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Gene fault linked to stroke risk A “single genetic mutation can double your risk of stroke”, the Daily Mail has reported. The newspaper added that scientists hope the discovery could lead to tailored treatments for the condition. The news is based on research which looked for genetic variations that were more common in people who had had an ischaemic stroke than in people who had not had one. Ischaemic strokes occur when the blood flow to a part of the brain is blocked. They account for 80% of stroke cases. By testing the DNA of several thousand participants, the researchers identified a new genetic variant that was associated with increased risk of a type of ischaemic stroke called a “large vessel stroke”. In large vessel strokes, one or more of the arteries supplying blood to the brain become blocked. People can carry up to two copies of the variant, and the study’s authors estimated that each copy of the variant a person carried was associated with about a 42% increase in the odds of a large vessel stroke. However, it is not yet known whether this genetic variant raises the risk of a stroke, or if it is found near to another variant that is responsible for the increased risk. This well-designed study has identified a new association between a genetic variation and strokes. However, the study cannot confirm whether the variation itself causes the increased risk of a stroke. This key issue will need to be clarified before these findings can contribute to the development of the new treatments that many newspapers optimistically predicted. Where did the story come from? The study was carried out by researchers from the University of Oxford, St George’s, University of London, and a number of other UK and international universities and research institutes. It was funded by The Wellcome Trust. The study was published in the peer-reviewed scientific journal Nature Genetics. This study was covered by a number of newspapers. In general, the coverage of the research was good, although many news stories focused on its potential to lead to the development of screening tests and new treatments. However, there is no guarantee that this research will lead to such advances. If it does, they are likely to be some way off. What kind of research was this? This case-control study aimed to identify genetic factors that are associated with an increased risk of ischaemic strokes. Ischaemic strokes occur when there is a blockage of blood flow to part of the brain. This can deprive brain cells of vital oxygen and nutrients. Around 80% of strokes are ischaemic. The remainder are haemorrhagic strokes, caused by a blood vessel rupturing in or around the brain. To find genetic variants associated with strokes, the researchers read the DNA sequences of a group of patients who had had an ischaemic stroke. They compared them to the sequences of a group of healthy people. Their theory was that genetic variations that were more common among the stroke group could potentially be linked to stroke risk. To verify whether the variants they initially identified in these groups were associated with strokes, the researchers tested if the same pattern was seen when another group of stroke patients were compared with another group of healthy individuals (controls). This is an accepted method that is used when performing genetic studies of this type. Although this was a well-designed study, genetic studies like this one can only show that a particular genetic variant is associated with a disease. Further experiments are required to see if the variants identified have a role in causing strokes, or if they lie close to other genetic variants that have this effect. What these variants do still needs to be identified, so media claims that this research could lead to potential new treatments seem premature. It is also important to remember that genetic, medical and lifestyle factors are likely to contribute to a person’s risk of a stroke. It should not be assumed that a person’s genetics mean that they will definitely have a stroke. Equally, people without high-risk genetics may still be at risk of a stroke risk because of lifestyle factors, such as smoking. What did the research involve? In the first phase of the study, researchers recruited 3,548 individuals who had had an ischaemic stroke (the cases) and 5,972 healthy individuals (the controls). The researchers looked for genetic variants that were more common in the stroke group. In a second phase, the researchers confirmed their findings in a new group of 5,859 cases and 6,281 controls. The new genetic variation they identified was then re-confirmed in a further 735 cases and 28,583 controls. What were the basic results? The researchers identified genetic variants at three locations that have been associated with different subtypes of ischaemic stroke in previous studies (near the genes PITX2 and ZFHX3, and on the short arm of chromosome 9). In addition, they identified a genetic variant at a new position within the HDAC9 gene, which was associated with a subtype of ischaemic stroke called large vessel stroke. In large vessel strokes, one or more of the large arteries supplying blood to the brain become blocked. This variant in HDAC9 occurs on about 10% of chromosomes in people in the UK. Humans have two copies of each chromosome, and therefore we can carry up to two copies of this variant (one on each chromosome). The researchers calculated that each copy of the variant that a person possessed was associated with a 42% increase in the odds of having a large vessel stroke (odds ratio 1.42, 95% confidence interval 1.28 to 1.57 for each copy). How did the researchers interpret the results? The researchers concluded that they have “identified a new association with the HDAC9 gene region in large vessel stroke”. They also stated that “the mechanism by which variants in the HDAC9 region increase large vessel stroke risk is not immediately clear.” In this study, researchers have identified a genetic variant in the HDAC9 gene that is associated with a subtype of ischaemic stroke called a large vessel stroke. Large vessel strokes occur when one or more of the arteries supplying blood to the brain become blocked. In this type of study, the genetic variants identified as being associated with a condition are not necessarily the cause of the increase in risk. Instead, they may lie near another variant that is responsible for the effect. In order to unlock the role of the HDAC9 gene, researchers will now need to study it and the region surrounding it more closely, both to confirm whether the variation in this gene is responsible for the increase in stroke risk and, if so, how it has this effect. Genetic, medical and lifestyle factors are likely to contribute to stroke risk. In addition, multiple genetic factors may potentially contribute to the risk. It’s important to note that although having higher-risk genetic variants increases the risk of having a stroke, it does not guarantee that a person will have one. Equally, people who do not have any associated variants can still be at risk of a stroke because of lifestyles factors such as smoking, drinking and their diet. This well-designed study found an association between a new genetic variant and one type of stroke. As yet, it is not possible to say whether this finding will lead to the development of new treatments for large vessel strokes. Search for a job Search for a car Search for a house Weather for Lisburn Saturday 18 May 2013 Temperature: 9 C to 12 C Wind Speed: 13 mph Wind direction: North west Temperature: 8 C to 15 C Wind Speed: 10 mph Wind direction: South east

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The Story of the Third Reich! In 1919 the German war machine was shattered and broken, laid waste by the extreme conditions of the Treaty of Versailles. Just 20 years later Nazi Germany had the most powerful armed forces in the world.The Story of the Third Reich explores the momentous events of these years. From Hitler's rise to power in the early thirties to fall in 1945. Tags: The Story of the Third Reich, Third Reich, National Socialism, Nazi, Adolf Hitler, Mein Kempf, Treaty of Versailles, Anti-Semitism, Holocaust, Waffen SS, Gestapo, SD, World at war, Europe, Wehrmacht, Luftwaffe, Power, Communism, Allies, Axis, Potsdam, Nur Marked as: approved Views: 5672 | Comments: 0 | Votes: 0 | Favorites: 0 | Shared: 0 | Updates: 0 | Times used in channels: 1 |Liveleak on Facebook|

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Like the Republican party, the Democratic party also cracked beneath the weight of the issues at hand. States that favored slavery in the territories walked out of the Democratic convention at Charleston, preventing nominee Stephen Douglas from winning the party endorsement. A reconvened convention eventually nominated Douglas, but kept territory slavery out of the platform altogether. As a result of disagreements over the issue of slavery, splinter parties formed. The Southern Democratic Party spun off from traditional Democrats to nominate John Breckenridge, an advocate of slavery in the West. Republican breakaways formed the Constitutional Union Party. They nominated John Bell who would not address the issue of slavery at all, but rather spoke of upholding the Constitution. With four candidates in the race, Lincoln won the 1860 election. But by the time he took office in March of 1861, seven southern states had already seceded from the Union. When the first shot rang out at Fort Sumter, just one month after Lincoln took office, the Civil War began. Lincoln's hopes for peacefully preserving the union were dashed. In 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation. He also promoted a Constitutional Amendment to permanently abolish slavery. These bold steps marked a shift from Lincoln's more moderate campaign position on slavery issues. They also shifted the focus of the war from preserving the union to freeing the slaves. Remarkably, the election of 1864 was not suspended during the bloody Civil War. Union soldiers were given absentee ballots or furloughed to permit them to vote. With mounting Union victories, the votes of soldiers and the campaign slogan, "Don't switch horses in mid-stream," Lincoln won the election. Sadly, as this 1864 campaign song strangely foreshadows, Lincoln did not live to see passage of the 13th Amendment that abolished slavery forever. He was assassinated just five days after Ulysses S. Grant celebrated victory over Robert E. Lee at Appomattox. Lincoln's presidency causes one to wonder: - Why he changed his position on the issue of abolition during his presidency? - Whether these changes might affect the way we view his original platform? - What were Lincoln's priorities when he created his original platform? How did the advent and progress of the war affect these priorities? - To what extent did Lincoln's original platform represent his personal views? To what extent did it reflect a desire and strategy to win the presidency? - If YOU were running for president, how would you balance your own opinions with the need to appeal to party and popular opinion?

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I get a lot of email in my inbox. Because I have about 10 email accounts, things could get completely out of hand if I didn't set up a few rules. In email parlance, a "rule" or a "filter" is simply a way of sorting your email automatically as it arrives. Most email programs include rules. For example, in Outlook, you choose Tools|Rules and Alerts to access the Rules dialog box. Even Web-based email like GMail includes rules. The principles are the same, no matter what email program you use. For example, I am notified whenever someone subscribes to one of our email newsletters. Rather than having to click and drag the email into the proper folder, I set up a rule to have my email program do it for me. When I receive an email that contains Logicaltips in the subject line, the email bypasses my inbox and is automatically filed in the Logical Tips folder. I use GMail to monitor the discussion groups I participate in. Unlike most email clients, GMail doesn't use folders. However, it does use labels, so you can sort your email by applying labels then using a filter (aka rule) to keep your mail reasonably organized. To set up a label, click the Settings link at the top of the page and click the Labels link. Then type a name in the Create a new label box and click the Create button. Now click the Filters link. Click Create a New Filter. Because discussion group postings always come from the same email address, you can type it into the From box. Alternatively, you might filter emails by their subject line. Click Next Step. Now you tell what GMail should do with the email. You can bypass the inbox, apply a label, add a star, or Forward the email to another email address. For my discussion groups, I click "Skip the inbox" and apply the label I have set up for the group. On the main GMail page in the Labels area, I can see how many emails there are, but they aren't cluttering up my inbox. Then I can read them when I get around to it.

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- Coming Soon. master naturalist for teachers The Teacher’s Master Naturalist program incorporates best practices for systemic school reform - it requires that the school’s principal initiate the partnership, and that each school send a team of lead teachers who are responsible for implementing their school’s science and math programs. LCI adapted its Master Naturalist curriculum to provide a program that teaches teachers how to use experiential learning most effectively to improve their school’s science and math programs. Participants engage in research and educational experiences designed to empower them to teach from a first person perspective, sharing their personal adventures with their classes. During workshops, teachers set and check traps for fish, reptiles, and amphibians, conduct flora and fauna surveys, and collect and identify marine invertebrates and other organisms. As teams of teachers graduate from the course they continue to receive support for school-based projects from LCI staff and the local Master Naturalist association. The program began in 2007-2008 with two pilot schools, and has expanded to eight schools during the 2009-2010 school year. Teachers receive Master Naturalist certification and continuing education credit after completing the year-long program. learning expeditions schools The goal of the Learning Expeditions Schools program is to use environmental science as a theme to integrate learning about science, social studies, math, and language arts. The program is a partnership between the LowCountry Institute, Clemson University's Youth Learning Institute, and Beaufort County Schools. The interdisciplinary lessons include field trips, virtual field trips using video and PowerPoint programs, and hands-on activities in the classroom. These lessons use science standards to teach students how geography and climate determine plant communities present which, in turn, influence the economy and the history of the region. Math is integrated into all lessons through science and history-based word problems. Pilot schools for this program are Shell Point Elementary, Shanklin Elementary, and Robert Smalls Middle School. During the 2012-2013 school year, the program will be made available to other district schools that wish to participate. - Grants: Several schools have been recipients of grants from LCI to create outdoor classrooms and natural areas using native plants to teach students about pollination, plant lifecycles, and native habitats. - Hands-on programs: LCI staff and volunteers conduct programs at schools to teach students about the plants and animals native to the Port Royal Sound System. - School field trips: LCI is able to invite a limited number of schools each year to participate in field trips on Spring Island where students learn about habitats and animals of the lowcountry. click image to see photos of our school programs

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By Sue Weishar, Ph.D. On August 25, 2008, the small town of Laurel, Mississippi was the site of the largest single workplace site raid in U.S. history. Early that morning hundreds of Immigration Control and Enforcement (ICE) agents swooped down on the Howard Industries plant in Laurel, which produces electric transformers, and began rounding up workers. Anyone who appeared to be of Hispanic origin was separated from other workers and escorted outside to a fenced yard. Roads around the sprawling plant were blocked and ICE helicopters hovered overhead. One resident thought there had been a terrorist attack.1 For the 595 immigrant workers that were arrested that day, there might as well have been. By evening of that long, hot summer day, 488 immigrant workers, many in handcuffs, had been transported on dozens of ICE buses to an immigrant detention center in Jena, Louisiana, four hours away—ripped apart from their families and a community they had come to think of as home. Another 107 persons, mostly women, had been deemed “humanitarian” cases2 and were released with electronic monitoring devices attached to their ankles. They were forced to wear these devices day and night for 22 months. In the midst of such terror, a small Catholic church became the center of solace and assistance. Several Catholic agencies and the Loyola University New Orleans Law Clinic also played key roles in assisting raid victims. This article examines the Church’s response to the raid in Laurel,3 and how a small Catholic community in the middle of a deeply conservative state was able to mitigate some of the harmful effects of the raid on its immigrant members.

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Network with other children's program providers and discuss strategies for bringing space science to children on this board. Share successful programming ideas or models to help inspire others! I have been able to develop a partnership with the Meigs County schools. We will present a weekly afterschool program at each of our county's elementary schools for ten weeks beginning October 5th for 3rd, 4th and 5th grade students. The middle school and high school science clubs will provide student volunteers to help me with the program. The local energy cooperative has donated $1000 to be used for purchasing materials to be used in the program. Several astronomy outreach programs have agreed to send presenters, including a solar astronomy outreach program (www.charliebates.org) from Atlanta. They will be bringing 9 solar telescopes to the school for us on October 12th. We are all excited about starting this in Meigs County. I hope everyone else from the workshop has great success establishing an "Explore" program in their communities. Meigs County - Decatur Public Library That sounds like so much fun, Judi! What a great network you've created from the schools, students, outreach programs, and the energy cooperative. Good luck and let us know how it goes! 3 posts • Page 1 of 1 Who is online Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 1 guest

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Boulder trails are common to the interior of Menelaus crater as materials erode from higher topography and roll toward the crater floor. Downhill is to the left, image width is 500 m, LROC NAC M139802338L [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University]. Most boulder trails are relatively high reflectance, but running through the center of this image is a lower reflectance trail. This trail is smaller than the others, and its features may be influenced by factors such as mass of the boulder, boulder speed as it traveled downhill, and elevation from which the boulder originated. For example, is the boulder trail less distinct than the others because the boulder was smaller? What about the spacing of boulder tracks? The spacing of bounce-marks along boulder trails may say something about boulder mass and boulder speed. But why is this boulder trail low reflectance when all of the surrounding trails are higher reflectance? Perhaps this boulder trail is lower reflectance because the boulder gently bounced as it traveled downhill, and barely disturbed a thin layer of regolith? The contrast certainly appears similar to the astronauts' footprints and paths around the Apollo landing sites. Or, maybe the boulder fell apart during its downhill travel and the trail is simply made up of pieces of the boulder - we just don't know yet. LROC WAC context of Menelaus crater at the boundary between Mare Serenitatis and the highlands (dotted line). The arrow marks the location of today's featured image at contact between the crater floor and NE crater wall [NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University]. What do you think? Why don't you follow the trail to its source in the full LROC NAC frame and see if you can find any other low reflectance trails.

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When you work on introducing a new technology to a population and region, you discover lots of intriguing impediments to that introduction that you’d never have imagined. Yesterday (October 11, 2012) the Maine Fuel Board voted to allow Maine Energy Systems to engage in an “Emerging Technologies” project with them that might lead to elimination of one of those impediments for the pellet central heating industry in the State of Maine. Maine is unique in its licensure of technicians for “solid fuels.” In Maine a person installing a boiler must have “solid fuel” authority on his license to legally install a “solid fuel” boiler in someone else’s building. (It’s a bit more complicated than that, but let’s avoid the levels of license detail.) The need for this rule apparently arose from three potential hazards associated with “solid fuel” boilers: the possibility for a thermal run-away during a power outage as combustion continues on a load of fuel while circulation fails due to lack of power, high chimney temperatures, and high boiler surface temperatures. As highly sophisticated automatic pellet boilers made their way into the American market, they were defined in Maine as “solid fuel” appliances because pellets are solid. While that seems innocent and logical enough, the categorization has one substantial flaw and it creates one significant impediment to product growth in the marketplace. State-of-the-art pellet boilers display none of the attributes that led to the perceived need for “solid fuel” rules in Maine. The rules were devised for cordwood boilers and coal stoker boilers that can hold a significant charge of fuel at any given time. The combustion of that fuel is relatively uncontrolled. Pellet boilers burn a very small quantity of fuel at any given time, and the combustion of that fuel is highly controlled. Combustion stops almost immediately if the power goes out, hence, no excessive heat can be produced during a power outage. Cordwood boilers and coal stoker boilers can produce very high stack temperatures. The exhaust gas temperatures from state-of-the-art pellet boilers are very much like those of modern oil boilers. In fact these boilers are so efficient, the stack gas temperature is often quite cool, 250F, or so, but it never exceeds 400F. Therefore, high chimney temperatures never occur. Old cordwood and coal stoker boilers could develop high surface temperatures making installed distance from combustible surfaces important. The surface temperature of these state-of-the-art pellet boilers is the same as the temperature of the room. The heat exchangers are extremely well insulated to achieve the desired efficiencies. So, the worry about proximity of flammable materials due to high boiler surface temperatures is not justified with these boilers. Because these highly sophisticated boilers are lumped in the same category as cordwood boilers and coal stoker boilers, “solid fuel” license holders must install them in Maine. There are many fewer “solid fuel” license holders than ordinary oil license holders, so scheduling boiler installations in this rapidly growing segment is very challenging in the busy times of the year. Other busy technicians find it hard to justify studying for a test that focuses generally on boilers they’ll never see, so they’re not inclined to prepare for the “solid fuel” test to install pellet boilers as they’re just beginning to make a mark on the marketplace. The Emerging Technologies Project On October 11, 2012, the Maine Fuel Board approved a request made by Maine Energy Systems for a year long project intended to confirm the company’s assertion that their boilers, and those similar to them, can be installed by oil boiler license holders who have been suitably trained in the differences between pellet boilers and oil boilers. This is great news for the pellet industry in Maine as the State’s boiler inspectors will inspect some, or all, of these installations and, thereby, become much more familiar with these sorts of systems. If the project leads to the anticipated conclusion, the request to re-categorize the boilers for licensure requirement purposes should be reasonably received. We have little doubt that the Project will reach successful conclusion as these very same boilers are installed throughout the Northeast by the same technicians who install oil boilers and who have been trained at Maine Energy Systems in fuel handling and burner adjustment. In the meantime, Maine Energy Systems will be training oil boiler technicians in the installation of their equipment to ensure that all who choose to install the MESys AutoPellet boiler can do it this heating season on a schedule that works for them. Dutch Dresser is the Managing Director of Maine Energy Systems in Bethel, Maine.

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Ulva spp. on freshwater-influenced or unstable upper eulittoral rock Ecological and functional relationships The community predominantly consists of algae which cover the rock surface and creates a patchy canopy. In doing so, the algae provides an amenable habitat in an otherwise hostile environment, exploitable on a temporary basis by other species. For instance, Ulva intestinalis provides shelter for the orange harpacticoid copepod, Tigriopus brevicornis, and the chironomid larva of Halocladius fucicola (McAllen, 1999). The copepod and chironomid species utilize the hollow thalli of Ulva intestinalis as a moist refuge from desiccation when rockpools completely dry. Several hundred individuals of Tigriopus brevicornis have been observed in a single thallus of Ulva intestinalis (McAllen, 1999). The occasional grazing gastropods that survive in this biotope no doubt graze Ulva. Seasonal and longer term change - During the winter, elevated levels of freshwater runoff would be expected owing to seasonal rainfall. Also, winter storm action may disturb the relatively soft substratum of chalk and firm mud, or boulders may be overturned. - Seasonal fluctuation in the abundance of Ulva spp. Would therefore be expected with the biotope thriving in winter months. Porphyra also tends to be regarded as a winter seaweed, abundant from late autumn to the succeeding spring, owing to the fact that the blade shaped fronds of the gametophyte develop in early autumn, whilst the microscopic filamentous stages of the spring and summer are less apparent (see recruitment process, below). Habitat structure and complexity Habitat complexity in this biotope is relatively limited in comparison to other biotopes. The upper shore substrata, consisting of chalk, firm mud, bedrock or boulders, will probably offer a variety of surfaces for colonization, whilst the patchy covering of ephemeral algae provides a refuge for faunal species and an additional substratum for colonization. However, species diversity in this biotope is poor owing to disturbance and changes in the prevailing environmental factors, e.g. desiccation, salinity and temperature. Only species able to tolerate changes/disturbance or those able to seek refuge will thrive. The biotope is characterized by primary producers. Rocky shore communities are highly productive and are an important source of food and nutrients for neighbouring terrestrial and marine ecosystems (Hill et al., 1998). Macroalgae exude considerable amounts of dissolved organic carbon which is taken up readily by bacteria and may even be taken up directly by some larger invertebrates. Dissolved organic carbon, algal fragments and microbial film organisms are continually removed by the sea. This may enter the food chain of local, subtidal ecosystems, or be exported further offshore. Rocky shores make a contribution to the food of many marine species through the production of planktonic larvae and propagules which contribute to pelagic food chains. The life histories of common algae on the shore are generally complex and varied, but follow a basic pattern, whereby there is an alternation of a haploid, gamete-producing phase (gametophyte-producing eggs and sperm) and a diploid spore-producing (sporophyte) phase. All have dispersive phases which are circulated around in the water column before settling on the rock and growing into a germling (Hawkins & Jones, 1992). Ulva intestinalis is generally considered to be an opportunistic species, with an 'r-type' strategy for survival. The r-strategists have a high growth rate and high reproductive rate. For instance, the thalli of Ulva intestinalis, which arise from spores and zygotes, grow within a few weeks into thalli that reproduce again, and the majority of the cell contents are converted into reproductive cells. The species is also capable of dispersal over a considerable distance. For instance, Amsler & Searles (1980) showed that 'swarmers' of a coastal population of Ulva reached exposed artificial substrata on a submarine plateau 35 km away. The life cycle of Porphyra involves a heteromorphic (of different form) alternation of generations, that are either blade shaped or filamentous. Two kinds of reproductive bodies (male and female (carpogonium)) are found on the blade shaped frond of Porphyra that is abundant during winter. On release these fuse and thereafter, division of the fertilized carpogonium is mitotic, and packets of diploid carpospores are formed. The released carpospores develop into the 'conchocelis' phase (the diploid sporophyte consisting of microscopic filaments), which bore into shells (and probably the chalk rock) and grow vegetatively. The conchocelis filaments reproduce asexually. In the presence of decreasing day length and falling temperatures, terminal cells of the conchocelis phase produce conchospores inside conchosporangia. Meiosis occurs during the germination of the conchospore and produces the macroscopic gametophyte (blade shaped phase) and the cycle is repeated (Cole & Conway, 1980). Time for community to reach maturity Disturbance is an important factor structuring the biotope, consequently the biotope is characterized by ephemeral algae able to rapidly exploit newly available substrata and that are tolerant of changes in the prevailing conditions, e.g. temperature, salinity and desiccation. For instance, following the Torrey Canyon tanker oil spill in mid March 1967, which bleached filamentous algae such as Ulva and adhered to the thin fronds of Porphyra, which after a few weeks became brittle and were washed away, regeneration of Porphyra and Ulva was noted by the end of April at Marazion, Cornwall. Similarly, at Sennen Cove where rocks had completely lost their cover of Porphyra and Ulva during April, by mid-May had occasional blade-shaped fronds of Porphyra sp. up to 15 cm long. These had either regenerated from basal parts of the 'Porphyra' phase or from the 'conchocelis' phase on the rocks (see recruitment processes). By mid-August these regenerated specimens were common and well grown but darkly pigmented and reproductively immature. Besides the Porphyra, a very thick coating of Ulva (as Enteromorpha) was recorded in mid-August (Smith 1968). Such evidence suggests that the community would reach maturity relatively rapidly and probably be considered mature in terms of the species present and ability to reproduce well within six months. No text entered. This review can be cited as follows: Ulva spp. on freshwater-influenced or unstable upper eulittoral rock. Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Sub-programme [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: <http://www.marlin.ac.uk/habitatecology.php?habitatid=104&code=2004>

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The Language of Color Sun, Aug 1, 2010 ~ Wed, Jul 31, 2013Times: Open Daily, 9:00am - 5:00pm, Extended hours 4th Wednesdays Summer 2011Description: Whether it's the brilliant blue wings of a butterfly, the scarlet feathers of a tanager, or the stripes of a zebra, animals display color in vastly different ways and for different reasons. Combining dramatic specimens with video presentations, computer interactives, hands-on activities, and a stunning display of live dart frogs, The Language of Color will help visitors understand the nature of color and pattern, how different animals "see" it, and how animal color and its perception have co-evolved to produce the complex and diverse palette of colors we see in the world today. The exhibit features a wide array of mammals, reptiles, amphibians, mollusks, and insect specimens that illustrate colors used to camouflage, startle predators, mimic other animals, attract a mate, or intimidate a rival. Harvard Museum of Natural History 26 Oxford St. 7-8 Min Walk From Harvard Square Cambridge, MA 02138Event Website Contact Phone: (617) 496-0049

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The NIDCD award will provide $300,000 over the next three years to fund the project, titled “Auditory masking effects on speech fluency in aphasia and apraxia of speech.” In many adults who survive stroke, damage to speech regions of the brain results in a distorted, effortful, and halting pattern of speech, a condition called apraxia of speech. Although they know what they want to say and have intact muscle strength, they have difficulty programming the movements for speech. They are able to hear their speech errors, and the typical treatment program focuses on identifying these errors and correcting them. For most people, focusing on these mistakes results in little improvement in their speech. In contrast to conventional treatment approaches, Dr. Jacks and his colleagues (Katarina Haley, PhD, DAHS, DSHS; Heidi Roth, MD, Department of Neurology) are studying the effects of preventing the person with apraxia of speech from hearing the errors in their speech, by playing loud noise through earphones. This approach is based on the premise that people with this speech disorder are overly-attuned to speech errors, which prevents them from speaking fluently. The same phenomenon has been known for decades to help people who stutter to speak fluently, as demonstrated in the popular film The King's Speech. In the proposed research, Dr. Jacks and his colleagues seek to identify stroke survivors who respond positively to listening to noise by increasing speech rate and decreasing the occurrence of speech disfluencies (pauses, filler words, repetitions). Since not all people are expected to show a change in speech while listening to noise, the team also will study individual characteristics to determine what differentiates those who improve from those who do not. In particular, behavioral profiles (type of speech and language impairment) and location and size of brain lesion will be compared between positive responders and non-responders to determine whether a positive response can be predicted from routine clinical data. In preliminary work, over half of the participants tested spoke more quickly and with fewer disfluencies while listening to noise. Although this is a temporary effect and does not persist after the noise is turned off, the moments of speech fluency experienced may cause the person's brain to activate in a different way than it does when he or she is speaking disfluently. If the preliminary results are borne out in the completed study, Dr. Jacks and his team believe that the procedure may be further developed into a useful therapeutic technique that can result in lasting speech changes.

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Scientists have revealed that new treatments for the incurable nerve disease known as Lou Gehrig's disease or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) could be developed via a long-used anti-cancer drug. Their research showing how the drug prevents clumping of an enzyme linked to ALS appears in the Journal of the American Chemical Society. Lucia Banci, Ivano Bertini and colleagues explain that ALS causes a progressive loss of muscle control as the nerves that control body movements wither and die. Patients become weak and have difficulty swallowing and breathing, and most die within three to five years of diagnosis. Although some ALS cases are hereditary and run in families, about 90 percent are "sporadic," with the cause unknown. Some research links sporadic ALS to clumping of an antioxidant enzyme called hSOD1. The authors explored whether cisplatin, a chemotherapy drug used since the 1960s that is known to interact with some of the enzyme's amino acids, has any effect on hSOD1 clusters. The scientists found that in laboratory tests, the anti-cancer drug cisplatin bound readily to the enzyme, preventing hSOD1 from aggregating and dissolving existing bunches. Cisplatin targets sites that can form bonds between hSOD1 after the enzyme loses the atom of copper it normally carries. The scientists note that cisplatin does not prevent the enzyme from performing its normal functions. "From this work it appears that cisplatin is a promising lead compound for the rational design of ALS treatments," the authors say.

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The following information was extracted from the publication "Threatened" produced by BNZ in cooperation with the Department of Conservation and Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society. The Predation Threat In 1987, a dog was on the loose in Waitangi State forest in the Bay of Islands. For six weeks it rampaged through the forest killing every kiwi it encountered. By the time the dog was found, perhaps as many as 500 of the 1000 kiwi living there had been slaughtered. This carnage at Waitangi illustrates just how vulnerable the kiwi is to predators and the speed at which seemingly healthy populations can fail. Other predators introduced to New Zealand by humans may cause similar havoc. The main threat to the kiwi is posed by: Possums, stoats, ferrets, and feral (wild) cats who steal eggs and kill young. Larger predators include pigs and dogs. Young kiwi leave the nest at just three weeks of age, weighing only 200g. Small and slow, they are easy prey. Very few survive this precarious journey from birth to 12 months, when they reach the critical size that enables them to stand up to most predators. Humans, primarily through destroying forests and introducing predators in the first place, pose the single greatest threat to the kiwi. Ironically, we are also their greatest hope. The kiwi is a one-off evolutionary design, holding all sorts of biological records. New Zealand's ancient isolation and lack of mammals allowed it to occupy a habitat and lifestyle that everywhere else in the world would be occupied by a mammal. Whereas birds traditionally depend on sight, the kiwi is one of the few birds with a highly developed sense of smell. You can sometimes hear them sniffing around in the dark. Alarm them during the day and they will run off. Then, at a distance, just like a wolf or other mammal, they'll stick their bill (nose) in the air, sniffing to see if they are safe from pursuit. Other reasons the kiwi could pass for a mammal is its loose, hair-like feathers, its long whiskers, the fact it can't fly and that it burrows in the ground. Other kiwi curiosities include: Being the only known bird to have external nostrils at the end of its bill. It literally sniffs out its food a bill-length below the surface. It's huge eggs. The kiwi has one of the largest egg-to-body weight ratio of any bird. The mature egg averages 20% of the female's body weight. Compare that to 2% for an ostrich! Being the smallest living member of the ratite family (which includes ostriches and emus). They live in pairs — as monogamous couples — for most, if not all of their lives. Sex role reversal: The female is bigger and dominates the male. In some varieties, the male does most of the incubating of the eggs. The eggs take an exceedingly long time to hatch — up to 80 days. Kiwi tend to live in pairs, forming monogamous couples. These bonds are generally till death and have been known to last over 30 years. About every third day, the pair will shelter in the same burrow together. The relationship tends to be quite volatile and physical, the female generally calling the shots over her smaller partner. During the night, as they are out foraging for food or patrolling their territory, they will perform duets, calling to each other. The female has a lower hoarser call than the male. From the outside, it doesn't appear that kiwi domestic life is bliss. But the bond is long-lasting. There are few surprises in the kiwi diet. It's mostly earthworms, spiders, fallen fruits and seeds, larvae of beetles and cicada and a mixture of forest invertebrates. But they will also take large food items like freshwater crays and even frogs. In captivity, kiwi have fished eels out of a pond, subdued them with a few thuds and eaten them. Kiwi are extremely territorial birds, They protect their patch — which can be as much as 40 hectares — by calling or, if that fails, by chasing the intruder kiwi and giving it a good booting over. Very occasionally, kiwi kill each other fighting for territory. Acutely aware of neighbours, they will often engage in calling duels. If a bird is intruding into another's space, it will rush back at full speed into its own space before returning a neighbour's call. A gathering of kiwi is a rarity. However, on Stewart Island, they do live in small, mixed aged family groupings. Kiwi Nests, er, Burrows! Kiwi are burrowers. They may quickly clear a burrow at the end of a night's work, crash there during the day and then move on to a new burrow the next day. Great Spotted Kiwi prefer dens. Unlike the Little Spotted Kiwi and the Brown Kiwi, who tends towards simple one-entrance burrows, the Great Spotted will put the time and effort into constructing a labyrinth of tunnels several metres long with more than one exit. Common Kiwi Myths Kiwi experts are keen to dispel myths surrounding the kiwi — particularly that they are half-blind and bumbling. Here are a few common ones: Myth: "Kiwi fight with their beaks." To use their beaks to fight would be like head-butting someone with your nose. At the end of the beak are the kiwi's external nostrils. Finely tuned and capable of detecting a few parts per million of scent, the beak, when probing the ground, can detect worms and other food. Myth: "Kiwi are cute, gentle little creatures." They are actually super-strong and often extremely bad tempered. The adults can look after themselves using their razor sharp claws as weapons. A couple of slashes can quickly draw blood — as conservationists have often found when putting their hands down kiwi burrows. Because they are so aggressive, DOC staff can attract them simply by imitating their call. Incensed that another kiwi is on their turf, the response is instant and dramatic: "It's amazing to hear them coming to kick the intruder out. They sound like a deer charging, almost exploding, through the dark. Standing there, it's quite intimidating. I guess it's part of the threat display." "Pete" is a Great Spotted Kiwi in West Northland. "We've just got to walk into his territory and he comes catapulting in for a hit-and-run. He belts you in the leg and then runs off into the undergrowth. I think he views us as super-big kiwi. He's probably given some trampers a helluva scare." Myth: "Kiwi are a bit thick." According to Conservation Officers who know them best, they are capable of learning quickly and altering behaviour in the light of experience. Myth: "Kiwi move slowly." Superbly adapted to their natural habitat, the kiwi is extremely agile and quick moving. A kiwi can cover his territory — possibly the size of 60 football fields — in a night. This might take in three valley streams and all sorts of obstacles. Myth: "Kiwi and half-blind." The notion of their being half-blind probably stems from their being nocturnal and having small eyes. In fact, as Conservation Officers can testify, if you chase them at night, they can run very fast, swerving around trees and expertly navigating the undergrowth. Similarly, they are unfazed by daylight. Kiwi Culture -- From a Maori Perspective The Maori people have a very personal interest in seeing the kiwi survive and flourish. According to many Maori traditions, the kiwi is the oldest of all Tanemahuta's bird family. It was Tane, the god of the forest who, with different wives, created much of the natural world, including birds, trees, stones and humans. For Maori, kiwi are, in effect, our elder siblings. And, like a good older brother or sister, they are very protective of us. That's partly why they patrol the forests nightly. Kiwi -- Six Unique Varieties There are six identified varieties of kiwi. The Little Spotted Kiwi The smallest (about the size of a bantam) and most endangered species, the "Little Spots" have a very mellow, often docile nature. They have suffered terrible that the hands of possums, stoats, cats and larger predators. Now extinct on mainland New Zealand, the largest remaining population is on Kapiti Island where 1000 birds occupy some 1900 ha of mixed forest, scrub and grassland. Sensitive management by DoC and the Maori Trustees of private land on Kapiti are ensuring that cats, dogs and other kiwi predators don't reach the island. The Great Spotted Kiwi The rugged mountaineer of the kiwi — found primarily in the high, often harsh hill country — the Great Spotted has forged a strange deal with evolution. The same harsh environment that makes it struggle from one day to the next also makes it tough going for the pigs, dogs and stoats that would otherwise be keen to pursue it. Big bold and handsome, it is found only in the South Island, mainly in North West Nelson, Central Westland and Eastern Canterbury. The North Island Brown Kiwi Bug noses and short tempers is one way to sum up the Brown Kiwi. They are little toughies ... and have to be to survive against humans, introduced predators and the natural challenges of their often harsh bush existence. The North Island Brown Kiwi is found only in the upper two-thirds of the North Island. They are widespread in Northland in a diverse range of vegetation types including exotic forests and rough farm land. Okarito Brown Kiwi In one sense, the new kid on the block. It was only in 1993 that the Okarito Brown, living in lowland forest just north of Franz Josef was identified as a distinct variety of kiwi. Tell-tale signs are its slightly greyish plumage sometimes accompanied by white facial feathers. Squat and round and bigger than their northern Brown Kiwi cousins, they can grow to almost the same size as Great Spotted Kiwi. The Southern Tokoeka are found in Fiordland and on Stewart Island. They are the most communal of the somewhat reclusive kiwi. The Haast Tokoeka, found in the rugged mountains behind Haast, was also identified as a distant variety of Kiwi in 1993. They spend their summers in the high sub alpine tussock grasslands but probably retreat to the lowland forests in winter. Kiwi Sightings -- Where You Can See Kiwi Few of us get the chance to see a kiwi in the wild but Brown Kiwi can be seen at the following places:

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The Civics merit badge was one of the original 57 merit badges issued by the Boy Scouts of America in 1911. Civics is a discontinued merit badge. It was one of the original 1911 merit badges, but was renamed Citizenship by the 1948 revision to the Boy Scout Handbook. That badge was then replaced by Citizenship in the Nation in in 1951 and Citizenship in the Community and Citizenship in the Home in 1952 (later renamed as the Family Life merit badge). At the same time, the World Brotherhood merit badge was introduced, and these four badges constituted the "Citizenship Group" of merit badges, any two of which were required for Eagle. In 1972, the Citizenship in the World merit badge replaced World Brotherhood. Civics requirements at inception - State the principal citizenship requirements of an elector in his state. - Know the principal features of the naturalization laws of the United States. - Know how President, Vice-President, senators, and congressmen of the United States are elected and their terms of office. - Know the number of judges of the Supreme Court of the United States, how appointed, and their term of office. - Know the various administrative departments of government, as represented in the President's Cabinet. - Know how the governor, lieutenant-governor, senators, representatives, or assemblymen of his state are elected, and their terms of office. - Know whether the judges of the principal courts in his state are appointed or elected, and the length of their terms. - Know how the principal officers in his town or city are elected and for what terms. - Know the duties of the various city departments, such as fire, police, board of health, etc. - Draw a map of the town or city in which he lives, giving location of the principal public buildings and points of special interest. - Give satisfactory evidence that he is familiar with the provisions and history of the Declaration of Independence, and the Constitution of the United States. || The official source for the information shown in this article or section is:| Boy Scout Handbook, 1911 Edition The text of these requirements is locked and can only be edited by an administrator. Please note any errors found in the above requirements on this article's Talk Page.

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My Beef With Meat If it has a face, it probably gobbles up global resources along with its grass By Stett Holbrook Last month, the federal government released a much-anticipated report on global climate change. It paints a chilling picture of what will happen if global warming continues unabated. "This report is a game-changer," said the new director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Jane Lubchenco, at a press conference last week. "I think that much of the foot-dragging in addressing climate change is a reflection of the perception that climate change is way down the road, it's in the future and it only affects certain parts of the country. This report demonstrates in concrete scientific information that climate change is happening now, and it's happening in our back yards." The report, issued by the U.S. Global Change Research Program, compiles work from 13 different government agencies. In a refreshing break from the science-averse Bush administration, the report states unequivocally that climate change is human caused. The report details changes scientists are already seeing and predicts how the climate will change if greenhouse-gas emissions aren't curtailed. The report also discusses how decisive policies can roll back the impending doom. (Read the report at globalchange.gov.) Here are two of the key findings: • Climate changes are under way in the United States and are projected to grow. These include increases in heavy downpours, rising temperature and sea level, rapidly retreating glaciers, thawing permafrost, lengthening growing seasons, lengthening ice-free seasons in the ocean and on lakes and rivers, earlier snowmelt and alterations in river flows. • Agriculture is considered one of the sectors most adaptable to changes in climate, but increased heat, pests, water stress, diseases and weather extremes will pose adaptation challenges for crop and livestock production. There have been many reports on global warming and dire predictions from respected scientists. So far not much has changed. I hope that President Obama uses the power of his position to spur the dramatic and speedy action needed to reduce the profound impacts of the crisis. The challenge Obama faces is convincing people that the time to change our ways is today, not tomorrow. The trouble is, we don't usually realize we're in trouble until the roof starts caving in. For example, only when we faced global financial meltdown did world leaders act. A global recession is real and painful, but compared to the apocalyptic effects of unchecked global warming, it's but a pinprick. What does all this have to do with food? Well, while the U.S. government appears to be finally getting serious about acting against global warming, we the people need to do as much as we can. Food strikes me as particularly target-rich as we seek to reduce global warming. I see reducing our consumption of meat as the single most important action we can take as individuals. I've come to view a double bacon cheeseburger as the culinary equivalent of dumping dirty motor oil into a clear mountain lake. If eating burgers was only detrimental to those who eat them that would be one thing, but the production of meat and dairy across the world is an environmental catastrophe. I'm a firm believer in spending more for quality, food included. But eating well shouldn't be prohibitively expensive. I guess it's all in how one defines "eating well." For me, that means little or no processed food and plenty of fresh produce in season. Food is of course a necessary expense, but there's a lot of discretion on how to spend your food dollar. But the ironic thing about food when you buy fresh, unprocessed ingredients and cook for yourself rather than opening a can or box, eating well generally costs less. At least that's my belief. According to the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), livestock production generates nearly a fifth of the world's greenhouse gases, more than transportation. Animal agriculture is the leading source of methane and nitrous oxide emissions, which--combined with carbon dioxide--are the primary causes of global warming. Livestock production accounts for more than 8 percent of global human water use, the FAO says. Evidence suggests that it is also the largest source of water pollution thanks to animal wastes, antibiotics, hormones, fertilizers and pesticides used for feed crops, and sediments from eroded pastures. An estimated 30 percent of the Earth's ice-free land is involved in livestock production. Approximately 70 percent of previously forested land in the Amazon is used as pasture, and feed crops cover a large part of what's left. Eating organically raised, grass-feed beef is a far better option than the factory-farmed garbage that most of us eat. But organically raised or not, livestock still sucks up scarce natural resources and contributes to global warming. I'm not saying we should give up meat entirely. Just eat less of it. Given the severity of the climate crisis, reducing our consumption of meat is a painless step everyone can take. What if President Obama declared he was willing to go without meat a few days a week for the sake of the planet? I'm not holding my breath for that one, but more often than not I'm going to hold off on eating meat. Send a letter to the editor about this story.

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Increasing Local Contrast The previous section showed adjustments to the brightness and contrast of the entire image. The adjustment changes every pixel of original brightness value A to the same final brightness value B, regardless of the pixel’s neighbors. Another class of operations increases the visibility of local differences between pixels, by suppressing the longer-range variations. These neighborhood functions use a moving neighborhood, usually a small circle, that compares or combines the central pixel and the neighbors to produce a new value that is assigned to the central pixel to construct a new image. Then the neighborhood shifts to the next pixel and the process is repeated. These calculations are applied to the pixel brightness values in a color coordinate system such as HSI or LAB that leaves the color values unchanged. For instance, local equalization functions just like the histogram equalization procedure, except that it takes place within a moving circular neighborhood and assigns a new value only to the central pixel. The result makes a pixel that is slightly brighter than its surroundings brighter still, and vice-versa, enhancing local contrast. The result is usually added back in some proportion to the original image to produce a more visually pleasing result, as shown in the Local Equalization interactive Java tutorial. Sharpening of images to increase local contrast is almost universally applied by publishers to counter the visual blurring effect of halftoning images in the printing process. This is usually done by a convolution using a kernel of weights, just as the Gaussian smoothing function shown above. But in this application, some of those weights will have negative values. For instance, the Laplacian sharpening filter in Table 1 combines each pixel with its eight adjacent neighbors as shown in the Laplacian Sharpening interactive Java tutorial. A more flexible extension of this basic idea is the widely used (and as often misused) unsharp mask. The name derives from a century-old darkroom procedure that required printing the original image at 1:1 magnification but out of focus onto another piece of film (this was the unsharp mask), and then placing the two films together to print the final result. Where the original negative was dense, the mask was not (and vice versa) so that little light was transmitted, except near detail and edges where the mask was out of focus. The same effect can be produced in the computer by applying a Gaussian blur to a duplicate of the original and then subtracting it from the original. The difference between the two images is just the detail and edges removed by the blurring. The original image is then added back to the difference to increase the visibility of the details while suppressing the overall image contrast. In the Unsharp Masking interactive Java tutorial, the result image is automatically scaled to the range of the display so that negative values that can result from the calculation are not lost. One of the characteristics of the unsharp mask is the formation of bright and dark “haloes” adjacent to the dark and bright borders (respectively) of structure in the image. This increases their visibility, but can hide other nearby information. A related approach using neighborhood ranking rather than Gaussian blurring alleviates this problem. The method applies a median filter to remove fine detail, subtracts this from the original to isolate the detail, and then adds the original image back to enhance the visibility as shown in the Rank Masking interactive Java tutorial. This method is called a rank mask, but is sometimes (incorrectly) referred to as a top hat filter (the real top hat is shown below). Note that all of these local enhancement methods are very noise sensitive, because both random speckle and shot noise produce pixels that are different from their local neighborhood. Image noise must be removed before enhancement is attempted, or the visibility of the noise will be increased as shown in the Comparison of Local Contrast Enhancement Methods interactive Java tutorial. The top hat filter is also a based on neighborhood ranking, but unlike the procedure above it uses the ranked value from two different size regions. The brightest value in a circular interior region is compared to the brightest value in a surrounding annular region. If the brightness difference exceeds a threshold level, it is kept (otherwise it is erased). The Top Hat Filter interactive Java tutorial shows the filter’s operation. If the interior and annular regions are drawn as shown in the diagram in Figure 1, the reason for the filter name becomes apparent. The interior region is the crown and the threshold is its height, while the surrounding annulus is the brim of the hat. This operation is particularly well suited for finding the spikes in Fourier transform power spectra, as illustrated previously. The top hat is also good for locating any features of a known size by adjusting the radius of the crown. Objects too large to fit into the crown of the hat are selectively removed. Reversing the logic to use the darkest values in both regions enables the same procedure to isolate dust or other dark features. By replacing the interior value by the mean of the surroundings, the dust can be selectively removed. In this application, shown in the Rolling Ball Filter interactive Java tutorial, the method is called a rolling ball filter. John C. Russ - Materials Science and Engineering Dept., North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27695. Matthew Parry-Hill and Michael W. Davidson - National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 1800 East Paul Dirac Dr., The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310. Questions or comments? Send us an email. © 1998-2009 by Michael W. Davidson, John Russ, Olympus America Inc., and The Florida State University. All Rights Reserved. No images, graphics, scripts, or applets may be reproduced or used in any manner without permission from the copyright holders. Use of this website means you agree to all of the Legal Terms and Conditions set forth by the owners. This website is maintained by our

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of the Giant Squid scientifically known as Architeuthis dux, is the largest of all invertebrates. Scientists believe it can be as long as 18 metres (60 feet). This specimen was collected by Dr Gordon Williamson who worked as the resident ships biologist for the whaling company Salvesons. He examined the stomach contents of 250 Sperm Whales Physeter macrocephalus keeping the largest squid beak and discarding the smaller until he ended up with this magnificent specimen.

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Air pollution health alert and advisory issued through Wednesday, March 10 The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) has issued an air pollution health ALERT for today and tomorrow, March 8 and 9 and an air pollution health ADVISORY for Wednesday, March 10 for the Twin Cities and Rochester area. The Air Quality Index values (AQI) in the Twin Cities exceeds the level considered unhealthy for sensitive groups. Dense fog overnight, which aids in fine particle production, and calm winds, have allowed fine particle concentrations to build to levels considered unhealthy for sensitive groups. Fine particle levels are expected to gradually fall this afternoon as the fog dissipates. However, calm winds and high relative humidity will continue to trap pollutants, keeping air quality conditions unhealthy for sensitive groups. Weather conditions are supposed to improve the air quality to good AQI levels by Thursday, March 11. Those who have respiratory or cardiovascular problems, young children, the elderly, and individuals whom are physically active are considered especially sensitive to elevated levels of air pollution. Be prepared to postpone or reduce vigorous activity. Ozone and fine particles can be drawn deeply into the lungs, so reduce activities that lead to deep or accelerated breathing. Even individuals that are otherwise healthy may experience health effects when air pollutant levels increase. How you can help: Residents can take simple steps to help reduce emissions that create smog. Motor vehicle emissions contribute to fine particle pollution. To lower levels of air pollution, the MPCA is urging residents to use alternate modes of transportation such as mass transit, car pools, biking and walking to work or shop. Other measures that will help reduce emissions on days when the Index reaches 100 and above include: 1. Limit driving - share a ride to work and postpone errands until the next day. 2. Don’t idle your vehicle for more than three minutes** 3. Refuel your vehicle after 6 p.m. 4. Leave your car at home and walk, bike, carpool or take public transportation whenever you can. 5. Postpone using other gasoline-powered engines, like garden and recreational equipment. 6. Postpone indoor and outdoor recreational fires. 7. To reduce the demand on power plants, turn off as many electric items as possible. 8. If you fall in the sensitive group category, arrange to work indoors for the day. **The City of Minneapolis approved limits on vehicle idling that aim to reduce air pollution in Minneapolis. The ordinance, which was passed in 2008, limits most vehicle idling to three minutes, except in traffic. Reducing vehicle idling in Minneapolis translates into less air pollution, protecting the public health and the environment and saving money in fuel. Vehicle motors release particulate matter, dirt, nitrous oxides, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide into the air. Published Mar. 8, 2010

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You're using more water than you think A water footprint is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed. Here are some ways to lighten your water footprint. Fri, Aug 31 2012 at 11:28 AM Prodded by environmental consciousness — or penny pinching — you installed low-flow showerheads and fixed all the drippy facets. Knowing that your manicured lawn was sucking down an unnatural amount of water — nearly 7 billion gallons of water is used to irrigate home landscaping, according to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency — you ripped up the turf and replaced it with native plants. You’re still using a lot more water than you think. The drought of 2012 has generated images of parched landscapes and sun-baked lakebeds. At least 36 states are projecting water shortages between now and 2013, according to a survey by the federal General Accounting Office. Water supplies are finite, and fickle. Water, we all know, is essential to life. It is also essential to agriculture, industry, energy and the production of trendy T-shirts. We all use water in ways that go way beyond the kitchen and bathroom. The measure of both direct and indirect water use is known as the water footprint. Your water footprint is the total volume of freshwater used to produce the goods and services consumed, according to the Water Footprint Network, an international nonprofit foundation based in the Netherlands. The Water Footprint Network has crunched the numbers and developed an online calculator to help you determine the size of your footprint. You’ll be astonished to know how much water you’re using … once you’ve converted all those metric measurements into something you can understand. The average American home uses about 260 gallons of water per day, according to the EPA. That quarter-pound burger you just gobbled down? More than 600 gallons of water. That Ramones T-shirt? More than 700 gallons. So, adjustments to your diet and buying habits can have a much greater impact on the size of your water footprint than taking 40-second showers. A pound of beef, for example, takes nearly 1,800 gallons of water to produce, with most of that going to irrigate the grains and grass used to feed the cattle. A pound of chicken demands just 468 gallons. If you really want to save water, eat more goat. A pound of goat requires 127 gallons of water. We’ve been told to cut down on our use of paper to save the forests, but going paperless also saves water. It takes more than 1,300 gallons of water to produce a ream of copy paper. Even getting treated water to your house requires electricity. Letting your faucet run for five minutes, the EPA says, uses about as much energy as burning a 60-watt light bulb for 14 hours. Reducing your water footprint also reduces your carbon footprint, the amount of greenhouse gases your lifestyle contributes to the atmosphere and global warming. So, you could say that conserving water is more than hot air. It’s connected to almost everything you do. Related water stories on MNN:

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|About the presenter: Patricia M. Roberts, Ph.D., CCC-SLP, SLP(C), currently Associate Professor in speech language pathology at the University of Ottawa, in Canada's capital. She holds degrees from Queen's University (Kingston, Canada) and Florida State University and obtained her Ph.D. from the Universite de Montreal.In her first career as a clinical SLP, she worked with many bilingual clients and was privileged to have the late Marie Poulos as colleague and mentor. She is spending much of her 2nd career as a professor and researcher trying to understand the many unsolved puzzles of bilingual stuttering.| In this presentation, I will focus on four mysteries (things we do not yet know) about stuttering in bilingual children and adults and some of the myths associated with these gaps in our current knowledge. To make this essay easier to read, I won't say "bilingual or multilingual" each time the word "bilingual" comes up but in most places, what applies to bilinguals also applies to multilingual speakers - as far as we know - so far. Mystery 1: How many bilingual people are there? It is sometimes confusing to even try to discuss bilingualism because the word bilingual means different things to different people. For some people, bilinguals are people who speak two (or more - for multilinguals) languages equally and perfectly. People who speak two languages in their daily lives, and can do most things such as talking to people at work, reading the newspaper, understanding conversations with friends sometimes say "Oh yes, I can do all that. But I am not bilingual". Other people describe themselves as bilingual if they can communicate basic ideas, even if they make many errors in grammar and pronunciation and have a very small vocabulary in one language. In research, both these kinds of people are seen as having different levels of bilingualism. Ratings from 1 to 7 or 1 to 9 are often used to estimate where each person falls along the continuous line that goes from "I really ONLY know one language" to "I am one of those rare people who feels equally at home in two languages, no matter what the task or topic". For speaking, hearing, reading, and writing, most of us are at slightly different levels of ability, in each of the languages we know. For this essay - and the discussions I hope it will spark - let's think of bilingualism as being a continuum. We don't divide the world into tall people and short people. There is no rational cut-off to separate "tall" from "short". Same thing for "bilingual" and "unilingual". Everyone is at some point along the line that goes from strongly unilingual to very, very bilingual. With a broad definition of bilingualism, some authors estimate that there are at least as many people in the world who need to use two or more languages in their daily lives as there are people who can only function in one language (see, for example, Bhatia & Ritchie, 2006). We cannot make precise estimates unless we first define what levels of bilingualism are included or excluded from the count (and where to divide dialects from languages). Mystery 2: Is the incidence of stuttering the same in different languages? There are studies of the incidence of stuttering in different countries. Some authors use these studies to say things like "the incidence of stuttering is higher in Country X than in Country Y". But, if each study used different ways of sampling and different ways of determining who stutters, it is not valid to compare across studies. For example, from one study to the next, different methods were used in deciding who is stuttering: parent reports? Teachers in schools or day care centres? Parents remembering what the child was like 5 or 10 years ago? There are also differences in what counts as stuttering: only for a few months at age 3? Only people who stuttered for more than a year? Only those who reach a given level of severity? When people see these reports, they often speculate about why the incidence figures SEEM to be different (ignoring the differences in how the estimates were reached), often using their favourite aspect of stuttering as the explanation. Thus, we see explanations like: 1) "There is more stuttering in Country X than in Country Y because the grammar of the language spoken in Country X makes greater demands on memory...." The complexity of a language might be relevant, in some subtle ways including the location of moments of stuttering within a sentence. Concluding that the language itself influences the number of people who stutter requires a huge, dangerous leap of logic. There are other possible explanations that have to be ruled out before we can select one of them and reject the others. 2) "There is more stuttering in ___ because that culture views speaking well as very important and the pressure to speak well makes people stutter". This explanation now seems very unlikely, given what we know about the causes of stuttering. Now that we understand the importance of genetics and the inherited nature of stuttering for many people, it seems logical to ask whether, in some ethnic groups, more people carry the genes that make them vulnerable to stuttering than is the case in other ethnic groups. Perhaps the genetic pool, not cultural or linguistic features, has the strongest influence on the incidence of stuttering. Or, more likely, perhaps several causal factors contribute, interacting with each others in ways we do not yet understand. The only way we will ever know if the incidence of stuttering varies across languages or countries is to do international, collaborative studies where the same rigourous methods are used in everywhere THEN we can propose explanations for the similar or differing rates of stuttering in different languages and/or countries. Mystery 3: Does speaking more than one language increase the risk of a child stuttering? Many people think it does. For the general public, it seems logical. Sometimes people reason this way: 1) Speaking two languages is hard. 2) For children who stutter, speaking is hard. 3) Therefore, children who stutter (or those who are at risk of developing stuttering, because of a known family history) should not be expected to learn two languages. In the research on stuttering, the Demands and Capacities model of stuttering seems to apply here. But is it "hard" to learn two languages or is this a myth? If learning two languages as a young child is neurologically or cognitively strenuous, why is it that tens of millions of children do so successfully? Are their brains slightly stressed if they have to sort out two languages during the best language-learning years in childhood? Most of the research on bilingualism says "no". However, bilingualism is seen as something very positive by most people who do research on it, and most studies are designed to detect advantages and not problems associated with bilingualism. Also, this research is based on children with no speech or language problems. In children with a genetic vulnerability to stuttering, is learning two sets of words and grammar rules, and two sets of speech sounds harder than it is for children without this vulnerability? If learning two languages as a child is much harder than learning one, is it all potentially bilingual children or only a sub-group of those who might be at risk for stuttering? How should we interpret the recent and somewhat controversial study by Howell, Davis and Williams (2009) that found a higher incidence of stuttering in children if they began learning English (the language of their new country? before age 5? Were there other reasons for the finding that children who learned English before starting school were more likely to stutter than those who reportedly began learning English when they began school in London, England? (See Packman, et al, 2009 letter to the editor and Howell et al.'s reply.) There are four other, older studies that have led some people to conclude that bilingualism is too great a strain for children who stutter. In each case, these studies have serious flaws that make it impossible to draw any conclusions from them. Travis, Johnson and Shover (1937) asked people with no training in communication disorders (such as priests and steel company personnel directors) to talk to young children and classify them as stuttering or not stuttering based on one interview. Stern (1948) interviewed children if their parents reported that they stuttered. In both these studies, we have little information about the type of speech sample obtained, how long it was or how the disfluencies were counted. Applying current standards to these studies, they would not be accepted for publication. Dale (1977) reported that four Cuban-American teenagers reported feeling that being made to speak their weaker language made them more disfluent. Most bilinguals have a stronger and a weaker language. For these teens, their first language - Spanish - was their weaker language, since so much of their lives at school and with friends took place in English, their second language. This study "blames" bilingualism. But we have no information about real disfluency rates across different situations, and Dale does not distinguish between normal disfluencies and tense, stuttered disfluencies. There are studies showing that, in adults, the memory load of speaking in their weaker language may lead to a higher number of normal disfluencies (ums, uh's, revisions) in the weaker language than in the preferred language (e.g., Fehringer & Fry, 2007). Perhaps that is all that was happening in this study. Dale offers no data to support the notion that any of the four adolescents, in fact, stuttered. Karniol (1992) described how stuttering appeared to increase and decrease in a young boy whose environment included exposure to various levels of English, Hebrew, and Hungarian during an extremely tense time that included a war going on around him. With the information provided, we cannot tell what his real level of exposure to each language was (siblings, friends, parents etc.) and whether his parents' attempts to expose him to only Hebrew had any impact on what is described as a recovery from stuttering. The parents' diaries cover a period of approximately one year (age 2 to age 3) when the boy was in the age group where the chances of spontaneous recovery from stuttering are very, very high. There is (still) no clinical research to support the strategy of removing one language from a child's environment. Recent reviews of the literature do not find support for doing this routinely for all children (e.g., Bernstein Ratner, 2004; Roberts & Shenker, 2007; Van Borsel, Maes & Foulon, 2001). Some clinicians do this, however, if they work in a Demands and Capacities framework OR if the child also has delayed language and/or problems learning the speech sounds of his/her language. Until there is solid evidence on the impact of bilingualism in young children (i.e. a series of studies, done by different authors, ideally on different types of speakers and different pairs of languages), each clinician is left to try a particular strategy and assess its impact on a case by case basis. Mystery 4: Do some bilingual people stutter in only one language? As of 2010, I am still not aware of any documented case of this occurring. Like the Loch Ness monster, there are reported sightings from time to time, but no real proof that this is possible. In my years working with bilingual adults who stutter, I never assessed or treated a case of "unilingual stuttering". (Note: if you know of someone who stutters in only one of their two (or more) languages, I would be interested in exploring this with you. Just because there are no documented cases does not mean that it never occurs !) Nonetheless, given the roles of genetics and motor processes in stuttering, it is highly unlikely that someone would stutter in only one of their languages. Van Riper (1971) cites second- and third-hand reports of two people reported to stutter in only one of their two languages, but offers no data. Howell, Davis and Williams (2009) report that 2 of the 38 children in their bilingual group stuttered in only one language, but there is no supporting data about the rates of disfluencies, or the level of proficiency in each language and the children were not assessed using a range of speaking tasks. Roberts and Shenker (2007, Table 1) outlined the steps that would be required to show that someone with a working knowledge of two languages stutters in only one language. Sometimes, when someone appears to stutter in only one language it could be for one or more of the following reasons: There are more and more studies about stuttering in different languages and some studies (and soon, a new book edited by Howell and Van Borsel) that focus specifically on stuttering in bilingual speakers. This is a very welcome change. Ten or fifteen years ago, there was little awareness that bilingual stuttering was a topic that needed exploring. Perhaps in a future ISAD forum, there will be articles about the answers to the questions raised in this one. Bernstein Ratner, N. (2004). Fluency and stuttering in bilingual children. In B.Goldstein (Ed.) Bilingual language development and disorders in Spanish-English speakers (pp. 287-308). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes. Bhatia, T.K., & Ritchie, W.C. (2006). Introduction. In T.K. Bhatia & W.C. Ritchie (Eds.) The Handbook of Bilingualism (pp. 1-2), Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Dale, P. (1977). Factors relating to disfluent speech in bilingual Cuban-American adolescents. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 2, 311-314. Fehringer, C., & Fry, C. (2007). Hesitation phenomena in the language production of bilingual speakers. Folia Linguistica, 41, 37-72. Howell, P., Davis, S. Williams,R. ( 2009). The effects of bilingualism on stuttering during late childhood. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 94, 42-46 Karniol, R. (1992). Stuttering out of bilingualism. First Language, 12, 255-283. Packman,A., Onslow, M., Reilly, S. et al. (2009). Stuttering and bilingualism. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 94, 248. (a letter to the editor re the Howell, Davis and Williams study) Roberts, P.M. & Shenker, R.C. (2007). Assessment and treatment of stuttering in bilingual speakers. In R.F. Curlee & E.G. Conture (Eds). Stuttering and related disorders of fluency 3rd edition (pp. 183-209). New York: Thieme Medical Publishers. Stern, E. (1948). A preliminary study of bilingualism and stuttering in four Johannesburg schools. Journal of Logopedics, 1, 15-25. Travis, L.E., Johnson, W., & Shover, J. (1937). The relation of bilingualism to stuttering: a survey in the east Chicago, Indiana, Schools. Journal of Speech Disorders, 12, 185-189. Van Borsel, J. Maes, E., & Foulon, S. (2001). Stuttering and bilingualism: A review. Journal of Fluency Disorders, 26, 179-205.

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As America's independence was being declared in Philadelphia in l776, Padre Francisco Garces trekked through the Mojave area, leaving traces of his visit at Willow Springs, near Rosamond, and on Castle Butte, near California City. Garces was followed by famous pathfinders like Jedediah Smith, in 1827, John C. Fremont, Kit Carson and Wyatt Earp. Many of these visitors, including a group from the ill-fated Manly-Jayhawker Party, used the Midland Trail, which roughly parallels Highway 14 north of town. Wagon trails to the Panamint mines were established by men like M.M. Belshaw and others who are remembered in many local street names. Mojave was established in 1876 when the Southern Pacific Railroad laid out the original plat for a town on its line between Los Angeles and San Francisco over nearby Tehachapi Pass. The first passenger train arrived August 8, 1876, which is celebrated as Mojave's birthday. Chinese coolies built a line from Mojave to Needles, California, on the Colorado River, reaching the Arizona border in 1883. That line was sold to the Santa Fe Railway in 1898, granting that railroad trackage rights over Tehachapi Pass. Today the Southern Pacific is now part of the Union Pacific Railroad, while Santa Fe is now part of the giant Burlington Northern Santa Fe. The UP's Lone Pine Branch, which runs north out of Mojave, was built by Southern Pacific in 1910 to aid in constructing the Los Angeles Aqueduct. The line connected with the Carson and Colorado Narrow Gauge Railroad at Owenyo, providing, for a time, a direct rail link between Los Angeles and the Southern Pacific's Overland Route over Donner Summit. The Lone Pine branch now carries coal to and potash products from the Trona Railway connection at Searles Station, between Randsburg and Ridgecrest. Another rail line, the Oak Creek Branch, runs west from Mojave to the California Portland Cement plant at Creal, carrying coal up and cement back. Mojave's flimsy buildings were destroyed by fire several times over the next century, most spectacularly in 1884 when 90 cases of powder in the railroad depot exploded with a bang heard 25 miles away. GOLD was discovered in 1894 on Soledad Mountain and at other nearby locations, spwning mines with colorful names like Elephant-Eagle, Asher, Yellow Dog and Golden Queen. Mojave's history of providing hospitality to weary travelers, a tradition that continues to this day, began with the opening of the Morrissey Hotel in 1876. The famous Fred Harvey organization operated a "Harvey House," in the old two-story railroad depot, complete with a contingent of "Harvey Girls" serving delicious meals to travelers and miners. BORAX played a role in Mojave's history, especially between 1884 and 1889 when the famous 20-Mule Team Wagons hauled borax between mines in Death Valley and the railroad in Mojave, a 160 mile, 15-day trip. A monument on Sierra Highway in front of the Kentucky Fried Chicken store honors the spot where the wagons unloaded. The huge wagons, which can be seen at Death Valley and in nearby Boron, were built by J.W.S. Perry on land at the southeast corner of K and Nadeau Streets, the present location of Don's Oil Changers. Perry charged $900 each for his wagons. CEMENT production began in the area in 1908 to provide cement for the Los Angeles Aqueduct. The plant has been modernized over the years and is operated today by Calaveras Cement. California Portland Cement built the Creal plant west of Mojave in 1955. The plant is one of the world's most modern. Several small AIRPORTS were built in the Mojave area over the years, including Meyer Field behind the homes along Barstow Road. Mojave Airport began life in 1942 when a Naval Air Station was built on the present site on the east side of town. During World War II the field trained thousands of Navy and Marine pilots for combat, using SBD dive bombers and F4U Corsairs. Decommissioned after the war, the field was reborn to again train pilots for the Korean Conflict. Closed again in 1959, the airport entered its third life in 1972 with formation of the Mojave (now East Kern) Airport District. Jump to the Mojave Airport page for more information on this facility, home of the National Test Pilot School, Burt Rutan's Scaled Composites, XCOR Aerospace and Voyager, the first aircraft to circumnavigate the globe without refueling. Mojave's rich past is prelude to the history that continues to be made on the land and in the air - and soon, space - above this exciting and interesting region.

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The Getting Word oral history project was begun at Monticello in 1993 to preserve the histories of the African American families at Thomas Jefferson’s Virginia plantation. Over 100 interviews with their descendants and additional archival research have brought remarkable individuals out of the shadows of slavery. We can now tell the stories of people whose lives and achievements were all but erased over the last 200 years. "I remember hearing..." Listen to the “way back” tales of Monticello and the newer stories of fighting for justice, as descendants bring to light the lives of their ancestors and the values they passed down. “This is our family” See how stories about the African Americans of Monticello—including the largest family, the Hemingses—reveal the strength of family bonds and importance of community activism. "He was a Civil War hero" Learn about all the participants in the Getting Word project and some of their ancestors from previous centuries: blacksmiths and farmers, educators and ministers, soldiers and suffragists.

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Memory loss (amnesia) is unusual forgetfulness. You may not be able to remember new events, recall one or more memories of the past, or both. Forgetfulness; Amnesia; Impaired memory; Loss of memory; Amnestic syndrome Normal aging may cause some forgetfullness. It's normal to have some trouble learning new material, or needing more time to remember it. However, normal aging does NOT lead to dramatic memory loss. Such memory loss is due to other diseases. Sometimes, memory loss may be seen with depression. It can be hard to tell the difference between memory loss and confusion due to depression. Some types of memory loss may cause you to forget recent or new events, past or remote events, or both. You may forget memories from a single event, or all events. Memory loss may cause you to have trouble learning new information or forming new memories. The memory loss may be temporary (transient), or permanent. Memory loss can be caused by many different things. To determine a cause, your doctor or nurse will ask if the problem came on suddenly or slowly. Many areas of the brain help you create and retrieve memories. A problem in any of these areas can lead to memory loss. Causes of memory loss include: Alcohol or use of illicit drugs Not enough oxygen to the brain (heart stopped, stopped breathing, complications from anesthesia) Brain growths (caused by tumors or infection) Brain infections such as Lyme disease, syphilis, or HIV/AIDS A person with memory loss needs a lot of support. It helps to show them familiar objects, music, or photos. Write down when the person should take any medication or complete any other important tasks. It is important to write it down. If a person needs help with everyday tasks, or safety or nutrition is a concern, you may want to consider extended care facilities, such as a nursing home. What to expect at your health care provider's office The doctor or nurse will perform a physical exam and ask questions about the person's medical history and symptoms. This will almost always include asking questions of family members and friends. They should come to the appointment. Medical history questions may include: Can the person remember recent events (is there impaired short-term memory)? Can the person remember events from further in the past (is there impaired long-term memory)? Is there a loss of memory about events that occurred before a specific experience (anterograde amnesia)? Is there a loss of memory about events that occurred soon after a specific experience (retrograde amnesia)? Is there only a minimal loss of memory? Does the person make up stories to cover gaps in memory (confabulation)? Is the person suffering from low moods that impair concentration? Has the memory loss been getting worse over years? Has the memory loss been developing over weeks or months? Is the memory loss present all the time or are there distinct episodes of amnesia? If there are amnesia episodes, how long do they last? Aggravating or triggering factors Has there been a head injury in the recent past? Has the person experienced an event that was emotionally traumatic? Has there been a surgery or procedure requiring general anesthesia? Does the person use alcohol? How much? Does the person use illegal/illicit drugs? How much? What type? What other symptoms does the person have? Is the person confused or disoriented? Can they independently eat, dress, and perform similar self-care activities? Have they had seizures? Tests that may be done include: Blood tests for specific diseases that are suspected (such as low vitamin B12 or thyroid disease) Kirshner HS. Approaches to intellectual and memory impairments. In: Gradley WG, Daroff RB, Fenichel GM, Jankovic J, eds. Neurology in Clinical Practice. 5th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2008:chap 6. Luc Jasmin, MD, PhD, Department of Neurosurgery at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, and Department of Anatomy at UCSF, San Francisco, CA. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M., Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc.

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The Bassoon is a woodwind instrument that was developed in the 16th century to add a stronger bass to the wind band ensemble. From the double reed family, the bassoon plays in the tenor range and below. It is known for its distinctive tone, wide range and agility. Six main pieces make up the bassoon, including the reed. The bell, extends upward; the long joint, connects the bell and the boot; the boot (or butt) is at the bottom of the instrument and folds over on itself; the wing (or tenor) joint, extends from boot to bocal; and the bocal (or crook), attaches the wing joint to a reed. Bassoon players must learn three different clefs: Bass (first and foremost), Tenor, and Treble. The range of the bassoon begins at B-flat and extends upward over three octaves (comparable to the E on the treble staff).

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With a deer, you would never grab the bull by the horns. For a few good reasons: Male deer are not called bulls, they are bucks, and they do not have horns, only antlers. Antlers and horns are two distinctly different accessories. Horns are hollow and are held atop the head of members of the bovid family. Bovids include cows, sheep, bison and goats. Horns grow continuously year-round and are covered in keratin. They do not usually branch and are found on both male and female bovids. Antlers, on the other hand, are temporary bones found on the heads of members of the cervid family. Cervids include deer, moose, elk, caribou and others. Antlers are temporary, often branching structures, growing generally on males for only part of the year. After eight months of growth and development, antlers will drop off the animal’s head. These cranial appendages are covered with a soft skin called velvet, which supplies blood, oxygen and nutrients to the growing antler bone. It is this velvet that will be rubbed against trees during mating, or rutting season in December. It is not only form, but function that is different for these two toppers. Horns mainly protect the skull, while antlers are for communicating, to establish dominance, and for seducing members of the opposite sex. Seduction is accomplished by the antlers because the velvet covering and the animal’s head contain the highest concentration of oil and scent-producing glands that will attract the fairer sex. Size matters when it comes to antlers. Bigger is better — a nice rack can be up to nine pounds and spread to 25 inches wide! The ladies, or does, will notice a sizable rack, which is the result of a combination of factors, including good nutrition, age and genetics. Bucks are headstrong and will challenge each other, engaging in shoving matches to impress the girls and dissuade the competition. It is interesting to imagine the growth process of antlers, which start as nubs, grow to substantial size, and then fall off. Spring starts the antler growth cycle again. In April, longer days stimulate a buck’s hormones and his antlers will begin to develop. Antlers are the fastest growing bone known to science, increasing up to a half an inch per day. Contrast this with human hair, which takes a month to grown that same half inch. Antlers will grow until early fall, then the bone will die and the velvet dries up and falls or is rubbed off. Finally, the antlers will be dropped or shed. Now is the time for “shed,” or antler hunting, a sport that requires no weapon. On-Island, of the cervids, one only finds deer so one only finds deer antlers, and only if you are lucky. Mid-December through mid-February is the time to look for shed antlers. Don’t be surprised if you don’t find any. Antlers, no matter how large, disappear quickly. They are speedily consumed by rodents, rabbits, squirrels and other animals that crave their high calcium and phosphorus and have the right incisor teeth to chew the tough bone. If you are fortunate and find an antler, look for teeth marks and evidence of nibbles. Antler’s hard bone has been used for needles, weapons, arrowheads and even harpoons. In the 18th century, French naturalist Georges Louis Leclerc de Buffon hypothesized that antlers were made of vegetable matter or wood, which caused his doubters to raise questions about how antlers were attached to the deer’s head. Luckily, French zoologist Georges Cuvier ascertained their true nature a few years later. Antler shape varies from animal to animal. They can be categorized as typical or nontypical and can have tines or points. Typical antlers are symmetrical and shoot up evenly from a beam, while a nontypical antler is asymmetrical with points or tines shooting out at different angles. Antlers are a victory of form and strength, though they are heavy to haul around and cumbersome to carry. And while the well-endowed buck will likely get the girl, he will also have to contend with the ever present possibility that with his colossal crown, he could end up a terrific trophy. Suzan Bellincampi is director of the Felix Neck Wildlife Sanctuary in Edgartown.

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To really do justice to the entire world of traditional Japanese kites would take a larger website than this one! Each different region in the country, called a Prefecture, tended to come up with it's own designs. This all happened during the Edo period from the early 1600s to the mid 1800s. The kites' names often refer to objects, folk heroes or creatures. Besides the variety in decoration, it's amazing how unique Japanese kites are in terms of overall design. That is, the shape of the frame and sails. Quaintly, the Japanese refer to the frame as the bones of the kite! The big majority of them were, and in some cases still are, made from split bamboo for the spars and Washi paper for the sails. Washi might just be paper, but this hand-made mulberry-based product it is very strong and ideal for kites - as long as you don't get it wet! I'm just going to focus on a couple of designs which have been much copied or adapted in the West. You are likely to see at least one of these types at any large kite festival around the world! Apart from these 2 designs, I wouldn't be surprised if other traditional Japanese kites have been copied too, from time to time. The shape of the Sode Dako looks somewhat like a Japanese kimono laid flat. In fact, 'Sode' means 'sleeves of a Kimono'. Photo courtesy of Schnitzgeli. Like some other Japanese kites, and many other Asian designs too, this one lends itself to having a 'hummer' strung across the upper horizontal spar. The hummer makes musical noises when aloft in fresh breezes. This feature doesn't seem to have been copied in the West though. Traditionally, Sodes were built and flown to celebrate the birth of a son, and to ensure his future happiness and health. In general, the larger Japanese kites need more complex bridle lines. At the small end of the scale, I've seen a child's paper Sode with no bridle at all - just a hole over the vertical spar allowing the flying line to be tied on directly! Larger Sodes would work well with a 4-point bridle, with 2 lines from each horizontal spar. This helps to relieve the stress at the center of the horizontal spars, in fresher winds. Most of the biggest Sodes seem to have 6-point bridles. That is, lines run from the center and each tip of both horizontal spars. This gives even more rigidity, allowing for the use of even lighter spars than would otherwise be possible. More rigidity also helps the kite to cope with stronger winds. This example of a modern Sode kite is by Janneke Groen, who is well known for her artistic Sode kites. She specializes in appliqué and patchwork techniques. Janneke, who comes from The Netherlands has been putting her eye-catching flying works of art on show at kite festivals since the 1990s. It was at one of these festivals that Roy Reed took the picture opposite. Modern Japanese kites like this one usually employ fiberglass or carbon fiber rods for spars, and use rip-stop nylon for the sails. The 4 narrow tails on this particular design help to keep it stable. However, I suspect they are very much a part of the kite's artistic concept! Photo by Roy Reed. An interesting addition is the bracing of the upper horizontal spar which I presume is there to improve the flying characteristics of the kite. That's the line going out from the nose to the tips. With a bit of ingenuity I guess it could be made to double as a pair of hummers! Tuned to 2 different notes perhaps... Being a decent sized kite, Janneke has chosen to go with the full 6-point bridle. The bridle lines are clearly visible in the photo, and the bridle appears to be very long. Usually, with this kind of bridle, the 2 groups of three lines reduce to just 2 lines before being connected to the flying line itself. Here's our own Sode design, which you can make for yourself ... Photo courtesy of Jeff Attaway. This design is so named because it originated in the region of Sanjo. It's more commonly referred to as the Rokkaku. Many non-Japanese abbreviate the name even further to just 'Rok'. The interesting thing about this design is how popular it has become in the West. There's an example of a non-traditional Rok up there in the photo. The traditional Japanese kites were actually fighters, where people would try to knock each other out of the air by various devious means. Kite battles with the Rokkaku are still organized from time to time, all over the world.. In the West, versions of this kite are constructed with more modern materials, and when organized battles take place, the rules are different. When it comes to bridling, there are some similarities to the Sode. Bridle lines are attached to various points along each horizontal spar. A common arrangement on these Japanese kites is the 4-point bridle which just has 2 lines on each horizontal spar. The next step up would be the 6-point bridle as used on the big Sodes. In the case of the largest Roks flying in fresh wind, an extra line may even be attached to the vertical spar, at the very center. This prevents the vertical spar from bending under extreme air pressure. Some commercially available kites have names. Like the one in the picture on the left, the LoonDance. How's that for an elaborate design! This modern Rok is screen-printed by hand, which still takes some time due to the number of colors. Other larger designs by this same company are hand-painted, which would add even more hours. Not to mention $s! At about 1.5 meters tall (60 inches), this is a medium sized Rok. Thanks to Boreal Kites, of www.gothicdesign.ca, for permission to show that photo. The materials are not exactly run-of-the-mill. The sail fabric is 3/4 oz. Contender Nylite, which I presume is a specialty nylon cloth, while the spars are spiral-wound epoxy tubing. Sounds exotic! According to the makers, this Rok likes winds of around 10 kph (6 mph), but can be adjusted to fly in much stronger breezes. The photo shows a standard 4-point bridle being used. Here's our own Rokkaku design, which you can make for yourself ... If you would like a real insight into the world of traditional Japanese kites, perhaps the ultimate experience would be to visit the Kite Museum in Tokyo! Although there are only 3 rooms, they are crammed with approximately 3000 kites. These cover virtually every region of Japan. Apparently, the aroma of bamboo fills the air in this small but remarkable museum. Mmm, can't say my bamboo skewer spars smell like much, but then they are probably processed to death... It's possible to buy Japanese kites from the museum. They have small and relatively inexpensive souvenir kites made from bamboo and paper. However, if you have money to burn, you could splash out on something bigger and even more exquisite, made by master craftsmen! The museum is a 10-minute walk from the Yaesu central exit of the Tokyo station (Japan Railways), or a 1-minute walk from the C5 exit of the Nihonbashi subway station. The museum's address is: Taimeiken Restaurant (5th Floor), 1-12-10 Nihonbashi, Chuoh-ku, Tokyo 103-0027 Never made a kite? Child wants one? Check out the... MBK Beginner E-course Watch it fly! A closer view Make all the Dowel kites, including the one above... The ultimate kite-making resource, and naturally much better value... Are the e-books good? Find out by trying... 'Simplest Dowel Kites' (wait for cover page to appear)

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Too many of our young people are caught up in conflicts every day that they do not know how to manage -- teasing, jealousy, and physical aggression. Juvenile delinquency and violence are symptoms of youth's inability to manage conflict in their lives. Teaching youth how to manage conflict in a productive way can help reduce incidents of violent behavior. Conflict resolution education is a beneficial component of a comprehensive violence prevention and intervention program in schools and communities. Conflict resolution education encompasses problem solving in which the parties in dispute express their points of view, voice their interests, and find mutually acceptable solutions. Conflict resolution education programs help the parties recognize that while conflict happens all the time, people can learn new skills to deal with conflict in nonviolent ways. The programs that appear to be most effective are comprehensive and involve multiple components such as the problem-solving processes and principles of conflict resolution, the basics of effective communication and listening, critical and creative thinking, and an emphasis on personal responsibility and self-discipline. Effective conflict resolution education programs can: Four Common Strategies for Approaching Conflict Resolution Experts identify four school-based conflict resolution strategies that can be replicated in other settings. These are commonly referred to as: (1) Peer Mediation, (2) Process Curriculum, (3) Peaceable Classrooms, and (4) Peaceable Schools. In all four approaches, conflict resolution education is viewed as giving youth nonviolent tools to deal with daily conflicts that can lead to self-destructive and violent behaviors. It is up to each local school district to decide how conflict resolution education will be integrated into its overall educational environment. The expectation is that when youth learn to recognize and constructively address what takes place before conflict or differences lead to violence, the incidence and intensity of that situation will diminish. The program examples provided below empower young people with the processes and skills of conflict resolution. However, youth need to know that conflict resolution does not take precedence over adult responsibility to provide the final word in a variety of circumstances or situations. Conflict resolution has a place in the home, school, and community, but it can only supplement, not supplant, adult authority. 1) Peer Mediation Approach Recognizing the importance of directly involving youth in conflict resolution, many schools and communities are using the Peer Mediation approach. Under this approach, specially trained student mediators work with their peers to resolve conflicts. Mediation programs reduce the use of traditional disciplinary actions such as suspension, detention, and expulsion; encourage effective problem solving; decrease the need for teacher involvement in student conflicts; and improve school climate. An example of a Peer Mediation program is We Can Work It Out, developed by the National Institute for Citizenship Education in the Law and the National Crime Prevention Council. The program promotes mediation, negotiation, or other non-litigating methods as strategies to settle unresolved confrontations and fighting. One Albuquerque elementary school principal reported, "We were having 100 to 150 fights every month on the playground before we started the New Mexico Center for Dispute Resolution's Mediation in the Schools Program. By the end of the school year, we were having maybe 10 (fights)." Other elementary schools using the same Peer Mediation approach to conflict resolution education reported that playground fighting had been reduced to such an extent that peer mediators found themselves out of a job. Process Curriculum Approach Teachers who devote a specific time -- a separate course, a distinct curriculum, or a daily lesson -- to the principles, foundation abilities, and problem-solving processes of conflict resolution are implementing the Process Curriculum approach. The Program for Young Negotiators, based on the Harvard Negotiation Project, is representative of this approach. Participating students, teachers, and administrators are taught how to use principled negotiation to achieve goals and resolve disputes. This type of negotiation helps disputants envision scenarios and generate options for achieving results that satisfy both sides. In a North Carolina middle school with more than 700 students, conflict resolution education was initiated. The school used the Peace Foundation's Fighting Fair curriculum and a combination of components from various conflict resolution projects. After a school year, in-school suspensions decreased from 52 to 30 incidents (a 42-percent decrease), and out-of-school suspensions decreased from 40 incidents to 1 (a 97-percent decrease). Peaceable Classroom Approach The Peaceable Classroom approach integrates conflict resolution into the curriculum and daily management of the classroom. It uses the instructional methods of cooperative learning and "academic controversy." The Educators for Social Responsibility curriculum, Making Choices About Conflict, Security, and Peacemaking, is a peaceable classroom approach to conflict resolution. The program shows teachers how to integrate conflict resolution into the curriculum, classroom management, and discipline practices. It emphasizes opportunities to practice cooperation, appreciation of diversity, and caring and effective communication. Generally, peaceable classrooms are initiated on a teacher-by-teacher basis into the classroom setting and are the building blocks of the peaceable school. Studies on the effectiveness of the Teaching Students To Be Peacemakers program, a Peaceable Classroom approach to conflict resolution, show that discipline problems requiring teacher management decreased by approximately 80 percent and referrals to the principal were reduced to zero. Peaceable School Approach The Peaceable School approach incorporates the above three approaches. This approach seeks to create schools where conflict resolution has been adopted by every member of the school community, from the crossing guard to the classroom teacher. A peaceable school promotes a climate that challenges youth and adults to believe and act on the understanding that a diverse, nonviolent society is a realistic goal. In creating the Peaceable School Program of the Illinois Institute for Dispute Resolution, students are empowered with conflict resolution skills and strategies to regulate and control their own behavior. Conflict resolution is infused into the way business is conducted at the school between students, between students and teachers and other personnel, between teachers and administrators, and between parents and teachers and administrators. In an evaluation of the Resolving Conflict Creatively Program in four multiethnic school districts in New York City, teachers of the Peaceable School approach to conflict resolution reported a 71-percent decrease in physical violence in the classroom and observed 66 percent less name calling and fewer verbal insults. Other changes in student behavior reported by the teachers included greater acceptance of differences, increased awareness and articulation of feelings, and a spontaneous use of conflict resolution skills throughout the school day in a variety of academic and nonacademic settings. The effective conflict resolution education programs highlighted above have helped to improve the climate in school, community and juvenile justice settings by reducing the number of disruptive and violent acts in these settings; by decreasing the number of chronic school absences due to a fear of violence; by reducing the number of disciplinary referrals and suspensions; by increasing academic instruction during the school day; and by increasing the self-esteem and self-respect, as well as the personal responsibility and self-discipline of the young people involved in these programs. Young people cannot be expected to promote and encourage the peaceful resolution of conflicts if they do not see conflict resolution principles and strategies being modeled by adults in all areas of their lives, such as in business, sports, entertainment, and personal relationships. Adults play a part in making the environment more peaceful by practicing nonviolent conflict resolution when minor or major disputes arise in their daily lives. (Information provided by the U.S. Department of Education.)

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China Service Medal The China Service Medal was a relatively early entry into the hallowed halls of the medals of America when it was created by an Act of Congress in August of 1940. These US military medals were established to honor US Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard personnel who served ashore in China or were attached to vessels that operated in support of operations in China either between July 1937 and September of 1939, or between September of 1945 and April of 1957. Regulations permitted the wearing of a Bronze Service Star on these military medals and ribbons if a service member had performed duty during both periods of eligibility. These Navy medals are now considered obsolete, and are no longer issued by the US Navy. However, they can still be worn by Navy personnel who earned them during that period. These Navy, Coast Guard and Marine Corps ribbons and medals are worn in the position directly below the Navy Expeditionary Medal, the Marine Corps Expeditionary Medal and the Coast Guard’s Medal for Humane Action; and are worn directly above the National Defense Service Medal in the general order of precedence that has been established for the proper display of all Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard military ribbons and medals. The China Service Medal is generally available as Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard decorations in the form of military medals, ribbons, and lapel pins. They can be worn as traditional slide-on medals, mini medals, and ribbons. While traditionalist may still prefer to purchase the traditional slide-on full size military medals, mini-medals, and slide-on military ribbons; the newer thin mini-medals, and ultra thin military ribbons commercial suppliers now provide have become extremely popular among up and coming military personnel who know how important it is to their career advancement to always maximize the neatness and smartness of their uniform appearance.

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A Breed Apart :: The "Pit Bull" Debunked by Lauren Jones Wenzel |The term “Pit Bull” refers not to a single breed but a group of breeds, including the American Pit Bull Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier, among others. Most originated from pairings of the ancestors we now call the Olde English Bulldogge and Terriers. Their breeders wanted to merge the muscular body and tenacity of the bulldog with the agility and “gameness” of terriers.| Originally bred for blood sports like bull- and bear-baiting in Europe and North America, these dogs were trained to attack and immobilize the agitated animal and so were favored for their large, strong jaws and muscular necks and shoulders. When these sports were outlawed in the early 1800s, people began fighting the dogs, a sport more easily concealed from the authorities. Since then, their bad reputation, much inflated by the media, has made them the target of unfair discrimination, breed specific legislation (breed banning) and, thanks to their “tough dog” image, a favorite dog in the more illegal enterprises. |The truth is that this highly intelligent, energetic, affectionate breed loves people. Pit Bulls were prized as wonderful family dogs in years past. In fact, they once had the moniker of “nanny dog” because of their wonderful demeanor with children.| Most experts agree that today’s Pit Bull is a short-coated dog characterized by a wide skull, powerful jaws and a muscular, stocky body. But there is great variation in the Pit Bull’s appearance. Typically 35 to 65 pounds, some weigh as little as 25 pounds, while others tip the scales at 80 pounds or more. While some have bulkier frames and colossal skulls, others have leaner, more muscular bodies. All are strong and athletic. With their impressive stamina and staunch work ethic, Pit Bulls enjoy a variety of sports such as agility, disc dog competitions, flyball, freestyle and competitive obedience. They often excel in weight-pulling contests and schutzhund. Pit Bulls are typically very friendly, even with strangers. They love people and thrive on attention and affection. Because of their terrier bloodlines, Pit Bulls have a high prey drive, meaning they will frequently chase and grab small animals. Since most terriers were bred for eradicating small rodents, Pit Bulls have a tendency to not get along with other animals, including dogs. This makes their early socialization with other animals especially important. Pit Bulls also have a tendency to be easily aroused or over-excited and, once riled, it can be difficult for them to calm down, so adequate exercise and training are a must with these dogs. They are not the best choice for the first-time dog owner due to their strength and high energy level and, for the more rambunctious dogs, homes with older children are advised due to their energy and strength. Because of their unfortunate reputation, owning a Pit Bull can be a greater responsibility than owning another breed. It is important that they be well-trained and socialized so they can be good ambassadors for their group. Yet, those dog guardians ready for the challenge and effort of Pit Bull ownership will find it to be one of the most loyal, loving, and wonderful companions on four legs. |Did you know that Helen Keller, the famous blind and deaf author, activist, and lecturer of the early 1900s, owned a Pit Bull? Or that Petey from the popular series of the 1920s and 1930s, The Little Rascals, was also a Pit Bull? And during World War I and World War II, Pit Bulls were frequently used to carry messages on the battlefield.|

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REFORM IN SPANISH EDUCATION: THE INSTITUCION LIBRE DE ENSENANZA by Noel M. Valis Paper presented to Thomas Woody Society, University of Pennsylvania, January 26, 1977 This document examines the development and influence of the Free Institute of Education (Institucion Libre de Ensenanza) and of its founder, Don Francisco Giner de los Rios, in late nineteenth century Spain. Founded in 1876 against a background of repression and reimposition of state-controlled education during the Bourbon Restoration the Institute was a private institution free of Church and State. Its intent was to create an alternative to the higher education system of official Spain, but due to financial problems, it evolved into an institution of primary and secondary education. Subject matter included traditional, State-required subjects, but also anthropology, technology, social sciences, economics, art, drawing, singing, and handwork--all generally neglected in State- and Church-run schools. Most radical were the innovations in art and physical education (stressing free inquiry, observation, and spontaneous criticism in the former, and development of the whole person in the latter) and in the institution of field trips, hiking, and nature observation. The use of textbooks was discouraged as much as possible, and examinations were regarded as producing mostly negative results. Emphasis was placed instead upon the creation of student notebooks that reflected the pupil's judgment and synthesis of materials. Don Francisco borrowed much from the French and English forms of education, and was influenced by Rousseau, Froebel, Pestalozzi, Krause, and Sanz Del Rio, the last of whom provided his ideal of reconciling all human facilities to produce an artistic taste, technical preparedness, spiritual elevation and an austere, moral sense of life. The Institute fell victim to the Civil War of 1936, but proved a pervasive influence in Spanish society to this day. (MB) It has sometimes been said of Spanish philosophy, "What Spanish philosophy?" The same reproach might be directed at the non-existence of Spanish education. "There ain't no such animal," some might claim, forgetting for the moment the intellectual freedom and depth of thirteenth-century Toledo under the reign of Alfonso X, the Wise (El Sabio), and the splendor and revival of learning in the sixteenth-century Universities of Salamanca, Alcala and other institutions. What is mostly remembered, however, is the disheartening decline of Spanish education, ushered in by the rigidities, fears and intolerance of the Catholic Counter-Reformation, of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Spain. But this view of education in Spain, of necessity simplified, would not be complete without mention of the establishment and significance of the Instititucion Libre de Ensenanza, in English, the Free Institution/Institute of Education. In order to understand more clearly the Institute's impact on Spanish society, I will review very quickly some of the historical background to its founding in 1876. A broad overview of nineteenth-century Spain reveals to us that the "lack of civility" among Spaniards, which reached such extreme proportions during the 1936-30 Civil War, had its roots in the last century. Civil war, frequent military uprisings in the form of "pronunciamientos," and dissension everywhere created an ambience of unease and fragmentation within Spanish society. Historians talk of "Las dos Espanas," the "two Spains," that is, the liberal, progressive side as opposed to the traditional, sometimes reactionary side of the country. It is probably more accurate, however, to talk of the many Spains. To disagree was the Spaniard's right -- no, his duty to himself, to his own proud sense of individuality and dignity. A solution imposed from above, from the State, seemed, in many cases, the only solution when there were problems, and there were many -- economic, political, religious. The problem of Spanish education was only of several, and it too came to be subsumed into the more general and overriding conflict of State versus Individual, of Authority vs. Freedom. Reconciling such absolutes frequently failed; worse still, the distinction between philosophy and ideology, that is, between the search for truth and the molding, frequent distorting of existential reality to one's own conception of it, this distinction would too often become blurred in the disputes and violence of nineteenth-century Spain. Tempers rose, passions were unleashed, ideologies reigned supreme, and somewhere in the shuffle, clarity of vision and truth were lost. This split in Spanish society in part gave birth to the Free Institute of Education. Specifically, we must look to the years 1868 and 1874 to explain how the Institute came into being. The date 1868 conjures up one outstanding event in modern Spanish history: the overthrow of the reigning Bourbon monarch, Isabel II, an action which is termed the Glorious Revolution of 1868. It was a somewhat qualified victory for the liberal cause in Spain since the end result was to bring confusion, instability, bitterness, and finally, in 1874, the reestablishment of another Bourbon king, Isabel's son, Alfonso XII. This period, called the Restoration (Restauracion) in Spain, also reinstated the State-controlled, religiously oriented educational system which the Revolution of 1868 had attempted to change. This move and the specific action which the Minister in charge of education, Manuel de Orovio, brought against the future founder of the Institute, Francisco Giner de los Rios, would be the direct and immediate causes of the Institute's creation. SPANISH EDUCATION: OVERVIEW Before going into a more detailed explanation of the origins of the Institute, I think a brief look at the state of Spanish education prior to 1876 would be useful. In my opening statement, I mentioned two high points in the history of Spanish education: the medieval center of learning in Toledo and the sixteenth-century Universities of Salamanca and Alcala de Henares. Both periods were characterized by a high enthusiasm for learning and considerable freedom in which to do it. In Toledo, Jews, Moors and Christians collaborated together in a spirit of respect and tolerance. In the first half of the sixteenth century, students and professors at Salamanca, Alcala and other universities constituted, within an amazing diversity of university modes of existence, an entity independent of the strictures and authority of the State. Yet by the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, learning in Spain seemed to have ceased. For example, at the University of Salamanca, the Chair for Mathematics and Astrology -- the title speaks for itself, I think -- remained vacant for thirtyyears until it was finally filled in 1726. What happened? In brief: The Counter-Reformation. This is obviously a great simplification of the causes of Spain's decadence in education and elsewhere. But certainly Spain's withdrawal and increasing isolation from the rest of Europe from the middle of the sixteenth century on explains in part the origins of stagnation in her schools and universities. In 1559 Philip II forbade study in foreign universities; shortly before that, he banned the importing of books from abroad. The additional power of the Inquisition to safeguard orthodoxy among Spaniards and weed out the impure and heretical elements must also be taken into account. And finally, as the historian Americo Castro has pointed out, Spaniards became reluctant to demonstrate intellectual powers and curiosity for fear of being taken for a Jew. Spanish Jews were known for their interest in intellectual matters. And nobody wanted to deal with the Inquisition. To control the inner life and content of the universities and other schools the government stepped in so that by the nineteenth century Spanish schools, particularly the Universities, to quote Salvador Madariaga, "were more Government establishments for the granting of official diplomas" (p. 75, Spain, N.Y., 1943). He goes on to say that "in a sense all universities tend fatally to become degree factories. But in Spain ... they were nothing else." Schooling on all levels were plagued by unimaginative, and stiff, unbending teaching, bad textbooks, long hours of routine and frequent utter boredom, and sometimes even brutalization. Memorization and recitation were the chief pedagogic tools. The first third of the last century also brought in more imitation of French manners and customs, certainly not the first instance of French influence on Spanish education. Eighteenth-century Spain had already adopted Gallic centralization of schooling. The critic Mariano Jose de Larra describes the mania of copying, badly, I might add, French mores among the Spanish middle classes and well-to-do. The narrator of "El casarse pronto y mal" writes that his sister became enamored of French customs and from then on, "bread was no longer bread (pan), nor wine, wine (vino)." "Suffice it to say," continues Larra in this ironic vein, that my sister adopted the ideas of the period; but as this second education was as shallow and superficial as the first (her Spanish upbringing), and as that weak segment of humanity never knows how not to go to extremes, she suddenly jumped from the Christian Year of Our Lord 18__ to the era of Pigault Lebrun (a frivolous, sometimes scandalous French novelist) and left off going to Mass and devotions, without knowing in the least why she did so, why she used to go in the first place. She said that her son could be educated in whatever manner it suited him; that he could read without order or method whatever books fell into his hands; and God knows what other things she said about ignorance and fanaticism, reason and enlightenment, adding that religion was a social contract into which only idiots entered in good faith and that the boy didn't need religion to be good; that the terms, father and mother (padre y madre) were lower-class, and that one should treat one's papa and mama familiarly with the tu form of address because there is no friendship like that which unites parents to their children. (Articulos de Costumbres, Madrid, 1965). A writer of a later period, Jose Maria de Pereda retains this image of his school days in the 1840's: The chill of death, the obscurity of a dungeon, the stench of grottoes, the unhappiness, affliction and pain of torture permeated the classroom ... Virgil and Dante, so clever in depicting hell and torment, would have been at wit's end to describe those images of school which are engraved in my memory for the rest of my life ... I believed myself cut off from the refuge of my family and the protection of the State; I heard the swish of the cane and the complaints of the victims, and the lessons were very long, and there were no excuses for not knowing them; and not knowing them meant caning and mockery, which also hurt; and confinement, fisticuffs, whipping, and the ignominy of all these things. Who is the brave soul who could truly paint such scenes if the worst of it was what the spirit felt and not what the eyes saw or the flesh suffered? (Esbozos y rasgunos, "Mas reminiscencias," Obras completas, v. 1, Madrid, 1959, p. 1226). He then goes on to say that "one had to know the lesson literally (al pie de la letra"), word for word. One misplaced word, one substitute, was enough to merit punishment." (p. 1226). Why, one asks, was this so? Pereda explains that the professor "taught the way he had been taught: by blows. Little by little the habit became part of his nature. The want of intellect, the extreme devotion to the profession, the traditions of the classroom and the educational system did the rest." (p. 1232). And finally, here is the testimony of yet another writer, the novelist Benito Perez Galdos, who describes Spanish education in the 1860's: The class lasted hours and hours ... Never was there a more repugnant nightmare, fashioned out of horrible aberrations which were called Arithmetic, Grammar or Ecclesiastical History ... Around the axis of boredom revolved such grave problems as syntax, the rule of three, the sons of Jacob, all confounded in the common hue of pain, all tinted with loathing ... (El Doctor Centeno, Obras completas, v. 4, Madrid, p. 1319). Pereda was a conservative, Galdos a liberal -- yet both concur that the Spanish educational system was wretched. Thus, when liberals and progressives took control in 1868, one of their first priorities was educational reform. They declared, first of all, the principle of freedom of education and teaching. The instability and factionalism of the liberal regime, however, precluded any lasting reforms in education. The conservative return to power in 1874 reestablished the right of the State to dictate to schools the textbooks to be used and the curriculum to be followed. In addition, Orovio, the Minister in charge of education, sent out to the Directors (or Rectores) of the Universities a circular in which he recommended that no religious doctrines inimical to those held by the State be taught and that no political ideas be expressed to the detriment of the king's person or the constitutional monarchy then in power. The circular also stated that action would be taken against any professor who so indulges in such political or religious meditations -- i.e., expulsion from the University. The Minister's recommendations were no mere recommendations. The result of all this was the removal of several professors from their faculty chairs. Among them was the future founder of the Institute, Francisco Giner de los Rios. For not adhering to the State's demands, he was arrested in March 1875, at 4:00 in the morning, and spent four months confinement until he was finally expelled from the University. The principle in question was clearly one of academic freedom. The State, however, saw the "university question" ("cuestion universitaria") from another angle: that is, the University and its Faculties were no more than instruments of the government's policies and, therefore, were obligated to conform to the State's instructions and directives. The professors were, in effect, civil servants (and still are today). This, then, is the historical and educational background to the founding of the Institucion Libre de Ensenanza, the Institute, in 1876. THE INSTITUCION LIBRE DE ENSENANZA Perhaps the most significant point to be made about the Institute's existence is the profound and far-reaching, if diffuse, influence of its founder, Francisco Giner de los Rios, a professor of philosophy of law at the University of Madrid. It was largely Don Francisco's attractive and vibrant personality which held the Institute together and proved to be the Prime Mover of the school. All the accounts of Don Francisco by friends, former students, disciplines, and fellow professors stress the very personal and individual effect of the man. This is not to deny the cogency of his ideas and methods of teaching but simply to make clear that, with Don Francisco, abstractions were made concrete in his very person; that is, through him and his relations with men and women, he incarnated his own beliefs. One friend had this to say about him as a teacher at the time of his death in 1915: What was the secret of his teaching? Did he reveal anything new? Or was it that everything was transformed at the touch of his powerful creative imagination? The secret lay as much in the form as in the substance. As a teacher, he brought us something that was the complete opposite of the old methods; and he discouraged the craze for oratory which has been so damaging to education in Spain. In his lectures at the University or at the Institution, he only aimed at one thing: to shake the pupil out of his torpor, stir him up to independent investigation, to working the thing out by himself; and above all he recommended games, art, the country. As an educationist he created a complete system of social education, which had for its axis the child, the citizen, the man as he would like to see him, healthy in mind and body, and working for a Spain that was strong and dignified and which must one day rise again. (J.B. Trend, Origins of Modern Spain, N.Y. 1934, p. 99). Or as another writer put it: "He gave us our conception of the universe and of the way to peel an orange." (p. 103). What was Don Francisco's creation, the Institute, like and what were its educational and philosophical origins? How did Don Francisco and his disciples "make men," "hacer hombres," the overriding goal of the Institute? As J.B. Trend, Rafael Altamira, and others have noted, Don Francisco Giner believed that the most pressing problem of Spain was the problem of education. He, like the literary Generation of 1898, was obsessed -- and rightly so -- with the question of Spain's decadence, and the vital necessity for her regeneration. And he took the now classic position of the nineteenth-century liberal that through education lay the country's revitalization. It must be clearly understood that Don Francisco's efforts were those of a minority and directed toward a minority. It was not mass education, although the effects of the Institute certainly were to reach public education throughout Spain in the twentieth century. First and most important, the Institute was created as a private institution, independent of both Church and State. I don't think it is necessary to do more than mention here the historic interdependence of Church and State in Spain. The credo of the Institute, which appeared regularly on the masthead of its publication, the Bulletin of the Free Institute of Education (El Boletin de la Institucion Libre de Ensenanza) was as follows: The Free Institute of Education is completely opposed to religious, philosophical and political sectarianism, proclaiming only the principle of liberty and the inviolability of science and the concomitant independence of scientific research and explanation, with regard to any other authority than that of the conscience itself of the Professor, who is alone responsible for his ideas. (cited by A. Jimenez-Landi, "Don Francisco Giner de los Rios y la Institucion Libre de Ensenanza," Revista Hispanica Moderna, v. 25, nos. 1, 2, 1959, p. 16). Because Spain's educational history had been one of bickering and divisiveness between the demands of the State and the private sector, and conflict between the precepts of the Church and needs of Science, with Religion usually dominating over Science, Don Francisco abhorred dogmatic, closed positions. He fervently believed in tolerance. It was not, however, mere intellectual benevolence which motivated Don Francisco. Rather, it was an ethical, moral stance, a way of life, which he wanted to instill in his pupils, the "Institutionists." A follower of Giner de los Rios, Jose Castillejo, has written that, for Don Francisco, "the two greatest forces in education are: the personality of the teacher and the social atmosphere and surroundings of the school" (Wars of Ideas in Spain, London, 1937, p. 97). We have already seen in the magnetic power of Don Francisco's teaching itself the importance of the teacher's personality. What about the ambience of the school? Here, one sees right away to what extent Don Francisco and his disciples felt compelled to move away from the current, i.e., antiquated and rigid teaching methods and atmosphere of both public and private schools in Spain. First, the classroom should be informal, akin to familial surroundings. The teacher should not merely dictate or lecture, but rather converse, using whatever approach or combination of approaches worked best, starting with the Socratic dialogue. No one method was to be used, to the exclusion of all others. The teacher was a guide, the pupils a family. A small family. Classes were to be kept small. And coeducational (Primary and secondary education in Spain today is not coeducational.) Cordiality and the spirit of discovery were the key words at the Institute. Don Francisco aimed at dispelling not only the fear and horror of school, such as we have seen in Pereda's reminiscences, but the passivity with which most students received their education. The original intent of the Institute was to create an alternative to the higher education of official Spain, but the desire was not to be met. It was quickly found to be beyond the resources of the Institute which suffered from chronic insufficiency of funds from its inception. Instead, the school evolved into an institution of primary and secondary education. Since most students entering a Spanish university were ill-prepared to meet its demands, the "Institutionists" felt that a solid intellectual, moral, physical and spiritual background given in the primary and secondary levels of education was an a priori necessity. What was taught at the Institute besides the traditional subjects required by the State ___ curriculum included Anthropology, Technology, Social Sciences, Economics, Art, Drawing, Singing, and Handwork. Most of these subjects were generally neglected in State and Church-run schools of the period. Most remembered and most significant are the innovations carried out in the arts and in physical education, and the frequent excursions. First, art. "Institutionists," for the most part, tried to avoid systematic and highly structured courses in art and art history. Instead, they emphasized such activities as excursions to historical monuments and places and visits to museums. Such an unorthodox procedure was unheard-of in nineteenth-century Spain. Rather than mere lessons, the Institute stressed the actual, vivid experiencing of art as much as possible. Like the literary generation of 1898, they also, in a sense, rediscovered Spain's cultural heritage, by extolling the value of Spanish folklore, architecture and painting. It was, for example, a disciple of Don Francisco, Manuel de Cossio, who rediscovered the forgotten and neglected El Greco for Spaniards and the rest of the world. One of the most delightful illustrations of the Institute's approach to art is to be found in Don Francisco's essay on "Spontaneous Criticism by Children of the Fine Arts." In it he describes how a group of children of twelve and fourteen years of age, conducted by him one day to a museum, learned to form their own artistic sensibilities and judgments by comparing two pieces of sculpture, one by Donatello and the other by Lucas de la Robbia. On this occasion, Don Francisco did not even attempt to point out the obvious differences in style, expression and composition in the two sculptures. He simply let the children use their own powers of observation, uninfluenced by any previous explanations or prejudices. Thus, through observation, they were able to define the work. The second and more difficult problem, says Don Francisco, was one of judgment. Which was the better sculpture? "I discovered," he writes, "a very curious phenomenon: there was a unanimous explosion in favor of Lucas de la Robbia. They stumbled over their words in their rush to tell me that from the very first de la Robbia had seemed to them so superior that they could scarcely understand why there should be any doubt; that sweetness, that mystical expression, that softness, that elegance, that repose. How could anyone compare this divine object with the coarse rawness and the hard, unbecoming and massive forms of Donatello? Why, it was almost a caricature of a sculpture! 'And Donatello is a sculptor with a great reputation!' they told me, almost aggressively. You can imagine how I resisted giving them the least sign of disagreement with this vehemently-held point of view, nor did I even invite them to study more carefully both works before pronouncing an opinion. Showing nothing but the most rigorous neutrality and even indifference, I began to look around rather distractedly, now at one piece, now at another. They did the same. After a little while, and spontaneously, there occurred a certain attenuation in the crudeness of their first judgment: 'No, I wouldn't say that it was exactly grotesque (in Spanish, 'un mamarracho').' 'There's a certain strength; the composition has a certain vigor.' 'If you put the piece in the right place, it wouldn't seem so bulky, so massive ...' And then: 'You know, if you really look hard at these things of Donatello, they're very manly; de la Robbia seems a little effeminate,' etc., etc. Finally, why prolong it? The gradual reversal of opinion in favor of Donatello reached the point of one child saying: 'There must be other works of Lucas de la Robbia which deserve his fame.' And it was precisely the very boy who had first placed in doubt the merits of Donatello's own reputation." ("Antologia," Revista Hispanica Moderna, v. 25, nos, 1, 2, 1959, pp. 132-133). A second innovation which I mentioned before was the approach to physical education. Rather than the routine and boredom of calisthenics, directed toward a military goal of physical competence, the Institute stressed games, games which were to form character. The use of games as an ethical force is, of course, an educational practice borrowed from the public schools of England. Anyone who has read Kipling's Stalky and Company or the early school novels of P. G. Wodehouse will have a good idea of what I am referring to. But, for Don Francisco, playing cricket and football also signified that the whole person was being educated. Intellectual formation alone was lopsided. To provide an integral education required an awareness and use of one's own body. Mere discreet walks, in carefully monitored lines, which was the usual practice and extent of physical exercise in other schools, were simply inadequate. The third point of the Institute's educational program were the excursions out to the countryside. This also was unheard-of in the last century of Spain. Long walks and mountain climbing simply were not done. In Don Francisco's time, people shut all their windows tight, never letting in fresh air; they frequented taverns and cafes, and sometimes strolled casually at night for a short walk along a busy thoroughfare, but almost never thought exploring the countryside an exhilarating occupation. Again, like the Generation of 1898, Don Francisco and his Institute discovered the Spanish countryside. Before that, almost no one seems to have appreciated it. Realist novelists, for example, rarely describe Nature; even the Spanish Romanticists evidence little sensitivity toward Nature. The idea, which was brought back from Paris in 1878 by one of the Institute's professors, was, like the introduction of games, imported from abroad and adapted to Spanish circumstances. Excursions developed the intellectual and physical capabilities of the pupil; more important, for Don Francisco, they allowed one to enter into communion with Nature, to feel oneself as part of a Whole. I would like to touch briefly on two other aspects of the Institute's educational program; the use of textbooks and examinations. Don Francisco discouraged the use of textbooks; to a great extent, he did so as a reaction to the wretched official textbooks forced on students at State-and Church-run schools. Instead, he preferred the creation of student notebooks which reflected the child's own judgments and synthesis of the material, and which were carefully checked and read by the teachers. Likewise, Don Francisco felt that examinations brought mostly negative results. Examinations in other schools were simply the means to acquire a degree; and stressed only the student's ability to memorize and to repeat exactly what the Professor dictated in class. Respect for the freedom of the child is at the heart of the Institute's teaching. The intuitive method in education, which goes back to Jacques Rousseau, by way of Froebel and Pestalozzi, was practiced by the Institute. This meant the substitution of restraint, obligation, and mechanical behavior by personal effort, spontaneity, and school work which had become ___ and attractive. These then, were the main points of the Institute's program. It should be noted that the educational reform undertaken by the Institute was not the first instance of attempts to improve education in Spain; and that the Institute's pedagogy depended, to a large extent, on influences from abroad which were modified to suit the Spanish temperament. The pedagogical efforts of [Gaspar Melchor de] Jovellanos in the eighteenth century and the short-lived Pestalozzian schools of the early nineteenth are but two examples of such attempts at educational improvement in Spain. With regard to the Institute's educational philosophy, we have already seen that the "Institutionists" borrowed from both England and France. And a survey of the Institute's publications reveals that Don Francisco and his colleagues were quite aware of the pedagogical approaches of Pestalozzi and Froebel. But perhaps the most significant, if somewhat vague, influence on the Institute is derived from the importation of the ideas of an obscure, second-rate German philosopher by name of Christian Friedrich Krause by a then equally obscure Spanish professor, Julian Sanz del Rio. This is not the place to examine the abstruse metaphysics of Krause or of Sanz del Reio's adaptation of it, but simply to state that Sanz del Rio's profoundly ethical work, Humanity's Ideal for Life strongly influenced Francisco Giner de los Rios and many other Spanish intellectuals who, during the 1860's and 70's, called themselves Krausistas. The Krausist tendency and ideal to create a world increasingly more unified, harmonious and complete is translated in pedagogical terms into the attempt to reconcile all the faculties of the human being, to develop the whole personality of the individual so that he or she might cultivate not only an artistic taste and sensibility, but a technical preparation, spiritual elevation, and an austere, moral sense of life. Despite the criticisms leveled against Don Francisco and his Institute of being anti-religious, the Institute did inculcate a spiritual leaning in its students without favoring any particular orthodox religious belief. Don Francisco himself was a boliovor. Jose Castillejo writes that "Ginor ... following Sanz del Rio, believed that schools need a religious spirit, to lift up the minds of children towards a universal order of the world, a supreme ideal of life and a harmony among men and between humanity and Nature. Without that spirit education is dead and dry" (Wars of Ideas in Spain, p. 100). One could say, in brief, that the whole of the Institute's education, the entire atmosphere of the Institute, was permeated with this spiritualization of man and the universe. It does not take too much imagination to see that the Institute would not be without enemies. The ideological dichotomy between left and right, progressive and traditionalist, in Spain immediately polarized the significance of the Institute. It was the product of the Devil for some; the only hope and salvation in Spain for others. The Institute itself fell, one more victim, to the ravages of Spain's Civil War in 1936. Yet, looked at dispassionately, the Institute's openness to ideas and influences from the rest of Europe, its undogmatic approach to education and to life itself, could not help but bring a breath of fresh air to the closed and narrow society of nineteenth-century Spain. If it perhaps erred too much in the direction of intellectual anarchy and placed too much confidence in the innate goodness of man, the Institute's efforts at raising the moral and intellectual level of Spaniards became an all-pervasive influence in many institutions, both public and private, in government circles, in business. The Institute was "much more than a school." It was an atmosphere of intellectual and moral enlightenment; and a belief in the regeneration of Spain.

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Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole. Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages. Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines. OCR for page 1 Summary A NEW PERSPECTIVE Hazards of modern life surround us and so, too, does commu- nication about the risks of those hazards. News reports describe such hazards as pollutants in the air and in drinking water, pes- ticide residues in food, threats from radiation and toxic chemicals, and ATDS. Government and industry also send out messages about hazards and their risks, sometimes directly to the populace but more often through intermediaries, such as the print and broadcast media. Risk messages are difficult to formulate in ways that are accurate, clear, and not rn~sTeading. One reads, for example, that "radon risk can equal or exceed the 2%o risk of death in an auto accident, . . . for anyone who lives 20 years at levels exceeding about 25 picocuries per liter" (Kerr, 1988~. This statement places an unfamiliar risk (radon exposure in homes) in juxtaposition to a more familiar risk (death in an auto accident), which may help people understand the magnitude of this unfamiliar risk. But this simple comparison may be misleading because it does not specify the respective levels of exposure, leaves out potentially relevant nonlethal consequences, and uses language (picocuries per liter) unfamiliar to most people. This report addresses these and other problems confronting risk communication. 1 OCR for page 2 2 IMPROVING RISK COMMUNICATION Risk messages can be controversial for many reasons. The haz- ards they describe are often themselves centers of controversy. Fre- quently, there is enough uncertainty in the underlying knowledge to allow different experts to draw contradictory conclusions. Experts are frequently accused of hiding their subjective preferences behind technical jargon and complex, so-called objective analyses. Often a message that is precise and accurate must be so complex that only an expert can understand it. Messages that nonexperts can under- stand necessarily present selected information and are thus subject to challenge as being inaccurate, incomplete, or manipulative. In the past the term risk communication has commonly been thought of as consisting only of one-way messages from experts to nonexperts. In this report the Committee on Risk Perception and Communication takes a different perspective. Because much of the controversy seems to center on the content of specific messages, it was tempting to proceed along the lines of many previous discussions about risk communication and concentrate on message design. We found a focus on one-way messages too limiting, however. Instead, we make a crucial distinction between risk messages and the risk communication process. We see risk communication as an interactive process of exchange of information and opinion among individuals, groups, and institutions. When risk communication is viewed in this way, significant, though perhaps less obvious, underlying problems can be better discerned and treated. We view success in risk communication in a different way also. Some take the position that risk communication is successful when recipients accept the views or arguments of the communicator. We construe risk communication to be successful to the extent that it raises the level of understanding of relevant issues or actions for those involved and satisfies them that they are adequately informed within the limits of available knowledge. Finally, it should be noted that one of the most difficult issues we faced concerned the extent to which public officials in a demo- cratic society should attempt to influence individuals-that is, to go beyond merely informing them concerning risks and such risk- reducing actions as quitting smoking. Government officials must be accountable for their decisions and will likely find their efforts to influence contested if they stray from accepted scientific views or if they challenge popular consensus. A public official should be aware of the political risks and of the legitimate constraints placed upon government in advocacy. Procedural strategies such as independent OCR for page 3 SUMMARY 3 review processes can be used to determine the appropriateness of the use of influencing techniques. Where an unusually strong degree of advocacy seems warranted, officials should seek legitimization of such actions through the democratic process. COMMON MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT RISE COMMUNICATION Several important misconceptions need to be dispelled before the real problems of risk communication can be addressed. Con- trary to what some think, there is no single overriding problem and thus no simple way of making risk communication easy. Risk mes- sages necessarily compress technical information, which can lead to misunderstanding, confusion, and distrust. Many people including some scientists, decision makers, and members of the public-have unrealistic expectations about what can be accomplished by risk communication. For example, it is mistaken to expect improved risk communication to always reduce conflict and smooth risk management. Risk management decisions that benefit some citizens can harm others. In addition, people do not all share common interests and values, so better understanding may not lead to consensus about controversial issues or to uniform personal behavior. But even though good risk communication cannot always be expected to improve a situation, poor risk communication will nearly always make it worse. It is also mistaken to think, as some do, that if people understood and used risk comparisons it would be easy for them to make decisions. Comparing risks can help people comprehend the unfamiliar magnitudes associated with risks, but risk comparison alone cannot establish levels of acceptable risk or ensure systematic minimization of risk. Factors other than the level of risk-such as the voluntariness of exposure to the hazard and the degree of dread associated with the consequences must be considered in determining the acceptability of risk associated with a particular activity or phenomenon. Some risk communication problems derive from mistaken beliefs about scientific research on the nature of how risks are assessed and managed and on risk communication itself. Scientific information, for example, cannot be expected to resolve all important risk issues. All too often research that would answer the question has not been done or the results are disputed. Although a great deal of research has been done on the dissemination and preparation of risk messages, OCR for page 4 4 IMPROVING RISK COMMUNICATION there has been much less attention devoted to the risk communication process. In addition, even when valid scientific data are available, experts are unlikely to agree completely about the meaning of these data for risk management decisions. Finally, it is unrealistic to expect easy identification and understanding of the values, preferences, and information needs of the intended recipients of risk messages. Other misconceptions involve stereotypes about the way inter- mediaries and recipients react to risk messages. It is mistaken, for example, to view journalists and the media always as significant, independent causes of problems in risk communication. Rather, the problem is often at the interface between science and journalism. Both sides need to better understand the pressures and constraints of the other instead of complaining about the sometimes disappointing results. Scientists and risk managers should recognize the importance of the part journalists play in identifying disputes and maintaining the flow of information during resolution of conflicts; journalists need to understand how to frame the technical and social dimensions of risk issues. It is also important to recognize the differences between the broadcast ant! the print media and between the national and the regional or local press corps. Finally, even though most people prefer simplicity to complex- ity, it is mistaken to expect the public to want simple, cut-and-dried answers as to what to do in every case. The public is not homoge- neous. People diner in the degree to which they exercise control over exposure to hazards or remediation of undesirable consequences, the importance they attach to various consequences, and their tendency to be risk averse or risk seeking. Often at least part of the public seeks considerable information about the risks they face. PROBLEMS OF RISK COMMUNICATION We distinguish two major types of problems in risk communica- tion. Problems deriving from institutional and political systems are problems for which little can be done beyond trying to understand them by those involved in risk communication. Nevertheless, these problems can have a considerable impact on actions and events. Problems of risk communicators and recipients can be addressed more directly and are therefore more amenable to improvement or solution. OCR for page 5 SUMMARY 5 Problems Deriving Mom the Institutional and Political Systems Several kinds of legal considerations, including statutory man- dates, liability, and informed consent and "right-to-know" require- ments, influence the options available to risk managers and thus the content of their risk messages. These considerations generally either limit the possible responses to the risk in question or require that certain actions be taken in given circumstances. For example, some- times statutes require consideration of certain factors (the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act explicitly includes con- sideration of economic benefits) or the exclusion of others (the Clean Water Act specifies that the best available technology should be used regardless of the financial burden imposed). Although not necessar- ily problems as such, these considerations often constitute important influences on risk messages and risk communication processes. It is often difficult to understand why risk messages appear as they do without consideration of these factors. Communicating with citizens about risks can increase their desire to participate in or otherwise influence decisions about the control of those risks, thereby making risk management even more cumber- some. The interests of citizens and their motivation to participate in the political process can introduce difficult challenges when the implementation of risk control measures is necessarily decentralized and local preferences (generally to avoid exposure to a particular risk) preclude solutions in the broader interest. Many hazardous waste facilities operate under these pressures. Divided authority, not only among Congress, the executive branch, and the courts at the federal level but also among federal, state, and local or regional jurisdictions, creates incentives for each actor to gain as much leverage as possible from the limited portion he or she controls. Such fragmentation makes communicating about risks harder because it makes government regulation and risk reduc- tion programs more complex and makes it more difficult to determine who is responsible for the eventual outcomes. Government and industry spend large amounts of money on research, and thus their concerns are usually well reflected in the information developed by that research. Individuals and citizens' groups do not usually have the financial resources to fund research and thus do not enjoy this sort of access to information and influence over its generation. If a group of people that a risk corr~municator is trying to reach feels that the system for generating information relied OCR for page 6 6 IMPROVING RISK COMMUNICATION upon by that source does not consider the group's concerns, it may reject the information from that source as a basis for decisions about risks. It is reasonable to speculate that this may, in part, explain why it is so difficult to affect young people's attitudes and behavior about drugs and the AIDS epidemic the information presented is based on facts that they do not consider very important in the face of their immediate concerns of peer pressure and personal image. There also may be systematic biases in the provision of informa- tion. Those most strongly motivated to communicate about risk are often also those with the ' strongest interest in the decision. When- ever a personal or social decision affects interested groups or organi- zations, conflicting messages reflecting the interests of those groups or organizations may be expected. The U.S. Environmental Protec- tion Agency administrator's statement in 1984 that EDB (ethylene dibromide)'contamination was a Tong-term health problem being ade- quately handled by tolerance guidelines, for example, was in the news at about the same time that public health officials in Massachusetts and Florida were removing grain products with EDB contamination from grocery store shelves. Experts from the food industry joined in, downplaying the risks, while scientists from environmental groups criticized the government's inaction. The beliefs, predispositions, and interests of risk communicators and the groups they represent create incentives to slant, or even distort or misrepresent, informa- tion. This can skew messages in many different directions on the same Issue. Problems of Risk Communicators and Recipients The problems encountered by the sources and recipients of risk messages center on the following topics: establishing and recognizing credibility, making the messages understandable, preparing messages in an emergency, capturing and focusing attention, and getting in- formation. Lack of credibility alters the communication process by adding distrust and acrimony. The most important factors affecting the credibility of a source and its messages relate to the accuracy of the messages and the legitimacy of the process by which the contents were determined, as perceived by the recipients. Recipients' views about the accuracy of a message are adversely affected by (1) real or perceived advocacy by the source of a position in the message that is not consistent with a careful assessment of the facts; (2) OCR for page 7 SUMMARY 7 a reputation for deceit, misrepresentation, or coercion on the part , ~ . positions taken by the source that do not support the current message; (4) self-serving framing of information in the message; (5) contradictory messages from other credible sources; and (6) actual or perceived professional incompetence or impropriety on the part of the source. The perceived legitimacy of the process by which the contents of a message were determined depends on (1) the legal standing of the source with respect to the risks addressed; (2) the justification provided for the communication program; (3) the access afforded affected parties to the decision-making process; and (4) the degree to which conflicting claims are given fair and balanced review. Ideally, risk information should use language and concepts re- cipients already understand. It is difficult to present scientific and technical information that uses everyday language and magnitudes common in ordinary experience and that is sensitive to such psycho- Togical needs on the part of recipients as the desire for clear, decisive answers or the fear of the unfamiliar and unknown. Sometimes risk communicators must disseminate messages when there are not enough relevant data to allow them to draw satisfactory conclusions and there is no time to obtain better information. This usually occurs when an emergency requires that action be taken im- mediately or not at all or when events lead to requests for information prior to the completion of study or analysis. Many things compete with risk messages for attention, and it is often difficult to get the intended recipients to attend to the issues the risk communicator thinks are important. From the risk com- municator's standpoint, there are two aspects of this: stimulating the attention of the ultimate recipient and interacting with the news media and other intermediaries. There are, of course, several differ- ent ways that messages can reach the final recipients: face-to-face (physician to patient, friend to friend, within the family), in groups (work sites, cIassrooms), through professional or volunteer organi- zations (American Medical Association, Red Cross), through the mass media (radio, television, magazines, newspapers, direct mail, billboards), and through community service agencies (at libraries, hospitals, mails, fairs). Recipients of risk messages may have difficulty deciding which issues to attend to or what to do because they cannot get information from officials and other message sources that satisfactorily answers their questions. This can happen when authorities do not listen of the source; t3) previous statements or OCR for page 8 8 IMPROVING RISK CO~UNICATION and therefore do not provide what the recipient considers relevant information or because the individual is unable to find a trusted source or interpreter of already available information. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In formulating recommendations we focused on the preparation and dissemination of formal risk messages to audiences that include nonexperts and on only two of the many types of risk-managing organizations: government agencies and large private corporations. Nevertheless, our recommendations are intended to attack the prob- lems of recipients of risk messages as well. The goal cannot be only to make those who disseminate formal risk messages more effective by improving their credibility, understandability, and so on. Such an approach might serve their interests, but it could well degrade the overall quality of risk communication if it merely meant that they could advance their viewpoints with greater influence. Risk commu- nication can be improved only if recipients are also helped to solve their problems at the same time. The risk communication process usually with many messages from many sources-can be considered successful only to the extent that it, first, improves or increases the base of accurate information that decision makers use, be they government officials, industry man- agers, or individual citizens, and, second, satisfies those involved that they are adequately informed within the limits of available knowI- edge. This does not always result in the responses a particular source might wish, nor does it always lead to consensus about controver- sial issues or to uniform personal behavior. People do not all share common interests and values, and so better understanding will not necessarily lead them all to the same conclusion. Improving risk communication is therefore more than merely crafting "better messages." Risk communication procedures as well as risk message content must be improved. Because risk communi- cation is so tightly linked to the management of risks, solutions to the problems of risk communication often entail changes in risk man- agement and risk analysis. Once the constraints, limitations, and incentives affecting the preparation and dissemination of messages- as well as how these factors become manifest in what we call the risk communication process-are understood, improvements can be implemented. OCR for page 9 SUMMARY . ", . · . 9 This is not to imply, however, that there is a single shortcut to improving the nation's risk communication efforts. The needed improvement can come only incrementally and only from careful attention to many details. Risk managers need to consider risk com- munication as an important and integral aspect of risk management. Four sets of recommendations are presented: (1) recommenda- tions that pertain to the processes that source organizations use to generate decisions, knowledge, and risk messages; (2) recommenda- tions that pertain to the content of individual risk messages; (3) a call for a "consumer's guide" that will enhance the ability of other groups or individuals to understand and participate in risk manage- ment activities; and (4) a brief summary of research needs. Two broad themes run through the process and content recom- mendations. The first is the recognition that risk communication efforts should be more systematically oriented to the intended au- diences. The most effective risk messages are those that quite self- consciously address the audiences' perspectives and concerns. The second is that openness is the surest policy. A central premise of democratic government the existence of an informed electorate- implies a free flow of information. Suppression of relevant infor- mation is not only wrong but also, over the longer term, usually ineffective. . Management of the Process We identified four process objectives that are key elements in improving risk communication: (1) goal setting, (2) openness, (3) balance, and (4) competence. Setting Realistic Goals Risk communication activities ought to be matters of conscious design. Practical goals should be established that explicitly accom- modate the political/legal mandates and constraints bounding the process and the roles of the potential recipients of the organization's risk messages, on the one hand, and clearly show the contribution to improved understanding of issues and actions on the other. Ex- plicit consideration of such factors encourages realistic expectations, clarification of motives and objectives (both within the source orga- nization and among outside groups and individuals), and evaluation of performance. OCR for page 10 10 Safeguarding Openness IMPROVING RISK COMMUNICATION Risk communication should be a two-way street. Organizations that communicate about risks should ensure effective dialogue with potentially affected outsiders. This two-way process should exhibit (1) a spirit of open exchange in a common undertaking rather than a series of "canned" briefings restricted to technical "nonemotional" issues and (2) early and sustained interchange that includes the media and other message intermediaries. Openness does not ordinarily, however' imply empowerment to determine the host organization's risk management decisions. To avoid misunderstanding, the limits of participation should be made clear from the outset. Safeguarding Balance and Accuracy in Risk Messages In order to help ensure that risk messages are not distorted and do not appear to be distorted, those who manage the generation of risk assessments and risk messages should (1) hold the preparers of messages accountable for detecting and reducing distortion; (2) consider review by recognized independent experts of the underly- ing assessment and, when feasible, the message; (3) subject draft messages, if possible, to outside preview to determine if audiences detect any overlooked distortions; and (4) prepare and release for comment a "white paper" on the risk assessment and risk reduction assessment. Fostering Competence Risk managers need to use procedures that incorporate two dis- tinct types of expertise: on the risk subject matter (e.g., carcinogenic risk, occupational safety) and on risk communication. Organizations that communicate about risk should take steps to ensure that the preparation of risk messages becomes a deliberate, specialized under- taking, taking care that in the process they do not sacrifice scientific quality. Such steps include (1) deliberately considering the makeup of the intended audience and demonstrating how the choice of me- dia and message reflects an understanding of the audience and its concerns; (2) attracting appropriate communications specialists and training technical staff in communications; (3) requiring systematic assurance that substantive risk experts within the organization have OCR for page 11 SUMMARY 11 a voice in producing accurate assessments and the derivative risk message; (4) establishing a thoughtful program of evaluating the past performance of risk communication efforts; and (5) ensuring that their organizations improve their understanding of the roles of intermediaries, particularly media reporters and editors, including an understanding of the factors that make a risk story newsworthy, of the practical time and space constraints, and of the limited technical background of most media personnel. Risk Communication in Crisis Conditions The process for risk communication in crisis conditions requires special care. Risk managers should ensure that (l) where there is a foreseeable potential for emergency, advance plans for communica- tion are drafted, and (2) there is provision for coordinating among the various authorities that might be involved and, to the extent feasible, a single place where the public and the media can obtain authoritative and current information. Content of Risk Messages We identified four generic issues that have been the source of difficulty in the past over a broad range of risk communication efforts: (1) audience orientation, (2) uncertainty, (3) risk comparisons, and (4) completeness. Relating the Message to the Audiences' Perspectives 7 Risk messages should closely reflect the perspectives' technical capacity, and concerns of the target audiences. A message should (1) emphasize information relevant to any practical actions that in- dividuals can take; (2) be couched in clear and plain language; (3) respect the audience and its concerns; and (4) seek to inform the recipient, unless conditions clearly warrant the use of influencing techniques. One of the most difficult issues in risk communication in a democratic society is the extent to which public officials should attempt to influence individuals that is, to go beyond merely in- form~ng them concerning risks and such risk-reducing actions as quitting smoking. OCR for page 12 12 Handling Uncertainty IMPROVING RISK COMMUNICATION Risk messages and supporting materials should not minimize the existence of uncertainty. Data gaps and areas of significant disagreement among experts should be disclosed. Some indication of the level of confidence of estimates and the significance of scientific uncertainty should be conveyed. Comparing Risks Risk comparisons can be helpful, but they should be presented with caution. Comparison must be seen as only one of several inputs to risk decisions, not as the primary determinant. There are proven pitfalls when risks of diverse character are compared, especially when the intent of the comparison can be seen as that of rn~nimizing a risk (by equating it to a seemingly trivial one). More useful are comparisons of risks that help convey the magnitude of a particular risk estimate, that occur in the same decision context (e.g., risks from flying and driving to a given destination), and that have a similar outcome. Multiple comparisons may avoid some of the worst pitfalls. More work needs to be done to develop constructive and helpful forms of risk comparison. Ensuring Completeness A complete information base would contain five types of infor- mation: (1) on the nature of the risk, (2) on the nature of the benefits that might be changed if risk were reduced, (3) on the avail- able alternatives, (4) on uncertainty in knowledge about risks and benefits, and (5) on management issues. There are major advantages in putting the information base into written form as an adjunct to the risk message. A Consumer's Guide to Risk and Risk Commnnication Major government and private organizations that sustain risk communication efforts should jointly fund the development of a Con- sumer's Guide to Risk and Risk Communication. The purpose of this guide would be to articulate key terms, concepts, and trade-offs in risk communication and risk management for the lay audience, to OCR for page 13 SUMMARY 13 help audiences discern rn~sleading and incomplete information, and to facilitate the needed general participation in risk issues. Such a guide should (1) involve support from, but not control by, the fed- eral government and other sources of risk messages; (2) be under the editorial control of a group that is clearly oriented toward the recipients of risk messages and under administrative management by an organization that is known for its independence and familiarity with lay perspectives and that can undertake the needed outreach and public information effort; and (3) cover subjects such as the nature of risk communication, concepts of zero risk and comparative risk, evaluation of risk messages, and others designated by project participants. Research Needs As a result of our cleliberations, we have identified nine research topics for attention: (1) risk comparison, (2) risk characterization, (3) role of message intermediaries, (4) pertinency and sufficiency of risk information, (5) psychological stress, (6) the "mental models" of recipients, (7) risk literacy, (8) retrospective case studies of risk communication, and (9) contemporaneous assessment of risk man- agement and risk communication. Two criteria guided their selection: (1) that additional knowledge would lead to material improvement in risk communication practices and (2) that creation of such knowI- edge is likely given past results and current research methods. We have not assigned priorities among the nine topics. Representative terms from entire chapter:

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If a powerful hurricane slams the Louisiana coast during the Republican National Convention, the resonances with Katrina will be bad enough. But the storm would also showcase the GOP’s position on climate change, which is, increasingly, to deny the scientific consensus that fossil-fuel pollution contributes to a warming atmosphere and destructive weather patterns—including stronger hurricanes. Although scientists caution that no single weather event can be attributed directly to climate change, major events such as Katrina and this summer’s drought fire up a debate that has become more incendiary in recent years as more Republican lawmakers doubt climate science. The question of whether the GOP accepts climate science didn’t come up in 2008, when Hurricane Gustav slammed into the Gulf Coast during the party’s Minnesota convention. That’s because the nominee, Sen. John McCain of Arizona, believed in climate change and professed a desire to solve it. Since then, the mainstream GOP view is to deny the scientific findings that link man-made pollution to climate change, and Mitt Romney has publicly walked back his onetime position that humans contribute to warming. Vice presidential nominee Paul Ryan has also questioned the science. But stronger hurricanes are among the most serious consequences of climate change induced by the burning of fossil fuels (the Romney campaign favors such burning), and the Gulf Coast is likely to experience the worst effects, according to a 2012 report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and a 2009 report authored by 13 federal agencies. Kerry Emanuel, a climate scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who has authored one of many reports on the increasing frequency of high-intensity hurricanes, said that the data link warming air and water surfaces to stronger, more devastating hurricanes. “As the temperature of the tropical ocean increases, you see greater intensity and the frequency of intense storms goes up,” Emanuel said. Michael Oppenheimer, a professor of geosciences at Princeton University and a member of the Nobel Prize-winning Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, said the science shows clearly that reducing oil, coal, and gas pollution could help prevent damage related to climate change. “There’s a risk, which scientists have identified, that it’s likely we’ll have more strong hurricanes, and one of the things we can do to prepare is reduce fossil-fuel emissions,” he said. “It’s just like building levees.” Environmentalists are targeting Republicans for their views. Around Tampa, the Florida Wildlife Federation has posted billboards of prominent Republicans, such as Ohio Gov. John Kasich and former New York City Mayor Rudy Giuliani, who have acknowledged climate change as a problem and called for solutions. “We think this is one of the most important policy issues that there is,” said Federation President Manley Fuller. “It’s treated as a partisan issue, and it should not be. The billboards remind Republicans of what well-known Republicans have said about this.” Last week, the League of Conservation Voters launched a $1.5 million campaign to defeat five House Republicans who deny the science of climate change. The “Flat Earth Five” campaign is the first time the League has targeted a group of lawmakers explicitly because of their positions on climate. Want to stay ahead of the curve? Sign up for National Journal’s AM & PM Must Reads. News and analysis to ensure you don’t miss a thing.

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The rate of new HIV infections in the United States remained stable between 2006 and 2009 though infections increased among young black gay and bisexual men, according to a new report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The first multiyear estimate of national HIV incidences found new infections have remained steady with an estimated 50,000 new infections each year. But the agency expressed concerns about the “alarming” rate of new infections among young black gay and bisexual men, where there was a 48 percent increase in new infections between 2006 and 2009. “Blacks account for almost half of all new infections in 2009. The overall infection rate is more than eight times higher than whites,” CDC's Joseph Prejean told a telephone briefing. Prejean attributed the increase in new infections to a lack of access to health care and the stigma surrounding homosexuality and HIV. He also said insular communities make the spread of disease easier. In black communities where blacks are more likely to date other blacks, when an infected person is introduced to the community, disease spreads. “HIV remains one of the most glaring health disparities in this country,” said Dr. Kevin Fenton, director of the National Center for HIV/AIDS, Viral Hepatitis, STD and TB Prevention at the CDC. “While we all have individual responsibility to protect ourselves from HIV infection, the research clearly shows that individual risk behavior alone doesn’t account for the significant racial disparities in HIV. It is essential to understand the underlying factors that contribute to these disparities, such as poverty, discrimination, and lack of access to health care.” People of color have been hard hit by the HIV epidemic. Though blacks make up about 14 percent of the population, they accounted for about 44 percent of new HIV infections in 2009. Black women accounted for 57 percent of all new HIV infections among women in 2009. The infection rate among black women was 15 times that of white women. Latinos accounted for 20 percent of new infections in 2009, while making up 16 percent of the population. HIV rates remain highest among gay and bisexual Latino men. To address the rate of infections, the CDC is pursuing a “High-Impact Prevention” program, where the agency will reevaluate current prevention activities for their effectiveness, cost, and coverage to get to areas that have a greater need for preventative efforts. Fenton said the program will work with primary care physicians and community health clinics to get more Americans tested—less than half of the population reports having been tested.

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One possible risk factor for tuberculosis is diabetes, a condition characterized by high blood sugar levels and long-term complications involving the circulation, eyes and kidneys, and the body’s ability to fight infection. Active tuberculosis can be cured by taking a combination of several antibiotics every day for at least six months, and current control efforts [...] Pickled dills in plastic? Turmeric is the key to freshness. Who knew that a spice used from ancient times as a coloring agent in foods could also keep plastic-packaged dill pickles fresh? Unlike glass containers, plastic jars or pouches “breathe,” allowing oxygen and other gases to seep inside over time. This can eventually lead to [...] Scientists have found that a modified whey protein prevents breast cancer in some laboratory rats. It’s an important medical discovery, considering that 180,000 U.S. women develop breast cancer each year, and 1 in 8 women will develop breast cancer over her lifetime. Breast cancer is a disease where a mutant cell in the breast forms [...] A study by researchers at the University of Southampton has shown evidence of increased levels of hyperactivity in young children consuming mixtures of some artificial food colours (dyes) and the preservative sodium benzoate. The possibility of food colours [dyes] and preservatives affecting children’s behaviour has long been an unresolved question for parents. This significant new [...] Since the discovery of leptin in 1994, many have hoped that the hormone would be a promising weight-loss treatment for humans. Leptin acts as a signal to help the body decide when it has eaten enough food to feel full. The amount of leptin in the blood has been directly linked to body fat. The richest food sources of potassium are fruits and vegetables. People who eat large amounts of fruits and vegetables have a high potassium intake (8-11 grams/day). (National Academies Press; 2004:173-246). Listed below are some food sources high in potassium from the USDA National Nutrient Database. Note the potassium content in bananas compared with tomato products. [...] Study shows substantial improvement in autism symptoms with early intervention treatment. Intensive intervention given to toddlers with autism as young as three years old can significantly raise IQ levels, potentially allowing them to benefit from mainstream education, new research has revealed. Researchers at the University of Southampton, led by Professor Bob Remington of the School [...] Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic inflammatory disease with three diet-associated aspects. One is elevated resting energy expenditure. Another is elevated whole-body protein catabolism – a destructive form of muscle metabolism that translates to muscle wasting. And yet another is low body cell mass, which leads to increased fat mass. For some people, the benefits of [...] Scientists at the University of Southampton, funded by the UK’s leading dementia research charity, the Alzheimer’s Research Trust, are a step closer to understanding why proteins such as ‘amyloid’ clog-up the brain in Alzheimer’s disease. It has been widely reported that drugs that lower cholesterol may slow the progression of Alzheimer’s disease. The role of cholesterol in Alzheimer’s disease is attracting increasing attention from researchers and there are conflicting messages coming form a great deal of reports. Despite the fact that wide-spread opinion about high levels of cholesterol still remains [...] Natural food may be one of the natural remedies for gout and arthritis pain relief. A study suggests that natural compounds in cherries may reduce painful arthritis inflammation. Cherries already have a reputation for fighting inflammation. So what’s new about the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) study carried out by ARS scientists and their university colleagues. [...] Mindfulness Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) is a treatment program for prevention of relapses in depression and the treatment of anxiety disorders. Is MBCT an acceptable intervention to patients with depression and anxiety? The course exercises There was a wide range of views on the course exercises, in particular the body-scan and walking meditation. While some [...] More fat in the diet decreases leptin levels while a diet higher in carbohydrates increases leptin levels according to a study. Leptin, made by the body’s fat cells, is thought to help contribute to satiety, a feeling of fullness. An upcoming study should help reveal how two kinds of sugars in our foods, glucose and fructose, affect the body’s production of leptin and insulin. Agricultural Research Service chemist Nancy L. Keim, Peter J. Havel and Craig H. Warden, a genetics and pediatrics researcher at U.C. Davis, are collaborating in this leptin and insulin investigation. [...] ARS scientists and colleagues have isolated and characterized several polyphenolic polymer compounds from cinnamon bark that could one day become natural ingredients in products aimed at lowering blood sugar levels. The newly identified chemical structures were recently named in a patent application and described in the Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. ARS chemist Richard [...] Several clinical studies have shown that plant stanol esters are effective agents that lower cholesterol. The ability to lower cholesterol with dietary plant stanol ester has been shown to be sustained for periods up to 12 months, but how soon the full cholesterol lowering effect of plant stanol esters can be obtained, is still unclear. [...]

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Earth Day was officially on 22 April, but in many communities and countries around the world it’s celebrated for the entire week or month. Earth Day was founded 40 years ago by U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin. His goal was to create a grassroots movement that would show the government just how concerned Americans were about the environment and get laws enacted that would enforce protection of the earth and its inhabitants – us. By the end of that year, in December 1970, the Environmental Protection Agency opened its doors. A very good start. Since that time, there have been many years when there has been little to celebrate. Although there has been continual progress, including some milestones, there have also been pretty serious setbacks. For example, of the 80,000 chemicals that have been produced and used in the U.S. since the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) was enacted 34 years ago, only 200 have been tested by the EPA, and only five have been regulated. But in the last year, the EPA has undergone some equally serious reform. Finally, the agency is really buckling down on toxic chemicals, both in the environment and in consumer goods. There is special attention on children, as it should be. Children are most susceptible to toxic chemicals because their bodies are still growing. In the not too distant future, it is our children and grandchildren, the little ones asleep in their cribs right now, who will lead the way in politics, as teachers, as firefighters, artists, business owners and so on, and so on. To do their jobs well, to achieve their goals and have a satisfying, happy and productive life, they need to be healthy. At Naturepedic, we celebrate Earth Day every day. We give children a healthy start in life by manufacturing our award-winning organic baby crib mattresses that are certified by GREENGUARD and enjoy the unique distinction of being the only crib mattress recommended by Healthy Child Healthy World. Do you have a Naturepedic mattress for your infant or toddler? If not, you might want to celebrate Earth Day/Week/Month by checking them out at http://www.Naturepedic.com. You can also celebrate Earth Day by working on creating a personal environment that is more chemical-free. It really doesn’t take much to get a good start. Read Going Green in 2010 – A Few Simple Things With A Big Impact for some helpful hints that make a real difference. Start now, and next year your family will also have even more to celebrate on Earth Day! Tags: award-winning organic baby crib mattress, baby crib mattresses, Crib Mattress, crib mattresses, Earth Day, Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, EPA reform, going green, mattress for infant or toddley, Naturepedic, organic baby crib mattress, toxic chemicals, Toxic Substances Control Act, TSCA

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Algebraic structure may mean either There are several notions of an algebraic structure on an object of some category or higher category, which differ in generality. It may be to be an algebra over an algebraic theory, algebra over an operad (or higher operad) or an algebra over a monad, or over a prop, over a properad etc. See also variety of algebras. There is also an older notion of an algebraic structure/algebra as a model for a one-sorted theory where the only relation symbols in the language involved are and equality (with standard interpretation in models). This notion includes for example fields which are not an algebraic theory in the sense of monads (because there are no free objects in the case of fields, i.e. the category of fields is not monadic over the category of sets). There is a forgetful functor from the category of algebras/algebraic structures of some type (in any of the above formalisms) to the original category. This functor forgets structure in the sense of stuff, structure, property. We say that a functor in the base category preserves some algebraic structure if it lifts to the corresponding category of algebras.

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Obs via Google Maps Oil & Gas ADCP Ship Obs Report Obs Web Widget NDBC on Facebook NDBC DQC Handbook Hurricane Data Plots Handbook No. 1 See recent photos from TAO buoy 8N 110W How can I compute the distance from a buoy to shore, an inlet, or another reference location? Often, when you ask us how far a buoy is away from a location, we don't know the exact location of the jetty, inlet, or the point on shore that you are referring to. We'd hate to guess and give you the wrong information. However, it's fairly easy to determine this yourself if you can find the latitude and longitude of your reference position. Copy the station's latitude and longitude from the station page. Next, look up the latitude and longitude of the inlet, lighthouse, town, or other geographic feature you are interested in. You can find these on NOAA nautical charts: http://chartmaker.ncd.noaa.gov/staff/charts.htm provides a listing of these charts which you can purchase. When you have this information, do an Internet search for a "Great Circle Calculator" and go to one of the web sites featuring this type of calculator. Here's a Great Circle Calculator offered by NOAA's National Hurricane Center: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/gccalc.shtml. Then, enter the latitude and longitude of our buoy and the position of your reference location. The calculator will provide the distance in in your choice of units.

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NetWellness is a global, community service providing quality, unbiased health information from our partner university faculty. NetWellness is commercial-free and does not accept advertising. Saturday, May 18, 2013 Addiction and Substance Abuse Later effects of substance abuse My husband actively abused drugs and alcohol from his teens to early 30`s. He`s now in his 50`s and is having memory problems along with other physical ailments. I wondered if there have been studies done to understand the long term effects (especially on the brain) of substance abuse; and what the difference is with later long term abstinence. Thank you for your question about what sounds like a very difficult situation. There are some things that are known ... and some that are unknown. 1) Alcohol abuse is by far the most damaging to the brain and nervous system, and tends to be an immediate thing - meaning that once a person is sober for several months, the toxic effects of alcohol either "freeze" where they are or even resolve gradually to some degree. It is NOT typical for past alcohol problems to produce progressive / new / on-going brain effects. 2) The drugs that have the most brain effects are PCP / LSD / Marijuana / and Amphetamines - especially methamphetamine. Generally cocaine and opioids (heroin and other prescription pain medicines) do not produce long-term damage to the brain / nervous system. 3) If a person suffered pretty severe liver damage from either alcoholic cirrhosis, or hepatitis C or B, or a combination, then this can certainly produce progressive deterioration in brain function many years to decades later. It is the same situation if a person was infected by HIV as a consequence of their addictive disease. That is the bad news. The good news is that IF he is truly sober, then be SURE that none of the following reversible or fairly treatable causes are not active for him. Be sure that he is: - not on prescription drugs that are potentially addictive. - not on other non-addictive medicines that can cause brain function problems. (Anything from some blood pressure medications to psychiatric medications to anti-seizure medications can cause brain function problems and result in deterioration.) - receiving plenty of vitamins and a well-balanced diet. - not hypothyroid. - not depressed or impaired from any other psychiatric disease. - not suffering from low oxygen (emphysema/COPD). - not suffering from a toxic exposure like heavy metals. Hope this guidance helps a little bit. Ted Parran, MD Associate Professor of General Medical Sciences School of Medicine Case Western Reserve University

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California, the largest and most important of the Pacific Coast States, is the second State of the United States in point of area, and the twenty-first in point of population. It is bounded on the north by the State of Oregon; on the east by the State of Nevada and, for a comparatively short distance, by the Territory of Arizona; on the south by the Peninsula of Lower California (Mexico); and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. It lies entirely between 42° and 32° N. lat., and between 12°5 and 11°3 W. long. It is 800 miles long, running in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction, and has an average width of 200 miles. According to the official returns of the United States Census of 1900, its total area is 158,360 square miles. Of this number 2,188 square miles constitute the water area; the total land area, therefore, is 156,172 square miles. The capital of the State is Sacramento, with a population (1900) of 29,000. San Francisco, built on San Francisco Bay, is the metropolis, with a population (1900) of 342,000. The other chief cities, with a population according to the United States Census of 1900, are Los Angeles, 102,000; Oakland, 66,000; San José, 21,000; San Diego, 17,000; Stockton, 17,000; Alameda, 17,000; Berkeley and Fresno, 12,000. These figures have been enormously increased since 1900. The estimated population of the three largest cities in January, 1907, was as follows: San Francisco, 400,000; Oakland, 276,000; and Los Angeles, 245,000. The State presents two systems of mountains which converge at Mount Shasta, in the north, and Tehachapi, in the south. The outer, or western, range is called the Coast Range, and is close to the sea, in some places coming down precipitately to the water's edge; the eastern range is called the Sierra Nevada. The latter is considerably higher than the former, and in several peaks reaches a height of more than 14,000 feet. The Sierra Nevadas extend along the eastern border of the State for about 450 miles; they are but a portion, physically, of the Cascade Range, which traverses also the States of Oregon and Washington. The Sierra Nevada Range is practically unbroken throughout the entire length of the State of California, the Coast Range is broken by the magnificent harbour of San Francisco. Both of these ranges follow the general contour of the coast line. Between them lies a great valley which is drained by the Sacramento River in the north and the San Joaquin River in the south. These two rivers, navigable by steamers for about 100 miles from their mouth in San Francisco Bay, constitute a great parent water-system of California, and both empty into the harbour of San Francisco, which is situated approximately midway between the northern and southern extremities of the State. The Sierra Nevada Mountains form the great watershed from which are fed most of the rivers and streams of California. The combined valleys of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin rivers are approximately 500 miles long, and have an average width of 50 miles. This area, the surface of which is quite level, is one of the most fertile regions in the world. In addition to those already mentioned, the divisions of the mountain ranges form numerous smaller valleys. The principal of these are Sonoma, Napa, Ukiah, Vaca, Contra Costa, and Alameda valleys in the north; and Santa Clara, Pajaro, and Salinas valleys in the south. South of the Tehachapi Range, in Southern California, is another low-lying stretch of country which has become the centre of the citrus industry and the home of a large variety of semi-tropical fruits. In the south-eastern part of the State and east of the mountains is the low-lying desert region consisting of the Mojave Desert and Death Valley. Owing to the great height of the Sierra Nevada Mountains and their comparative proximity to the sea, the numerous streams, fed from their glaciers and perpetual snows, afford abundant water-power throughout their steep descent to the sea. This power is utilized for generating light and operating mills and factories. California has one of the finest harbours in the world, San Francisco Bay, capable of accommodating the combined navies of the world. There are five other bays forming good harbours, San Diego, San Pedro, Humboldt, Santa Barbara, and Monterey bays. The 800 miles of California's length from north to south are equal to the combined length of ten States on the Atlantic seaboard; the northern line of California is on the same latitude as Boston, and the southern line is that of Savannah, Georgia. The entire state is subject to the beneficent influence of the Japan Current. The climate is equable; except in the high mountains, snow and the extremes of cold, experienced in the same latitudes on the Atlantic Coast, are unknown. There are, in reality, but two seasons: the wet and the dry. The wet or rainy season lasts from about September to April, during which the rains are occasional, alternating with clear weather. During the entire summer the winds from the west and south-west blow over the coast, keeping the weather cool, and not infrequently bringing in cold fogs towards evening. But it is chiefly in the balminess of its winters that the climate of California excels. It is never too cold to work outdoors, and the citrus fruits, semi-tropical as they are, grow to perfection throughout the valleys of California. The records of the climate left by early Franciscan missionaries who evangelized California are duplicated by those of the Government Weather Bureau of today. The population of California, according to the United States Census of 1900, is 1,485,053, or 9.5 per square mile. This figure constitutes an increase of 22.7 percent upon the population of 1890. The following table, taken from the United States Census of 1900, exhibits the population of California in each census year since its admission into the Federal Union, its rank among the States in point of population, and the percentage of increase in its population during the period of ten years between each census: |Year||Rank||Population||Percentage of Increase| The census of 1900 also presents the following details of population: (a) White, 1,402,727; African, 11,045; Indian, 15,377; Chinese, 45,753; Japanese, 10,151. (b) Native-born, 1,117,813; Foreign-born, 367,240; (c) Males, 820,531; Females, 664,522. The estimated population of California (January, 1907) is 2,217,897, an increase of 732,844, or 49.3 percent since the census of 1900. The soil of the State of California is rich and highly productive. It consists for the most part of alluvial deposits. This is especially true of the delta lands of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. Much of the so-called desert land consists of a rich subsoil covered with but a thin crust of sand. The value of irrigation in making this desert land productive, as well as in enriching the soil by bearing to it the washed-out life-principles from the uplands, is almost incalculable. The soil readily responds to the plough, and there is no hard, tough subsoil to be turned and mellowed. California has approximately 40,000,000 acres of arable land. To this must be added fully 10,000,000 acres of its so-called desert land, which needs but the touch of water from its irrigation systems to make it as productive as the valley or farm lands. The remaining 50,000,000 acres of California's domain, the mountainous and desert acreage, afford pasturage for millions of cattle and sheep. The chief products of the soil of California are hay, grain, fruits, wines, lumber, dairy produce, and livestock. It may be safely said that, in the combined values of these products, California is the richest in the United States. Ships loaded with her grain at San Francisco Bay carry their precious cargoes to every port in the world; her fruits, packed in special cars and shipped by fast freight, are the first choice in Chicago and New York, and find a ready market in London; her wines have given a standard of excellence to American wines, and "American wines" means "California wines" the world over. The total value of all California's agricultural products, according to the census of 1900, was $131,690,606. The value of the output in 1906 reached the total of $213,000,000. The following table presents the total output of agricultural products in detail for the year 1906: Asparagus 23,000,000 pounds Almonds 4,200,000 pounds Apricots 585,000 pounds Apples 132,455,000 pounds Beans 125,000,000 pounds Barley 24,000,000 bushels Brandy 4,070,992 gallons Citrus Fruits 18,220,000 boxes Canned Fruits and Veg. 4,475,751 cases Corn 2,000,000 bushels Cherries 5,382,000 pounds Figs 45,000 pounds Grapes 73,224,000 pounds Hops 73,000 bales Hay 3,000,000 tonnes Lumber 900,000,000 feet Pears 54,390,000 pounds Peaches 21,015,000 pounds Plums 43,938,000 pounds Prunes 180,000,000 pounds Raisins 100,000,000 pounds Other Dried Fruit 41,000,000 pounds Olive Oil 51,000 gallons Potatoes 6,500,000 bushels Walnuts 12,800,000 pounds Wool 22,000,000 pounds Wheat 4,700,000 centals Wine 41,000,000 gallons The total annual output of fruit from California farms is $40,000,000, and this is made up of all known fruits that grow in temperate and semi-tropical climates. In the year 1906 there were 30,000,000 fruit trees in California; this figure does not include nuts, figs, olives, or berries. Six million of these fruit trees belong to Santa Clara Valley alone. The principal fruit trees are as follows: apple trees, 4,000,000; apricot trees, 3,500,000; cherry trees, 1,000,000; peach trees, 4,500,000; pear trees, 2,000,000; orange trees, 6,000,000; lemon trees, 2,000,000. There are 272,500 acres of land devoted to the cultivation of grapes: 250,000 for wine, and 22,500 for table grapes. The total value of the output in manufactures in 1900, according to the census, was $302,874,761. In 1906 it amounted to $400,000,000. The chief elements contributing to California's success in manufactures are an abundance of raw material from her soil, cheap fuel from her forests, and cheap power from her streams. The heaviest items of manufacture are sugar, lumber and timber products, flour, machinery, and leather goods. During 1906 the total output of sugar was 62,110 tons. The discovery of rich deposits of petroleum has given an impetus to manufactures that is already far-reaching in its results. In 1900 there were 12,582 manufacturing plants in California, representing a total investment of $205,395,025, and giving employment to 98,931 persons; the sum paid out for labour was $55,786,776, and for materials, $188,125,602. Mining is still one of the most important industries of California, notwithstanding that the flood of population first lured to her mountains by the discovery of gold has long ago been turned to agriculture and commerce. There are some forty-seven mineral substances now being mined in the State. The value of the total output in 1900 was $28,870,405. In 1906 it was over $54,000,000. Gold, petroleum, and copper are now the most valuable items of this output. In the same year there were 1,107 producing mines in the State. The value of the gold output was $19,700,000; silver, $2,460,000; copper, $3,750,000; quicksilver, $904,000; petroleum, $10,000,000. It is estimated that in the petroleum industry alone the total investment is more than $20,000,000; 35,000,000 barrels of oil were produced in 1906. There are also large and valuable deposits of brick and pottery clays, lime, asphaltum, bitumen, and iron ore. Twenty-two per cent of the area of the State is forest-clad, and the importance of the lumber industry in California increases each year as the mountains of the east and the north are denuded of their trees. California is the home of the redwood (Sequoia). These remarkable trees attain a height of three hundred feet in the famous groves of Big Trees in Mariposa and Calveras Counties. Redwood and pine are the two principle woods. It is estimated that, without the growth of another tree, the forests of California can not be exhausted for two hundred years. San Francisco alone sends 400,000,000 feet of lumber to the world each year. The total output of the State for 1906 was 900,000,000 feet. There are $16,000,000 invested in the industry, 250 mills, and the value of the total output, together with the by-products of the forests, is $17,000,000--the lumber itself amounting to $8,500,000. Throughout the splendid harbour of San Francisco passes by far the greatest part of the ocean commerce of California, as well as of the entire Pacific Coast. The harbours of the State now carry on an ocean commerce of about $100,000,000 per year, the precise figure for 1906 being: imports $49,193,303; exports $45,479,422. The total foreign commerce of the State for 1900 was $119,212,911, and in 1906 San Francisco was fourth among the cities of the United States in point of customs receipts. Besides the ocean commerce of California with every port of the world which passes through her harbours, she has direct communication by rail with every quarter of the United States. Four great transcontinental railroads carry her goods and passengers to and from her cities, and a fifth is now (1907) nearing completion. In 1900 the total railroad mileage of the State was 5,532. The educational system of the State commences with primary schools and continues through grammar schools and high schools, culminating in the State University. These are all public schools, being supported by the State and counties, and affording free education to all. The State Constitution creates the office of Superintendent of Public Instruction; it also provides for a superintendent of schools for each of the fifty-seven counties of the State. It makes provision for the maintenance of the public school system, and directs that the proceeds of all public lands and of all escheated estates shall be appropriated to the support of the common schools. The State University is situated at Berkeley on the Bay of San Francisco. It was created by act of the legislature on 23, March, 1868, and this act is confirmed by the present constitution (that of 1879), making the organization and government of the university perpetual. The university is designed for the education of male and female students alike, and in fact the principle of co-education is recognized and put in practice in nearly all state educational institutions. The total number of professors, including the various officers of instruction and research, in the University of California, for the year ending 30 June, 1906, was 318, as follows: academic, 252; art, 9; Lick Astronomical Observatory, 9; law, 6; medicine, 34; pharmacy, 8. The total number of students for the same period was 3,338, of whom 2,007 were men, and 1,331 women, the women being nearly 40 percent of the total enrollment. This percentage is far higher in the Colleges of Letters, Social Sciences, and Natural Sciences, in which, as an average, the women outnumber the men more than two to one. The College of Agriculture, as well as several other technological colleges, including the College of Mechanics, the College of Mining, the College of Commerce, the College of Civil Engineering, and the College of Chemistry, are designed to afford a complete technical training in their respective branches. The Affiliated Colleges of the University, being the schools of Law, Medicine, Pharmacy, and Dentistry, are situated in San Francisco; there are several experiment stations for which the university receives $15,000 annually from the Federal Government; and there is a State University Farm of 780 acres at Davisville. The university has been the recipient of munificent endowments both from the State and from private persons. In addition to these, and the proceeds of public land already mentioned, a direct tax of two cents on every $100 of taxable property in the State is levied, and applied to the support of the university. But four of the fifty-seven counties of the State have no high school, and some counties have several. There are also five normal schools, situated respectively at San Francisco, Los Angeles, San José, San Diego, and Chico. In addition to these there are night schools, technical schools, and commercial schools in all the large cities of the State. The public school system of the State was founded in the constitutional convention at Monterey, in September, 1849. The 500,000 acres of land granted by Congress to new States for the purpose of internal improvement were appropriated to constitute a perpetual school fund. It was also provided that a school should be kept in each district at least three months each year to secure any share of the State school funds. In the school year ending 30 June, 1906, there were 3,227 primary and grammar schools in the State, and 117 high schools. The total number of teachers in the public schools was 9,371; the total number of pupils, 321,870. The total number of pupils in private schools was 43,080. California has been more than lavish in her provision for her public school system. The total income of her public schools during the scholastic year 1905-06 was $11,494,670.29. The total value of public school property for the same year was $23,860,341. This does not include the State University. The total income of the State University for the same period was $1,564,190. The Leland Stanford Junior University is situated at Palo Alto. It was founded by Mr. and Mrs. Leland Stanford as a memorial to their only child. The total value of the endowments given to the university by its founders reaches the astonishing figure of $26,000,000. Like the University of California, it is co-educational, but the number of women students is limited to 500. The university was opened to students in 1891. The work of religious education in California is confined almost exclusively to institutions under Catholic auspices. In California the Catholic Church, notwithstanding that she receives no financial aid from the State, and that the support of her schools and colleges must be derived entirely from contributions of the faithful, has done great things in the cause of Christian education. The great pioneers of Catholic education in California were the Jesuits. In 1851 Santa Clara College was founded by the venerable Father John Nobili, S.J. This was followed, four years later, by the establishment of St. Ignatius College in San Francisco under the leadership of the Rev. Anthony Maraschi, S.J. From the days of these small beginnings the zeal of those charged with the education of Catholic youth has been untiring, progress has been steady, and the results already achieved have more than compensated for the sacrifices and expenditures which the work entailed. The following figures for the year 1907 will give some idea of the importance of Catholic education in California: 1 archdiocesan seminary, 5 seminaries of religious orders, 1 normal school, 11 colleges, academies and high schools for boys, 47 academies for girls, 73 parochial schools, 31,814 young people under Catholic care . Besides the institutions just mentioned there are numerous orphan asylums, industrial school, infant asylums, day homes and a protectory for boys to which is attached a boys' industrial farm at Rutherford. In addition to the colleges in charge of the Jesuits already mentioned, the Christian Brothers conduct Sacred Heart College in San Francisco, and St. Mary's College in Oakland. St. Vincent's College, in Los Angeles, is under the care of the Vincentian Fathers. There are several other universities and colleges, as well as numerous grammar, primary and secondary schools and kindergartens, under private management. The origin of the name California has been the subject of some conjecture; but certain it is that by the end of the sixteenth century it was applied to all the territory claimed by the Spanish Crown, bordering on the Pacific Ocean and lying north of Cape San Lucas. In a much later day it came to designate, under the familiar phrase, "The Two Californias", the territory now included in the State of California, and the Peninsula of Lower California. After Florida, California is the oldest name of any of the United States. The land was discovered by the Spaniards--Lower California by Cortez who visited the peninsula in 1533; and Alta or Upper California by Cabrillo, in 1542. Lower California had been evangelized by the Jesuits who established eighteen missions between 1697 and 1767. Upon the expulsion of the Jesuits in the latter year, the care of the missions and the conversion of the Indians in the Spanish settlements were entrusted to the Franciscans. To them therefore belongs the honour of founding the great mission system of California proper. The leader of this gigantic work was the renowned Father Junípero Serra, and his first settlement in California was the mission of San Diego, which he established in July, 1769. San Francisco was founded in 1776. For fifteen years the saintly man laboured in California with apostolic zeal, and at the time of his death in 1784, he established nine missions between San Diego and San Francisco. The total number of missions founded in California by the Franciscans was twenty-one, and they extended from Sonoma in the north to San Diego in the south. Prominent among them were Santa Clara, San Luis, Obispo, Santa Barbara, and San Juan Capistrano. The missions were all established under the sovereignty of the King of Spain; each mission had its church, a residence for the fathers, a presidio, or military guard, and shops and workrooms for the Indians, who, besides receiving instruction in the Faith, were taught the useful arts of civilization. (See CALIFORNIA MISSIONS.) Each mission was established in conjunction with a Spanish settlement under a civil governor, and during this period, the immigration was almost exclusively Spanish and Mexican. In 1822 California ceased to be a Spanish colony and became part of the territory of Mexico. From that date begins the decline of the missions; the policy of the government became one of annoyance, interference, and aggression. Finally, in 1834, began the secularization of the missions, which was in fact their downright confiscation. The Fathers were deprived of their lands and buildings; and the Indians freed from the benevolent government of the friars. The results were disastrous. The Indians were scattered and dispersed, and many of them lapsed into barbarism. The missions themselves were destroyed. This confiscation forms one of the saddest injustices in history. The temporal wrongs done at this time were partially righted in 1902 by the award of the International Tribunal of Arbitration at The Hague, in the case of the Pious Fund, which adjudged the payment by Mexico to the United States for the Catholic Church in California, of the accrued interest of the Fund. When taken over by President Santa Anna in 1842, the total value of the Pious Fund estates was estimated at $1,700,000. In 1826 the first emigrant train of Americans entered the present territory of California. From that year onward there was a gradual influx of Americans, most of whom engaged in trading, hunting, prospecting, cattle-raising, and farming. As the American population increased there were frequent misunderstandings and clashes with the Mexican authorities, some of them not altogether creditable to the Americans. Commodore Jones made an unauthorized seizure of Monterey in 1842. The United States Government subsequently disavowed his acts and made apologies to Mexico. In 1846 a party of Americans seized Sonoma, captured the commandant, and proclaimed the independence of the Republic of California. The young republic chose the Bear Flag as its emblem. In a few weeks news was received of hostilities between the United States and Mexico; the Bear Flag gave place to the American Flag; and Monterey, San Francisco, Sonoma, and Sutter's Fort were soon in the hands of the Americans. California was finally ceded to the United States, on the conclusion of the war with Mexico, by the Treaty of Guadeloupe Hidalgo, proclaimed 4 July, 1848. In January, 1848, gold was discovered by James W. Coloma, on the American River. The news spread like wildfire, and by the early part of 1849 a mighty tide of immigration had set in. The gold-seekers came from every section of the United States, and from Europe. In that year more than 80,000 men arrived in California. These men were afterwards called the "Forty-niners". Some of them came from Australia; some, from New York and Europe by way of Cape Horn; some crossed the Isthmus of Panama; while a large number came across the plains in caravans, on horseback, and even on foot. Fortune awaited thousands of these pioneers in the rich placer mines, and California became the richest gold-producing State in the United States. But thousands of those who were unsuccessful in their quest for gold, found even greater and more lasting wealth in tilling the rich soil and engaging in commerce. After the excitement caused by the discovery of gold had subsided, a steady stream of immigration began, and continues to the present time. The foreign immigrants have been chiefly Irish, German, English, Canadian, Italian, and French, though there are also considerable numbers of Portuguese and Swedes. As shown in the tables already presented, more than seventy five percent of the total population in 1900 was native-born. So rapid was the growth of population after the discovery of gold, that in 1849 a constitution was adopted by the convention at Monterey, and California was admitted into the Union of States by Act of Congress on 9 September, 1850. That day has ever since been a legal holiday, and is generally celebrated and referred to as Admission Day. Peter H. Burnett was elected first governor of the new state and served during 1851 and 1852. All sorts of men found their way into the new El Dorado, as it was called. Most of them were hardy, industrious, and honest--these were the true pioneers. But there was a considerable admixture of the reckless and daredevil element, criminals and desperadoes, who sought fortune and adventure in the new gold diggings. In 1851 there was a veritable carnival of crime in San Francisco which the lawfully constituted authorities were unable to suppress. The citizens of the city organized themselves into a Vigilance Committee and punished crimes and criminals in summary fashion. The members of the committee were known as "Vigilantes", and were for the most part honest and reputable men, who resorted to these measures only from motives of necessity and duty, in the disturbed condition of the government. A similar condition arose again in 1856 and was met by the same remedy. It must be said that the trials of the Vigilance Committee, while informal, were in the main fair, and the punishments inflicted richly deserved. Large numbers of Chinese coolies had emigrated to California ever since 1850; the influx was greatest during the building of the Central Pacific Railroad which was completed in 1869. A strong anti-Chinese sentiment developed, due chiefly to three principal objections made against them: they worked for wages much lower than white men; they spent little of their earnings; they rarely established homes, but lived together in large numbers and in unclean surroundings. The agitation grew to tremendous proportions, provoked serious riots, and finally resulted in the so-called Chinese exclusion acts which have been enacted periodically by Congress since 1882. There were at one time over 100,000 Chinese in California. In 1900 the number had decreased to 45,753; and it is now (1907) much smaller. In 1891 the Australian Ballot was introduced at State elections. Among other important political events of the last twenty-five years was the prohibition of hydraulic mining, which had destroyed immense areas for agriculture and had choked up river beds with the accumulation of detritus; also the passage of numerous beneficial laws for the promotion of irrigation, for the fumigation of fruit trees, and for the importation of predatory insects for the purpose of destroying insect pests. The present constitution of California was adopted in 1879. During the Spanish-American War and the subsequent American occupation of the Philippines, San Francisco has been the chief depot for the transportation of troops and supplies. On 18 April, 1906, one of the greatest earthquakes recorded in history visited the coast of California; it was most severe in San Francisco. Fire started simultaneously in a dozen quarters and burned incessantly for three days. All but the western and southern parts of the city were consumed. The city, as a city, was destroyed. The loss of life is estimated at 500, and of property at $500,000,000. More than 300,000 people left the city after the fire. Over 200,000 of these have returned, and incredible strides have been made in rehabilitating the city. Nearly $200,000,000 have been expended (December, 1907) on improvements in the 497 city blocks that were destroyed. The territory of the State of California is divided, ecclesiastically, into the Archdiocese of San Francisco, the Diocese of Monterey and Los Angeles, and the Diocese of Sacramento. The first includes the city of San Francisco and the central and more westerly counties of the State. The second includes all of Southern California. The third embraces the entire northern part of the State, as well as nearly half of the State of Nevada. With the exception of the Diocese of Sacramento, their boundaries are conterminous with those of the State. The Diocese of Salt Lake, in Utah, and the Dioceses of Sacramento and of Monterey and Los Angeles are suffragan to the Archdiocese of San Francisco. The Catholic population of California is estimated at 344,000 (1906), made up as follows: Archdiocese of San Francisco, 227,000; Diocese of Sacramento, 42,000; Diocese of Monterey and Los Angeles, 75,000. By far the greater portion of these are white, the total of blacks, Indians, and Chinese being less than five percent. From 1769, the year which saw the foundation of San Diego, until the second expedition of Fremont (1846), the settlers and immigrants were chiefly Catholic, being natives of Spain and Mexico. The discovery of gold in 1848 was immediately followed by an inrush of thousands of immigrants. These gold-seekers were mostly Americans, but there was also a large proportion of foreigners. From that time until the present, the immigration has been steadily on the increase, the Catholic part of it being chiefly Irish, Irish-American, Italian, French, and German. The first governor of California, Peter H. Burnett, was a convert to the Catholic Faith. Stephen M. White, who represented California in the Senate of the United States, was one of the first graduates of the Jesuit college at Santa Clara. He was an astute lawyer, a brilliant orator, and a tireless worker. E. W. McKinstry, like Judge Burnett, was a convert to the Faith; and like him, also, was a member of the Supreme Bench. Judge McKinstry was a man of deep erudition, a fine constitutional lawyer, and an exemplary Catholic. W. G. Lorigan, a Catholic, was also chosen to the Supreme Bench. Joseph McKenna, another California Catholic, became a Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States (1898), and James F. Smith, General in the United States Army, Member of the Philippine Commission, and Governor-General of the Philippine Islands, is another alumnus of Santa Clara College. Garret W. McEnerney, one of the leaders of the California Bar, who won international fame by his masterful presentation of the claims of the Catholic Church in California to the Pious Fund (q.v.) before the Tribunal Arbitration at The Hague in 1902, graduated at St. Mary's College. The following statistics of the Catholic Church in California are taken from the Catholic Directory for 1907: archbishop, 1; bishops, 2; total priests, 488; secular, 321; religious, 167; total churches, 366; churches with resident priests, 209; missions with churches, 157; stations, 119; seminary, 1; seminaries of religious orders, 5; colleges and academies for boys, 11; academies for young ladies, 47; parishes with parochial schools, 73; orphan asylums, 12; total young people under Catholic care, 31,814; Catholic population, 344,000. There are houses or monasteries of Jesuits, Dominicans, Franciscans, Paulists, Marists, Selesians, Christian Brothers, and Brothers of Mary. The Catholic sisterhoods are almost all represented. The total number of churches was 1505; total value of church property, $11,961,914; total number of communicants, 280,619. Of course, these figures have been greatly increased since that time. Catholics do not recognize any such enumeration as "communicants"; the total for this head therefore underestimates the Catholic population. |Denomination||Organization||Churches||Value of church property||Number of communicants| The constitutional provision safeguarding religious freedom is ample and specific. It reads as follows: "The free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship, without discrimination or preference, shall be forever guaranteed by this State; and no person shall be rendered incompetent to be a witness or juror on account of his opinions on matters of religious belief; but the liberty of conscience hereby secured shall not be so construed as to excuse acts of licentiousness, or justify practices inconsistent with the peace or safety of this State." The Constitution prohibits the appropriation of money from the State treasury for the use or benefit of any corporation, association, asylum, hospital, or any other institution not under the exclusive management and control of the State as a State institution. But there is, nevertheless, a proviso authorizing the granting of State aid to institutions conducted for the support of maintenance of "minor orphans, or half-orphans, or abandoned children, or aged persons in indigent circumstances". The Constitution also expressly prohibits the appropriation of money in support of any sectarian creed, church, or school. The policy of the State is to afford the fullest measure of religious liberty to all, to discriminate in favour of, or against, no one on account of religious belief, and not to permit the power or resources of the State to be used for the propagation of any form of religion or for the benefit of any religious institution. Every Sunday is by express legislative enactment a legal holiday (Civil Code, 7); on that day all courts are closed, and business is universally suspended. Any act required by law or contract to be done or performed on a particular day which happens to fall on a Sunday, may be done or performed on the next day with full legal effect. But there is no law compelling the religious observance of Sunday, and contracts, deeds, wills, notes, etc. executed on Sunday are just as valid as if executed on any other day. But, while there is no Sunday Law, properly so-called, there is an act of the legislature passed 27 February, 1893, securing to all employees one day's rest in seven, and making it a misdemeanor to violate the provisions of the act. The Code of Civil Procedure provides that "every court, every judge or clerk of any court, every justice and every notary public, and every officer or person authorized to take testimony in any action or proceeding, or to decide upon evidence, has power to administer oaths or affirmations". Any person who desires it may, at his option, instead of taking an oath, make his affirmation. The Bible is not used in administering oaths; in judicial proceedings, the witness raises his right hand and the clerk or judge swears him "to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth, so help you God". To make a willfully false statement after having taken an oath or affirmation, before an officer authorized to administer it, to testify to the truth, is perjury, a felony punishable by imprisonment in the State's prison for from one to fourteen years. The Penal Code makes it a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine of $200 or imprisonment for ninety days, to utter profane language in the presence or hearing of women and children (Penal Code, sect. 415). The Supreme Court of the State, in the case of Delaney, ex parte, California Reports, Vol. XLIII, page 478, has held it to be within the power of a municipal corporation empowered by its charter to prohibit practices which are against good morals, to prohibit and punish the utterance of profane language. The entire matter of profane language is generally left to the control of the local authorities, and most of the counties and cities have ordinances prohibiting and punishing it. It is customary to open the sessions of the legislature with prayer, though there is no provision of law either requiring or prohibiting the practice. There is no recognition of any religious holidays, by name, except Sunday. New Years' Day and Christmas are both holidays, but they are described in the Civil Code merely as "the first day of January. . .and the twenty-fifth day of December". It must be said that the same rule is observed in the Code in referring to the other legal holidays. Washington's Birthday, Memorial Day, Independence Day, etc. are simply the twenty-second day of February, the thirtieth day of May, the fourth day of July, etc. The seal of confession has the full sanction and protection of the law. It occupies the same position in the eyes of the law as communications made to attorneys and physicians in their professional capacities. It is the policy of the law to encourage these confidential or privileged communications, as they are called, and to keep them inviolate. Section 1881 of the Code of Civil Procedure provides that a priest cannot be examined as to any confession made to him, as such, by a penitent. The laws governing the incorporation of churches, and religious societies and providing for the protection and management of church property are both beneficent and effective. The Civil Code (section 602) provides that any bishop, chief priest, or presiding elder, may become a sole corporation by complying with certain simple legal formalities. Thereafter, the usual attributes of corporation aggregate attach, mutatis mutandis, to the corporation sole. Under this statute all Catholic Church property in the Archdiocese of San Francisco is held in the name of "The Roman Catholic Archbishop of San Francisco", a corporation sole. Upon the death of the incumbent, his successor, properly appointed and qualified, takes the place of his predecessor, and no probate or other proceedings are required to vest the title to the church property which, in contemplation of law, remains always in the corporation sole, regardless of who may be, for the time being, the incumbent. In addition to the laws governing corporations sole, there are very liberal statutes authorizing the incorporation of single churches, as well as of religious, charitable, and educational associations, and the holding of property by such corporations; also authorizing the consolidation of two or more churches or parishes into one corporation. Under the law of California, therefore, the property interests of the church are jealously safeguarded, and she is free to hold her church property in either of the methods above pointed out. Prior to the year 1900, California stood alone among the States of the Union in taxing church property in the same manner and at the same rate as business or residence property. On 6 November, 1900, the people of the State adopted an amendment to the Constitution, providing that "all buildings, and so much of the real property on which they are situated as may be required for the convenient use and occupation of said buildings, when the same are used solely and exclusively for religious worship, shall be free from taxation". The residences of the clergy, the hospitals, orphanages, refuges, asylums, and all other institutions which are devoted to charitable or eleemosynary objects, but which are not used "solely and exclusively for religious worship", are still subject to taxation as before. The law exempts "ministers of religion" from military duty; and "a minister of the gospel, or a priest of any denomination following his profession" is exempt from jury duty. The Civil Code defines marriage as "a personal relation arising out of a civil contract, to which the consent of parties capable of making that contract is necessary. Consent alone will not constitute marriage; it must be followed by a solemnization authorized by this code" (55). This section of the code formerly permitted "a mutual assumption of marital rights, duties or obligations" to take the place of a solemnization. In other words, the so-called common-law marriages were permitted, and their validity upheld, by the laws of the State. But the difficulty of determining just what constituted "a mutual assumption of marital rights, duties or obligations", and the numerous and scandalous cases of intrigue, temporary or illicit relations, hasty, ill-advised, and clandestine unions, with their consequent perplexing questions of legitimacy, succession, property rights, and the status of the parties themselves, convinced the leading minds of California that the position of the Catholic Church on the necessity of the public safeguards with which she protects the marriage ceremony, is the only wise and safe one. Accordingly, in 1895, the legislature amended the law, and made it necessary that the consent of the parties to the marriage be evidenced by a solemnization of the marriage. No particular form of solemnization is required, but the parties must declare in the presence of the person solemnizing the marriage that they take each other as husband and wife. Marriages may be solemnized by a priest, or a minister of any denomination, or by a justice or judge of any court. A license must first be obtained, and the person solemnizing the marriage must attach his written certificate to the license, certifying to the fact, the time, and the place of, and the names and residences of the parties and the witnesses to, the marriage. The license and certificate must then be recorded with the County Recorder. Under these stringent rules little or no difficulty is found in proving a marriage; and all relations between the sexes are simply meretricious unless the parties avail themselves of the legal requirements of solemnization of marriage. There is a charitable provision of the law, designed for the benefit of innocent offspring, to the effect that all children of a marriage void in law or dissolved by divorce are legitimate. The age of consent to marriage is eighteen in males and fifteen in females; but if the male be under the age of twenty-one, or the female under the age of eighteen, the consent of parents or guardian must first be obtained. The law of the State forbids and makes absolutely void marriages: (1) Between whites and negroes, mongolians, or mulattoes; (2) Between ancestors and descendants, brothers and sisters, uncles and nieces, aunts and nephews (marriages between cousins are permitted); (3) If either party be already married, for one year after the entry of an interlocutory decree of divorce. The annulment of marriages is provided for in certain cases; such marriages are considered voidable and may be annulled for any of the following causes: (1) If, at the time of the marriage, either party be under the age of consent, and the consent of parents or guardian be not obtained; (2) If either party be of unsound mind at the time of the marriage; (3) If consent of the marriage be obtained by fraud; or (4) By force, or (5) If either party be physically incapable of entering into the marriage state. The annulment of marriage must carefully be distinguished from divorce. The latter implies the existence of a perfectly valid marriage. The former affords relief to the injured party, who may either ratify the marriage, and thus make it valid from the beginning, or have it set aside and declared void from the beginning. The principle of divorce is recognized by the law of California, which assigns six grounds of divorce: adultery, extreme cruelty, willful desertion, willful neglect (failure to provide), habitual intemperance, and conviction of a felony. Notwithstanding that a cause for divorce be proved to exist, the divorce must be denied upon proof of any of the following: connivance, collusion, condonation, recrimination (proof of a cause of divorce against the plaintiff), or lapse of time. To prevent fraudulent and secret divorces, as well as the promiscuous granting of divorces, the law requires a bona fide residence by the plaintiff for one year in the State, and for three months in the county, before filing suit. Upon dissolution of the marriage by divorce, the Superior Court has jurisdiction to award the care and custody of the children to the innocent party, or to make such other provision for their care and custody as the best interests of the children, both moral and material, may require; and this disposition may be altered from time to time in the discretion of the Court. In 1903 the law on the subject of divorce was amended. Since that year, upon proof by the plaintiff of a cause for divorce, an interlocutory decree of divorce is granted. This decree entitles the successful party to a final decree of divorce upon the expiration of one year after the entry of the interlocutory decree. This change in the law prevents the remarriage of either of the parties until the expiration of one year from the entry of the interlocutory decree. As previously explained, the Church receives no financial aid from the State towards the religious education of her children, and here, as elsewhere, Catholics are taxed for the support of public schools, as well as charged with the duty of maintaining schools of their own. Here also, as elsewhere, the effects of the public school system of non-religous education emphasize the necessity of providing for Catholic youth a complete system of education that includes, with the best profane scholarship, a sound moral and religious training. The need is especially felt in the university courses, whose systems of philosophy, if not positively anti-Christian, are certainly not calculated to foster belief in a personal God, or to strengthen faith in a Divine revelation. There are liberal statutes in force, permitting and encouraging the foundation and maintenance of private institutions of learning, and the only interference permitted the State authorities concerns the supervision of sanitary arrangements, and the prescribing of such standards of scholarship as will entitle graduates to admission to the State University without examination. There are also liberal statutes authorizing the incorporation of religious, social, benevolent, or charitable organizations. Such corporations may make and enforce rules for the government of themselves and their institutions, and may purchase and hold such real property as may be necessary for the objects of the association, not exceeding six whole lots in any city or town, or fifty acres in the country, and the annual profit or income of such land must not exceed $50,000. Orphan asylums, however, maintaining at least 100 orphans are permitted to purchase and hold 160 acres of land, of a net annual value of not more than $50,000. These provisions, it must be remembered, do not limit the power of purely religious corporations, whether sole or aggregate, to purchase and hold such lands as may be necessary for their churches, hospitals, schools, colleges, orphan asylums, and parsonages, under statutes previously discussed. The State Constitution prohibits the appropriating of public money "for the support of any sectarian or denominational school, or any school not under the exclusive control of the officers of the public schools"; it also provides that no "sectarian or denominational be taught, or instruction thereon be permitted, directly or indirectly, in any of the common schools of the State". Under another constitutional provision already discussed, the legislature passed a law in 1880 appropriating annually to every institution maintaining orphans the sum of $100 for each orphan, and $75 for each half orphan. In 1903 the legislature created a State Board of Charities and Correction, consisting of six members appointed by the governor. This board has a supervisory jurisdiction over all charitable, correctional, and penal institutions, including hospitals for the insane. There is no State law forbidding the sale of liquor to citizens generally. But it is forbidden: to bring intoxicating liquor to a prison, jail, or reformatory; or to sell, give, or expose it for sale within half a mile to a State prison, or within 1,900 feet of a reformatory, or within one mile of the University of California at Berkeley, or within one an one-half miles of any veteran's home, or within the State Capitol, or on the grounds adjacent thereto; or at a camp meeting; or to a common or habitual drunkard; or to an Indian; or to a minor under the age of eighteen years; or within one mile of an insane asylum. It is forbidden to permit a minor under the age of eighteen years to enter a saloon; and it is also forbidden to give or sell intoxicating liquor to anyone on election day. Beyond these provisions, the general law leaves the control of the sale of liquor entirely to local authority. Each county, city, and town is free to regulate the liquor traffic to suit the wishes of its citizens. There are two State prisons, situated respectively at San Quentin and Folsom. These prisons, under the Constitution, are subject to the direct control of the State Board of Prison Directors, consisting of five members appointed by the governor. The prisoners are kept at work, in the rock-crushing plant, in making grain bags, in building roads, etc. Priests and ministers are free to visit the prisoners and conduct religious services for their benefit. There are two State reformatories for juvenile offenders--the Preston School of Industry at Ione City, and the Whittier State School, at Whittier. Each is governed by its own board of trustees, and is entirely independent of the Board of Prison Directors. There is also a juvenile court charged with the control and punishment of juvenile dependents and delinquents. A large discretion is vested with the judge of this court and much good has been accomplished since its creation in keeping children of Catholic parentage under the care and influence of conscientious Catholic officers. In California every person of sound mind who has reached the age of eighteen years may dispose of his entire estate by will, subject to the payment of his debts and expenses of administration. Such part of a decedent's estate as is not disposed of by will is distributed according to the statutes of succession. The estates of such persons as die without wills and without heirs escheat to the State. The phrase "expenses of administration" includes funeral expenses of the deceased, expenses of his last illness, and provision for the support of his family, including the homestead, family allowance, and setting apart property exempt from execution. No person is permitted to dispose by will of more than one-third of the value of his estate to charitable uses. A will attempting to dispose of a greater proportion to charity would not be absolutely void, but all the charitable bequests and devises would be reduced proportionately so that their total value would not exceed one third. Moreover, every charitable bequest and devise is absolutely void unless it be made at least thirty days prior to the testator's death. A bequest or devise to a church as such, or to a college, orphan asylum, missionary society, hospital, or home for the aged would be for a charitable use under this provision. But not so a devise or bequest to a priest or bishop by name, and in his individual capacity. It has also been held that a bequest to a priest for Masses to be offered for the repose of the soul of the deceased, is not a charitable bequest. Cemeteries may be purchased, held, and owned under the liberal statutes for the ownership of church property, already explained. Or, they may be purchased, held, and owned by cemetery corporations formed under a general law, by which their land holdings are limited to 320 acres situated in the county in which their articles of incorporation are filed, or in an adjoining county. The law provides for the survey and subdivision of such lands into lots or plots, avenues or walks, and for the government of such corporations, as well as the sale and tenure of burial plots. CLINCH, California and Its Missions (San Francisco, 1904); JAMES, In and Out of the Old Missions (Boston, 1906); JACKSON, California and the Missions (Boston, 1903); BURNETT, Recollections of an Old Pioneer; EDWORDS, California Annual (San Francisco, 1907); U. S. Census of 1900 (Washington); U. S. Census of 1890 (Washington); SWETT, History of the Public School System of California (San Francisco, 1876); Catholic Directory for 1907 (Milwaukee); Twenty-second Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (Sacramento, 1906); University of California Register (Berkeley, 1907); BABCOCK, History of California (Sacramento, 1907); TREADWELL, Constitution of California (San Francisco, 1907); Civil Code, Code of Civil Procedure, Political Code, Penal Code (San Francisco, 1906). APA citation. (1908). California. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03170a.htm MLA citation. "California." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03170a.htm>. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Matthew and Therese Reak. Dedicated to my friends, the Ottles. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. November 1, 1908. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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Battle of the Boyne The Battle of the Boyne was a turning point in the Williamite war in Ireland, between the deposed King James VII of Scotland and II of England and his son-in-law and successor, William III ("William of Orange"), for the English, Scottish, and Irish thrones. It took place on July 1, 1690 (Old Style date), just outside of the town of Drogheda on Ireland's east coast. As a consequence of the adoption of the Gregorian calendar, the battle is now commemorated on July 12. Though not militarily decisive, its symbolic importance has made it one of the most infamous battles in British and Irish history and a key part in Irish Protestant folklore. It is still commemorated today, principally by the Orange Order. Irish Protestants have cast the battle as one between William the representative of Christ and the forces of darkness. Their victory meant that the Protestants had "won" Ireland, and it justified their ascendancy. King William's victory was followed by systematic efforts to Protestantize Ireland with Protestant settlers and legal restrictions on the rights of Catholics. However, this was but a chapter in a continuing process of what was called the "pacification" of Ireland, beginning with Pope Adrian IV's bull that granted Ireland to England and Henry II's invasion of 1171. This process led to the establishment of a Protestant majority in the province of Ulster, most of which became Northern Ireland in 1921, and where conflict between Catholic and Protestants, known as the "troubles," led to British military intervention in between 1969 and 1997. A sectarian battle The battle of the Boyne was the decisive encounter in a war that was primarily about James's attempt to regain the thrones of England and Scotland, but is widely remembered as a decisive moment in the struggle between Protestant and Catholic factions in Ireland. However, recent analyses have played down the religious aspect of the conflict. In fact, both armies were religiously mixed, and William of Orange's own elite force—the Dutch Blue Guards—had the papal banner with them on the day, many of the Guardsmen being Dutch Catholics. They were part of the League of Augsburg, a cross-Christian alliance designed to stop a French conquest of Europe, supported by the Vatican. The war in Ireland was also the beginning of a long-running but ultimately unsuccessful campaign by James's supporters, the Jacobites, to restore the Stuart dynasty rule to the British thrones. While most Jacobites in Ireland were indeed Catholics, many English and Scottish Jacobites were Protestants and were motivated by loyalty to the principle of monarchy (considering James to have been illegally deposed in a coup) or to the Stuart dynasty in particular, rather than by religion. A handful of British Jacobites fought with James at the Boyne. In addition, some of the French regiments fighting with the Jacobites at the Boyne were composed of German Protestants. In a European context, therefore, the battle was not a religiously motivated one, but part of a complicated political, dynastic, and strategic conflict. In an Irish context, however, the war was a sectarian and ethnic conflict, in many ways a re-run of the Irish Confederate Wars of 50 years earlier. For Irish Jacobites, the war was fought for Irish sovereignty, religious toleration for Catholicism, and land ownership. The Irish Catholic upper classes had lost almost all their lands after Cromwell's conquest and had also lost the right to hold public office, practice their religion, and to sit in the Irish Parliament. They saw the reign of the Catholic King James as a means of redressing these grievances and to secure the autonomy of Ireland from the English Parliament. To these ends, under Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell they had raised an army to restore James to his throne after the Glorious Revolution. By 1690, they controlled all of Ireland except for the Northern province of Ulster. Most of James II's troops at the Boyne were Irish Catholics. Conversely, for Williamites in Ireland, the war was about maintaining Protestant and British rule in Ireland. The Irish Williamites were mainly Protestant settlers from England and Scotland who had come to the country during the Plantations of Ireland. They were a majority in the northern province of Ulster. They feared for both their lives and their property if James and his Catholic supporters were allowed to rule Ireland. In particular, they feared a repeat of the Irish Rebellion of 1641, when there had been widespread massacres of Protestants. For these reasons, the Protestant settler community fought en masse for William III. Many of the Williamite troops at the Boyne, including their very effective irregular cavalry, were Protestants from Ulster, who called themselves "Eniskilleners" and were referred to by contemporaries as "Scotch-Irish." The competing sides The opposing armies in the battle were led by the Roman Catholic King James of England, Scotland and Ireland and opposing him, his son-in-law the Protestant William III ("William of Orange"), who had deposed James from his English and Scottish thrones in the previous year. James' supporters still controlled much of Ireland and the Irish Parliament. James also enjoyed the support of the French King, Louis XIV, who did not want to see a hostile monarch, such as William, on the throne of England. To support James' restoration, Louis sent 6000 French troops to Ireland to support the Irish Jacobites. William was already Stadtholder of the Netherlands and was able to call on Dutch and allied troops from continental Europe as well as from Great Britain. James was a seasoned general who had proven his bravery when fighting for his brother—King Charles II—in Europe, notably at the battle of the Dunes in 1658. However, recent historians have noted that he was prone to panicking under pressure and to making rash decisions. William was also a seasoned commander and able general but had yet to win a full battle. Many of his battles ended in bloody stalemates, prompting at least one modern historian to argue that William lacked an ability to manage armies in the thick of battle. William's success against the French had been reliant upon tactical maneuvers and good diplomacy rather than force. His diplomacy had assembled the League of Augsburg—a multi-national coalition formed to resist French aggression in Europe. From William's point of view, his takeover of power in England and the ensuing campaign in Ireland was just another front in the war against Louis XIV of France. James II's subordinate commanders were Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell, who was the Lord Deputy of Ireland and James's most powerful supporter in that country; and the French general Lauzun. William's second in command was the Frederick Schomberg, 1st Duke of Schomberg, a 75 year old professional soldier. He had formerly been a Marshal of France, but had been expelled in 1685, from his native country by Louis XIV because he was a Huguenot Protestant. The Williamite army at the Boyne was about 36,000 strong, composed of troops from many countries. Around 20,000 had been in Ireland since 1689, commanded by Schomberg. William himself arrived with 16,000 more in June 1690. William's troops were in general far better trained and equipped than were those of James. The best Williamite infantry were from Denmark and the Netherlands, professional soldiers equipped with the latest flintlock muskets. There were also a large contingent of French Huguenot troops fighting with the Williamites. William did not have a high opinion of his British troops, with the exception of the Ulster Protestant irregulars who had held Ulster in the previous year. The English and Scottish troops were felt to be politically unreliable, since James had been their legitimate monarch up to a year before. Moreover, they had only been raised recently and had seen little combat. The Jacobites were 23,500 strong. James had several regiments of French troops, but most of his manpower was provided by Irish Catholics. The Jacobite's Irish cavalry, who were raised from among the dispossessed Irish gentry, proved themselves to be high caliber troops at the battle. However, the Irish infantry, predominantly peasants who had been pressed into service, were not trained soldiers. They had been hastily trained, badly supplied, and only a minority of them had functional muskets. In fact, some of them at the Boyne carried only farm implements, such as scythes. On top of that, the Jacobite infantry who had firearms were all equipped with the obsolete matchlock musket. William had landed in Carrickfergus in Ulster on June 14, 1690, and marched south to take Dublin. It has been argued that the Jacobites should have tried to block this advance in rugged country around Newry, on the present day Irish border. However, James only fought a delaying action there and chose instead to place his line of defense on the Boyne river, around 50 km from Dublin. The Williamites reached the Boyne on June 29. The day before the battle, William himself had a narrow escape, when he was wounded by Jacobite artillery while surveying the fords over which his troops would cross the river. The battle itself was fought on July 1, over a ford of the Boyne at Oldbridge, near Drogheda. William sent about a quarter of his men to cross at a place called Roughgrange, near Slane, about 10 km from Oldbridge. The Duke of Schomberg's son, Meinhardt Schomberg, later the 3rd Duke led this crossing, which was unsuccessfully opposed by Irish dragoons. James panicked when he saw that he might be outflanked and sent half his troops, along with most of his cannon to counter this move. What neither side had realized was that there was a deep ravine at Roughgrange, so that the forces there could not engage each other, but literally sat out the battle. The Williamites there went on a long detour march which, late in the day, almost saw them cut off the Jacobite retreat at the village of Naul. At the main ford at Oldbridge, William's infantry led by the elite Dutch Blue Guards forced their way across the river, using their superior firepower to slowly drive back the enemy foot-soldiers, but were pinned down by the counter-attacks of the Jacobite cavalry. Having secured the village of Oldbridge, some Williamite infantry held off successive cavalry attacks with disciplined volley fire while others were driven into the river. William's second in command, the Duke of Schomberg, and George Walker (1645-1690) were killed in this phase of the battle. The Williamites were not able to resume their advance until their own horsemen managed to cross the river and, after being badly mauled, held off the Jacobite cavalry, who retired and regrouped at Donore, where they once again put up stiff resistance before retiring. The Jacobites retired in good order. William had a chance to trap the retreating Jacobites as they crossed the river Nanny at Duleek, but was held up by a successful Jacobite rear-guard. The casualty figure of the battle was quite low for a battle of such a scale—of the 50,000 or so participants, about 2,000 died, three quarters of whom were Jacobites. The reason for the low death toll was that in contemporary warfare, most of the casualties tended to be inflicted in the pursuit of an already-beaten enemy. This did not happen at the Boyne because the counter-attacks of the Jacobite cavalry screened the retreat of the rest of their army. The Jacobites were badly demoralized by their defeat, however, and many of the Irish infantrymen deserted. The Williamites triumphantly marched into Dublin two days after the battle. The Jacobite army abandoned the city and marched to Limerick, behind the river Shannon, where they were besieged. James left so quickly that he outpaced the messenger that was sent to warn Limerick of the defeat. After his defeat, James quickly returned to exile in France, even though his army left the field relatively unscathed. James's loss of nerve and speedy exit from the battlefield enraged his Irish supporters, who fought on until the Treaty of Limerick in 1691. The battle was overshadowed in its time in Great Britain by the destruction of the Anglo-Dutch fleet by the French two days later, off Beachy Head, a far more serious event in the short term; only on the Continent was the Boyne treated as a major victory. The reason for this was that it was the first proper victory for the League of Augsburg, the first ever alliance between Catholic and Protestant countries, and in achieving this William of Orange and Pope Alexander VIII (its prime movers) scotched the myth—particularly emanating from Sweden—that such an alliance was blasphemous, resulting in more joining the alliance and in effect ending the very real danger of a French conquest of Europe. The Boyne was not without strategic significance on both Great Britain and Ireland, however. It marked the end of James's hope of regaining his throne by military means and virtually assured the triumph of the Glorious Revolution. In Scotland, news of this defeat led to the Highlanders gradually abandoning the Jacobite Rising which Bonnie Dundee had led. In Ireland, the Boyne was the beginning of the Williamite victory over the Jacobites, which maintained British and Protestant dominance over the country. For this reason, the Boyne is still celebrated by the Protestant Orange Order on the twelfth of July. Commemoration of the battle Originally, Irish Protestants commemorated the Battle of Aughrim on the July 12, as symbolizing their victory in the Williamite war in Ireland. At Aughrim, which took place a year after the Boyne, virtually all of the old native Irish Catholic and Old English aristocracies plantations under Elizabeth I and Oliver Cromwell) were wiped out. The Boyne, which in the old Julian calendar, took place on July 1, was treated as less important, third in commemorative value after Aughrim and the anniversary of the Irish Rebellion of 1641 on October 23. What was celebrated on the twelfth was not William's "victory over popery at the Battle of the Boyne," but the extermination of the elite of the native Irish at Aughrim, thereby ending the fear of having to surrender the planted lands. In 1752, a new Gregorian calendar was introduced to the United Kingdom, which placed the Boyne on July 12, instead of Aughrim. However, even after this date, "The Twelfth" still commemorated Aughrim. But after the Orange Order was founded in 1795, amid sectarian violence in Armagh, the focus of parades on July 12, switched to the battle of the Boyne. Usually the dates before the introduction of the calendar on September 14, 1752, are mapped in English language histories directly onto the Julian dates without shifting them by 11 days. Being suspicious of anything with papist connotations, however, rather than shift the anniversary of the Boyne to the new July 1, or celebrate the new anniversary of Aughrim, the Orangemen continued to march on the July 12, which, in New Style dates marked the battle of the Boyne. Despite this, there are also smaller parades and demonstrations on July 1, the date which maps the old style date of the Boyne to the new style in the usual manner and which also commemorate the massacre of the 36th (Ulster) Division on the first day of the Battle of the Somme in 1916. It has also been suggested that the Boyne was preferred to Aughrim because the Jacobites' rout there allowed the Irish Catholics to be presented as contemptible cowards, whereas at Aughrim they fought bravely and died in great numbers. In the context of a resurgent Irish nationalism from the 1790s onwards, it is argued that the narrative of the Boyne was more comforting for Loyalists in Ireland. The commemoration of the battle of the Boyne therefore has more to do with the politics of the Unionist community than it has to do with the military significance of the battle itself. It is not uncommon to see large murals of a monarch, William on a white horse at the head of his army marking out Loyalist territory. The memory of the battle also has resonance among Irish Nationalists. Most Irish people see the battle as a major step on the road to the complete British colonization of Ireland. In 1923, Irish Republican Army members blew up a large monument to the battle on the battlefield site on the Boyne and also destroyed a statue of William III in 1929, that stood outside Trinity College Dublin in the center of the Irish capital. "The Twelfth" in Ireland today The Battle of the Boyne remains a controversial topic today, especially in Northern Ireland where Protestants remember it as a great victory over Catholics and responsible for the sovereignty of Parliament and the 'Protestant monarchy'. In recent years "The Twelfth" has often been marked by confrontations as members of the Orange Order attempt to celebrate the date by marching past or through what they see as their traditional route. However some of these areas now have a nationalist majority, who now object to marches passing through their areas. This is mainly due to population migrations caused by institutionalized sectarianism in Northern Ireland in the mid 1900s which had made Northern Ireland, in the words of Ulster Unionist Party leader and Nobel Peace Prize winner David Trimble, a "cold house for Catholics" at the time. Each side thus dresses up the disputes in terms of the other's supposed attempts to repress them; Catholics still see Orange Order marches as provocative attempts to 'show who is boss', while Protestants insist they have a right to "walk the Queen's highway" and see any attempt to deny them the right to walk through traditional routes used for centuries as an attempt to marginalise and restrict their freedom to celebrate their Protestant identity earned in the Glorious Revolution settlement. Thus the battle is still very present in the awareness of those involved in the Catholic-Protestant rivalry in Ireland. The battlefield today The site of the battle of the Boyne sprawls over a wide area west of the town of Drogheda. Oldbridge, the scene of the main Williamite crossing, has an Irish Government Interpretive Centre on it, which is dedicated to informing tourists and other visitors about the battle. This facility is currently being redeveloped. The other main combat areas on the day (at Duleek, Donore and Plattin—along the Jacobite line of retreat) are marked with tourist information signs. - Hayes-McCoy, Gerard Anthony. Irish Battles. Harlow: Longmans, 1969. ISBN 0582112486 - Lenihan, Padraig. 1690 Battle of the Boyne. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0752433040 - McNally, Michael and Graham Turner. Battle of the Boyne 1690: The Irish Campaign for the English Crown. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2005. ISBN 184176891X All links retrieved January 7, 2013. New World Encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the Wikipedia article in accordance with New World Encyclopedia standards. This article abides by terms of the Creative Commons CC-by-sa 3.0 License (CC-by-sa), which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution. Credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the New World Encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the Wikimedia Foundation. To cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats.The history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here: Note: Some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed.

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A tracheostomy (TRA-ke-OS-to-me) is a surgically made hole that goes through the front of your neck and into your trachea (TRA-ke-ah), or windpipe. The hole is made to help you breathe. A tracheostomy usually is temporary, although you can have one long term or even permanently. How long you have a tracheostomy depends on the condition that required you to get it and your overall health. To understand how a tracheostomy works, it helps to understand how your airways work. The airways carry oxygen-rich air to your lungs. They also carry carbon dioxide, a waste gas, out of your lungs. The airways include your: Air enters your body through your nose or mouth. The air travels through your voice box and down your windpipe. The windpipe splits into two bronchi that enter your lungs. (For more information, go to the Health Topics How the Lungs Work article.) A tracheostomy provides another way for oxygen-rich air to reach your lungs, besides going through your nose or mouth. A breathing tube, also called a trach (trake) tube, is put through the tracheostomy and directly into the windpipe to help you breathe. Doctors use tracheostomies for many reasons. One common reason is to help people who need to be on ventilators (VEN-til-a-tors) for more than a couple of weeks. Ventilators are machines that support breathing. If you have a tracheostomy, the trach tube connects to the ventilator. People who have conditions that interfere with coughing or block the upper airways also may need tracheostomies. Coughing is a natural reflex that protects the lungs. It helps clear mucus (a slimy substance) and bacteria from the airways. A trach tube can be used to help remove, or suction, mucus from the airways. Doctors also might recommend tracheostomies for people who have swallowing problems due to strokes or other conditions. Creating a tracheostomy is a fairly common, simple procedure. It's one of the most common procedures for critical care patients in hospitals. The windpipe is located almost directly under the skin of the neck. So, a surgeon often can create a tracheostomy quickly and easily. The procedure usually is done in a hospital operating room. However, it also can be safely done at a patient's bedside. Less often, a doctor or emergency medical technician may do the procedure in a life-threatening situation, such as at the scene of an accident or other emergency. As with any surgery, complications can occur, such as bleeding, infection, and other serious problems. The risks often can be reduced with proper care and handling of the tracheostomy and the tubes and other related supplies. Some people continue to need tracheostomies even after they leave the hospital. Hospital staff will teach patients and their families or caregivers how to properly care for their tracheostomies at home. The NHLBI updates Health Topics articles on a biennial cycle based on a thorough review of research findings and new literature. The articles also are updated as needed if important new research is published. The date on each Health Topics article reflects when the content was originally posted or last revised.

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Thursday June 14 2012 "Diesel exhaust fumes cause cancer": official WHO report The Daily Mail reports a World Health Organization (WHO) warning that diesel exhaust fumes are a “major cancer risk” and belong in the “same deadly category as asbestos, arsenic and mustard gas”. Meanwhile the BBC says that diesel fumes are “definitely a cause of lung cancer”. This widely reported news is based on a decision by the WHO to classify diesel exhausts as a cause of cancer. The decision was taken by the WHO’s International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), a panel of experts that co-ordinates and conducts research into the causes of cancer, and develops cancer control strategies. Under its classification scheme, diesel exhaust was previously categorised as “probably carcinogenic”. The agency now says there is now sufficient evidence that exposure to diesel fumes causes lung cancer. It is calling for exposure to diesel fumes to be reduced worldwide. While diesel fumes are now officially carcinogenic, the alarmist tone of the Daily Mail’s headline should be viewed with caution because the ‘deadly category’ of substances the Mail describes also includes sunlight and wood dust. What is diesel and is it used much in the UK? Diesel oil is a complex mixture of chemicals, mainly distilled from crude oil, although vegetable oil and similar sources can be used to make ‘biodiesel’. It is used as fuel for diesel internal combustion engines, which use compressed hot air to ignite fuel (petrol engines have a spark plug to ignite the fuel). Worldwide, diesel oil is widely used as a fuel in diesel-powered cars, lorries, trains, aircraft, ships and heavy industry. It is regarded as more efficient than petroleum, resulting in lower fuel consumption. WHO says that many people are exposed to diesel exhaust in everyday life, both through their occupations and in the ambient air. As of 2007, just over 50% of all new car sales in the UK were diesel, according to the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. In 2004, approximately 700 litres (150 gallons) of diesel was sold every second in the UK, according to a report by the Health Protection Agency (HPA). The amount of pollutants from diesel exhaust fumes, in particular its sulphur content, have been reduced over the last few years, and engines on newer cars are designed to burn fuel more efficiently, reducing emissions. However, the IARC says it is not yet clear how these improvements translate into any changes in the impact of diesel fumes on human health. Existing fuels and older unmodified vehicles will take years to replace, particularly in less developed countries where regulations are less stringent, the IARC says. What is the WHO’s classification scheme? The WHO classifies the cancer-causing potential of various substances into four groups, depending on the evidence available in both humans and other animals: - Group 1 is used when a substance causes cancer in humans - Group 2A is used when a substance ‘probably’ causes cancer in humans - Group 2B is used when a substance ‘possibly’ causes cancer in humans - Group 3 is used when a substance is not classifiable in terms of its cancer-causing properties in humans because the evidence is inadequate - Group 4 is used when a substance is ‘probably not’ a cause of cancer in humans What is the WHO now saying about diesel fumes and cancer? Since 1988, diesel oil fumes have been classified by the IARC as ‘probably carcinogenic to humans’. This category is used when there is some, limited evidence that a substance causes cancer in humans, but sufficient evidence it causes cancer in experimental animals. However, the IARC has now reclassified diesel engine exhaust as ‘carcinogenic’ (group 1 on the list above). This category is used when there is sufficient evidence that a substance causes cancer in humans. The IARC says there is sufficient evidence that diesel exhaust is a cause of lung cancer. It is also associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer, although the evidence for the latter is more limited. Why has the advice changed? The WHO says there has been mounting concern in recent years about the cancer-causing potential of diesel engine exhaust, based on findings from epidemiological studies of workers exposed to diesel fumes. In particular, it cites a large cohort study, published in March this year, of occupational exposure to diesel exhaust in 12,315 US miners. The study was run by the US National Cancer Institute and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. It found that exposure to diesel exhaust increased the risk of dying from lung cancer (1.26, 95% confidence interval 1.09 to 1.44). A further case-control study, undertaken in this group (comparing 198 miners who had died from lung cancer with 562 miners who were alive at the time the ‘case’ died), found that the risk of lung cancer in these workers increased with the length of time they were exposed to diesel fumes. Although these studies were in workers who had been heavily exposed to diesel fumes, the WHO points out that studies of other carcinogens, such as radon, indicate that initial research showing a risk in heavily exposed populations, are later found to be a risk for the general population. It says that action to reduce exposure to diesel exhaust fumes should encompass both highly exposed workers and the general population. Are diesel fumes really as dangerous as asbestos and mustard gas? Under the IARC classification scheme, diesel fumes now fall into the same category as all other known carcinogens (of which there are over 100 listed). These include: - tobacco smoke (both first and secondhand) - mustard gas - Chinese salted fish - vinyl chloride - wood dust The WHO does not specify the level of risk posed by different carcinogens, or the risk posed by different levels of exposure. However, for most carcinogens, the higher the exposure, the greater the risk of cancer. Dr Christopher Portier, chair of the IARC working group, said that while the scientific evidence that diesel oil exhaust caused lung cancer was ‘compelling’, the impact on the wider population who are exposed to diesel fumes at much lower levels and for shorter periods of time, is unknown. Newspaper readers of a nervous disposition may want to consider the above facts when considering the risk to their health from diesel fumes. Analysis by Bazian. Edited by NHS Choices.

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By Tom Boyle All Things Birds Associate Naturalist |Natco Lake was created by accident, rather than by Mother Nature. The National Fireproofing Company (Natco) mined clay here for bricks in the 1930's. Eventually the mining equipment hit underground springs and the lake filled in. A ditch was dug in an attempt to drain off the water into a nearby tidal creek. The ditching brought in salt water and made the lake brackish, as it remains today. Birding the northern section of the lake: Walk east along the Henry Hudson Trail and over a small bridge. Eastern Phoebe has nested under this bridge. After the bridge, turn right off the paved trail and then left. Follow the unpaved trail a short distance to a small tidal cove in the lake. On a changing tide, Yellow-crowned Night Heron is regularly seen. Both night herons nest locally and can be seen frequently. Occasionally, Diamond-backed Terrapins are seen basking on flotsam in the cove. Continue on the unpaved trail until it ends at a lawn on the lake's north side. Scan the lake here. Shorebirds can be found in migration, along with herons, Osprey, gulls, cormorants, terns, and waterfowl. Great Black-backed Gull has begun nesting on one of the islands in the lake. Don't be surprised to see something unusual. An American White Pelican was seen on the lake in January about five years ago. I've seen American Oystercatcher, Black Skimmer, and copulating Least Terns sitting on the island in front of you. This is a good spot to check for lingering waterfowl at World Series of Birding time [mid-May]. Northern Shoveler has been seen in late May, Canvasback in late June and a drake Bufflehead has lingered here into July! Rough-winged Swallows and Belted Kingfishers have nested in the dirt banks around the lake and are often seen. The woods along the Henry Hudson Trail are good for migrants in spring. In recent years I've seen (and heard) Acadian, Alder, and Olive-sided Flycatchers; Gray-cheeked Thrush; Mourning and Brewster's Warblers; Yellow-breasted Chat; and Lincoln's and White-crowned Sparrows. Fall is equally good, and Connecticut Warbler is regular at that time of year. If you walk the trail a little more than a quarter mile to the next bridge, look north along Thorne's Creek for Purple Martins, which now nest in houses provided by a homeowner here. Birding the southern section of the lake: Natco Park, a 260-acre Green Acres site managed by Hazlet Township, consists of mature swampy woods excellent in spring for migrants. From the Lakeside Manor restaurant parking lot, walk down the Orange Trail near the lake and into the woods. Philadelphia Vireo has been seen here in late May. The mature oaks along this trail can have Bay-breasted, Tennessee, and Cape May Warblers. A knowledge of bird song will be helpful here as the vegetation is thick. The trail turns left and follows the shoreline, eventually coming to a small cove (1 on map) where Spotted Sandpipers are seen. At the south end of the cove, the trail (now the Red Trail) turns southeasterly into the woods. A small footbridge crosses over a little ripple called Thorne's Creek. Here the understory is again very thick. In this area in spring I've seen such sought-after migrants as Yellow-throated Vireo; Louisiana Waterthrush; and Worm-Eating, Prothonotary, Hooded, and Kentucky Warblers. Continue south along the Red Trail. As you approach another footbridge, the Blue Trail comes in from the right. Follow it a short way to an area with standing water in spring (2). Check this spot for Rusty Blackbird and Northern Waterthrush. Back on the main Red Trail, continue south. The trail gains elevation, leading into an area of pitch pine habitat (3). Pine Warbler nests and Whip-poor-will has been found here. Retrace your steps back along the trail to the cove at the lake. Facing the cove, take the part of the Red Trail that leads left [west] away from the lake. The mature deciduous woods along the trail have nesting Wood Thrush, Ovenbird, and Red-eyed Vireo. This trail eventually comes to a T intersection with the Yellow Trail. Turn left onto the Yellow Trail, which will gain elevation until it arrives at another T intersection. Turn right on the unmarked trail and walk slowly to a small opening in the forest. In spring the vernal pond here (4) holds the occasional Solitary Sandpiper. Roosting above the pond in spring I've seen Broad-winged and Red-shouldered Hawks. Continuing along this trail will lead through several wet areas with second-growth woodland. Prairie, Mourning, and Wilson's Warblers have been seen here, and Brown Thrashers nest in this area. Return to the last T, and turn left to retrace your route along the Yellow Trail. Pass the intersection with the Red Trail and continue straight ahead on the Yellow Trail to reach the parking lot. Raptors are very much in evidence in the Natco Lake area in spring as northbound hawks bump up against the bayshore. On west winds, hawk flights can be seen over the park right from the parking lot. These flights consist mostly of buteos, with vultures, accipiters, and the occasional Bald Eagle mixed in. Mississippi Kite and Common Raven were seen over the park in Spring 2012. Additional breeding birds in the park include Scarlet Tanager, Great-crested Flycatcher, Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Cooper's Hawk, and Great Horned and Screech Owls. Northern Saw-whet Owl has occurred in winter. Mammals in the park include Whitetail Deer, Opossum, Raccoon, Striped Skunk, flying squirrel and both Red and Gray Fox. With its mix of deciduous swamp and upland pine oak forest, Natco is also very botanically diverse. Natco's mix of habitat, along with its location on the bayshore, makes it a great place to discover birds. For more information on the park, including a more complete trail map, write to the Hazlet Environmental Commission at 317 Middle Road, Hazlet, NJ 07730.

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If there’s a stack of old newspapers gathering dust under the bed or out in the shed, Australian libraries want to know about it. The search is on for these valuable pieces of our social history, as part of the Australian Newspaper Plan (www.nla.gov.au/anplan), a nation-wide initiative of state and territory libraries designed to find, collect and preserve access to historic newspapers. National spokeswoman for the ANPlan, Cathy Pilgrim, of the National Library of Australia, said newspapers did not just report the news. They told stories of their times, through advertisements, photographs and even their design – stories we want to save for all Australians. “The aim is to find the thousands of missing pieces in the jigsaw of our history,” she said. “Old newspapers are an important part of our social, political and cultural history and they offer valuable insights into a society changed forever. Some of Australia’s most wanted newspapers include: * Cairns Advocate (1897-1882); * Croydon Miner (1887-1888) * Mundic Miner and Etheridge Gazette (1889-1917); * Pilbarra Goldfields News (1901); * Mercury and South Australian sporting chronicle (1849-1851); * Renmark Pioneer (1893-1895). “Often a chance conversation uncovers these wanted papers which may have been lying hidden in someone’s garage, in an elderly person’s collection of keepsakes, or even in the vaults of a local historical society or archive,” Ms Pilgrim said. Once the wanted newspapers have been tracked down, they will be carefully saved to ensure their preservation for future generations of Australians. Access will be made freely available through the National Library of Australia and state and territory libraries. For a full list of the wanted newspapers from all states of Australia, go to www.nla.gov.au/anplan For information on the Australian Newspaper Plan: Contact Cathy Pilgrim on 02 6262 1514; [email protected] For information on ACT newspapers: Contact Julie Whiting on 02 6262 1157; [email protected]

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College life involves excitement, along with new challenges, risks, and responsibilities. You are meeting new people, learning new things, and making your own decisions. It can sometimes be stressful. You have to deal with pressures related to food, drink, appearance, drugs, and sexual activity. There are steps you can take to stay healthy and safe while you're in college, such as Centers for Disease Control and Prevention References and abstracts from MEDLINE/PubMed (National Library of Medicine)

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- online helpsearch for term 1. An electronic documentation file formatted according to the requirements of the destination operating system. Help files generally contain short instructions about how to perform certain features. They generally have fewer graphics than printed or electronic books of the same material. Help files reformat as needed to the screen window dimensions, and make heavy use of hypertext linking, pop-up boxes, and so forth. Help files are context-sensitive, which means that you can jump to a specific topic within the help file directly from the applications dialog and menu interface, etc.

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Did you ever stop to consider just how a volcano works? Of course it is only theory for no one has as yet dissected a volcano while it was active to observe and tabulate the reactions of its inner self. Rainier is a volcanic cone and no doubt it came into being in this manner. First at a depth below the surface of the earth in some long, forgotten time the magma or molten rock presed toward the surface possibly throuhg some fracture in the outer crust. With these rising lavas there was also much gas that advanced ahead of the lava and thus both the gas and the lava pressed toward the surface gradually accumulating force and power under the pressure as its advance was hindered by the solid material above. And then finally this flow of motlen rock and gases achieved enogh power to burst through the surface. First, possibly, there was an explosive action as the gases burst upward and this was followed by more quiet flows of the lavas that welled out over the surface and inundated, in succeeding eruptions and lava flows, over 100 square miles of surrounding country which is the area of "The Mountain's" great base. And in that manner eruptions followed one another when the pressure within the throat of this fire mountain achieved enough power to burst through the "plug" of hardened lavas which solidified after each flow. Rainier hasn't been active for several thousands of years and there is apparently little chance of its becoming active again but it stands today - a magnificent volcanic shaft, its flanks glistening with the greatest glacial system in continentaly United States, - a monument to nature's power in its wildest moods. |<<< Previous||> Cover <|

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LESSON PLANS AND TIMES MATERIALS FOR TEACHING: The Academy Awards The Film Industry Film in Language Arts Film in Social Studies/History Film in Fine Arts Technology in Film Lessons on these pages are for grades 6-12, written in consultation with Bank Street College of Education. Each one is paired with a Times article. Learning Network Features Selected Times Articles on Film Adaptations Resources on the Web LESSONS ON THE ACADEMY AWARDS: The Envelope, Please Investigating the Cultural Context of Oscar-Winning Films in the Past and Present And the Oscar Goes to... Examining and Creating Criteria for Oscar-Worthy Films And the Winner Is... Exploring the Role of the Academy Awards and Film in American Society LESSONS ON THE FILM INDUSTRY: Creating Film Festivals that Inform and Entertain Audiences The Sundance Kids Exploring What Makes the Independent Film Industry So Attractive to So Many The Raid on Raters Exploring the Current Movie Rating System Minding the Media Examining Ethical Questions About Media Rating Systems The Reel World Exploring the Appropriateness of Movies for Children Considering the Costs of Making Movies Fit to Be Tied (In) Examining How Companies Target the Right Audiences Old Hobbits Are Hard to Break Learning About the Marketing of Motion Pictures on the Web LESSONS ON AND WITH FILMMAKING: Quiet on the Set! Exploring Character and Conflict Development by Creating Short Films Drawing Upon Successful Elements of the "Harry Potter" Series to Develop Short Films Producing a Documentary Film Spotlighting the Everyday Sights and Sounds of a School Creating Documentaries About Students' Everyday Lives Through the Eyes of a Child Creating Documentaries from the Perspectives of Adolescents Creating Documentaries About Important Social Issues Creating a Documentary about Rituals Related to Books Creating Biographical Films for Current Political Candidates' Campaigns More Power to You Creating Documentaries About Energy Sources Exploring the Pacific Rim by Writing Documentary Film Treatments LESSONS USING FILM IN LANGUAGE ARTS: Writing Movie Reviews Screening the Silver Screen Writing New York Times Movie Reviews Exploring Plot Similarities in Fiction and Nonfiction Stories Constructing Movie Sets Through Descriptive Writing The Battle of Good and Evil on the Big Screen A Media Studies Lesson Plan If I Could Talk Like the Animals. . . Teaching Personification and Narrative Writing in the Language Arts Classroom The Sorcerers Shown Comparing Similar Character Genres in Literature and Film Talk About the Passion Creating an Educational Guide to Encourage Critical Thinking about the Film "The Passion of Christ" Creating Vocabulary-Rich Advertisements to Recognize Glover's Contribution to "Happy Feet" Analyzing Similarities and Differences Among the Live, Film and Written Versions of Tony Award Winning Productions LESSONS USING FILM IN SOCIAL STUDIES/HISTORY: Tell Me Something Good Analyzing Moviegoers' Preferences in an Economic Recession Golden Globe as Gauge Exploring How Hollywood Reflects the American Political and Cultural Climate Is All Cinema Verité? Exploring the Relationship Between Movies and Culture Los Artistas Unidos Exploring Questions of Diversity in the Casting of Actors for Popular Television Shows and Movies Exploring Legislation About Violence in the Media Making Sense of Censorship Clarifying Rating Systems for Entertainment Let There Be Peace Exploring the Accomplishments of Nobel Peace Prize Recipients A Woman's Worth Examining the Changing Roles of Women in Cultures Around the World LESSONS USING FILM IN FINE ARTS: Setting the Stage from the Page Creating Original Artwork that Transforms Text to the Big Screen The Art of Violence Creating Original Works of Art That Explore the Depiction of Violence Lyrics of Hazzard Updating Classic Music for a Movie Soundtrack State of the Art Identifying the Merits of a Favorite Work of Art LESSONS ON TECHNOLOGY IN FILM: Exploring Plausible Inventions for Make-Believe Movies The New Fant-"Asia" Contrasting Animated and Live-Action Filmmaking Actors and Actresses Screen Actors Guild Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences Sundance Film Festival Tribeca Film Festival LEARNING NETWORK FEATURES: Student Crossword: Oscar-Winning Films News Snapshot: Best of the Bunch News Snapshot: Hopeful Hollywood News Snapshot: Pop + Art = Oscar? News Snapshot: Holy Box Office, Batman! News Snapshot: And the Nominees Are … Times Movies Section Times Critics' Picks Times Reviews archive The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made Blog: The Carpetbagger Interactive Graphic: The Ebb and Flow of Movies: Box Office Receipts 1986-2008 SELECTED TIMES ARTICLES ON FILM ADAPTATIONS: All Right, You Try: Adaptation Isn't Easy Article by screenwriter Stephen Schiff on the challenges of adapting source material for film, including Susan Orlean's "The Orchid Thief," which became the Charlie Kaufman film "Adaptation." Can a Film Do Justice to Literature? Article about arguments over whether or not ''good literature is too substantial to fit through the lens of a camera.'' The Best Novelists, The Worst Movie Adaptations Article about how great novels don't necessarily translate into great films. Any Novel Can Be Shaped Into a Movie Article on how some film adaptations, such as the one of "The English Patient," are as artistic as the novels they are based on. Cuddling Up to Quasimodo and Friends Article on film adaptations that are not true to their source material. Is It Time To Trust Hollywood? 1990 essay by Molly Haskell that takes a broad look at Hollywood's history of book-to-movie adaptations. Seen the Movie? Read the Book! 1987 essay by John Updike about adapting literature for film. Adapting and Revising Twain's 'Huck Finn' 1986 essay by book critic Michiko Kakutani on the difficulties of adapting Twain. 2008 essay by Sophie Gee about adaptations of "Beowulf" and "Paradise Lost." Romancing the Book…Once Again 1992 article about Hollywood's interest in literary classics. RESOURCES ON THE WEB: Scenarios USA holds an annual topical writing contest to pair student screenwriters in underserved communities with Hollywood filmmakers, who turn the students' stories into short films. The Scenarios USA Web site includes materials for teachers. Teacher's Guide to Making Student Movies From Scholastic Teaching Resources, designed for grades 3-12. Mini Movie Makers Resource for student filmmakers, developed by three young brothers. MORE RESOURCES FOR TEACHING WITH THE TIMES: Learning Network classroom resources on a wide range of topics.

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|HIV/AIDS Networking Guide - A comprehensive resource for individuals and organisations who wish to build, strengthen or sustain a network (International Council of AIDS Service Organisations, 1997, 48 p.)| |Chapter 1 - Networking for a More Effective Response To HIV and AIDS| Most networks have some or all of the following characteristics. They are: a group of organizations and/or individuals who come together to pursue joint goals or common interests; venues for social action through exchange and mutual learning; sustained through some form of communication; committed to a jointly developed structure and shared responsibility; and they are based on member-ownership and commitment to shared objectives and means of action.

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Falcon researcher Dr Donna Falconer (photographed by a motion-activated camera) uses a walking pole to protect herself from attacking falcons, at Ferintosh Station, near Mt Cook. Photo supplied. There is no room for complacency over the future of the endangered New Zealand falcon, researcher and falcon advocate Dr Donna Falconer says. Dr Falconer, who recently gained a University of Otago PhD in geology, and has had her distinctive name since birth, swiftly found herself inspired by a series of close encounters with New Zealand falcons after moving to Twizel six years ago. Her subsequent research and close-up photography involving falcons will feature in a talk she will give at the Orokonui Ecosanctuary at 1pm tomorrow. Dr Falconer said she was seriously considering going back to Otago University to study for another PhD, on these birds. It was a good time to be raising awareness about the karearea or New Zealand falcon, as the latest season's fledglings were ''starting to make themselves known''. Chicks from the Eastern falcon subtype, in the mid/southern South Island, started fledging from early December until the middle of this month and were easy to tell from their parents because they had white/grey feet and soft fleshy body parts, whereas adults were all yellow. Two of the biggest threats inexperienced falcons faced were being electrocuted by power lines or hit by cars when eating Falcons were ''a bit of a double-edged sword'' where ecosanctuaries were concerned. ''As majestic as they are, it's only natural they'd put all those incredible hunting skills to good use given the veritable smorgasbord of fine dining opportunities at their wing tips in such places.'' Orokonui Ecosanctuary general manager Chris Baillie said two falcons and a hawk overflew the ecosanctuary from time to She was not aware of having lost any birds or other animals through falcon predation, and birds and lizards had places to hide if needed. ''Falcons are part of the ecosystem- they deserve conservation as much as any other native species.''

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From Ohio History Central Acanthodians were among the earliest fishes with jaws and are found in Silurian through Permian rocks. Their fragmentary remains are found in Devonian, Mississippian, and Pennsylvanian rocks in Ohio. These remains consist of shiny, rhomboid-shaped scales and fin spines. Fin spines of a comparatively large acanthodian, Machaeracanthus, are found in the Columbus Limestone.

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Lithuanian is a Baltic language related to Latvian and Old Prussian with about 3.2 million speakers in Lithuania. There are also Lithuanian speakers in Poland, the USA, Brazil, Argentina, Canada, the UK and Uruguay. Lithuanian first appeared in print in the form of a catechism in 1547. The first Lithuanian dictionary was printed during the 17th century. Between 1864 and 1904 the printing and teaching of Lithuanian was banned - Russian, Polish, Belarusian or Latin had to be used instead. After this ban was lifted in 1904, there was a resurgence of Lithuanian literature. From 1918 to 1940 Lithuania was independent and over 7,000 books in Lithuanian were published. During the Soviet period (1940-1991), literature in Lithuania tended to follow the socialist realist model, while Lithuanian ex-pats wrote mainly about the culture and traditions of Lithuania. Since 1991, when Lithuania once more gained its independence, a large number of publications in Lithuanian has appeared, including newspapers, magazines and scientific and technical works. Lithuanian is the state language of Lithuania and one of the official languages of the European Union (EU). It is also recognised as a minority language in Poland. Visi žmonės gimsta laisvi ir lygūs savo orumu ir teisėmis. Jiems suteiktas protas ir sąžinė ir jie turi elgtis vienas kito atžvilgiu kaip broliai. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Online Lithuanian phrases Online Lithuanian news Online Lithuanian radio Hosted by Kualo

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It started as a simple excavation project at a reservoir near Snowmass Village. It ended up as one of the largest fossil excavations ever, and the project will soon be featured in National Geographic and as a one-hour NOVA program on Rocky Mountain PBS. A book is also being written about the Snowmastodon Project™ The NOVA program is called “Ice Age Death Trap” and it premiers at 8 p.m MST, Wednesday, Feb. 1 on Rocky Mountain PBS. The television special follows scientists as they raced against a deadline to uncover the unique site packed with well-preserved bones of mammoths, mastodons, and other giant extinct beasts. Acrylic painting of Ziegler Reservoir landscape by Jan Vriesen, depicts about 120,000 years ago, when the area was dominated by mastodon, giant ground sloths, and bison. Photo courtesy ©Denver Museum of Nature & Science. The Denver Museum of Nature & Science sent crews to the site, where they uncovered 5,000 bones of 41 kinds of Ice Age animals. In addition to the mammoths and mastodons, there were ground sloths, camels, deer, horses, and giant bison. Overview of Ice Age dig site near Snowmass Village (lower left). Photo courtesy ©Denver Museum of Nature & Science. The February issue of National Geographic magazine will feature a short article and photo of the project. The new book, Digging Snowmastodon: Discovering an Ice Age World in the Colorado Rockies, goes on sale at the museum March 20. A Tusk Force was also formed by the Town of Snowmass Village and they created a non-profit entity called Discover Snowmass to organize, and figure out how to capitalize on the Snowmass Ice Age find. The Snowmass Ice Age Discovery Center is on the Snowmass Village Mall. It’s free and open every day in the winter from 11 a.m. to 6 p.m. Snowy, the mascot, is frequently seen around the Snowmass Village Mall. Photo courtesy Snowmass Tourism. “The scientists aren’t the only ones that are excited about this extraordinary find,” said Patsy Popejoy with Snowmass Tourism. “The entire community has ‘mammoth’ fever, from a local restaurant changing their name to Little Mammoth Cafe serving up Mastodon Stew, our retailers selling Ice Age T-shirts, mugs, and stuffed animal mammoths and mastodons, to the Town Council approving Widespread Panic’s song ‘Woolly Mammoth’ as the official town song. The discovery has created quite a buzz in the community and with our visitors.” Dr. Kirk Johnson, Vice President of Research & Collections and Chief Curator of the Denver Museum of Nature and Science and a lead scientist on the dig, will be back in Snowmass on March 22nd to give an Aspen Historical Society-sponsored talk about the discovery. The Snowmass Ice Age Discovery Center is on the Snowmass Village Mall. Photo courtesy Snowmass Tourism.

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|Search Results (7 videos found)| |NASADestinationTomorrow - DT12 - Flight Pioneers NASA Destination Tomorrow Segment exploring the background of the first attempted flights. The segment also looks back on the pioneers who built the first flying machine. Keywords: NASA Destination Tomorrow; First Flight; Wright Brothers; Glider; Flight Pioneers; Flying Machine; Aviation; Aerodynamic Principles; Bird Flight; Feathers; Flapping Wings; Heavier Than Air Machine; Hot Air Balloon; Lift; Drag; Whirling Arm; Wing Designs; Popularity (downloads): 2838 |Wetlands Regained, segment 06 of 8 Wetland acreage was in danger of disappearing, and restoration was urgent Popularity (downloads): 386 |Sham battle at the Pan-American Exposition Large arches and columns are seen surrounding a flat field. In the foreground of the field, some American Indians on horseback ride toward the camera. The Indians are wearing feathers,... Keywords: Pan-American Exposition--(1901 :--Buffalo; N; Y; )United States; --Army; --Infantry--Drill and tactics--Drama; Battles--New York (State)--Buffalo--Drama; Indians of North America--Wars--Drama; Exhibitions--United States; Exhibition buildings--New York (State)--Buffalo; Buffalo (NY)Actuality--Short; Popularity (downloads): 610 |NASADestinationTomorrow - Episode 12 NASA Destination Tomorrow Video containing four segments as described below. NASA Destination Tomorrow Segment exploring the transition of aircraft design through the years. The segment describes what aircraft may... Keywords: NASA Destination Tomorrow; Aircraft Revolution; Jet Engine; Propeller; Innovation; Efficient; Vehicle Systems Program; Subsonic Transports; Supersonic Aircraft; Personal Air Vehicles; Blended Wing Body; BWB; Emissions; Noise Reduction; Environmentally Friendly; Air Pressure Waves; Sound Barrier; Shock Wave; Sonic Boom; First Flight; Wright Brothers; Controlled Flight; Aircraft Design; Aeronautical Annual; Bicycle; Glider Flight; Scientists; Engineers; Engine; Flight Pioneers; Flying Machine; Aviation; Aerodynamic Principles; Bird Flight; Feathers; Flapping Wings; Heavier Than Air Machine; Hot Air Balloon; Lift; Drag; Whirling Arm; Wing Designs; NASA; NACA; Aeronautical Development; Aviation Organization; President Woodrow Wilson; Pioneer Flight Achievments; Lab; Variable Density Tunnel; High Altitude Flying; Air Pressure; Wind Tunnel; Aerodynamics; Jet Powered Aircraft; Popularity (downloads): 2381 |NASASciFiles - The Case of the Challenging Flight NASA Sci Files video containing the following twelve segments. NASA Sci Files segment describing how engineers negotiate the natural factors that affect airplane flight. NASA Sci Files segment describing how... Keywords: Bob Star; Electronic Classroom; Dryden Flight Research Center; Weight; Center Of Gravity; Wing; Tail; Pitch; Yaw; F 104 Starfighter; Lift; X29; Burt Rutan; Boomerang; Proteus; Voyager; Imagination; Wing Span; Thrust; Dr. Textbook; Birds; Icarus; DaVinci; Popularity (downloads): 2795 |NASA Connect - Problem Solving - The Wright Math NASA Connect Video containing five segments as described below. NASA Connect segment featuring the website of the U.S. Centennial Flight Commission. The website consists of activities for students and teachers... Keywords: NASA Connect; Centennial of Flight; Wright Brothers; Congress; United States; Web Activity; Astronautics; Aeronautics; Flight Simulator; Axis; First Flying Machine; Glider; Kitty Hawk; Engineering Method; Pitch; Roll; Yaw; Wind Tunnel; Elevator Control; Wing Warp; Rudder; Propellor; Wing; Lift; Drag; Student Activity; Kite; Sail Area; Base; Height; Trapezoidal; Aspect Ratio; Span; First Flight; Wilbur Wright; Orville Wright; Flying Machine; Inventor; Process of Invention; Aircraft Design; Computer Simulation; Biology; Force; Pressure; Relationship; Design Process; Metamorphosis; Morphing; Technology; Control Devices; Smart Matierals; Adaptive Structure; Aerodynamics; Air Flow; Micro-Flow Control; Biomimetics; Nature; Fish Fins; Popularity (downloads): 2241 |NASASciFiles - The Case of The Zany Animal Antics NASA Sci Files video containing four segments as described below. In the first segment of the Case of the Zany Animal Antics, the tree house detectives learn about the animal... Keywords: NASA SciFiles; The Zany Animal Antics; Animal Kingdom; Kingdom; Phylum; Class; Order;Family; Genus; Species; Classification; Dichotomous Key; Bioluminescent; Endoskeleton; Ectotherms; Fish; Amphibians; Metamorphos; Reptiles; Birds; Mammals; Food Chain; Consumers; Herbivores; Carnivores; Food Web; Migration; Migration Patterns; DNA; Mitosis; Meiosis; Zygote; Reproduction; Student Activity; Bats; Population; Random Sample; Endangered Species; Bald Eagle; Levels of Endangerment; Popularity (downloads): 1657

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"I was born here but I'm not an American" understanding the U.S. history curriculum through the eyes of Latino students / The purpose of this investigation was to explore Latino students’ perceptions of the US History curriculum at one high school in the Eastern United States. The ultimate objective was to understand if the US History classes are serving the perceived needs of Latino students. Latinos are 40% of our nation’s minorities, are the youngest population group, and are the fastest growing. The social studies is the ideal curriculum area for challenging the dominant worldview and teaching about the diversity present in the classroom, the nation, and the world; therefore, learning more about socio-culturally inclusive social studies curriculum and pedagogy is an important consideration. This project is significant because it intersects with topics essential to the future of our nation: schools, the social studies curriculum, culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) students, and students’ perspectives. Furthermore, the focus of this research overlaps with the reality of today’s educational system: state content standards and high stakes testing. All of these aspects will be addressed. This study was influenced by Latino Critical Theory. LatCrit is an outgrowth of Critical Race Theory (hereafter known as CRT). CRT interrogates how research is traditionally done by forefronting race to demonstrate the depth of inequality that exists across society. LatCrit builds on the five themes of CRT while adding perspectives unique to Latino experiences in the United States such as language acquisition, cultural background, gender, ethnicity, immigration status, and colonial experience. Data were collected for six months at Crawford High School (name changed). The data sources included observation notes, interview transcripts from students, teachers, administrators, and a State Board of Education member, the researcher’s journal, and document analysis of the State Social Studies Standards and a practice version of the State Graduation Test. Data were analyzed utilizing the lens of la frontera. La frontera underscores the displacement and transitionality of identities, pertinent to the lives of the studentparticipants. In addition, these theories, which manifest themselves as metaphorical tropes, compliment LatCrit, the lens through which I view my research. The students made public what is already known: that the educational system must become more culturally inclusive of and responsive to CLD students’ needs. However, this study revealed data patterns with student participants that have not been captured within one study. A major finding of this study was that the US History curriculum is or is not meeting student participants’ needs in different ways, based upon pertinent characteristics of the students. Latino students’ responses were informed by the following critical factors: English speaking ability, recency of arrival in the United States, and level of integration into the power structures of the state where the research was completed. The level of integration was further influenced by students’ documentation status (their legal status in the US), parents’ English speaking ability, and the English speaking ability of members in a student’s residence and immediate neighborhood. Students’ responses fell distinctly into three groups based upon these characteristics. The students in Group One stressed the basic need to learn English. Maslow described human motivation with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Perhaps this is what students in Group One were telling me—their most basic needs had to be met before they would be ready to “grow” in American schools. Group Two student-participants wanted their culture to be present so that other students—particularly White students—would learn about them. Group Three students conformed to previous studies conducted with White students—they wanted to learn in more interactive ways, working with groups, and being stimulated with flashy videos. Students at Crawford did not have an adequate framework around which to make sense of race, racism, and racial tensions. The presence of how race was talked about, and the absence of how race was not talked about, led to negative stereotypes against Latinos based upon ethnicity, immigration status, and native language. Furthermore, one teacher demonstrated a closed paradigm of ethnicity and skin color that silenced one of his students. The student-participants in all Groups wanted to talk about race. They wanted to talk about their “positive invisibility” at Crawford—that is, the absence of affirmative constructions around their ethnicity, country of origin, and language. The findings suggest that there is a need for more studies with Latino students that focus on the aspects of Latino Critical Theory. This dissertation is dedicated to the students, my wonderful family, and my friends all over the world. School:The Ohio State University School Location:USA - Ohio Source Type:Master's Thesis Keywords:hispanic american high school students multicultural education critical theory discrimination in united states Date of Publication:

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PHP, while originally designed and built to run on Unix, has had the ability since version 3 to run on Windows. That includes 9x, ME, NT, and 2000. In this article I'm going to go through the process of installing PHP on Windows and explain what you should look out for. On Windows, as on Unix, you have two options for installing PHP: as a CGI or as an ISAPI module. The obvious benefit of the latter is speed. The downside is that this is still somewhat new and may not be as stable. But, before you do anything, you have to do some prep work, which is pretty simple. Once you've downloaded and unzipped the Windows binary version of PHP, you have to copy php4isapi.dll from the sapi/ directory to WINNT/system or WINDOWS/system directories. You'll also probably want to move php.ini-dist from your installation directory to the WINDOWS/ directory and rename it to php.ini, if you plan on changing any of the precompiled defaults. Now you're ready to go, regardless of whether you use PHP as a CGI or ISAPI module. For NT/2000, you'll need to tell IIS how to recognize PHP. Thanks to the wonders of GUI, this can easily be accomplished with a few mouse clicks. First, fire up the Microsoft Management Console or Internet Service Manager, depending on whether you're using NT or 2000. Click on the Properties button of the web node you'll be working with. In this example we'll use Default Web Server. Click the ISAPI Filters tab and then click Add. Use php as the name and in the path put the location of php4isapi.dll, which should be C:\WINNT\system\ in this example. Configuring IIS to recognize PHP. Under the Home Directory tab, click the Configuration button, then click Add for Application Mappings. Use the same location of php4isapi.dll as you did with ISAP Filters and use .php as the extension. Here comes the caveat!! As a test, I tried using as my path the temporary location of php4isapi.dll, which was in the install directory on my desktop. Windows 2000 popped up a wonderfully annoying little box telling me I'm stupid and I should go dunk my head in the sand. OK, so it wasn't quite that wordy, but that's how I took it. Apparently Windows 2000 and IIS require App Mappings to be under the WINDOWS dir at least. So keep that in mind if you don't like sand up your nose. Now, click OK on the Properties dialog. The next thing to do is start and stop IIS. This isn't the same as pushing the stop and start buttons on the Management Console. You should go to a command (or cmd, as it were) window and type net stop issadmin. Wait for it to tell you what it's doing, as if you were nosy enough to care, and then type net start w3svc. Why they didn't make it net start iisadmin is beyond me. But I'm a Unix guy, and logic seems to be my downfall here. But I digress... So now you have PHP installed as an ISAPI module on Windows! Aren't you happy? Probably not, because you probably don't believe me. Well, if you need proof just go to C:\inetpub\wwwroot\ and put a file called test.php in there. Inside that file put the following code: <?php phpinfo(); ?> Then pull up test.php in your browser. If you see the PHP Info page, it worked! Now this probably goes without saying, so I'll say it. You have to pull up test.php as a web page in the browser using http://. If you give the path for the file using file://, then you'll get a raw output of the code, which is no fun. The PHP Info page indicates success. On Windows 9x/ME, you're somewhat restricted to PWS (Personal Web Server). Of course there are alternatives such as OmniHTTPd, but we don't have all day here! Anyway, this is far simpler. It's mainly just a matter of a registry entry. After you've moved php4ts.dll to the appropriate directories, you should open up your favorite registry editor. At this point I note the obligatory warnings about fooling around with the registry, blah, blah, blah... In HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Services\w3svc\parameters\Script Map, you'll want to add an entry with the name of .php and a value of Next, go start up the PWS Manager. For each of the directories that you want to make PHP aware, you have to right-click on that directory and check the executable box. Now you're ready. Perform the same test ( test.php) as I described above, and have fun making all those ASP cronies jealous at the the guru-like glow that surrounds you! Darrell Brogdon is a web developer for SourceForge at VA Linux Systems and has been using PHP since 1996. Read more PHP Admin Basics columns. Discuss this article in the O'Reilly Network PHP Forum. Return to the PHP DevCenter. Copyright © 2009 O'Reilly Media, Inc.

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As an OB/GYN physician, I know intimately the dangers of preterm labor. I’ve held in my arms the mother who lost her preemie daughter after her uterus inexplicably began contracting and spewed out her 24 week old baby before she was fully cooked. I’ve watched the preemies in the nursery get stuck with tubes in every orifice while incubators try to mimic the womb and ventilators push air into their undeveloped lungs. I’ve seen the children, years later, get wheeled into my exam room after enduring countless surgeries to deal with the disabilities prematurity can cause. And I’ve attended the pregnant women we imprison in the hospital for weeks on end as we try to prevent this deadly pregnancy complication. We don’t know what causes preterm labor. If we did, we might be able to prevent it. It’s still one of the great mysteries of obstetrics. While technological advances like gene therapy and transplant surgery revolutionize health care, we still don’t understand the most basic things about how pregnancy works. In fact, at the University of Chicago, there’s an empty plaque, awaiting the name of the person who discovers what causes labor, so we can learn to prevent preterm birth. So far, we’re still clueless. But we’ve made progress in the past decade. When a New England Journal of Medicine article suggested that the hormone 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-P) would reduce the risk of preterm birth, OB/GYNs listened. However, this old drug, which used to be used to treat preterm birth, had fallen out of favor, and no manufacturers made it anymore. So practitioners got resourceful and started getting 17-P from compounding pharmacies, where it could be manufactured from scratch for about $20 per dose. Because the quality of compounding pharmacies vary, and because what drug a woman gets during pregnancy matters, docs were happy when the FDA approved a new drug Makena which would standardize 17-P and make it readily available at hospitals and pharmacies. The FDA reviewed data of a study that showed that, among women with a prior preterm birth, women given Makena in a subsequent pregnancy had a preterm birth rate of 37%, compared to 55% in the control group. Good news, eh? You’d think. So KV Pharmaceutical, who won seven years worth of exclusive rights on this drug that has been around since the 1950s, then started firing off letters to compounding pharmacies, announcing that they could no longer make 17-P available to the public without facing possible legal action. Which means that women at high risk of preterm birth must now buy Makena, instead of relying upon their friendly neighborhood compounding pharmacist to make it up. So how much does the new (old) drug Makena cost? $1500 per dose. Yes, you heard me right. This $20 drug now costs $1500 per dose. That’s about $30,000 per at-risk pregnancy. And insurances get to decide individually whether or not they will cover it -- but even if they do, that’ll mean big co-pays and deductibles. Can I just say it like it is? BULLSHIT. F you, Big Pharma. Are you telling me that women who are at risk of preterm birth (lower socio-economic women are at the highest risk) will have to pony up 30 grand if they want to prevent losing a pregnancy or raising a disabled child because insurance won’t cover it? Are you telling me our health care industry is so broken that, instead of making this ancient drug available at an affordable price and preventing preterm births, they’d prefer to pay millions to care for that preemie in the NICU or treat that disabled child? Why? Why? Why? Why is this legal? According to the Washington Post, “FDA officials said that they had no idea how much the company planned to charge for the drug and were surprised by the cost but that the agency has no power over pricing.” How did our health care industry become so broken that this kind of thing can happen? Where is the heart in medicine these days? When did patient care start taking a backseat to the bottom line? No wonder patients and health care providers alike feel so frustrated, demoralized, and disempowered. Something’s gotta change. According to the same FDA official, “If requested, the agency could approve a lower-priced generic version of the drug for another use that doctors could prescribe 'off label.'” The official also said that the agency would not prevent compounding pharmacies from continuing to provide 17-P unless patient safety is thought to be at risk. “We have our hands full pursuing our enforcement priorities,” the official said to the Washington Post. “And it’s not illegal for a physician to write a prescription for a compounded drug or for a patient to take a compounded drug. We certainly are concerned about access of patients to medication.” So if you or anyone you know had a previous preterm baby, tell them to ask their doctor about prescribing 17-P. If the doctor thinks they are a good candidate for 17-P, suggest getting it from a compounding pharmacy, rather than supporting a Big Pharma company that’s trying to screw us all. I still have my issues with Big Pharma, but I do understand that pharmaceutical industries pay big bucks to support research programs that help us all. I do understand that it’s a business and that they need to make their money in the first seven years, while their drug is still under patent. I get that their business model supports innovation and the creation of drugs that move us forward, and that without them, we might lag in our pharmaceutical options. But this drug has been around forever. And it’s a natural hormone. I mean seriously people! Get a heart. These are pregnant women we’re talking about. These are preemie babies we’re trying to save. This is an old, natural hormone that you didn’t just invent, KV. Do something right for a change. Put the health of people above the bottom line. Or at least back off the compounding pharmacies and let people seek this potentially life-saving hormone elsewhere. It’s the right thing to do. What do you think of this? Is your blood boiling like mine is? How did this happen? When did we lose the heart of medicine? Speaking up on behalf of mothers and babies everywhere, PS: Woah, check out this Washington Post article from this morning -- "FDA to allow cheaper preterm baby drug". Looks like the FDA is stepping in -- but still, how do you feel about this whole controversy? I'm glad the FDA is stepping up to the plate and laying off of compounding pharmacies, but still outraged that KV even tried something like this in our health care system.. On that note, I’m hard at work on a manifesto about this very topic (not so much Big Pharma, but reclaiming the heart of healing). So stay tuned… Lissa Rankin, MD: Founder of OwningPink.com, Pink Medicine Woman coach, motivational speaker, and author of What’s Up Down There? Questions You’d Only Ask Your Gynecologist If She Was Your Best Friend and Encaustic Art: The Complete Guide To Creating Fine Art With Wax. When you comment on an Owning Pink blog post, we invite you to be authentic and loving, to say what you feel, to hold sacred space so others feel heard, and to refrain from using hurtful or offensive language. Differing opinions are welcomed, but if you cannot express yourself in a respectful, caring manner, your comments will be deleted by the Owning Pink staff.

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Helping the Overweight Child Helping your child with social and emotional concerns It doesn't take long for children to figure out that our culture and their peers idealize thinness. Children who are overweight are especially at risk of being teased and feeling alone. This can cause low self-esteem and Reference depression Opens New Window. For information about helping a child who is being teased, see the topic Reference Bullying. To help your child have greater health, confidence, and self-esteem, you can: - Avoid talking in terms of your child's weight. How you talk about your child's body has a big impact on your child's self-image. Instead, talk in terms of your child's health, activity level, and other healthy lifestyle choices. - Be a good role model by having a healthy attitude about food and activity. Even if you struggle with how you feel about your own body, avoid talk in front of your child about "being fat" and "needing to diet." Instead, talk about and make the same healthy lifestyle choices you'd like for your child. - Encourage activities, such as sports and theater. Physical activity helps build physical and emotional confidence. Try different types of sports and activities until your child finds one that he or she likes. Theater can help a child project strength and confidence, even if he or she doesn't feel it at first. - Encourage social involvement in community, church, and school activities, which build social skills and confidence. - Help your child eat well by providing healthy food choices. Consider seeing a Reference registered dietitian Opens New Window for guidance and new food ideas. - Forbid any child (yours included) to tease another child about weight. Talk to your child's teachers and/or counselors, if necessary. |By:||Reference Healthwise Staff||Last Revised: Reference August 29, 2011| |Medical Review:||Reference John Pope, MD - Pediatrics Reference Rhonda O'Brien, MS, RD, CDE - Certified Diabetes Educator

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20 Spring Crafts and Activities for Kids Written by Jen Betterley A favorite Montessori classroom lesson for children, this flower-arranging activity featured on Modern Parents Messy Kids is perfect for a little bit of "edutainment" while gathering your garden's spring blooms! To get started, simply head outside with a basket to gather flowers or foliage and have a tray waiting inside with the following included: scissors, a small vase or two, a small water pitcher or cup, and a doily or two for a little extra decorative flair. Be sure to check out the rest of this post for four additional "introductory activities for the Montessori newbie." Lots of easy and neat ideas for plenty of learning fun at home!

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Home > National Parks of Canada > Bear Management in the Rocky Mountain National Parks > Safety Bear-human encounters are a risk for people and bears alike. The following information outlines how you can proactively reduce your risk of a bear encounter and, by so doing help conserve bears too. The "Bare" Campsite Program BEARS AND PEOPLE A Guide to Safety and Conservation on the Trail

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We look at five technologies that look set to become part of every day lives very soon, to find out how they'll change our lives. This technology could be a game-changer for device connectivity. A modern desktop computer today may include jacks to accommodate ethernet, USB 2.0, FireWire 400 or 800 (IEEE 1394a or 1394b) or both, DVI or DisplayPort or both, and - on some -eSATA. USB 3.0 could eliminate all of these except ethernet. In their place, a computer may have several USB 3.0 ports, delivering data to monitors, retrieving it from scanners, and exchanging it with hard drives. The improved speed comes at a good time, as much-faster flash memory drives are in the pipeline. USB 3.0 is fast enough to allow uncompressed 1080p video (currently our highest-definition video format) at 60 frames per second, says Jeff Ravencraft, president and chair of the USB-IF. That would enable a camcorder to forgo video compression hardware and patent licensing fees for MPEG-4. The user could either stream video live from a simple camcorder (with no video processing required) or store it on an internal drive for later rapid transfer; neither of these methods is feasible today without heavy compression. Citing 3.0's versatility, some analysts see the standard as a possible complement - or even alternative - to the consumer HDMI connection found on today's Blu-ray players. The new USB flavor could also turn computers into real charging stations. Whereas USB 2.0 can produce 100 milliamperes (mA) of trickle charge for each port, USB 3.0 ups that quantity to 150mA per device. USB 2.0 tops out at 500mA for a hub; the maximum for USB 3.0 is 900mA. With mobile phones moving to support USB as the standard plug for charging and syncing, the increased amperage of USB 3.0 might let you do away with wall warts (AC adapters) of all kinds. In light of the increased importance and use of USB in its 3.0 version, future desktop computers may very well have two internal hubs, with several ports easily accessible in the front to act as a charging station. Each hub could have up to six ports and support the full amperage. Meanwhile, laptop machines could multiply USB ports for better charging and access on the road. (Apple's Mac Mini already includes five USB 2.0 ports on its back.) The higher speed of 3.0 will accelerate data transfers, of course, moving more than 20GB of data per minute. This will make performing backups (and maintaining offsite backups) of increasingly large collections of images, movies, and downloaded media a much easier job. Possible new applications for the technology include on-the-fly syncs and downloads (as described in the case study above). The USB-IF's Ravencraft notes that customers could download movies at the gas pump at of a filling station. "With high-speed USB [2.0], you couldn't have people waiting in line at 15 minutes a crack to download a movie," Ravencraft says. Manufacturers are poised to take advantage of USB 3.0, and analysts predict mass adoption of the standard on computers within a couple of years. The format will be popular in mobile devices and consumer electronics, as well. Ravencraft says that manufacturers currently sell more than 2 billion devices with built-in USB each year, so there's plenty of potential for getting the new standard out fast. NEXT PAGE: Video streaming over Wi-Fi

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A Brief Study of Story: Reading and Writing We'll focus on the aspects of a story, plot, and characterization and help you develop them by reading your work. At each session, we'll do a free write and discuss the reading and writing. We'll read between one and three stories from people in the class and one story by a pro each week. There will be little points on grammar and style, adapted to the habits of the class. There are currently no classes scheduled for this course. Please check back at a later time or contact WDCE to see when the course will be offered again.

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is a C based interpreter (runloop) that executes, what different compiler (like Mildew ) produce. If you want to help SMOP, you can just take on one of the lowlevel S1P implementations and write it. If you have any questions ask ruoso or pmurias at #perl6 @ irc.freenode.org. The Slides for the talk Perl 6 is just a SMOP are available, it introduces a bit of the reasoning behind SMOP. A newer version of the talk presented at YAPC::EU 2008 is available SMOP is an alternative implementation of a C engine to run Perl 6. It is focused in getting the most pragmatic approach possible, but still focusing in being able to support all Perl 6 features. Its core resembles Perl 5 in some ways, and it differs from Parrot in many ways, including the fact that SMOP is not a Virtual Machine. SMOP is simply a runtime engine that happens to have a interpreter run loop. The main difference between SMOP and Parrot (besides the not-being-a-vm thing), is that SMOP is from bottom-up an implementation of the Perl 6 OO features, in a way that SMOP should be able to do a full bootstrap of the Perl 6 type system. Parrot on the other hand have a much more static low-level implementation (the PMC) The same way PGE is a project on top of Parrot, SMOP will need a grammar engine for itself. SMOP is the implementation that is stressing the meta object protocol more than any other implementation, and so far that has been a very fruitful exercise, with Larry making many clarifications on the object system thanks to SMOP. Important topics on SMOP - SMOP doesn't recurse in the C stack, and it doesn't actually define a mandatory paradigm (stack-based or register-based). SMOP has a Polymorphic Eval, that allows you to switch from one interpreter loop to another using Continuation Passing Style. See SMOP Stackless. - SMOP doesn't define a object system in its own. The only thing it defines is the concept of SMOP Responder Interface, which then encapsulates whatever object system. This feature is fundamental to implement the SMOP Native Types. - SMOP is intended to bootstrap itself from the low-level to the high-level. This is achieved by the fact that everything in SMOP is an Object. This way, even the low-level objects can be exposed to the high level runtime. See SMOP OO Bootstrap. - SMOP won't implement a parser in its own, it will use STD or whatever parser gets ported to its runtime first. - In order to enable the bootstrap, the runtime have a set of SMOP Constant Identifiers that are available for the sub-language compilers to use. - There are some special SMOP Values Not Subject to Garbage Collection. - A new interpreter implementation SMOP Mold replaced SLIME - The "official" smop Perl 6 compiler is mildew - it lives in v6/mildew - Currently there exists an old Elf backend which targets SMOP - it lives in misc/elfish/elfX SMOP GSoC 2009 See the Old SMOP Changelog

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Written by Jeff Mackey Like many of you, we were appalled by photos that have surfaced showing a visibly terrified monkey crudely strapped into a restraint device in which he was reportedly launched into space by the Iranian Space Agency (ISA). Back in 2011, our friends at PETA U.K. urged agency head Dr. Hamid Fazeli to ground the misguided mission, pointing out that nonhuman primates are no longer sent into space by the American or European It appears that Iran is repeating the wasteful and cruel mistakes that marked the darkest days of the space race. Monkeys are smart and sensitive animals who not only are traumatized by the violence and noise of a launch and landing but also suffer when caged in a laboratory before and after a flight—if they survive. the use of primates in space radiation experiments in the early 1990s, following protests by PETA. In 2010, NASA's plans to restart the program were canceled after PETA and others voiced strong ethical and scientific objections to the Similarly, the European Space Agency (ESA) has a very active space exploration program and has publicly stated that it "declines any interest in monkey research and does not consider any need or use for such results." The ESA instead employs modern technology such as state-of-the-art simulators to assess health risks for Whether it happens in Iran or Ireland, in an underground laboratory or in outer space, cruelly exploiting animals for specious science is indefensible. We've reached out to the ISA once again to ask it to stop shooting monkeys into space. Learn how you can help stop experimentation on all animals. you have a general question for PETA and would like a response, please e-mail [email protected]. If you need to report cruelty to an animal, please click here. If you are reporting an animal in imminent danger and know where to find the animal and if the abuse is taking place right now, please call your local police department. If the police are unresponsive, please call PETA immediately at 757-622-7382 and press 2. Follow PETA on Twitter! Almost all of us grew up eating meat, wearing leather, and going to circuses and zoos. We never considered the impact of these actions on the animals involved. For whatever reason, you are now asking the question: Why should animals have rights? Read more.

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Dropping a pound or two isn't necessarily a bad thing, especially if your pet's packing a few extra. But weight loss should be controlled, gradual and supervised by your veterinarian. Sudden, unexpected weight loss usually signals an underlying health problem. Cats, in particular, need frequent weight monitoring to prevent hepatic lipidosis, a debilitating liver disease. Some pets lose weight in the heat of summer when rising temperatures curb their appetite. At the other extreme, you'll find some pets losing weight during frigid weather because they're burning more energy while trying to keep warm. Other common causes of weight loss include stress and lactation. Healthy boarded pets may shed some pounds because of diet changes or the stress of a new environment, and nursing mothers burn more calories as their bodies produce milk. Although normal, these responses to environmental or lifestyle changes mean your pet uses and needs, more calories to meet increased energy requirements. Diet plays a crucial role in weight maintenance. Undernourishment and weight loss occur in pets who are fed poor-quality, inedible or spoiled food. Many underlying medical conditions such as dental disease, gastrointestinal disorders (including parasites), diabetes mellitus, liver or kidney disease, congestive heart failure and cancer make eating and absorbing nutrients difficult. Other conditions, including hyperthyroidism, fever and chronic infections, increase your pet's metabolism and the rate she burns calories. The result can be dramatic weight loss. What You Can Do at Home A nutritious diet and lots of fresh water are your pet's best defenses against unwanted weight loss. Feed your pet the right amount of high-quality food that's appropriate for her life stage and activity level. And make sure she visits the veterinarian at least once a year for a thorough examination and parasite prevention. When to Call the Veterinarian See your veterinarian whenever your pet experiences unexplained weight loss. Call the doctor immediately if your pet exhibits additional symptoms such as vomiting, diarrhea, fever or increased thirst or urination. Literally hundreds of conditions can cause weight loss in pets, so please be patient as the veterinarian makes his or her diagnosis. Though some of these conditions are serious, most pets who have slimmed down quickly, soon return to their original weight with no complications.

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These days, students come from all walks of life and enter college for a variety of reasons, and with a variety of expectations. Many of these students are acutely aware of the affect collegiate life will have on future career options, and use their college experiences to discover and refine a career path that will satisfy them. Other students are in the midst of their careers and either want to change career paths or are looking for job training to advance their careers. Career planning is a valuable exercise for any of these students. A good starting point in deciding what course of collegiate study would best prepare you for a career is to analyze very thoughtfully what particular skills are strengths for you. In general, are you adept at working with people, or numbers, or the written word, and so forth? What subjects in high school or activities since graduating have had the most appeal for you? You should make a list of the activities you enjoy and the subjects you like to read about or discuss. Another valuable career planning activity is to read up on career information. Research careers that you are interested in and that would utilize your strengths. What type of education is required to get into the field? Do you need a graduate degree? Will you need to pursue a long internship or residency program? Are you willing to spend the time it takes to fulfill these requirements? Remember, you don't have to have all the answers, but if you have an idea in mind, it can only help you. With possible careers in mind, you can research the college majors that are relevant. You can determine what colleges offer strong programs in your chosen majors, or if a career college would be a good option.

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Hyperparathyroidism in Dogs Excessive Levels of Parathyroid Hormone in the Blood in Dogs The parathyroid hormone is responsible for regulating calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood, increasing blood calcium levels by causing calcium to be reabsorbed from bone. The parathyroid glands are small, hormone-secreting glands that are located on or near the thyroid glands. The term para- refers to adjacent or alongside, and thyroid refers to the actual thyroid gland; the thyroid and parathyroid glands are located side by side in the neck, near the windpipe or trachea. Hyperparathyroidism is a medical condition related to the parathyroid glands, in which over active parathyroid glands cause abnormally high levels of parathyroid hormone (also known as parathormone or PTH) to circulate in the blood. Primary hyperparathyroidism refers to a condition in which a tumor in the parathyroid gland produces excessive levels of parathyroid hormone, leading to increased blood calcium levels (hypercalcemia). Secondary hyperparathyroidism can be caused by a deficiency of calcium and vitamin D, and is associated with malnutrition or long-term (chronic) kidney disease. There is no known genetic cause for primary hyperparathyroidism, but its association with certain breeds suggests a possible hereditary basis in some cases. Secondary hyperparathyroidism can develop in association with hereditary kidney disease (known as hereditary nephropathy), but is not inherited per se. Keeshonds seem to show some predilection for this disease. In dogs, the average age is ten years, with a range of 5 to 15 years of age. Symptoms and Types Your veterinarian will be looking for cancer first and foremost for the cause for this disease. However, several other possibilities will also be considered, such as renal failure and vitamin D intoxication, which have been known to be found in some rodenticides. Other possibilities are too much calcium in the blood. A urinalysis will reveal calcium and phosphate levels. Serum ionized calcium determination is often normal in patients with chronic renal failure and high in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism or hypercalcemia that is associated with a malignancy. If kidney stones are suspected, your veterinarian may use X-ray and ultrasound imaging of the parathyroid gland to discover whether there is tumor there. If nothing can be found using these diagnostic techniques, your veterinarian may need to use surgery to explore the area of the thyroid and parathyroid. The failure of the kidneys to perform their proper functions A gland found in the neck of humans and animals that secretes glands responsible for metabolic rate, calcitonin, and others. An in-depth examination of the properties of urine; used to determine the presence or absence of illness The name for four glands that are located on the top of the thyroid gland that help to regulate the amount of calcium in the blood The windpipe; it carries air from the bronchi to the mouth The hormone that is created from the parathyroid glands; helps to regulate the calcium level of an animal’s blood Something with an electrical charge Something that becomes worse or life threatening as it spreads A condition of poor health that results from poor feeding or no feeding at all A low level of calcium in the blood Excess Calcium in the Blood in Dogs Parathyroid hormone and vitamin D interactions work to release calcium from the bones,... Overproduction of Estrogen in Dogs Overproduction of estrogen can result in what is known as estrogen toxicity (hyperestrogenism).... Latest In Dog Nutrition Five Life-Lengthening Health Tips for Your ... Anyone who has ever had a dog or cat wishes just one thing — that he or she has a... How Antioxidants Improve Our Pet's Health, ... The science behind pet nutrition continues to make major advances. One such example...

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http://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/endocrine/c_dg_excess_parathyroid_hormone

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The process of accretion is important in the formation of planets, stars, and black holes; it is also believed to power some of the most energetic phenomena in the universe. In an accretion disc, the accretion rate is controlled by the outward transport of angular momentum. Collisional processes like friction or viscosity are typically too small to account for the observed rates, and it is universally believed that astrophysical accretion discs are turbulent. However the origin of this turbulence is not clear since discs with velocity profiles close to Keplerian are stable to infinitesimal perturbations. In the early nineties it was realized that the stability picture changes dramatically if magnetic fields or nonlinear effects are present. In this talk I will describe how some of these issues can be discussed within the framework of the flow of a conducting fluid between coaxial rotating cylinders. I will also describe some of the experiments that are on the way to study these flows as well as the computational efforts to clarify the nature of the ensuing turbulent transport. ANL Physics Division Colloquium Schedule

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Exposure to vehicle exhaust emissions can cause serious health problems for your employees. At Plymovent, we know what the danger of exposure to hazardous exhaust fumes can be. We continuously review safety management guidelines and listen to what the independent experts have to say: - OSHA – The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has set a permissible exposure limit of 1 part of Benzene per million parts of air (1 ppm) in the workplace during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek. - The EPA has classified benzene as a Group A carcinogen. - CDC – The Centers for Disease Control & Prevention reports that exhaust from any improperly maintained vehicle can pose serious hazards.The most common source of carbon monoxide is automobile exhaust vented in confined spaces. Proper ventilation and prevention of carbon monoxide build-up in confined spaces must be assured. - NIOSH – The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, states that there can be no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen; therefore NIOSH’s Threshold Limit Value is “lowest feasible level.” Plymovent systems are designed to meet or exceed the standards of the most exacting health and safety codes –worldwide!

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The Palisades Museum of Prehistory (PMOP), incorporated in Washington DC, is a non-profit regional organization dedicated to promoting the awareness and preservation of prehistoric artifacts in the Palisades of Washington DC. The PMOP will accomplish its mission by providing information, education, and archaeological guidance. In addition to curation and preservation of prehistoric artifacts, the PMOP will assemble a library of archaeological records, maps, and surveys pertinent to the region’s prehistory. These records are now housed in disparate locations e.g. universities, National Park Service, State Historic Preservation Offices, Smithsonian archives. The localized information will be made available in the museum located in the Palisades of Washington DC. More interest in our prehistory will hopefully allow the PMOP to organize a volunteer network that can react rapidly to events exposing our prehistory - like road works, building excavations, and erosion. The bulk of prehistoric data remains locked up in government agencies and academic institutions. Many in the archaeological profession believe that releasing this information will encourage people to collect artifacts on federal lands. However well-intentioned, this mindset continues to exact a toll on the prehistoric record. Ignorance of history will guarantee the obliteration of the archeological record as more development continues with little regard to the people who onced lived here. By providing the public access to the archaeological record, PMOP will boost awareness of our area's human history. In the end, both professionals and public will benefit from the increase of knowledge. Because our region’s prehistory spans at least 12,000 years, waves of indigenous cultures have come and gone dispersing evidence over broad geographic areas. The ravages of time have thinned much of that evidence. By recovering more evidence over a broader area, and making that information public, the PMOP hopes to raise awareness and understanding of those who lived here for thousands of years. In terms of human evolution, the formative years of our species existed in lithic cultures. By greatly expanding the knowledge base of those cultures, the Palisades Museum of Prehistory hopes to shed light on our human nature.

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July 24, 2009 Mark S. Blumberg is Professor and Starch Faculty Fellow at the University of Iowa. His books include The Oxford Handbook of Developmental Behavioral Neuroscience, Body Heat: Temperature and Life on Earth, and Basic Instinct: The Genesis of Behavior. He is Editor-in-Chief of the journal Behavioral Neuroscience, and President of the International Society for Developmental Psychobiology. His newest book is Freaks of Nature: What Anomalies Tell Us About Development and Evolution. In this conversation with D.J. Grothe, Mark Blumberg describes how he became interested in "freaks of nature" as a way to question prevailing concepts within biology regarding genes, instincts, and pre-formed abilities. He talks about why he sees genetic determinism as "action at a distance thinking," and why he thinks it is similar to creationist views, and describes both as "magical ways of thinking about nature." He explains epigenetics. He describes how certain non-genetic factors that shape behavior may be inherited from one generation to the next. He discusses "sexual freaks" and sexual ambiguity in nature, and shows how in many ways, it is the norm in nature. He predicts the extinction of creationist thinking, and talks about how freaks of nature are a missed opportunity for those science advocates battling intelligent design and creationism, even as he also criticizes belief in "evolution's design" and "magical genes." He contrasts his views with those of evolutionary psychology as regards brain development. And he responds to notable critics of his views, such as Jerry Coyne. Books Mentioned in This Episode: Basic Instinct: The Genesis of Behavior Mark S. Blumberg February 27, 2009

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http://www.pointofinquiry.org/mark_blumberg_freaks_of_nature

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by Virginia B. Hargrove The fish tank at the dentist's draws my kids like a magnet. They excitedly tell one another stories about each fish. Little kids...big imaginations. As I waited through their appointments, I thought about a nifty way to put those active imaginations to work! When we got home, we were going to create an edible aquarium in a cup! This is one "pet" you won't have to worry about! What better way to celebrate National Jello Week February 12-18! • Clear plastic or glass containers • A skewer or small plastic makeup paddle • 2 cups lemon-lime flat soda • 1 tablespoon unflavored gelatin • 2 drops blue food coloring • Small colorful candy for the gravel • Fish shaped crackers, gummy fish, or other edible "ocean" critters Blossom your gelatin. Isn't that a descriptive term? I expect to see those little granules open up into roses...or for this project into sea anemones. It means to sprinkle the gelatin evenly over 1/4 cup soda (or water), and let stand five minutes to soften. Place 1/2 cup soda in a small saucepan over medium heat. Heat just to boiling. Add the softened gelatin, stirring to dissolve the gelatin completely over the heat, about 2 minutes. Remove from heat. Add the remaining soda and food coloring, and stir to combine. Pour the liquid into a bowl. Transfer to the refrigerator to chill until partially set. You want it to be a little thick, but still mushy and movable but not watery. Fish placed in the middle of the aquarium should stay there. Check every 15 minutes Once your fish bowl "water" thickens, call the kids! Empty some "gravel" (colorful candies) into each container. Then gently spoon in the gelatin solution. Fill it up to the desired water level. Now for the fun! Hand out a skewer or small make-up paddle to each child. Show how to use it to push candies into the "water." Sit back and watch (or make your own) as they load up their cups. Use gummy worms for eels, stick fish or seaweed. Add gummy fish and top it off with a gummy life preserver. Once your child's happy with the fish bowl, place it in the refrigerator until completely set. Then eat and enjoy! Caution: Each time our kids raved about this project to their friends, we had to set up another fish bowl making day! Do you have a project that seems to attract the entire neighborhood? Please share it with us. Copyright © Pregnancy.org.

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A Fertility Specialist Tells You About This Medication Used In The Treatment Of Infertility Mark Kan, MD What is Clomid, and how does it work? The expert answers Clomiphene citrate (also known as Clomid or Serophene) is a medication that is commonly used in fertility treatment. Because it is relatively inexpensive and can be administered orally, clomiphene is generally one of the first medications prescribed for patients who do not ovulate regularly. In women who do ovulate regularly, clomiphene may be used for "superovulation," where 2 or 3 eggs are produced. This increases the number of "targets" for the sperm, thereby increasing the chance of pregnancy. Clomiphene is normally administered for five days during the follicular part of the cycle (the portion of the cycle following menstrual bleeding). Clomiphene is structurally similar to estrogen and acts on the estrogen receptor. First approved by the FDA in 1967, it has recently been reclassified as a selective-estrogen-receptor-modulator (SERM). How does clomiphene work? The hormonal signals that cause the ovarian follicles to grow are released from the pituitary gland. These hormones are named Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Leutinizing Hormone (LH) for their actions in the ovary. The pituitary receives its signals from the hypothalamus in the brain. Clomiphene blocks the estrogen receptor and "tricks" the brain into thinking there are low levels of estrogen. The pituitary responds by releasing more FSH and LH, thus stimulating follicular growth in the ovaries. Whereas clomiphene "tricks" the pituitary into producing more FSH and LH, gonadotropin injections of FSH and LH increase the amount of signals directly. Treatment with these injections requires more intensive monitoring than does therapy with clomiphene. In general, treatment with fertility medications is initiated to help women overcome ovulatory dysfunction, or to produce multiple eggs so there is a higher chance of achieving pregnancy. In the "Clomiphene citrate challenge test" (CCCT), clomiphene is administered and FSH levels are compared before and after treatment. In theory, clomiphene blocks the negative feedback of estrogen, leaving only inhibin (a substance that inhibits FSH) to suppress FSH. In some women, inhibin alone is not able to block the high levels of FSH without the help of estrogen. The CCCT will therefore be abnormal and show high FSH levels after clomiphene in women with diminished ovarian reserve. While the CCCT may help to identify some patients with diminished ovarian reserve, there is no single test that can predict which patients can or cannot become pregnant.

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While writing dissertation framing a layout can prove to be very help. In a dissertation the writer has to put all his/ her experiences learned through different incidents occured in life on the paper. In a dissertation one has to bring all his logical abilities onto the paper. One has to conclude based on his leanings on the topic through out his life. This becomes tough when you are writing straight from your mind. Thus before proceeding with the dissertation framing of outline will give you clear picture of what the final result is going to like. Plan all the parts in the outline that is going to be included in the dissertation and prevent any future disasters. There are two key points that will help you getting the perfect dissertation: A. Dissertation proposal: A brief background to the proposed study - Review of the Literature - Theoretical Model (if used) - Statement of the Problem Design of the Study - Hypotheses or Questions - Definition of Terms - Population and Sample - Data Collection - Significance of the Study - Limitations of the Study - How are you going to analyse the data, tools that you are going to use and how are going to represent it? - What kinds of operations will you put the data through to result in your findings? Important points you should remember: - The proposal should not be very lengthy, a maximum of 20 pages will work out perfectly. - More emphasis should be given to review of literature and the research design. Lets say half of the proposal should talk about review of literature and another half about research design. - Must go through several sample dissertation before submitting the proposal. B. Outline of the project This outline can be modified as per the university’s requirement of submisson: Chapter I (Introduction) - Background of the study - Problem statement - Purpose of the study - Research questions - Hypothesis or objectives Chapter II (Review of literature) - Review of empirical studies. Chapter III (Research Methodology) - Research design - Sample size - Instruments to be used for computation of data - Data analysis Chapter IV (Data analysis & results) Chapter V (Conclusion) - Final findings of the study - Interpretation of results - Limiations of the study Finally at the end its the refferences and appendices. Its crucial to properly mention all the reffered material and calculation sheets here. Now that you have unlocked the secrets of writing a dissertation. Now start up your work, without even thinking of messing it up.

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judgments on teaching and other inadequacies. They learned, too, to demand structural changes to benefit their children. This was most evident in the Wisconsin desegregation cases. An increasingly critical activism by parents suggested that Hmong were learning how to contend for improved schools in the American mode. Civil rights approaches were being utilized by Hmong. In Laos, the problem for parents was to get governmental authorities to build and conduct schools for Hmong children. In the United States, the schools existed but operated unequally. Questia, a part of Gale, Cengage Learning. www.questia.com Publication information: Book title: Asian-American Education:Historical Background and Current Realities. Contributors: Meyer Weinberg - Author. Publisher: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Place of publication: Mahwah, NJ. Publication year: 1997. Page number: 199. This material is protected by copyright and, with the exception of fair use, may not be further copied, distributed or transmitted in any form or by any means.

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Caspian countries come together to discuss protection of the Caspian Sea, Turkmenbashy, Turkmenistan Malheureusement, il n'y a pas de version française de ce document. On 5 and 6 November 2012, the Caspian Ecological Forum, hosted by Tukmenistan’s Ministry of Nature Protection, was held along the shores of the Caspian Sea in the Avaza national tourist zone, not far from the Turmenbashy Bay Ramsar Site. |Turmenbashy Bay Ramsar Site (© Ramsar Secretariat)| Turkmenistan acceded to the Ramsar Convention in 2009 and designated 267,124 ha of the Hazar Nature Reserve as a wetland of International Importance under the name ‘Turkmenbashy Bay Ramsar Site’. Turkmenistan now has a Ramsar Working Group made up of experts and representatives of the Ministry of Nature Protection. The event provided a platform for constructive dialogue and cooperation for the wise use of the resource-rich Caspian Sea. The forum was attended by representatives of environmental and fisheries agencies and academics of the Caspian countries, with delegations from Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkmenistan. Representatives of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Convention on Combating Desertification (UNCCD), as well as oil and gas companies operating in the Caspian shelf also participated in the forum. The Caspian Sea is the world's largest landlocked water body; with its particular climatic and salinity gradients and its isolation, it is home to about 400 endemic species, including the world's largest herd of sturgeon (90 percent of the world reserves) and the endangered Caspian Seal Pusa caspica. Following the early days of the Caspian Environment Programme in 1995, The Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea (Tehran Convention) was ratified by the Caspian littoral states in 2006. It is the first legally binding regional agreement ratified by all five Caspian states, and defines the general requirements and institutional mechanism for the protection of the marine environment of the Caspian Sea. Four protocols to the Convention have currently been developed by the countries, they focus on biodiversity conservation; land-based sources of pollution; preparedness, response and cooperation in combating oil pollution incidents; and environmental impact assessment in a transboundary context. The Ramsar Secretariat would like to thank Turkmenistan for the invitation and generous hospitality, and for its dedication to ecological conservation, and expresses its readiness to assist and support all Caspian states for the wise use and protection of the Caspian Sea. Report by Nessrine Alzahlawi, Assistant Advisor for Asia-Oceania

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Titan's Ethane Lake This artist concept shows a mirror-smooth lake on the surface of the smoggy moon Titan. Cassini scientists have concluded that at least one of the large lakes observed on Saturn's moon Titan contains liquid hydrocarbons, and have positively identified ethane. This result makes Titan the only place in our solar system beyond Earth known to have liquid on its surface. The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter was designed, developed and assembled at JPL. For more information about the Cassini-Huygens mission visit http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov.

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History of the Indians of the United States by Angie Debo The political, social, and military conflicts and foul-ups between the Indians and whites from the colonial era to the 1970s. 6 x 9 450 pages, index, maps, illustrated, paperbound #300 Indians in the US $24.95 by Barry C. Kent Culturally and linguistically, the Susquehannocks closely resembled the Iroquois of New York state. Actually, they were a fiercely independent nation that lived along the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania and Maryland. They often invaded the tribes of lower Maryland. This is a detailed narrative of the Susquehannocks' lifestyle, villages, and artifacts. Also describes their relationship with the Conestogas, Conoy, Shawnee, Delaware, and other tribes that lived along the river. 6" x 9" 440 pages, index, illustrated, maps, paperbound #372 Susquehanna's Indians $16.95 Indians and World War II by Alison R. Bernstein The impact of World War II on Indian affairs was more provound and lasting than that of any other event or policy, including FDR's Indian New Deal and eforts to terminate federal responsibility for tribes under Eisenhower. Focusing on the period from 1941 to 1947, Bernstein explains why termination and tribal self-determination wer logical results of the Indians' World War II experiences in battle and on the home front. Includes a brief story of the Navajo Marine Codetalkers and Ira Hayes, a Pima Indian who helped raise the flag at Iwo Jima. 5½" x 8½" 247 pages, index, some photos, paperbound #373 Indians & WWII $19.95 FAX: 717 464-3250

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Physical Activity at School RWJF Priority: Increase the time, intensity and duration of physical activity during the school day and out-of-school programs Schools play a critical role in helping children lead active, healthy lives. By requiring active participation in daily physical education classes, providing activity breaks throughout the day, and supporting walking and bicycling to school, schools can increase students’ physical activity. After-school programs located in schools, parks and recreational centers also can develop innovative ways to help children be active. The resources below, from RWJF grantees and partners, highlight recent efforts to examine and develop programs and policies that help children be active before, during and after the school day.

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Long ago Fisher-Man lived with his elder brothers in a sweat-house, they say. Now he said to the Cottontail people, "Ye must remain at home, ye must stay here! I shall go away. Ye must stay close, must not go about. Thither, in that direction, I shall go in the morning." Then he went. Now, all those people, those boys, staid there. He had explained to them when he would return. "So many times dawning, at the sixth dawning I (shall) have returned," said he, "if other people do not choke me on the road. Do ye stay there close (at home)." So they staid. In the morning one of them crawled out when it was dawning. After he had sat a while, standing up, (he went and) sat on the edge of the smoke-hole. Now opposite, they say, that Wood-Rat lived in a sweat-house with his grandmother. From thence Wood-Rat crawled out. "How are you?" said he, said Wood-Rat. "Ugly Wood-Rat-Man, defecating on his grandmother's blanket, stinking, defecating all over the house, urinating all about, dirty-acting Wood-Rat!" said (Cottontail). "His p. 220 p. 221 house stinks," he said. Then Wood-Rat-Man said, "Ham, ham! My grandmother, bring out my net! He calls me very bad names." Then she brought it out. Then, having walked over, he stretched it across the door of the house. Then he stamped on the house (Cottontail's). He kept stamping, and then one (of the Cottontails) jumped out; and just as he did so, he was caught in the net. After a while, after he had gotten into (the net), Wood-Rat carried him across. And carrying him home, when he had carried him in, his grandmother skinned (the Cottontail) and cooked him; and, roasting him, they both had breakfast. Next morning, crawling out, Wood-Rat said, "Halloo!" Then one (of the Cottontails) stuck his head out. "Dirty, ugly Wood-Rat, defecating on his grandmother, urinating about, making things dirty, Wood-Rat, who stays where he has made it stink!" said he. Then he jumped in again. Then, "Ham, ham!" said (Wood-Rat). "He speaks evilly of me! My grandmother, hand out my net!" Thereupon he went over, and having gone over, and stretched the net in the doorway, he stamped, kept stamping, (on the roof). Then one (of the Cottontails) rushed out, and so was caught in the net. Meanwhile, having got him into the net, Wood-Rat carried him off. He carried him over to his grandmother; and, having given him to her, she skinned him, and they both had breakfast. Next morning, again, Wood-Rat crawled out. Then. he said, "Siī!" Then one (of the Cottontails) stuck his head out repeatedly. "Bad Wood-Rat, defecating on his grandmother's blanket, one who does dirty things, urinating all about the house, Wood-Rat, who does dirty things that make things stink!" he said. Then Wood-Rat said, "Ham, ham, ham! He calls me very bad names. Hurry and give me my net, my grandmother!" Then she gave it to him. p. 222 p. 223 Having gone over, he stretched it in the doorway, and then stamped on the house, kept stamping. By and by one rushed out, and was caught in the net. Then, having got him into the net, he carried him over. Meanwhile only one (Cottontail) was left, (who) had crawled over behind the fireplace. Now, Wood-Rat, having carried (the one he had caught) over, they skinned him, roasted him, and had their breakfast. Next morning, again, (Wood-Rat) crawled out. "Sh!" he said. But no one stuck out his head. Then said he, "There are none left. I have killed them all." Next morning, again, (Wood-Rat) stuck his head out. "Hiī," he said. Again no one looked out. "Well, my grandmother, I think I have killed them all," he said. "I did not see any, none crawled out." Then he remained there. Next day again he looked out. "Sī!" he said, but nobody looked out. "I guess I have killed them all," he said. That night, as it grew dark, Fisher-Man returned. He crawled in, and then (found) all had gone. Then one crawled out toward him from behind the fire, and said, "Wood-Rat chased us; and when he stamped on the house, (the others) ran out, and then he killed them," he said. "He continued doing this until he killed them all. I alone, not jumping out, (but) hiding and not moving, have kept alive." Then Fisher-Man said, "Hō!" In the morning Fisher went after him (Wood-Rat). Crossing over, he reached (the house), and, having crawled in, he killed both, grandmother and grandson. Then he spoke. "Now you are Wood-Rat-Man! Not bothering people, you shall live and run about where rocks lie all around, doing no harm to people," said he. "And mortal men shall say of you, 'Long ago Wood-Rat was a bad man.' So mortal men (will) tell of you." Then he went over, and, having returned to his house, remained there. p. 224 p. 225 In the morning, having fixed his bow, and having taken three quivers full of arrows, he went off. He went towards the east, and kept going, kept going. His brothers staid under a bush. Then, after he had gone some ways, he hung up one quiver of arrows, and went on. He kept going, kept going, and then a little ways off he hung up another quiver of arrows. He went on, kept going, and again a short ways off he came to a valley, a large valley. When he had looked down into it here and there, (he saw) there were brown bears feeding, and grizzly bears also feeding, it is said. One was feeding there in the very middle (of the valley). And it was a white bear, it is said, a silver-tip. So he (Fisher), having crept down into (the valley), ready to shoot, shot him. Then from there (the bear) ran after him, jumped at him, trying to catch him. And he (Fisher) ran up out of the valley. Meanwhile he kept shooting, and still continued to run up out of the valley, the bear jumping at him to seize him. He kept shooting; he shot dodging from side to side, he shot whatever he had (?). Meanwhile (the bear) jumped at him to seize him in his mouth. He (Fisher) kept running away and when all his arrows were shot, he reached the place where he had left the arrows, and, taking them down, he ran on up. He kept on shooting, and still (the bear) jumped at him to seize him in his mouth. Again it seems as if he came a little closer. He (Fisher) ran, dodging all the time, dodged as he ran. And meanwhile he shot. Only half his arrows were left, he had almost shot them all away. Meanwhile he ran on, he dodged, he shot. And, so doing, he shot all his arrows. And all being gone, he ran to the place where he had hung tip his arrows, and, having taken them down, he shot. The bear jumped to seize him in his arms, (but,) dodging as he ran, (Fisher) kept p. 226 p. 227 shooting. So continually shooting, (the bear) coming running up pretty close, he shot, dodging as he ran. And, so doing, he ran round and about the place where he had made his brothers stay. Meanwhile (the bear) still ran after him. And while he was doing thus, he (Fisher) killed him. Then he spoke. "You shall be bad. You shall not trouble mortal men when they see you," he said, speaking after he had killed him. "You shall not hunt to seize mortal men coming into the middle of this world. That, mortal men in story-telling, (shall say) of you. Then, 'Silver-Tip in the olden time killed people, (was) a killer, they say. Killing them, he was sent away from this world, they say. And then, they say, there were no Silver-Tips.' That (is what) mortal men (will) be saying of you," he said. Then he said, "Well, my brother! You must live on, staying in this sort of a place, staying squatting down under bushes. I shall be a traveller in this world in all countries; but you will be one who shall stay travelling about in this country only, going about only in this country," said he, speaking. Then he went on. "Well," said he, "I am going," said he. "Stay there!" said he, and he went off. And when he looked back, the ears (of the Cottontail) were shimmering (quivering?). So he went off, after looking back. That is all, it is said.

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|Product #: EMC2806035_TQ| Roots: migr, cert, capit (Resource Book Only) eBookGrade 6 Please Note: This ebook is a digital download, NOT a physical product. After purchase, you will be provided a one time link to download ebooks to your computer. Orders paid by PayPal require up to 8 business hours to verify payment and release electronic media. For immediate downloads, payment with credit card is required. This Vocabulary Fundamentals unit for grade 6+ provides three activity pages in which students learn about and use Greek and Latin root words to form words and understand their meaning. (For example, 'migr' = to change/move: migrate; 'capit' = to head: capital; 'civ' = city: civil; 'cert' = sure: certain; 'crit' = to judge or diminish: critical). Includes answer key. Submit a review

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|Product #: SDLSE91180002K_TQ| SMART Board E-Lessons for Grammar and Usage: Direct and Indirect Objects eBookGrade 9|Grade 10|Grade 11|Grade 12 Please Note: This ebook is a digital download, NOT a physical product. After purchase, you will be provided a one time link to download ebooks to your computer. Orders paid by PayPal require up to 8 business hours to verify payment and release electronic media. For immediate downloads, payment with credit card is required. Easy-to-use interactive whiteboard lessons for differentiated instruction in Language Arts. Lesson activities are powered by SMART Notebook collaborative learning software. Two levels are offered for differentiated instruction, middle school grades (4 to 8) and high school grades (9 to 12). Each grade covers the same basic topics, with the high school level being a little more advanced. Each screen provides answers to check the students work. Each lesson has 14 screens of instructions and activities. Lessons for the interactive whiteboard are aligned to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS). Submit a review

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Brazilian Journal of Microbiology versión impresa ISSN 1517-8382 KONIETZNY, Ursula y GREINER, Ralf. The application of PCR in the detection of mycotoxigenic fungi in foods. Braz. J. Microbiol. [online]. 2003, vol.34, n.4, pp. 283-300. ISSN 1517-8382. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822003000400001. It is estimated that 25 to 50% of the crops harvested worldwide are contaminated with mycotoxins. Because of the toxic and carcinogenic potential of mycotoxins, there is an urgent need to develop detection methods that are rapid and highly specific. The highly advanced physico-chemical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins in use, have the disadvantage that highly sophisticated clean-up and/or derivatization procedures must be applied. An alternative could be the detection of the mycotoxigenic moulds themselves, especially as molecular techniques have been introduced recently as powerful tools for detecting and identifying fungi. PCR methods for the detection of aflatoxigenic Aspergilli, patulin-producing Penicillum and trichothecene- as well as fumonisin-producing Fusaria strains have been described. The usefulness of the PCR methods developed so far to monitor quality and safety in the food an feed industry was already demonstrated. Thus, PCR may be applied to the screening of agricultural commodities for the absence of mycotoxin producers prior to or even after processing. Negative results in this assay indicate that a sample should be virtually free of mycotoxins. Only the positive samples left must be analyzed for the presence of mycotoxins using physico-chemical standard methods. This review does not only summarize the so far developed qualitative and quantitative PCR assays for the detection of mycotoxigenic fungi in agricultural commodities, foods and animal feeds, but describes also strategies to develop new specific PCR assays for such a detection. Palabras llave : aflatoxin; fumonisin; patulin; polymerase chain reaction; trichothecene.

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Bulletin of the World Health Organization versión impresa ISSN 0042-9686 LANSANG, Mary Ann y DENNIS, Rodolfo. Building capacity in health research in the developing world. Bull World Health Organ [online]. 2004, vol.82, n.10, pp. 764-770. ISSN 0042-9686. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S0042-96862004001000012. Strong national health research systems are needed to improve health systems and attain better health. For developing countries to indigenize health research systems, it is essential to build research capacity. We review the positive features and weaknesses of various approaches to capacity building, emphasizing that complementary approaches to human resource development work best in the context of a systems and long-term perspective. As a key element of capacity building, countries must also address issues related to the enabling environment, in particular: leadership, career structure, critical mass, infrastructure, information access and interfaces between research producers and users. The success of efforts to build capacity in developing countries will ultimately depend on political will and credibility, adequate financing, and a responsive capacity-building plan that is based on a thorough situational analysis of the resources needed for health research and the inequities and gaps in health care. Greater national and international investment in capacity building in developing countries has the greatest potential for securing dynamic and agile knowledge systems that can deliver better health and equity, now and in the future. Palabras llave : Health services research [organization and administration]; Education, Graduate; Staff development; Investments; Access to information; Social justice; Academies and institutes; Interinstitutional relations; Developing countries; Developed countries.

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Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs, also known as prion diseases) are a group of progressive conditions that affect the brain and nervous system of humans and animals and are transmitted by prions.. For more information about the topic Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, read the full article at Wikipedia.org, or see the following related articles: Editor's Note: This article is not intended to provide medical advice, diagnosis or treatment. Recommend this page on Facebook, Twitter, and Google +1: Other bookmarking and sharing tools:

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Oct. 9, 1998 COLUMBIA, Mo.--Ducks, geese and bald eagles soaring over areas the size of small towns are envisioned when talking about federally protected wetlands, not areas that are maybe as big as a small swimming pool and apparently void of life. University of Missouri-Columbia Professor Ray Semlitsch is trying to change that view and explain the importance of smaller wetlands before they are managed out of existence. "Large wetlands are beautiful and need to be protected, but for some animal species such as frogs, toads and salamanders, it is small wetlands that support greater species diversity," said Semlitsch, who along with his graduate research assistant, Russ Bodie, recently published their research in Conservation Biology. "These smaller, temporary wetlands--because they are dry at certain times during the year--are much harder to appreciate than vast marsh areas. But without these smaller wetlands, it is very possible that much of the animal and plant life that make wetlands rich, productive habitats would not survive. We need to worry about the conservation of smaller wetlands as well as the larger ones." Small wetlands currently are defined as being less than 4 hectares, or about 8 to 9 acres. The majority of the nation's wetlands are much smaller than might be imagined, closer to 1 to 2 acres and sometimes as small as several square yards. These small wetlands may comprise the majority of wetlands in the United States and help support a vast diversity of wetland species. However, unlike the large wetlands, these smaller areas are not protected to the same extent. Recently, the Army Corp of Engineers, which manages wetlands of all sizes throughout the United States, drafted regulations that will change the way wetlands are managed in the future. They have put off any change in management regulations until April, but the MU researchers argue that the changes in the regulations could manage these smaller wetlands out of existence. "Right now we can't detect losses of small wetlands by satellite imagery, a technique used to assess environmental change," Bodie said. "We lose thousands of acres each year in wetlands and these smaller ones are not even taken into account. Yet, they play a vital role in the ecosystem and support a great variety of organisms." Research done by Semlitsch and Bodie has indicated that when some individuals of a species move between wetlands, this increases their chances of survival. By populating many different wetlands, various species thrive, even during drought years when some wetlands are dry. When smaller wetlands are destroyed, the chances of survival for many species' populations may decrease dramatically because distances between individual wetlands become longer, making movement between wetlands more difficult. These small wetland breeding sites for amphibians are especially critical in light of purported world-wide declines, Semlitsch said. Wetlands in general also have direct benefits to humans as they filter out chemicals and silt, buffer lands from flooding, and are a favorite of hunters and fishers. They also are very costly and difficult to develop for construction or other purposes. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: The above story is reprinted from materials provided by University Of Missouri, Columbia. Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Sep. 3, 2008 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill researchers have demonstrated that a drug called ondansetron helps reduce vomiting, the need for intravenous fluids and hospital admissions in children with acute gastroenteritis. Gastroenteritis is an infection, often caused by a virus, that causes vomiting and diarrhea. It is often popularly called “stomach flu” and is a very common ailment in children during the winter months. “Children under the age of 5 years generally have between one and three episodes of gastroenteritis each year,” said Dr. Lisa Ross DeCamp, lead author of the study, which is published in the September 2008 issue of Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine “And about one of every 25 children in the country will be hospitalized for gastroenteritis by the time they’re 5,” said DeCamp who was a chief resident at the N.C. Children’s Hospital at the time of the study but now works at the University of Michigan. In the emergency department at UNC Hospitals, five to 10 children a day are seen with symptoms of gastroenteritis, said Dr. Michael J. Steiner, assistant professor of pediatrics and a co-author of the study. Persistent vomiting from acute gastroenteritis can be very frightening to children and their families and also poses a risk of dehydration. Current practice guidelines do not recommend that doctors give medications to children with gastroenteritis, but several recent studies suggest that ondansetron might be helpful. In addition, Steiner said, many doctors are already prescribing ondansetron “off-label” for children with gastroenteritis. It has not been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for that indication, although it is approved for treating nausea caused by chemotherapy in cancer patients. To find out if there was valid scientific support for giving antiemetics to children with gastroenteritis, DeCamp, Steiner and two UNC colleagues -- Dr. Julie S. Byerly, assistant professor of pediatrics, and medical student Nipa Doshi -- conducted a systematic review of all the medical literature studying the use of antiemetics for gastroenteritis. The 11 identified previously published studies evaluated the safety and effectiveness of seven different antiemetics that were given to children seen in hospital emergency departments. The authors found that antiemetics other than ondansetron should not be used in children with gastroenteritis. A meta-analysis (a statistical way to combine different studies) found that ondansetron, which is sold under the brand name Zofran and is available as an intravenous infusion, tablet, disintegrating tablet or in liquid forms, reduced further vomiting after receipt in the emergency department. Importantly, it also reduced the likelihood that children would require intravenous fluids by nearly two-thirds, and halved the risk of immediate hospital admission. Ondansetron also had one down side: It was found to increase diarrhea in 3 of the 6 studies. However, the authors found this increased diarrhea did not appear to cause an increased need for further medical care. The UNC researchers concluded that future treatment guidelines should recommend the use of ondansetron in select children with gastroenteritis. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above. Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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Nov. 27, 2009 Physicists from the Japanese-led multi-national T2K neutrino collaboration have just announced that over the weekend they detected the first neutrino events generated by their newly built neutrino beam at the J-PARC (Japan Proton Accelerator Research Complex) accelerator laboratory in Tokai, Japan. Protons from the 30-GeV Main Ring synchrotron were directed onto a carbon target, where their collisions produced charged particles called pions. These pions travelled through a helium-filled volume where they decayed to produce a beam of the elusive particles called neutrinos. These neutrinos then flew 200 metres through the earth to a sophisticated detector system capable of making detailed measurements of their energy, direction, and type. The data from the complex detector system is still being analysed, but the physicists have seen at least 3 neutrino events, in line with the expectation based on the current beam and detector performance. This detection therefore marks the beginning of the operational phase of the T2K experiment, a 474-physicist, 13-nation collaboration to measure new properties of the ghostly neutrino. Neutrinos interact only weakly with matter, and thus pass effortlessly through the earth (and mostly through the detectors!). Neutrinos exist in three types, called electron, muon, and tau; linked by particle interactions to their more familiar charged cousins like the electron. Measurements over the last few decades, notably by the Super Kamiokande and KamLAND neutrino experiments in western Japan, have shown that neutrinos possess the strange property of neutrino oscillations, whereby one type of neutrino will turn into another as they propagate through space. Neutrino oscillations, which require neutrinos to have mass and therefore were not allowed in our previous theoretical understanding of particle physics, probe new physical laws and are thus of great interest in the study of the fundamental constituents of matter. They may even be related to the mystery of why there is more matter than anti-matter in the universe, and thus are the focus of intense study worldwide. Precision measurements of neutrino oscillations can be made using artificial neutrino beams, as pioneered by the K2K neutrino experiment where neutrinos from the KEK laboratory were detected using the vast Super Kamiokande neutrino detector near Toyama. T2K is a more powerful and sophisticated version of the K2K experiment, with a more intense neutrino beam derived from the newly-built Main Ring synchrotron at the J-PARC accelerator laboratory. The beam was built by physicists from KEK in cooperation with other Japanese institutions and with assistance from the US, Canadian, UK and French T2K institutes. Prof. Chang Kee Jung of Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, leader of the US T2K project, said "I am somewhat stunned by this seemingly effortless achievement considering the complexity of the machinery, the operation and international nature of the project. This is a result of a strong support from the Japanese government for basic science, which I hope will continue, and hard work and ingenuity of all involved. I am excited about more ground breaking findings from this experiment in the near future." The beam is aimed once again at Super-Kamiokande, which has been upgraded for this experiment with new electronics and software. Before the neutrinos leave the J-PARC facility their properties are determined by a sophisticated "near" detector, partly based on a huge magnet donated from CERN where it had earlier been used for neutrino experiments (and for the UA1 experiment, which won the Nobel Prize for the discovery of the W and Z bosons which are the basis of neutrino interactions), and it is this detector which caught the first events. The first neutrino events were detected in a specialize detector, called the INGRID, whose purpose is to determine the neutrino beam's direction and profile. Further tests of the T2K neutrino beam are scheduled for December, and the experiment plans to begin production running in mid-January. Another major milestone should be observed soon after -- the first observation of a neutrino event from the T2K beam in the Super-Kamiokande experiment. Running will continue until the summer, by which time the experiment hopes to have made the most sensitive search yet achieved for a so-far unobserved critical neutrino oscillation mode dominated by oscillations between all three types of neutrinos. In the coming years this search will be improved even further, with the hope that the 3-mode oscillation will be observed, allowing measurements to begin comparing the oscillations of neutrinos and anti-neutrinos, probing the physics of matter/ anti-matter asymmetry in the neutrino sector. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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June 22, 2010 Millions of years before humans began battling it out over beachfront property, a similar phenomenon was unfolding in a diverse group of island lizards. Often mistaken for chameleons or geckos, Anolis lizards fight fiercely for resources, responding to rivals by doing push-ups and puffing out their throat pouches. But anoles also compete in ways that shape their bodies over evolutionary time, says a new study in the journal Evolution. Anolis lizards colonized the Caribbean from South America some 40 million years ago and quickly evolved a wide range of shapes and sizes. "When anoles first arrived in the islands there were no other lizards quite like them, so there was abundant opportunity to diversify," said author Luke Mahler of Harvard University. Free from rivals in their new island homes, Anolis lizards evolved differences in leg length, body size, and other characteristics as they adapted to different habitats. Today, the islands of Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico -- collectively known as the Greater Antilles -- are home to more than 100 Anolis species, ranging from lanky lizards that perch in bushes, to stocky, long-legged lizards that live on tree trunks, to foot-long 'giants' that roam the upper branches of trees. "Each body type is specialized for using different parts of a tree or bush," said Mahler. Alongside researchers from the University of Rochester, Harvard University, and the National Evolutionary Synthesis Center, Mahler wanted to understand how and when this wide range of shapes and sizes came to be. To do that, the team used DNA and body measurements from species living today to reconstruct how they evolved in the past. In addition to measuring the head, limbs, and tail of over a thousand museum specimens representing nearly every Anolis species in the Greater Antilles -- including several Cuban species that were previously inaccessible to North American scientists -- they also used the Anolis family tree to infer what species lived on which islands, and when. By doing so, they discovered that the widest variety of anole shapes and sizes arose among the evolutionary early-birds. Then as the number of anole species on each island increased, the range of new body types began to fizzle. Late-comers in lizard evolution underwent finer and finer tinkering as time went on. As species proliferated on each island, their descendants were forced to partition the remaining real estate in increasingly subtle ways, said co-author Liam Revell of the National Evolutionary Synthesis Center in Durham, NC. "Over time there were fewer distinct niches available on each island," said Revell. "Ancient evolutionary changes in body proportions were large, but more recent evolutionary changes have been more subtle." The researchers saw the same trend on each island. "The islands are like Petri dishes where species diversification unfolded in similar ways," said Mahler. "The more species there were, the more they put the brakes on body evolution." The study sheds new light on how biodiversity comes to be. "We're not just looking at species number, we're also looking at how the shape of life changes over time," said Mahler. The team's findings are published in the journal Evolution. Richard Glor of the University of Rochester and Jonathan Losos of Harvard University were also authors on this study. Other social bookmarking and sharing tools: - D. Luke Mahler, Liam J. Revell, Richard E. Glor, Jonathan B. Losos. Ecological opportunity and the rate of morphological evolution in the diversification of Greater Antillean anoles. Evolution, 2010; DOI: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2010.01026.x Note: If no author is given, the source is cited instead.

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The word vivisection was first coined in the 1800s to denote the experimental dissection of live animals - or humans. It was created by activists who opposed the practice of experimenting on animals. The Roman physician Celsus claimed that in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE physicians had performed vivisections on sentenced criminals, but vivisection on humans was generally outlawed. Experimenters frequently used living animals. Most early modern researchers considered this practice acceptable, believing that animals felt no pain. Even those who opposed vivisection in the early modern period did not usually do so out of consideration for the animals, but because they thought that this practice would coarsen the experimenter, or because they were concerned that animals stressed under experimental conditions did not represent the normal state of the body. Prompted by the rise of experimental physiology and the increasing use of animals, an anti-vivisection movement started in the 1860s. Its driving force, the British journalist Frances Power Cobbe (1822-1904), founded the British Victoria Street Society in 1875, which gave rise to the British government's Cruelty to Animals Act of 1876. This law regulated the use of live animals for experimental purposes. R A Kopaladze, 'Ivan P. Pavlov's view on vivisection', Integr. Physiol. Behav. Sci., 4 (2000), pp 266-271 C Lansbury, The Old Brown Dog: Women, Workers, and Vivisection in Edwardian England (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1985) P Mason, The Brown Dog Affair: The Story of a Monument that Divided the Nation (London: Two Stevens, 1997) N A Rupke, (ed.) Vivisection in Historical Perspective (London: Crooms Helm, 1987) The science of the functioning of living organisms and their component parts.

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by I. Peterson Unlike an ordinary, incandescent bulb, a laser produces light of a single wavelength. Moreover, the emitted light waves are coherent, meaning that all of the energy peaks and troughs are precisely in step. Now, a team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology has demonstrated experimentally that a cloud consisting of millions of atoms can also be made coherent. Instead of flying about and colliding randomly, the atoms display coordinated behavior, acting as if the entire assemblage were a single entity. According to quantum mechanics, atoms can behave like waves. Thus, two overlapping clouds made up of atoms in coherent states should produce a zebra-striped interference pattern of dark and light fringes, just like those generated when two beams of ordinary laser light overlap. By detecting such a pattern, the researchers proved that the clouds' atoms are coherent and constitute an "atom laser," says physicist Wolfgang Ketterle, who heads the MIT group. These matter waves, in principle, can be focused just like light. Ketterle and his coworkers describe their observations in the Jan. 31 Science. The demonstration of coherence involving large numbers of atoms is the latest step in a series of studies of a remarkable state of matter called a Bose-Einstein condensate. Chilled to temperatures barely above absolute zero, theory predicted, the atoms would collectively enter the same quantum state and behave like a single unit, or superparticle, with a specific wavelength. First created in the laboratory in 1995 by Eric A. Cornell and his collaborators at the University of Colorado and the National Institute of Standards and Technology, both in Boulder, Bose-Einstein condensates have been the subject of intense investigation ever since (SN: 7/15/95, p. 36; 5/25/96, p. 327). At MIT, Ketterle and his colleagues cool sodium atoms to temperatures below 2 microkelvins. The frigid atoms are then confined in a special magnetic trap inside a vacuum chamber. To determine whether the atoms in the resulting condensate are indeed as coherent as photons in a laser beam, the researchers developed a novel method of extracting a clump of atoms from the trap. In effect, they manipulate the magnetic states of the atoms to expel an adjustable fraction of the original cloud; under the influence of gravity, the released clump falls. The method can produce a sequence of descending clumps, with each containing 100,000 to several million coherent atoms. The apparatus acts like a dripping faucet, Ketterle says. He and his colleagues describe the technique in the Jan. 27 Physical Review Letters. To demonstrate interference, the MIT group created a double magnetic trap so that two pulses of coherent atoms could be released at the same time. As the two clumps fell, they started to spread and overlap. The researchers could then observe interference between the atomic waves of the droplets. "The signal was almost too good to be true," Ketterle says. "We saw a high-contrast, very regular pattern." "It's a beautiful result," Cornell remarks. "This work really shows that Bose-Einstein condensation is an atom laser." From the pattern, the MIT researchers deduced that the condensate of sodium atoms has a wavelength of about 30 micrometers, considerably longer than the 0.04-nanometer wavelength typical of individual atoms at room temperature. Ketterle and his colleagues are already planning several improvements to their primitive atom laser, including getting more atoms into the emitted pulses and going from pulses to a continuous beam. Practical use of an atom laser for improving the precision of atomic clocks and for manipulating atoms is still distant, however, Cornell notes.

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The Weekly Newsmagazine of Science Volume 155, Number 19 (May 8, 1999) |<<Back to Contents| By J. Raloff Canadian scientists have identified the likely culprit behind some historic, regional declines in Atlantic salmon. The researchers find that a near-ubiquitous water pollutant can render young, migrating fish unable to survive a life at sea. Heavy, late-spring spraying of forests with a pesticide laced with nonylphenol during the 1970s and '80s was the clue that led the biologists to unmask that chemical's role in the transitory decline of salmon in East Canada. Though these sprays have ended, concentrations of nonylphenols in forest runoff then were comparable to those in the effluent of some pulp mills, industrial facilities, and sewage-treatment plants today. Downstream of such areas, the scientists argue, salmon and other migratory fish may still be at risk. Nonylphenols are surfactants used in products from pesticides to dishwashing detergents, cosmetics, plastics, and spermicides. Because waste-treatment plants don't remove nonylphenols well, these chemicals can build up in downstream waters (SN: 1/8/94, p. 24). When British studies linked ambient nonylphenol pollution to reproductive problems in fish (SN: 2/26/94, p. 142), Wayne L. Fairchild of Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans in Moncton, New Brunswick, became concerned. He recalled that an insecticide used on local forests for more than a decade had contained large amounts of nonylphenols. They helped aminocarb, the oily active ingredient in Matacil 1.8D, dissolve in water for easier spraying. Runoff of the pesticide during rains loaded the spawning and nursery waters of Atlantic salmon with nonylphenols. Moreover, this aerial spraying had tended to coincide with the final stages of smoltificationthe fish's transformation for life at sea. To probe for effects of forest spraying, Fairchild and his colleagues surveyed more than a decade of river-by-river data on fish. They overlaid these numbers with archival data on local aerial spraying with Matacil 1.8D or either of two nonylphenol-free pesticides. One contained the same active ingredient, aminocarb, as Matacil 1.8D does. Most of the lowest adult salmon counts between 1973 and 1990 occurred in rivers where smolts would earlier have encountered runoff of Matacil 1.8D, Fairchild's group found. In 9 of 19 cases of Matacil 1.8D spraying for which they had good data, salmon returns were lower than they were within the 5 years earlier and 5 years later, they report in the May Environmental Health Perspectives. No population declines were associated with the other two pesticides. The researchers have now exposed smolts in the laboratory to various nonylphenol concentrations, including some typical of Canadian rivers during the 1970s. The fish remained healthyuntil they entered salt water, at which point they exhibited a failure-to-thrive syndrome. "They looked like they were starving," Fairchild told Science News. Within 2 months, he notes, 20 to 30 percent died. Untreated smolts adjusted normally to salt water and fattened up. Steffen S. Madsen, a fish ecophysiologist at Odense University in Denmark, is not surprised, based on his own experiments. To move from fresh water to the sea, a fish must undergo major hormonal changes that adapt it for pumping out excess salt. A female preparing to spawn in fresh water must undergo the opposite change. Since estrogen triggers her adaptation, Madsen and a colleague decided to test how smolts would respond to estrogen or nonylphenol, an estrogen mimic. In the lab, they periodically injected salmon smolts with estrogen or nonylphenol over 30 days, and at various points placed them in seawater for 24 hours. Salt in the fish's blood skyrocketed during the day-long trials, unlike salt in untreated smolts. "Our preliminary evidence indicates that natural and environ- mental estrogens screw up the pituitary," Madsen says. The gland responds by making prolactin, a hormone that drives freshwater adaptation. Judging by Fairchild's data, Madsen now suspects that any fish that migrates between fresh and salt water may be similarly vulnerable to high concentrations of pollutants that mimic estrogen. From Science News, Vol. 155, No. 19, May 8, 1999, p. 293. Copyright © 1999, Science Service. Copyright © 1999 Science Service

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Show kids that science and fun go hand in hand The loveable characters from PBS’ award-winning The Magic School Bus™ will help children explore the scientific properties of polymers. Create goop, melt snow, extract polymers from milk, make snow erupt, and much more! Self-contained, bus-shaped kit includes 20 experiment cards, a data notebook, science components, and 10 containers of polymers, including super balls, rainbow beads, snow, and gel crystals. Warning! This set contains chemicals that may be harmful if misused. Read cautions on individual containers carefully. Not to be used by children except under adult supervision. Recommended for ages 5+.

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Advanced Science, Simple Operation Demonstrate the movement of invisible charged particles with this unique device. Designed in conjunction with the Contemporary Physics Education Project (CPEP), the Detector uses the analogy of magnetics. Students watch and plot the resulting paths of collisions between charged and neutral particles. The two-layered detector comes with magnetic marbles, ordinary marbles, iron filings, and an instruction sheet. Size: 21 x 28cm.

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Scientists collect samples of the natural world to try to answer questions about our environment. So many questions and so much we still don't know. The samples collected each represent a particular time and place in our environment. Think about your home. If a scientist had collected the plants and insects from your land 50 years ago, would they be the same or different than ones you would find today? The collected samples are the basic tool for the scientist's research and discovery. A museum specimen is made from the collected sample. We prepare them for study and add them to the research collections. Then they are ready to be used by scientists, not only this year, but for years, even generations to come. Teachers and Museum Docents use specimens in our collections to bring the facts and concepts of science to life. Anyway, you get the idea. Specimens and objects in the Museum's Nature to You Loan Program are particularly helpful for the kindergarten through high school ages. The Research Collections are used by college professors to help their students with the more advanced concepts. Have you ever used a field guide to identify that bird you saw in your backyard? Or that little squirrel-like mammal that just scooted off through the rocks? Or that flower you saw in the park? Artists rely heavily on collections of specimens when they create the illustrations for field guides. They need to see details to make accurate paintings. Different coloration and shapes help you see the differences between the chipmunk and the ground squirrel -- or the coyote and the neighbor's scrawny dog. Have you seen dioramas at a museum? Paintings in the background of exhibits are based on specimens. You've used specimens if you have ... Specimens are a fantastic tool--a resource that helps you discover the secrets of the world around you. Specimens form the core of a museum's philosophy. They are critical for research, for teaching, for our enjoyment of nature through art. Specimens at the San Diego Natural History Museum support our mission to understand the natural world of Southern California and the Baja California peninsula. We want you to enjoy and benefit from the specimens we collect--but we also want your grandchildren to have those same experiences with specimens. For your grandchildren to be able to learn from the specimens, we need to prevent damage to the specimens.

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Symptoms of Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis Spondylolysis and spondylolisthesis may not cause any obvious symptoms for some children. In others, spondylolysis can cause pain that spreads across the lower back. Pain may be worse when children arch their backs. If the slipping is severe for children with spondylolisthesis, it can stretch the nerves in the lower part of the back. This can lead to: - Pain that goes down one or both legs - A numb feeling in one or both feet - Weakness in your child’s legs - Trouble controlling bladder or bowel movements Spondylolysis and Spondylolisthesis Diagnosis Doctors look first for signs of cracks in the bones of your child's back. These cracks are called stress fractures. We look for stress fractures first because spine slippage, though rare in children, usually happens to those who have the fractures first. The doctor will ask your child if the pain is worse when they arch their back. This is a common sign of stress fractures. Most often, these fractures are in the lower part of the backbone. Next, we most likely will take X-rays of your child’s backbone. This helps doctors make sure your child has a stress fracture. If we cannot see the crack clearly on the X-ray, we may ask to do a bone scan. If we find a crack in the bone, we will probably take a three-dimensional X-ray called a CT (computed tomography) scan. This will give us an even better look at the fracture and help you and your child’s doctor decide on treatment.

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Densho: The Japanese American Legacy Project Programs Densho Digital Archive Free searchable database containing over 700 transcribed and indexed video oral histories and 10,700 photos and documents that trace Japanese American history from immigration to wartime detention to civil rights-era redress. Users include teachers, students, historical preservationists, journalists, legal scholars, documentary makers, and the general public. Densho trains hundreds of classroom teachers every year on how to teach with primary sources about the World War II incarceration of Japanese Americans. Densho Online Encyclopedia The Densho Encyclopedia is a free and publicly accessible website that provides concise, accurate, and balanced information on many aspects of the Japanese American story during World War II. It is designed and written for a non-specialist audience that includes high school and college students and instructors, multiple generations of Nikkei community members, confinement sites preservation groups, amateur and professional historians, librarians, journalists, documentarians, and the general public. The Encyclopedia is thoroughly cross indexed and articles are linked to relevant primary and secondary materials from the Densho archive and from other websites that include still and moving images, documents, databases, and oral history interview excerpts as well as standard bibliographical sources. Recent Successes and Current Challenges Over the last two years, Densho has added over 200 new oral histories to its online archive, launched a new 350 article online encyclopedia, and trained over 500 classroom teachers. Densho's work in historic preservation and education has been recognized by awards from NPower, the Washington State Historical Society, the Japanese American Citizens League, Humanities Washington, the American Library Association, Microsoft Technology for Good, and the Microsoft Alumni Foundation A current need of Densho is to support the marketing of Densho's resources to a nationwide audience of teachers, librarians, historians, and creators of educational media.

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Austrian architect and urbanist Wagner studied architecture at the School of Architecture at Vienna Academy, Austria, where he later became a teacher. Among his students were the renowned Art Nouveau architects Josef Maria Olbrich and Josef Hoffmann. From 1895 he was influenced by new art styles, more suited to the needs of modern way of life and developed his theories on architecture, relating to function, material and construction, in the book "Modern Architecture" (1895). In 1898, he built his first Art Nouveau building, the Majolica House in Vienna, a functional structure with the facade covered in multicolored majolica tiles. He also designed in 1894, the Vienna metropolitan railway system. Otto Wagner was one of the founding members of the Vienna Secession, with fellow artists Klimt, Hoffmann and Olbrich, in 1899. He was one of the most influential artists of the turn of the century : architect, urnbanist, applied artist and theoretician, his writings laid the groundwork for Modernism in architecture. In his architectural works, he was receptive to the use of modern methods of building (steel frame construction) and new materials (thin marble slabs for the façades). Majolica House on the Wienzeile, Vienna, Austria (1898-1899); Stadtbahn (metropolitan railway system), Vienna (1894-1902); Post Office Savings Bank (Die Österreichische Postsparkasse) Building, Vienna (1894-1902).

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Gaia theory is a class of scientific models of the geo-biosphere in which life as a whole fosters and maintains suitable conditions for itself by helping to create an environment on Earth suitable for its continuity. The first such theory was created by the atmospheric scientist and chemist, Sir James Lovelock, who developed his hypotheses in the 1960s before formally publishing the concept, first in the New Scientist (February 13, 1975) and then in the 1979 book "Quest for Gaia". He hypothesized that the living matter of the planet functioned like a single organism and named this self-regulating living system after the Greek goddess, Gaia, using a suggestion of novelist William Golding. Gaia "theories" have non-technical predecessors in the ideas of several cultures. Today, "Gaia theory" is sometimes used among non-scientists to refer to hypotheses of a self-regulating Earth that are non-technical but take inspiration from scientific models. Among some scientists, "Gaia" carries connotations of lack of scientific rigor, quasi-mystical thinking about the planet arth, and therefore Lovelock's hypothesis was received initially with much antagonism by much of the scientific community. No controversy exists, however, that life and the physical environment significantly influence one another. Gaia theory today is a spectrum of hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable (Weak Gaia) to the radical (Strong Gaia). At one end of this spectrum is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the Earth have radically altered its composition. A stronger position is that the Earth's biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self-organizing system, which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of meta-equilibrium that is broadly conducive to life. The history of evolution, ecology and climate show that the exact characteristics of this equilibrium intermittently have undergone rapid changes, which are believed to have caused extinctions and felled civilisations. Biologists and earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected emergent property or entelechy of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one. However, proponents will point out that those atmospheric composition changes created an environment even more suitable to life. Some go a step further and hypothesize that all lifeforms are part of a single living planetary being called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the coevolving diversity of living organisms. While it is arguable that the Earth as a unit does not match the generally accepted biological criteria for life itself (Gaia has not yet reproduced, for instance), many scientists would be comfortable characterising the earth as a single "system". The most extreme form of Gaia theory is that the entire Earth is a single unified organism; in this view the Earth's biosphere is consciously manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of homeostasis. Many non-scientists instinctively see homeostasis as an activity that requires conscious control, although this is not so. Much more speculative versions of Gaia theory, including all versions in which it is held that the Earth is actually conscious or part of some universe-wide evolution, are currently held to be outside the bounds of science. This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Gaia".

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