimination half-life of gestonorone caproate and its metabolites was 7.5 ± 3.1 days. Approximately 5% of the radioactive steroid content in the blood was unchanged gestonorone caproate. No free gestonorone was observed in circulation or in urine. Gestonorone caproate and its metabolites were eliminated 72% in feces and 28% in urine. Approximately 48 ± 18% of the injected dose had been eliminated after 14 days and approximately 85 ± 12% of the injected dose had been excreted after 30 days.
The metabolism of unesterified gestonorone (17α-hydroxy-19-norprogesterone) is analogous to that of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, with the corresponding 19-norpregnane metabolites produced. Gestonorone caproate has been found to undergo 5α-reduction similarly to progesterone, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone, and gestonorone, and at a similar rate as these steroids. Conversely however, due to its caproate ester, 5β-reduction of gestonorone caproate is decreased relative to these steroids. As progesterone is metabolized mainly into 5β-pregnanes, decreased 5β-reduction of gestonorone caproate may be involved in its greater potency compared to progesterone. The major metabolites of gestonorone caproate have been reported to be isomers of 19-norpregnanetriol and 19-norpregnanediol-20-one. These metabolites indicate that gestonorone caproate is metabolized mainly by reduction at the C3, C5, and C20 positions. Following an intramuscular injection of 300 mg gestonorone caproate, only a slight increase in urinary pregnanetriol excretion has been observed. Cleavage of the caproate ester of gestonorone caproate is minimal, which indicates that it is not a prodrug of the unesterified steroid. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Electrochemical fluorination (ECF) (also known as the Simons' process) involves electrolysis of a substrate dissolved in hydrogen fluoride. As fluorine is itself manufactured by the electrolysis of hydrogen fluoride, ECF is a rather more direct route to fluorocarbons. The process proceeds at low voltage (5 – 6 V) so that free fluorine is not liberated. The choice of substrate is restricted as ideally it should be soluble in hydrogen fluoride. Ethers and tertiary amines are typically employed. To make perfluorohexane, trihexylamine is used, for example:
The perfluorinated amine will also be produced: | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
As a hard base, water reacts readily with organic carbocations; for example in a hydration reaction, a hydroxyl group () and an acidic proton are added to the two carbon atoms bonded together in the carbon-carbon double bond, resulting in an alcohol. When the addition of water to an organic molecule cleaves the molecule in two, hydrolysis is said to occur. Notable examples of hydrolysis are the saponification of fats and the digestion of proteins and polysaccharides. Water can also be a leaving group in S2 substitution and E2 elimination reactions; the latter is then known as a dehydration reaction. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Halomethane compounds are derivatives of methane () with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced with halogen atoms (F, Cl, Br, or I). Halomethanes are both naturally occurring, especially in marine environments, and human-made, most notably as refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and fumigants. Many, including the chlorofluorocarbons, have attracted wide attention because they become active when exposed to ultraviolet light found at high altitudes and destroy the Earth's protective ozone layer. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The refrigeration industry has been seeking replacements for R-410A because of its high global warming potential. R-454B, formerly known as DL-5A, has been selected by several manufacturers, including Mitsubishi Electric, Carrier, Johnson Controls, and others.
R-454B was developed at and is manufactured by Chemours. Carrier first announced introduction of R-454B in ducted residential and light commercial packaged refrigeration and air conditioning products in 2018, with R-454B-based products launches starting in 2023. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Children with acute otitis media who are younger than six months of age are generally treated with amoxicillin or other antibiotics. Although most children with acute otitis media who are older than two years old do not benefit from treatment with amoxicillin or other antibiotics, such treatment may be helpful in children younger than two years old with acute otitis media that is bilateral or accompanied by ear drainage. In the past, amoxicillin was dosed three times daily when used to treat acute otitis media, which resulted in missed doses in routine ambulatory practice. There is now evidence that two times daily dosing or once daily dosing has similar effectiveness. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Common adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with the use of dicloxacillin include: diarrhea, nausea, rash, urticaria, pain and inflammation at injection site, superinfection (including candidiasis), allergy, and transient increases in liver enzymes and bilirubin.
On rare occasions, cholestatic jaundice (also referred to as cholestatic hepatitis) has been associated with dicloxacillin therapy. The reaction may occur up to several weeks after treatment has stopped, and takes weeks to resolve. The estimated incidence is 1 in 15,000 exposures, and is more frequent in people over 55 years old, females, and those with treatment longer than 2 weeks.
It should be used with caution and monitored in the elderly, particularly with intravenous administration, due to a risk of thrombophlebitis.
Dicloxacillin can also lower the effectiveness of birth control pills and pass into breast milk. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Phenoxymethylpenicillin is usually well tolerated but may occasionally cause transient nausea, vomiting, epigastric distress, diarrhea, constipation, acidic smell to urine and black hairy tongue. A previous hypersensitivity reaction to any penicillin is a contraindication. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Since only one of the stereoisomers has the desired effect, the separation of a racemic mixture of hydroxy N- methyl morphinan using tartaric acid and subsequent methylation of the hydroxyl group is a suitable method. By using (D)-tartrate, the (+)-isomer remains as the product.
This synthetic pathway was patented by Roche in 1950. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
HCFC-142b is used as a refrigerant, as a blowing agent for foam plastics production, and as feedstock to make polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF). It was introduced to replace the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that were initially undergoing a phase-out per the Montreal Protocol, but HCFCs still have a significant ozone-depletion ability. As of year 2020, HCFC's are replaced by non ozone depleting HFCs within many applications.
In the United States, the EPA stated that HCFCs could be used in "processes that result in the transformation or destruction of the HCFCs", such as using HCFC-142b as a feedstock to make PVDF. HCFCs could also be used in equipment that was manufactured before January 1, 2010. The point of these new regulations was to phase-out HCFCs in much the same way that CFCs were phased out. HCFC-142b production in non article 5 countries like the United States was banned on January 1, 2020, under the Montreal Protocol. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Under Japanese law, levetiracetam and other racetams cannot be brought into the country except for personal use by a traveler for whom it has been prescribed. Travelers who plan to bring more than a month's worth must apply for an import certificate, known as a . | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Iron salt aerosols are one proposed method of enhanced atmospheric methane oxidation which involves lofting iron-based particles into the atmosphere (e.g. from planes or ships) to enhance atmospheric chlorine radicals, a natural methane sink.
Winds over the Sahara raise dust into the troposphere and disperse it over the Atlantic. A 2023 study suggests that this has contributed to natural atmospheric methane oxidation.
Iron salt aerosols are being studied for the potential of iron(III) chloride (FeCl) to catalyze chlorine radical production. Chlorine atoms are produced by photolysis from the FeCl stemming from iron-containing airborne dust aerosol particles in the oceanic boundary layer.
:FeCl + hv → FeCl + Cl
The chlorine atoms initiate methane oxidation:
:CH + Cl → HCl + CH
The resulting methyl radical is unstable and oxidises naturally to CO and water:
:3.5O + 2CH → 2CO + 3HO | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Bromotrifluoromethane is commercially synthesized in a two-step process from chloroform. Chloroform is fluorinated with hydrogen fluoride.
CHCl3 + 3 HF → CHF3 + 3 HCl
The resulting Fluoroform is then reacted with elemental bromine.
CHF3 + Br2 → CF3Br + HBr | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are anthropogenic compounds that have been released into the atmosphere since the 1930s in various applications such as in air-conditioning, refrigeration, blowing agents in foams, insulations and packing materials, propellants in aerosol cans, and as solvents. The entry of CFCs into the ocean makes them extremely useful as transient tracers to estimate rates and pathways of ocean circulation and mixing processes. However, due to production restrictions of CFCs in the 1980s, atmospheric concentrations of CFC-11 and CFC-12 has stopped increasing, and the CFC-11 to CFC-12 ratio in the atmosphere have been steadily decreasing, making water dating of water masses more problematic. Incidentally, production and release of sulfur hexafluoride (SF) have rapidly increased in the atmosphere since the 1970s. Similar to CFCs, SF is also an inert gas and is not affected by oceanic chemical or biological activities. Thus, using CFCs in concert with SF as a tracer resolves the water dating issues due to decreased CFC concentrations.
Using CFCs or SF as a tracer of ocean circulation allows for the derivation of rates for ocean processes due to the time-dependent source function. The elapsed time since a subsurface water mass was last in contact with the atmosphere is the tracer-derived age. Estimates of age can be derived based on the partial pressure of an individual compound and the ratio of the partial pressure of CFCs to each other (or SF). | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
LAAM undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism to the active demethylated metabolite nor-LAAM, which is further demethylated to a second active metabolite, dinor-LAAM. These metabolites are more potent than the parent drug. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Drospirenone stimulates the proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells in vitro, an action that is independent of the classical PRs and is instead mediated via the progesterone receptor membrane component-1 (PGRMC1). Certain other progestins act similarly in this assay, whereas progesterone acts neutrally. It is unclear if these findings may explain the different risks of breast cancer observed with progesterone and progestins in clinical studies. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Drospirenone was patented in 1976 and introduced for medical use in 2000. Schering AG of Germany has been granted several patents on the production of drospirenone, including WIPO and US patents, granted in 1998 and 2000, respectively. It was introduced for medical use in combination with ethinylestradiol as a combined birth control pill in 2000. Drospirenone is sometimes described as a "fourth-generation" progestin based on its time of introduction. The medication was approved for use in menopausal hormone therapy in combination with estradiol in 2005. Drospirenone was introduced for use as a progestogen-only birth control pill in 2019. A combined birth control pill containing estetrol and drospirenone was approved in 2021. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Sulfuryl fluoride (also spelled sulphuryl fluoride) is an inorganic compound with the formula SOF. It is an easily condensed gas and has properties more similar to sulfur hexafluoride than sulfuryl chloride, being resistant to hydrolysis even up to 150 °C. It is neurotoxic and a potent greenhouse gas, but is widely used as a fumigant insecticide to control termites. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
At high temperatures in air, it decomposes or burns to produce poisonous phosgene. This was a common problem when carbon tetrachloride was used as a fire extinguisher: there have been deaths due to its conversion to phosgene reported.
Carbon tetrachloride is a suspected human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals. The World Health Organization reports carbon tetrachloride can induce hepatocellular carcinomas (hepatomas) in mice and rats. The doses inducing hepatic tumours are higher than those inducing cell toxicity. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified this compound in Group 2B, "possibly carcinogenic to humans". Carbon tetrachloride is one of the most potent hepatotoxins (toxic to the liver), so much so that it is widely used in scientific research to evaluate hepatoprotective agents. Exposure to high concentrations of carbon tetrachloride (including vapor) can affect the central nervous system and degenerate the liver and kidneys, and prolonged exposure may lead to coma or death. Chronic exposure to carbon tetrachloride can cause liver and kidney damage and could result in cancer.
Consumption of alcohol increases the toxic effects of carbon tetrachloride and may cause more severe organ damage, such as acute renal failure, in heavy drinkers. The doses that can cause mild toxicity to non-drinkers can be fatal to drinkers.
The effects of carbon tetrachloride on human health and the environment have been assessed under REACH in 2012 in the context of the substance evaluation by France.
In 2008, a study of common cleaning products found the presence of carbon tetrachloride in "very high concentrations" (up to 101 mg/m) as a result of manufacturers' mixing of surfactants or soap with sodium hypochlorite (bleach).
Carbon tetrachloride is also both ozone-depleting and a greenhouse gas. However, since 1992 its atmospheric concentrations have been in decline for the reasons described above (see atmospheric concentration graphs in the gallery). CCl has an atmospheric lifetime of 85 years. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The halomethanes are produced on an industrial scale from abundant precursors such as natural gas or methanol, and from halogens or halides. They are usually prepared by one of three methods.
*Free radical chlorination of methane (under ultraviolet light):
This method is useful for the production of (n = 1, 2, 3, or 4). The main problems with this method are that it cogenerates HCl and it produces mixtures of different products. Using in large excess generates primarily and using in large excess generates primarily , but mixtures of other products will still be present.
*Halogenation of methanol. This method is used for the production of the mono-chloride, -bromide, and -iodide.
*Halogen exchange. The method is mainly used to produce fluorinated derivatives from the chlorides.
*Reaction of methane with hypochlorous acid, producing water.
*Reaction of methanol with hypochlorous acid, producing hydrogen peroxide.
Traces of halomethanes in the atmosphere arise through the introduction of other non-natural, industrial materials. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
There are no regulations regarding SF6 currently in China, even though some measures for reducing emissions were taken by the government. The emissions of this gas are currently on the rise in China (and in other countries defined as non-Annex-I by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) "due to their rapid expansion of power demand and fast adoption of renewable energy technologies". In China, they are now close to total greenhouse gas emissions from the Netherlands or Nigeria. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Selegiline is metabolized by cytochrome P450 to -desmethylselegiline and levomethamphetamine. Desmethylselegiline has some activity against MAO-B, but much less than that of selegiline. It is thought to be further metabolized by CYP2C19. Levomethamphetamine (the less potent of the two enantiomers of methamphetamine) is converted to levoamphetamine (the less potent of the two enantiomers of amphetamine, with regards to psychological effects).
Due to the presence of these metabolites, people taking selegiline may test positive for "amphetamine" or "methamphetamine" on drug screening tests. While the amphetamine metabolites may contribute to selegiline's ability to inhibit reuptake of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine, they have also been associated with orthostatic hypotension and hallucinations. The recovery of selegiline from urine is high at 87%, which has caused some researchers to question the clinical relevance of its amphetamine metabolites. The amphetamine metabolites are hydroxylated and, in phase II, conjugated by glucuronyltransferase.
A newer anti-Parkinson MAO-B inhibitor, rasagiline, metabolizes into 1(R)-aminoindan, which has no amphetamine-like characteristics. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Levetiracetam does not undergo extensive metabolism, and the metabolites formed are not active and do not exert pharmacological activity. Metabolism of levetiracetam is not by liver cytochrome P450 enzymes, but through other metabolic pathways such as hydrolysis and hydroxylation. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Under the brand names Fortekor (Novartis) and VetACE (Jurox Animal Health), benazepril is used to treat congestive heart failure in dogs and chronic kidney failure in cats and dogs. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the atmosphere. The percentage of water vapor in surface air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C (-44 °F) to 4.24% when the dew point is 30 °C (86 °F). Over 99% of atmospheric water is in the form of vapour, rather than liquid water or ice, and approximately 99.13% of the water vapour is contained in the troposphere. The condensation of water vapor to the liquid or ice phase is responsible for clouds, rain, snow, and other precipitation, all of which count among the most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the latent heat of vaporization, which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the atmospheric energy budget on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric convection is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as tropical cyclones and severe thunderstorms. Water vapor is an important greenhouse gas owing to the presence of the hydroxyl bond which strongly absorbs in the infra-red.
Water vapor is the "working medium" of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine which transforms heat energy from sun irradiation into mechanical energy in the form of winds. Transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy requires an upper and a lower temperature level, as well as a working medium which shuttles forth and back between both. The upper temperature level is given by the soil or water surface of the Earth, which absorbs the incoming sun radiation and warms up, evaporating water. The moist and warm air at the ground is lighter than its surroundings and rises up to the upper limit of the troposphere. There the water molecules radiate their thermal energy into outer space, cooling down the surrounding air. The upper atmosphere constitutes the lower temperature level of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine. The water vapor in the now cold air condenses out and falls down to the ground in the form of rain or snow. The now heavier cold and dry air sinks down to ground as well; the atmospheric thermodynamic engine thus establishes a vertical convection, which transports heat from the ground into the upper atmosphere, where the water molecules can radiate it to outer space. Due to the Earth's rotation and the resulting Coriolis forces, this vertical atmospheric convection is also converted into a horizontal convection, in the form of cyclones and anticyclones, which transport the water evaporated over the oceans into the interior of the continents, enabling vegetation to grow.
Water in Earths atmosphere is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but at altitude it goes below its freezing point (0 °C), due to waters highly polar attraction. When combined with its quantity, water vapor then has a relevant dew point and frost point, unlike e. g., carbon dioxide and methane. Water vapor thus has a scale height a fraction of that of the bulk atmosphere, as the water condenses and exits, primarily in the troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide () and methane, being well-mixed in the atmosphere, tend to rise above water vapour. The absorption and emission of both compounds contribute to Earths emission to space, and thus the planetary greenhouse effect. This greenhouse forcing is directly observable, via distinct spectral features versus water vapor, and observed to be rising with rising levels. Conversely, adding water vapor at high altitudes has a disproportionate impact, which is why jet traffic has a disproportionately high warming effect. Oxidation of methane is also a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere, and adds about 15% to methanes global warming effect.
In the absence of other greenhouse gases, Earth's water vapor would condense to the surface; this has likely happened, possibly more than once. Scientists thus distinguish between non-condensable (driving) and condensable (driven) greenhouse gases, i.e., the above water vapor feedback.
Fog and clouds form through condensation around cloud condensation nuclei. In the absence of nuclei, condensation will only occur at much lower temperatures. Under persistent condensation or deposition, cloud droplets or snowflakes form, which precipitate when they reach a critical mass.
Atmospheric concentration of water vapour is highly variable between locations and times, from 10 ppmv in the coldest air to 5% (50 000 ppmv) in humid tropical air, and can be measured with a combination of land observations, weather balloons and satellites. The water content of the atmosphere as a whole is constantly depleted by precipitation. At the same time it is constantly replenished by evaporation, most prominently from oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist earth. Other sources of atmospheric water include combustion, respiration, volcanic eruptions, the transpiration of plants, and various other biological and geological processes. At any given time there is about 1.29 x 10 litres (3.4 x 10 gal.) of water in the atmosphere. The atmosphere holds 1 part in 2500 of the fresh water, and 1 part in 100,000 of the total water on Earth. The mean global content of water vapor in the atmosphere is roughly sufficient to cover the surface of the planet with a layer of liquid water about 25 mm deep. The mean annual precipitation for the planet is about 1 metre, a comparison which implies a rapid turnover of water in the air – on average, the residence time of a water molecule in the troposphere is about 9 to 10 days.
Global mean water vapour is about 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass and also varies seasonally, in terms of contribution to atmospheric pressure between 2.62 hPa in July and 2.33 hPa in December. IPCC AR6 expresses medium confidence in increase of total water vapour at about 1-2% per decade; it is expected to increase by around 7% per °C of warming.
Episodes of surface geothermal activity, such as volcanic eruptions and geysers, release variable amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Such eruptions may be large in human terms, and major explosive eruptions may inject exceptionally large masses of water exceptionally high into the atmosphere, but as a percentage of total atmospheric water, the role of such processes is trivial. The relative concentrations of the various gases emitted by volcanoes varies considerably according to the site and according to the particular event at any one site. However, water vapor is consistently the commonest volcanic gas; as a rule, it comprises more than 60% of total emissions during a subaerial eruption.
Atmospheric water vapor content is expressed using various measures. These include vapor pressure, specific humidity, mixing ratio, dew point temperature, and relative humidity. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Gestonorone caproate is the generic name of the drug and its , , and , while gestronol hexanoate is its . It has also been referred to as norhydroxyprogesterone caproate, and is also known by its former developmental code names SH-582 and SH-80582. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere is essential to life and to most of the planetary biosphere. The average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts, which is about six times larger than the current power consumption of human civilization. Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 billion metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.
Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food directly from and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophs use organic compounds, rather than , as a source of carbon. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall process is quite similar in these organisms. Some types of bacteria, however, carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis, which consumes but does not release oxygen.
Carbon dioxide is converted into sugars in a process called carbon fixation. Carbon fixation is an endothermic redox reaction, so photosynthesis needs to supply both the source of energy to drive this process and the electrons needed to convert into a carbohydrate. This addition of the electrons is a reduction reaction. In general outline and in effect, photosynthesis is the opposite of cellular respiration, in which glucose and other compounds are oxidized to produce and water, and to release exothermic chemical energy to drive the organism's metabolism. The two processes take place through a different sequence of chemical reactions, however, and in different cellular compartments. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
As of 2021, new laws do not directly include Armodafinil as a doping agent, but they do include Modafinil, as Armodafinil is an enantiomer of Modafinil it will show up on lab tests, but it can be debated if it is or not the same substance.
New laws state that simple possession is not a criminal offence and is punished with a fine and confiscation. Importing into Romania and exporting from Romania of the substance, without a valid medical prescription, is a criminal offence and is punished with jail time between two and seven years. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Adverse effects are similar to oxcarbazepine. The most common ones (more than 10% of patients) are tiredness and dizziness. Other fairly common side effects (1 to 10%) include impaired coordination, gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhoea, nausea and vomiting, rash (1.1%), and hyponatremia (low sodium blood levels, 1.2%). There may also be an increased risk of suicidal thoughts. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Selegiline has been limitedly studied in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in both children/adolescents and adults. In a small randomized trial of selegiline for treatment of ADHD in children, there were improvements in attention, hyperactivity, and learning/memory performance but not in impulsivity. A small clinical randomized trial compared selegiline to methylphenidate, a first line treatment for ADHD, and reported equivalent efficacy as assessed by parent and teacher ratings. In another small randomized controlled trial of selegiline for the treatment of adult ADHD, a high dose of the medication for 6 weeks was not significantly more effective than placebo in improving symptoms. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
In congestive heart failure, the ability of the heart to pump enough blood to satisfy the physiological needs of the body is reduced. This condition has a variety of causes, including damaged heart valves, myocardial infarction, hypertension, vitamin B deficiency, and genetic mutations. When subsequent blood flow to the kidneys is reduced, the kidneys respond by increasing the secretion of renin from the juxtaglomerular apparatus. Renin converts the inactive angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which is converted to angiotensin II (AII) by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). AII can have negative effects on the cardiovascular system after events such as heart failure and myocardial infarction. AII causes arterial vasoconstriction and hypertension, resulting in an increase in afterload, increasing the resistance against which the heart works. Additionally, chronic increase in production of AII is associated with structural changes to the myocardium which reduces the functionality of the heart.
In heart failure patients, fosinopril increases exercise tolerance and lowers the frequency of events associated with worsening heart failure, such as dyspnea, the need for supplemental diuretics, fatigue, and hospitalizations. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Enzyme-mediated (biological) chiral inversion of organic compounds is caused by highly chiral endogenous molecules found in receptors, enzymes, and other structures. While enzyme inhibitors suppress enzyme activity, enzyme inducers boost enzyme concentration and activity. The primary determinants of inter-individual variability in drug metabolism in humans are thought to include genetic polymorphism and a variety of other variables, including age, gender, biological conditions, pregnancy, illnesses, stress, nutrition, and drugs. For instance, Reichel et al. reported that a 2-arylpropionyl-coenzyme-A epimerase was molecularly cloned and expressed as a crucial enzyme in the inversion metabolism of ibuprofen. Ibuprofen's chiral inversion by enzymes has been documented in humans. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Imidapril, sold under the brand name Tanatril among others, is an ACE inhibitor used as an antihypertensive drug and for the treatment of chronic heart failure.
It was patented in 1982 and approved for medical use in 1993. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The adverse effect profile of mecillinam is similar to that of other penicillins. Its most common side effects are rash and gastrointestinal upset, including nausea and vomiting. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Like all other beta-lactam antibiotics, mezlocillin inhibits the third and last stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to penicillin binding proteins. This ultimately leads to cell lysis. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Norgestrel (rac-13-ethyl-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone), the racemic mixture containing levonorgestrel and dextronorgestrel, was discovered by Hughes and colleagues at Wyeth in 1963 via structural modification of norethisterone (17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone). It was the first progestogen to be manufactured via total chemical synthesis. Norgestrel was introduced for medical use as a combined birth control pill with ethinylestradiol under the brand name Eugynon in Germany in 1966 and under the brand name Ovral in the United States 1968, and as a progestogen-only pill under the brand name Ovrette in the United States in 1973. Following its discovery, norgestrel had been licensed by Wyeth to Schering AG, which separated the racemic mixture into its two optical isomers and identified levonorgestrel (13β-ethyl-17α-ethynyl-19-nortestosterone) as the active component of the mixture. Levonorgestrel was first studied in humans by 1970, and was introduced for medical use in Germany as a combined birth control pill with ethinylestradiol under the brand name Neogynon in August 1970. A more widely used formulation, containing lower doses of ethinylestradiol and levonorgestrel, was introduced under the brand name Microgynon by 1973. In addition to combined formulations, levonorgestrel was introduced as a progestogen-only pill under the brand names Microlut by 1972 and Microval by 1974. Many other formulations and brand names of levonorgestrel-containing birth control pills have also been marketed.
Levonorgestrel, taken alone in a single high dose, was first evaluated as a form of emergency contraception in 1973. It was the second progestin to be evaluated for such purposes, following a study of quingestanol acetate in 1970. In 1974, the Yuzpe regimen, which consisted of high doses of a combined birth control pill containing ethinylestradiol and norgestrel, was described as a method of emergency contraception by A. Albert Yuzpe and colleagues, and saw widespread interest. Levonorgestrel-only emergency contraception was introduced under the brand name Postinor by 1978. Ho and Kwan published the first study comparing levonorgestrel only and the Yuzpe regimen as methods of emergency contraception in 1993 and found that they had similar effectiveness but that levonorgestrel alone was better-tolerated. In relation to this, the Yuzpe regimen has largely been replaced as a method of emergency contraception by levonorgrestrel-only preparations. Levonorgestrel-only emergency contraception was approved in the United States under the brand name Plan B in 1999, and has also been marketed widely elsewhere throughout the world under other brand names such as Levonelle and NorLevo in addition to Postinor. In 2013, the Food and Drug Administration approved Plan B One-Step for sale over-the-counter in the United States without a prescription or age restriction.
Levonorgestrel has also been introduced for use as a progestogen-only intrauterine device under the brand names Mirena and Skyla among others, as a progestogen-only birth control implant under the brand names Norplant and Jadelle, as a combined oral tablet with estradiol valerate for menopausal hormone therapy under the brand name Klimonorm, and as a combined transdermal patch with estradiol for menopausal hormone therapy under the brand name Climara Pro. Ester prodrugs of levonorgestrel such as levonorgestrel acetate and levonorgestrel butanoate have been developed and studied as other forms of birth control such as long-acting progestogen-only injectable contraceptives and contraceptive vaginal rings, but have not been marketed for medical use. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dexmedetomidine was approved in 1999 by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a short-term sedative and analgesic (<24 hours) for critically ill or injured people on mechanical ventilation in the intensive care unit (ICU). The rationale for its short-term use was due to concerns over withdrawal side effects such as rebound high blood pressure. These effects have not been consistently observed in research studies, however. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Many types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine, resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine, the interacting substance, or both. Inhibitors of the enzymes that metabolize amphetamine (e.g., CYP2D6 and FMO3) will prolong its elimination half-life, meaning that its effects will last longer. Amphetamine also interacts with , particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors, since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines (i.e., norepinephrine and dopamine); therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous. Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs. In particular, amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants. Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively. Zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used for the treatment of ADHD. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Relative to other SNRIs, levomilnacipran, as well as milnacipran, differ in that they are much more balanced reuptake inhibitors of serotonin and norepinephrine. To demonstrate, the serotonin:norepinephrine ratios of SNRIs are as follows: venlafaxine = 30:1, duloxetine = 10:1, desvenlafaxine = 14:1, milnacipran = 1.6:1, and levomilnacipran = 1:2. The clinical implications of more balanced elevations of serotonin and norepinephrine are unclear, but may include improved effectiveness, though also increased side effects.
Levomilnacipran is selective for the serotonin and norepinephrine transporters, lacking significant affinity for over 23 off-target sites. However, it does show some affinity for the dizocilpine (MK-801/) site of the NMDA receptor (K = 1.7 μM), and has been found to inhibit NR2A and NR2B subunit-containing NMDA receptors with respective IC values of 5.62 and 4.57 μM. As such, levomilnacipran is an NMDA receptor antagonist at high concentrations.
Levomilnacipran has recently been found to act as an inhibitor of beta-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1 (BACE-1), which is responsible for β-amyloid plaque formation, and hence may be a potentially useful drug in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The spectrum of action includes many Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria (including Pseudomonas) and anaerobic bacteria. The overall spectrum is similar to that of imipenem, although meropenem is more active against Enterobacteriaceae and less active against Gram-positive bacteria. It works against extended-spectrum β-lactamases, but may be more susceptible to metallo-β-lactamases. Meropenem is frequently given in the treatment of febrile neutropenia. This condition frequently occurs in patients with hematological malignancies and cancer patients receiving anticancer drugs that suppress bone marrow formation. It is approved for complicated skin and skin structure infections, complicated intra-abdominal infections and bacterial meningitis.
In 2017, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted approval for the combination of meropenem and vaborbactam to treat adults with complicated urinary tract infections. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
The exact mechanism by which levetiracetam acts to treat epilepsy is unknown. Levetiracetam does not exhibit pharmacologic actions similar to that of classical anticonvulsants. It does not inhibit voltage-dependent Na+ channels, does not affect GABAergic transmission, and does not bind to GABAergic or glutamatergic receptors. However, the drug binds to SV2A, a synaptic vesicle glycoprotein, and inhibits presynaptic calcium channels, reducing neurotransmitter release and acting as a neuromodulator. This is believed to impede impulse conduction across synapses. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Laboratory cultures of marine phytoplankton (Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Phaeocystis sp., Thalassiosira weissflogii, Chaetoceros calcitrans, Isochrysis sp., Porphyridium sp., Synechococcus sp., Tetraselmis sp., Prorocentrum sp., and Emiliana huxleyi) produce CHCl, but in relatively insignificant amounts. An extensive study of 30 species of polar macroalgae revealed the release of significant amounts of CHCl in only Gigartina skottsbergii and Gymnogongrus antarcticus. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
The traditional synthetic route uses Raney nickel and has been further improved over time, for example by the use of ibuprofen and AlCl.
Overall, it is a cost-effective method with moderate reaction conditions that is easy to handle and suitable for industrial production. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Selegiline is also delivered via a transdermal patch used as a treatment for major depressive disorder.
Administration of transdermal selegiline bypasses hepatic first pass metabolism. This avoids inhibition of gastrointestinal and hepatic MAO-A activity, which would result in an increase of food-borne tyramine in the blood and possible related adverse effects, while allowing for a sufficient amount of selegiline to reach the brain for an antidepressant effect.
A quantitative review published in 2015 found that for the pooled results of the pivotal trials, the number needed to treat (a sign of effect size, so a low number is better) for the patch for symptom reduction was 11, and for remission, was 9. The number needed to harm (inverse of the NNT, a high number here is better) ranged from 387 for sexual side effects to 7 for application site reaction. With regard to the likelihood to be helped or harmed (LHH), the analysis showed that the selegiline patch was 3.6 times as likely to lead to a remission vs. a discontinuation due to side effects; the LHH for remission vs. incidence of insomnia was 2.1; the LHH for remission vs. discontinuation due to insomnia was 32.7. The LHH for remission vs. insomnia and sexual dysfunction were both very low. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Methane was typically measured using gas chromatography. Gas chromatography is a type of chromatography used for separating or analyzing chemical compounds. It is less expensive in general, compared to more advanced methods, but it is more time and labor-intensive.
Spectroscopic methods were the preferred method for atmospheric gas measurements due to its sensitivity and precision. Also, spectroscopic methods are the only way of remotely sensing the atmospheric gases. Infrared spectroscopy covers a large spectrum of techniques, one of which detects gases based on absorption spectroscopy. There are various methods for spectroscopic methods, including Differential optical absorption spectroscopy, Laser-induced fluorescence, and Fourier Transform Infrared.
In 2011, cavity ring-down spectroscopy was the most widely used IR absorption technique of detecting methane. It is a form of laser absorption spectroscopy which determines the mole fraction to the order of parts per trillion. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Areteia Therapeutics is currently conducting three global Phase III clinical trials of dexpramipexole in eosinophil-associated asthma as listed below.
EXHALE-2: a global Phase III clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of dexpramipexole as an add-on oral therapy in participants with inadequately controlled eosinophilic asthma, is currently recruiting people ≥12 years old with a documented physician diagnosis of asthma who require medium to high dose inhaled corticosteroids with at least one other controller medicine and a history of asthma exacerbations. The study will assess the effects of two different doses of dexpramipexole on exacerbation rates and lung function.
EXHALE-3: a global Phase III clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of dexpramipexole as an add-on oral therapy in participants with inadequately controlled eosinophilic asthma, is currently recruiting people ≥12 years old with a documented physician diagnosis of asthma who require medium to high dose inhaled corticosteroids with at least one other controller medicine and a history of asthma exacerbations. The study will assess the effects of two different doses of dexpramipexole on exacerbation rates and lung function.
EXHALE-4: a global Phase III clinical trial to evaluate dexpramipexole as an add-on oral therapy in participants with inadequately controlled eosinophilic asthma, is currently recruiting people ≥12 years old with a documented physician diagnosis of asthma who require treatment with at least low-dose inhaled corticosteroids and one other controller medicine. The study will assess improvements in lung function, asthma control, and quality of life. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Package inserts mention that levofloxacin is to be avoided in patients with a known hypersensitivity to levofloxacin or other quinolone drugs.
Like all fluoroquinolines, levofloxacin is contraindicated in patients with epilepsy or other seizure disorders, and in patients who have a history of quinolone-associated tendon rupture.
Levofloxacin may prolong the QT interval in some people, especially the elderly, and levofloxacin should not be used for people with a family history of Long QT syndrome, or who have long QT, chronic low potassium, it should not be prescribed with other drugs that prolong the QT interval.
Unlike ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin does not appear to deactivate the drug metabolizing enzyme CYP1A2. Therefore, drugs that use that enzyme, like theophylline, do not interact with levofloxacin. It is a weak inhibitor of CYP2C9, suggesting potential to block the breakdown of warfarin and phenprocoumon. This can result in more action of drugs like warfarin, leading to more potential side effects, such as bleeding.
The use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in combination with high dose fluoroquinolone therapy may lead to seizures.
When levofloxacin is taken with anti-acids containing magnesium hydroxide or aluminum hydroxide, the two combine to form insoluble salts that are difficult to absorb from the intestines. Peak serum concentrations of levofloxacin may be reduced by 90% or more, which can prevent the levofloxacin from working. Similar results have been reported when levofloxacin is taken with iron supplements and multi-vitamins containing zinc.
A 2011 review examining musculoskeletal complications of fluoroquinolones proposed guidelines with respect to administration to athletes, that called for avoiding all use of fluoroquinolone antibiotics if possible, and if they are used: ensure there is informed consent about the musculoskeletal risks, and inform coaching staff; do not use any corticosteroids if fluoroquinolones are used; consider dietary supplements of magnesium and antioxidants during treatment; reduce training until the course of antibiotic is finished and then carefully increase back to normal; and monitor for six months after the course is finished, and stop all athletic activity if symptoms emerge. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
# Agriculture and Resource Management Council of Australia and New Zealand, “Prediction of Food Intake” In Feeding Standards for Australian Livestock; Ruminants (CSIRO Publishing, 1990) 261.
# Bentley, David, Hegarty, Rodger and Alford, Andrew, “Managing Livestock Enterprises in Australia’s Extensive Rangelands for Greenhouse Gas and Environmental Outcomes: A Pastoral Company Perspective,” Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 2, no. 48, (January 2008) 60–64.
# Brightling, Anthony, Brightling, Tony and Fowler, Diane, "Issues with Cattle" In Livestock Diseases in Australia; Diseases of Cattle, Sheep, Goats and Farm Dogs (C.H. Jerram & Associates, 2006) 21.
# Buckley, David, The Cattle Parasite Atlas; A Regional Guide to Cattle Parasite Control in Australia (CSIRO publishing, 2005) 32.
# Cranston, Michael, “Leading Cattle Company The North Australian Pastoral” The North Queensland Register, 13 September 2012, 5.
# Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization for the Australian Agricultural Council, Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, (Cornell University Publishers, 1979) 261.
# Denniss, Siobhan, A Critique of Environmental Management Systems and their Relevance in the North Australian Pastoral Industry (Melbourne: MTEM Publishers, 2002) 28.
# Derner, Justin D, “Livestock Production Systems,” in Rangeland Systems: Processes, Management and Challenges, ed. David D. Briske, (Springer International Publishing: 2017) 347.
# Dundon, Peter, "Feedlots" In The Australian Feedlot Directory, (Elders Press Ltd, 1994) 12; Quevedo Martin Morgan, “The Beef Cattle Industry” In Australia's Livestock and Meat Industry, (Urbana-Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1971) 2.
# Eldridge, David J, Poore, Alistair G. B, Ruiz-Colmenero, Marta, Letnic, Mike and Soliveres, Santiago, “Ecosystem structure, function, and composition in rangelands are negatively affected by livestock grazing” In Ecological Applications, Vol. 26 No. 4 (Ecological Society of America, 2016) 1273–1283.
# Gerber, Pierre, Mooney, Harold A. and Dijkman, Jeroen “Livestock in a Changing Landscape” In Experiences and Regional Perspectives, Vol. 2 (Stanford: Island Press, 2010) 23.
# Gerrard, Marjorie A and O’Leary, Patrick, “Union-Avoidance Strategies in the Meat Industry in Australia and the United States” In Frontiers of Labor: Comparative Histories of the United States and Australia, ed. Greg Patmore, (Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 2018), 129.
# Kahn, Lewis and Cottle, David John, “Beef Composition of the Northern Beef Herd” In Beef Cattle Production and Trade (CSIRO publishing, 2014) 180.
# Lesslie, Rob and Mewett, Jodie, “Land Use and Management - The Australian Context” in Land Use in Australia: Past, Present and Future, ed. Richard Trackway (Australian National University Press, 2018) 31.
# Meat and Livestock Australia, “Composite Breeds in the Northern Rangelands” In Beef Cattle Nutrition; An Introduction to the Essentials, (Meat and Livestock Australia, 2006) 76.
# Millard, Steve “Experiences with Composites: North Australia Pastoral Company (NAPCO)” Armidale Feeder Steer School; Conference Proceedings and Support Material no.1 (August 2003): 131–133.
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# Pearson, Michael, “Exploring in the 1860s and 1870s,” in Pastoral Australia: Fortunes, Failures and Hard Yakka: A Historical Overview 1788-1967 ed Jane Lennon, (Collingwood: CSIRO publishing, 2010) 103–106.
# Phillips, Amy, “NAPCO for sale; The North Australian Pastoral Company, One of the Largest Cattle Producers and Landholders in Northern Australia, is for Sale” ABC Regional News NSW, 13 May 2013, 3.
# Reid, Robert L, "Agriculture and the Economy" from The Manual of Australian Agriculture (Butterworths publishers, 1990) 1.
# Velado-Alonso, Elena, Morales-Castilla, Ignacio, Rebollo, Salvador and Gómez-Sal, Antonio, “Relationships between the distribution of wildlife and livestock diversity” In Diversity and Distributions, Vol. 26 No. 10, (Wiley Publishers, 2010) 1264. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Eslicarbazepine acetate was developed by the Portuguese pharmaceutical company Bial. In early 2009, Bial sold the marketing rights in Europe to the Japanese company Eisai. The drug was approved in the European Union in April 2009 under the trade names Zebinix and Exalief, but was marketed only under the first name. In the US it is marketed by Sunovion (formerly Sepracor) and was approved in November 2013. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Patients also on diuretics may experience an excessive reduction of blood pressure after initiation of therapy with trandolapril. It can reduce potassium loss caused by thiazide diuretics and increase serum potassium when used alone. Therefore, hyperkalemia is a possible risk. Increased serum lithium levels can occur in patients who are also on lithium. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
FS 49 C2 is believed to cause less damage to the environment. Its main component is the most widely used replacement gas for refrigeration systems, characterized by zero Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) factor. FS 49 C2 is suitable to replace Halon 1301 as a "drop in" upgrade of existing Halon systems.
Filling a room 12% by FS 49 C2 is sufficient to suppress a flame-based fire.
Even though FS 49 C2 gas does not leave toxic gases behind, a self-contained breathing apparatus is recommended when in a fire site because in the process of extinguishing the fire, FS 49 C2 may release potentially harmful gases. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12) is a colorless gas usually sold under the brand name Freon-12, and a chlorofluorocarbon halomethane (CFC) used as a refrigerant and aerosol spray propellant. In compliance with the Montreal Protocol, its manufacture was banned in developed countries (non-article 5 countries) in 1996, and in developing countries (Article 5 countries) in 2010 out of concerns about its damaging effect on the ozone layer. Its only allowed usage is as a fire retardant in submarines and aircraft. It is soluble in many organic solvents. R-12 cylinders are colored white. | 0 | Greenhouse Gases |
Dexibuprofen is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). It is the active dextrorotatory enantiomer of ibuprofen. Most ibuprofen formulations contain a racemic mixture of both isomers.
Dexibuprofen is a chiral switch of racemic ibuprofen. The chiral carbon in dexibuprofen is assigned an absolute configuration of (S) per the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog rules. Dexibuprofen is also called as [https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Dexibuprofen S(+)Ibuprofen].
Ibuprofen is an α-arylpropionic acid used largely in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and widely used over-the counter drug for headache and minor pains. This drug has a chiral center and exists as a pair of enantiomers. (S)-Ibuprofen, the eutomer, is responsible for the desired therapeutic effect. The inactive (R)-enantiomer, the distomer, undergoes a unidirectional chiral inversion to give the active (S)-enantiomer, the former acting as a prodrug for the latter. That is, when the ibuprofen is administered as a racemate the distomer is converted in vivo into the eutomer while the latter is unaffected. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Dicloxacillin is contraindicated in those with a previous history of allergy (hypersensitivity/anaphylactic reaction) to any penicillins. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Like all fluoroquinolones, levofloxacin is a fluorinated quinolone carboxylic acid. It is a chiral molecule and the pure (−)-(S)-enantiomer of the racemic drug ofloxacin. This enantiomer binds more effectively to the DNA gyrase enzyme and to topoisomerase IV than its (+)-(R)-counterpart. Levofloxacin is referred to as a chiral switch: These are chiral drugs that have already been patent claimed, approved and marketed as racemates (or as mixtures of diastereomers but have since been redeveloped as pure enantiomers. Distinct functional groups on this molecules include a hydroxyl group, carbonyl group, and an aromatic ring.
The substance is used as the hemihydrate, which has the empirical formula CHFNO · HO and a molecular mass of 370.38 g/mol. Levofloxacin is a light-yellowish-white to yellow-white crystal or crystalline powder. A major issue in the synthesis of levofloxacin is identifying correct entries into the benzoxazine core in order to produce the correct chiral form. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |
Methylphenidate is a catecholamine reuptake inhibitor that indirectly increases catecholaminergic neurotransmission by inhibiting the dopamine transporter (DAT) and norepinephrine transporter (NET), which are responsible for clearing catecholamines from the synapse, particularly in the striatum and meso-limbic system. Moreover, it is thought to "increase the release of these monoamines into the extraneuronal space."
Although four stereoisomers of methylphenidate (MPH) are possible, only the threo diastereoisomers are used in modern practice. There is a high eudysmic ratio between the SS and RR enantiomers of MPH. Dexmethylphenidate (d-threo-methylphenidate) is a preparation of the RR enantiomer of methylphenidate. In theory, D-TMP (d-threo-methylphenidate) can be anticipated to be twice the strength of the racemic product. | 1 | Enantiopure drugs |