Datasets:

LLukas22

/

lfqa_preprocessed

like 0

[ "The fruiting begins in November, maturing between February and April, where living in Minas Gerais, where it is popularly associated with the Lent season. When the fruit is ripe it falls to the ground under the protection of the crown, exuding a strong and distinctive smell. These are the best quality fruits for the consumer, because if harvested directly from the tree, the fruit will not mature, producing an inferior quality flavor.\n", "These include apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, etc. Fruits are low in calories and fat and are a source of natural sugars, fiber and vitamins. Processing fruit when canning or making into juices may add sugars and remove nutrients. The fruit food group is sometimes combined with the vegetable food group. Note that a massive number of different plant species produce seed pods which are considered fruits in botany, and there are a number of botanical fruits which are conventionally not considered fruits in cuisine because they lack the characteristic sweet taste, e.g., tomatoes or avocados.\n", "The species is variable because of selection pressure by humans to produce larger, fleshier fruits with a thinner exocarp. The avocado fruit is a climacteric, single-seeded berry, due to the imperceptible endocarp covering the seed, rather than a drupe. The pear-shaped fruit is long, weighs between , and has a large central seed, long.\n", "Apples, plums, and pears, which grow well in Lithuania, are the most commonly used fruit. Because they cannot tolerate frost, tropical fruit such as citrus, bananas and pineapples must be imported, and hence were used less often in the past; however, these fruits are now becoming more typical and are widely consumed. During the autumn harvest, fruit is often simmered and spiced to create fruit stews (kompots). Gooseberries (\"agrastai\") and currants (\"serbentai\") are widely cultivated; they are sweetened, made into jams and baked goods, and provide a piquant touch to desserts. Small local producers make fine fruit wines from raspberries, and especially blackcurrants; apple icewine is also produced. Apple cheese is very popular in autumn.\n", "Over recent decades, fresh fruit also emerged as regional export item, when the Copiapó and Huasco valleys joined Chile’s fruit-growing boom. They enjoy a comparative advantage because, thanks to the sunny climate, fruit ripens earlier than in the rest of the country and reaches northern hemisphere markets first.\n", "They allow many fruits to be picked prior to full ripening, which is useful, since ripened fruits do not ship well. For example, bananas are picked when green and artificially ripened after shipment by being gassed with ethylene.\n", "Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles.\n" ]

[ "Despite having infinitely many derivatives of delta functions, still obeys the optical equivalence theorem. If the expectation value of the number operator, for example, is taken with respect to the state vector or as a phase space average with respect to , the two expectation values match:\n", "The th derivative of a function at a point is a \"local property\" only when is an integer; this is not the case for non-integer power derivatives. In other words, it is not correct to say that the fractional derivative at of a function depends only on values of very near , in the way that integer-power derivatives certainly do. Therefore, it is expected that the theory involves some sort of boundary conditions, involving information on the function further out.\n", "Finding the extrema of functionals is similar to finding the maxima and minima of functions. The maxima and minima of a function may be located by finding the points where its derivative vanishes (i.e., is equal to zero). The extrema of functionals may be obtained by finding functions where the functional derivative is equal to zero. This leads to solving the associated Euler–Lagrange equation.\n", "In mathematics, the total derivative of a function formula_1 at a point is the best linear approximation near this point of the function with respect to its arguments. Unlike partial derivatives, the total derivative approximates the function with respect to all of its arguments, not just a single one. In many situations, this is the same as considering all partial derivatives simultaneously. The term \"total derivative\" is primarily used when formula_1 is a function of several variables, because when formula_1 is a function of a single variable, the total derivative is the same as the derivative of the function.\n", "The derivative of a function can, in principle, be computed from the definition by considering the difference quotient, and computing its limit. In practice, once the derivatives of a few simple functions are known, the derivatives of other functions are more easily computed using \"rules\" for obtaining derivatives of more complicated functions from simpler ones.\n", "The total derivative of a function does not give another function in the same way as the one-variable case. This is because the total derivative of a multivariable function has to record much more information than the derivative of a single-variable function. Instead, the total derivative gives a function from the tangent bundle of the source to the tangent bundle of the target.\n", "The derivative of a function of a single variable at a chosen input value, when it exists, is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of the function at that point. The tangent line is the best linear approximation of the function near that input value. For this reason, the derivative is often described as the \"instantaneous rate of change\", the ratio of the instantaneous change in the dependent variable to that of the independent variable.\n" ]

[ "In 2011, Stolt-Nielsen suggested that captured pirates should be executed and their boats sunk, the historical response to piracy, as an effective solution to the problem of piracy off the Horn of Africa. He was criticised by Norway's Foreign Ministry's state secretary, who said that \"human rights\" apply even to pirates.\n", "One example of these cases is that of Saint Ebba (sometimes called Æbbe the Younger), the Mother Superior of the monastery of Coldingham Priory. In AD 867, Viking pirates from Zealand and Uppsala landed in Scotland. When news of the raid reached Saint Ebba, she gathered her nuns together and urged them to disfigure themselves, so that they might be unappealing to the Vikings. In this way, they hoped to protect their chastity. She demonstrated this by cutting off her nose and upper lip, and the nuns proceeded to do the same. The Viking raiders were so disgusted that they burned the entire building to the ground with the nuns inside.\n", "Olaus Magnus wrote in 1555 that Pining and Pothorst, due to their piracy, had \"by the Nordic kings been excluded from all human contact and declared outlaws, as a result of their extremely violent robberies and numerous cruel acts against all sailors that they could catch, whether close or distant.\" They then took refuge at a cliff called Hvidserken, which apparently was located between Iceland and Greenland. Magnus added that in \"1494\", the pirates created a giant compass out of a considerable circular space at the top of the cliff, with rings and lines formed of lead, to make it easier for them to know in which direction they could seek a great plunder. Modern historians have suggested that they may in fact have set up some mark at the coast of Greenland to reclaim it for the Danish king.\n", "By 1395 piracy was officially outlawed as an attempt to create peace in the Baltic once more, which ended up being more of a form of “paper peace”. Piracy had proved to be so profitable that pirates continued their activity, using the island of Gotland as headquarters and Duke Eric of Mecklenburg as the pirate chief. From there the pirates preyed on Russia and Livonia while continuing to raid the Hansa, then pressed on to assault the Grand Master of Prussia in 1398. The Grand Master did not stand for this, equipping a large fleet and sailing to Gotland, where castles were burned and the pirates soon evacuated. King Albert of Sweden ceded Gotland to the Order as a pledge (similar to a fiefdom), with the understanding that they would eliminate the pirating Victual Brothers from this strategic island base in the Baltic Sea. An invasion force under Grand Master Konrad von Jungingen conquered the island in 1398 and drove the Victual Brothers out of Gotland and the Baltic Sea.\n", "Piracy/raiding especially by Vikings took place throughout this era. The Viking leader Rollo besieging Paris in 911 resulting in 933 with the islands, formerly under the control the Duchy of Brittany being annexed by the Duchy of Normandy.\n", "Modern pirates also use a great deal of technology. It has been reported that crimes of piracy have involved the use of mobile phones, satellite phones, GPS, machetes, AK74 rifles, Sonar systems, modern speedboats, shotguns, pistols, mounted machine guns, and even RPGs and grenade launchers.\n", "The pirates of the early eighteenth century, however, were men who acted on their own apart from official political sanction. Pirates were very specific, unauthorized entities who worked outside the more socially accepted scenarios and did not discriminate when conducting their raids. The act of piracy was \"massively\" criminal. Laws against piracy were often very strict, with charges and punishments escalating in attempts to curb piratical actions. But many braved the consequences of being caught if it meant a life lived more freely.\n" ]

[ "A kettle, sometimes called a tea kettle or teakettle, is a type of pot, specialized for boiling water, with a lid, spout, and handle, or a small kitchen appliance of similar shape that functions in a self-contained manner. Kettles can be heated either by placing on a stove, or by their own internal electric heating element in the appliance versions. \n", "\"Boiling\" is the method of cooking food in boiling water or other water-based liquids such as stock or milk. Simmering is gentle boiling, while in poaching the cooking liquid moves but scarcely bubbles.\n", "The directions for the tea are: a quart of spring water just boiled, to which put a spoonful of tea, and sweeten to the palate with candy sugar. As soon as the tea and sugar are in, the steam must be kept in as much as may be, and let it lie half or quarter of an hour in the heat of the fire but not boil. The little cups must be held over the steam before the liquid be put in.\n", "Boiling, steaming, and simmering are popular cooking methods that often require immersing food in water or its gaseous state, steam. Water is also used for dishwashing. Water also plays many critical roles within the field of food science. It is important for a food scientist to understand the roles that water plays within food processing to ensure the success of their products.\n", "One preparation method is to add water to a pot and leaving it to a boil. Once the water comes to a boil, tea is added to it. The mixture is then left to brew. Full cream milk is then added to the mixture and it is then stewed on low heat. Sugar is often added as per one's taste. After mixing thoroughly on low heat, a tea strainer is used before serving the chai. It is usually poured into cups but some prefer to drink it the old fashioned way, from the edge of a saucer.\n", "Using a Kos sheini is acceptable because when the liquid is poured (Erui kos sheini) some of the heat is transferred into the atmosphere, and therefore the liquid loses some heat. Most people hold that this will not cause enough heat to be emitted and therefore the tea leaves will still be cooked. To lower the temperature of the water further people rule that a klei shlishi must be used. Once again in the pouring process (erui klei sheini) more heat is emitted and therefore some people hold that the tea will not be cooked and it is therefore permissible to make tea with this water. However, many other authorities hold that tea leaves fall under the category of items which cook easily (kalei habishul), even in the diminished heat of a kos shelishi. Consequently, those who are most scrupulous in their observance will prepare a concentrated tea extract before the Sabbath; as a liquid, water from a kos sheini can be added to the extract to heat it.\n", "The basic ingredients of the tea are green tea, fresh mint leaves, sugar, and boiling water. The proportions of the ingredients and the brewing time can vary widely. Boiling water is used in the Maghreb, rather than the cooler water that is used in East Asia to avoid bitterness. The leaves are left in the pot while the tea is consumed, changing the flavor from one glass to the next.\n" ]

[ "Controversy over the beginning of pregnancy occurs in different contexts, particularly as it is discussed within the abortion debate in the United States. Because an abortion is defined as ending an established pregnancy, rather than as destroying a fertilized egg, depending on when pregnancy is considered to begin, some methods of birth control as well as some methods of infertility treatment might be classified as causing abortions. \n", "Christianity and abortion has a long and complex history, and there are a variety of positions taken by contemporary Christian denominations on the topic. There is no explicit prohibition of abortion in either the Old Testament or New Testament books of the Christian Bible. While some writers say that early Christians held different beliefs at different times about abortion, others say that, in spite of the silence of the New Testament on the issue, they condemned abortion at any point of pregnancy as a grave sin, a condemnation that they maintained even when some of them did not qualify as homicide the elimination of a fetus not yet \"formed\" and animated by a human soul. Some authors, such as ethicist Benjamin Wiker, have contrasted the prohibition of abortion in later Christian societies with the availability of abortion that was present in earlier Roman society, arguing that this reflects a wider condemnation of pagan practices.\n", "Christian views on abortion has a complex history as there is no explicit prohibition of abortion in either the Old Testament or New Testament books of the Christian Bible. While some writers say that early Christians held different beliefs at different times about abortion, others say that, in spite of the silence of the New Testament on the issue, they condemned abortion at any point of pregnancy as a grave sin, a condemnation that they maintained even when some of them did not qualify as homicide the elimination of a fetus not yet \"formed\" and animated by a human soul. The Didache, a Christian writing usually dated to sometime in the mid to late 1st century, prohibits abortion in Ch 2.\n", "In today's society, abortion has become a common practice, defended by deceptive arguments. Latter-day prophets have denounced abortion, referring to the Lord's declaration, \"Thou shalt not ... kill, nor do anything like unto it\" (Doctrine & Covenants Section 59, Verse 6). Their counsel on the matter is clear: Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints must not submit to, perform, encourage, pay for, or arrange for an abortion. Church members who encourage an abortion in any way may be subject to Church discipline ... Church leaders have said that some exceptional circumstances may justify an abortion, such as when pregnancy is the result of incest or rape, when the life or health of the mother is judged by competent medical authority to be in serious jeopardy, or when the fetus is known by competent medical authority to have severe defects that will not allow the baby to survive beyond birth. But even these circumstances do not automatically justify an abortion. Those who face such circumstances should consider abortion only after consulting with their local Church leaders and receiving a confirmation through earnest prayer.\"\n", "Contemporary Christian denominations have nuanced positions, thoughts and teachings about abortion, especially in extenuating circumstances. The Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, and most evangelical Protestants oppose deliberate abortion as immoral, while allowing what is sometimes called indirect abortion, namely, an action that does not seek the death of the fetus as an end or a means but that is followed by the death as a side effect. Some mainline Protestant denominations such as the Methodist Church, United Church of Christ, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of America, among others, are more permissive of abortion. More generally, some Christian denominations can be considered pro-life while others may be considered pro-choice. Additionally, there are sizable minorities in all denominations that disagree with their denomination's stance on abortion, an example of which is the group Catholics for a Free Choice.\n", "Despite their general opposition to abortion, fundamentalist churches that include the conservative evangelical, Non-denominational, Southern Baptist and Pentecostal movements, do not have a consensus doctrine regarding abortion. While these movements hold in common that abortion (when there is no threat to the life of the mother) is a form of infanticide, there is no consensus as to whether exceptions should be allowed when the mother's life is in mortal danger, or when the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest. Some argue that the lives of both the mother and fetus should be given equal consideration, in effect condemning all abortion including those performed to save the life of the mother. Others argue for exceptions which favor the life of the mother, perhaps including pregnancies resulting from cases of rape or incest.\n", "Scholars generally agree that abortion was performed in the classical world, but there is disagreement about the frequency with which abortion was performed and which cultures influenced early Christian thought on abortion. Some writers point to the Hippocratic Oath (which specifically prohibits abortion) as evidence that condemnation of abortion was not a novelty introduced by the early Christians. Some writers state that there is evidence that some early Christians believed, as the Greeks did, in delayed ensoulment, or that a fetus does not have a soul until quickening, and therefore early abortion was not murder; Luker says there was disagreement on whether early abortion was wrong. Other writers say that early Christians considered abortion a sin even before ensoulment. According to some, the magnitude of the sin was, for the early Christians, on a level with general sexual immorality or other lapses; according to others, they saw it as \"an evil no less severe and social than oppression of the poor and needy\".\n" ]

[ "A true breakthrough came in 1948, when the British epidemiologist Richard Doll published the first major studies that demonstrated that smoking could cause serious health damage. While some physicians in the United States once pitched cigarettes as health-improving products, some commentators now argue that it is unethical for physicians, as role models, to smoke at all.\n", "Alternative mechanisms explain continued tobacco use: The majority of first time users of cigarettes report adverse reactions, including nausea, dizziness, sickness, and headache. A study by DiFranza et al. (2004) found that 69% of subjects rated inhaling their first cigarette as bad, and nearly three-quarters (72%) reported that their first cigarette made them not want to smoke again. Given the above, opponents of the reward model of drug use suggest it is likely that a mechanism other than a false perception of an increased fitness benefit via hijacking of the brain's mesolimbic dopamine system, is leading to continued tobacco use.\n", "The popularity of tobacco was soon replaced with skepticism and many wanting to know the health risks of smoking. Research and analysis followed in order to understand these risks, with shocking conclusions and connections to diseases( coronary disease, coronary heart disease, peripheral arterial occlusive disease, cerebrovascular disease, lung cancer, cancer of the larynx, oral cancer, cancer of the esophagus, cancer of the bladder, cancer of the pancreas) that left many in shock. Public Health advocates urged for the banning of cigarette sales and the overall production of cigarettes in order to protect the public.\n", "Furthermore, smoking can be considered a personal matter that should not be relevant to the workplace. Some have suggested that so long as a cigarette does not interfere with a physician's ability to diagnose and treat patients, smoking should be permitted among health care practitioners. In fact, Chinese physicians who smoke may be able to form closer relationships with patients because of tobacco's role in the local culture as a commodity that promotes unity and friendship.\n", "The medical community was criticized for its slow response to these findings. One 1932 paper attributed the slow response to smoking being common among doctors, as well as the general population. Some temperance activists had continued to attack tobacco as expensive, addictive, and leading to petty theft. In the thirties, they also began to publicize the medical findings. There was popular awareness these dangers of smoking (see accompanying quote).\n", "Another factor that contributed to smoking in this country was the lack of physicians as positive role models. During the early 1990’s, almost one fifth of physicians were current smokers and about 40% were former smokers. These numbers account for over half of physicians in all of Costa Rica who smoked cigarettes at some point in their life. Additionally, two thirds of physicians who did smoke did it at the workplace, which set a poor example for the patients. This being said, many people saw their doctors using tobacco products and in turn, made it seem more acceptable to use these products since medical professionals were doing so. \n", "When asked how he could have ignored the health risks of smoking, particularly after the addition of the Surgeon General's official 1964 report linking cancer to smoking, he insisted in a 2000 interview with Jane Brody of \"The New York Times\" that \"at no time was I ever told that cigarettes could be dangerous to my health\". His attorney noted that whatever Landers knew about the risks of smoking, \"He knew a lot less than R. J. Reynolds did.\"\n" ]

[ "Composers often impose a limit on how complex the ratios may become. For example, a composer who chooses to write in 7-limit just intonation will not employ ratios that use powers of prime numbers larger than 7. Under this scheme, ratios like 11:7 and 13:6 would not be permitted, because 11 and 13 cannot be expressed as powers of those prime numbers ≤ 7 (\"i.e.\" 2, 3, 5, and 7).\n", "There are vast numbers of other named compositions that do not qualify for this list. Symphonic poems, concert overtures, suites, variations, operas, ballets, most vocal and choral music, and miscellaneous other works are normally given titles that exclude numbers. Examples of such works would include: \n", "Given the vector of one or more songs, a list of other similar songs is constructed using what the company calls its \"matching algorithm\". Each song is analyzed by a musician in a process that takes 20 to 30 minutes per song. Ten percent of songs are analyzed by more than one musician to ensure conformity with the in-house standards and statistical reliability. \n", "The numbering of the songs follows that of the vocal score. The printed libretto does not include the songs through number 4, and numbers the song labelled as song 5 below as song 1. Thus, to determine the number given to a song in the printed libretto, subtract 4 from the number assigned to that song below.\n", "The presentation of fifteen works in a short time allows works of many composers who would not normally be included in a chamber concert to be played. \"The brief time limit is also a catalyst for experimentation: when the pressure is off to develop or sustain a composition the pressure is on to make what little time you have very interesting\"\n", "Finding a particular piece of music within one of these multi-volume sets can often be difficult, as many of the series do not have general indices. For pieces within a composer's complete works set, researchers often consult the \"New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians\" (Second Edition, 2001), either online or in its printed version. Articles on composers will list the title and publisher of any complete works sets that exist, and within the list of compositions by that composer, will include volume numbers of the complete works set in which each piece is found.\n", "A number of composers have not been content with just one set of works covering all the keys of the scale. For instance, Niels Viggo Bentzon wrote no fewer than 14 complete sets of 24 Preludes and Fugues, a total of 336 pieces in this genre alone. Others who have written more than one set include:\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Comorbidity: Of the people who had experienced a mental illness in their lifetime (48% of the population), 27% had experienced more than one. The resulting average is 2.1 mental disorders per disordered person.\n", "As an example, in an attempt to measure the prevalence of mental illness in the United States, Lee Robins and Darrel A. Regier conducted a study called the Epidemiological Catchment Area Project which surveyed samples of the general population at five sites across America. In the study, it was found that about a third of all Americans suffer from mental illness at some point in their lives. This statistic is often referred to as lifetime prevalence.\n", "Mental illness affects one out of six adults in the United States. That is about 44.7 million people, as of 2016. In 2006, mental disorders were ranked one of the top five most costly medical conditions, which expenditures of $57.5 billion. A lack of mental health coverage for Americans bears significant ramifications to the U.S. economy and social system. A report by the U.S. Surgeon General found that mental illnesses are the second leading cause of disability in the nation and affect 20% of all Americans. It is estimated that less than half of all people with mental illnesses receive treatment (or specifically, an ongoing, much needed, and managed care; where medication alone, cannot easily remove mental conditions) due to factors such as stigma and lack of access to care.\n", "It is estimated that one in four people in the world will be affected by mental or neurological disorders at some point in their lives. Although many effective interventions for the treatment of mental disorders are known, and awareness of the need for treatment of people with mental disorders has risen, the proportion of those who need mental health care but who do not receive it remains very high. This so-called \"treatment gap\" is estimated to reach between 76–85% for low- and middle-income countries, and 35–50% for high-income countries.\n", "Mental illnesses are more common than cancer, diabetes or heart disease. Over 26 percent of all Americans over the age of 18 meet the criteria for having a mental illness. A World Health Organization (WHO) report estimates the global cost of mental illness at nearly $2.5 trillion (two-thirds in indirect costs) in 2010, with a projected increase to over $6 trillion by 2030.\n", "In a study of more than 20,000 adults entering five local jails, researchers documented serious mental illness in 14.5 percent of the men and 31 percent of the women, which taken together, comprises 16.9 percent of those studied. The incidence of serious mental illness is two to four times higher among prisoners that it is in the general population.\n", "Burden of mental disorders  in terms of Disability-adjusted life years (per 100,000 population) is 2,430. Common mental health problems have been identified in both the rural and urban population which seems to have a positive association with socioeconomic adversities, relationship problems and lack of social support. Depressive and anxiety disorders appear to be highest, followed by bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, psychosomatic disorders, obsessive compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder.\n" ]

[ "Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n", "Based on a huge amount of experimental observation and theoretical work, it is now believed that the reason for the observation is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as a \"\"metric\"\" expansion. In the terminology of mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" is a measure of distance that satisfies a specific list of properties, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\", although at this time it is far too small an effect to see on less than an intergalactic scale.\n", "Based on large quantities of experimental observation and theoretical work, the scientific consensus is that \"space itself is expanding\", and that it expanded very rapidly within the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang. This kind of expansion is known as \"metric expansion\". In mathematics and physics, a \"metric\" means a measure of distance, and the term implies that \"the sense of distance within the universe is itself changing\".\n", "The expansion of space is sometimes described as a force which acts to push objects apart. Though this is an accurate description of the effect of the cosmological constant, it is not an accurate picture of the phenomenon of expansion in general. For much of the universe's history the expansion has been due mainly to inertia. The matter in the very early universe was flying apart for unknown reasons (most likely as a result of cosmic inflation) and has simply continued to do so, though at an ever-decreasing rate due to the attractive effect of gravity.\n", "The Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe. Instead, space itself expands with time everywhere and increases the physical distance between two comoving points. In other words, the Big Bang is not an explosion \"in space\", but rather an expansion \"of space\". Because the FLRW metric assumes a uniform distribution of mass and energy, it applies to our universe only on large scales—local concentrations of matter such as our galaxy are gravitationally bound and as such do not experience the large-scale expansion of space.\n", "Therefore, regardless of the shape of the universe the contribution of spatial curvature to the expansion of the Universe could not be much greater than the contribution of matter. But as the Universe expands, the curvature redshifts away more slowly than matter and radiation. Extrapolated into the past, this presents a fine-tuning problem because the contribution of curvature to the Universe must be exponentially small (sixteen orders of magnitude less than the density of radiation at Big Bang nucleosynthesis, for example). This problem is exacerbated by recent observations of the cosmic microwave background that have demonstrated that the Universe is flat to within a few percent.\n", "Because the accelerating expansion of space stretches out any initial variations in density or temperature to very large length scales, an essential feature of inflation is that it smooths out inhomogeneities, anisotropies and reduces the curvature of space. This pushes the Universe into a very simple state in which it is completely dominated by the inflaton field and the only significant inhomogeneities are tiny quantum fluctuations. Inflation also dilutes exotic heavy particles, such as the magnetic monopoles predicted by many extensions to the Standard Model of particle physics. If the Universe was only hot enough to form such particles \"before\" a period of inflation, they would not be observed in nature, as they would be so rare that it is quite likely that there are none in the observable universe. Together, these effects are called the inflationary \"no-hair theorem\" by analogy with the no hair theorem for black holes.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- \"The Search for New Planets (Alien Planets: Anyone Home?)\" – Is there life among the stars? Are there planets circling other suns? Astronomers are ready to take on the greatest challenge in the search for extraterrestrial life: to discover another Earth, but how? The answer lies in extremely sensitive planet-finders—monster telescopes being designed and built to operate several hundred light years away. In \"The Search for New Planets\", 'planet hunters' discuss the prospects of finding 'extrasolar' signs of life and what such a discovery could mean.\n", "The focus for discovering new exoplanets has been on sun-like stars. The catalog of more than 400 exoplanets has proved that these searches are successful, because exoplanets of various sizes have been discovered. However, other star types are also a likely place to discover new exoplanets. New research, announced at the meeting, confirms that planet formation is a natural by-product of star formation. Planet formation occurs even around stars much more massive than the Sun. However, the life of the stars which the planets orbit are so short that intelligent extraterrestrial life is not very likely. A and B type stars were surveyed for the research which involved NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope, the Two Micron All-Sky Survey, and astronomers from the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics (CfA) and the National Optical Astronomy Observatory (NOAO).\n", "The newly discovered planets are boggling astronomers' minds with their bizarre characteristics, including an unimagined diversity of sizes and orbits. In Lynette Cook's illustrations - many newly created for this book - we glimpse the landscapes and atmospheres that might adorn these planets. Ray Villard's text describes the state of astronomy today, imagines where it will take us in the coming years, ponders the chances of success for the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), and explores the survivability of life in the context of an evolving and accelerating universe. Infinite Worlds is a cosmic adventure that brings the drama of creation and the beauty of the universe to anyone who has wondered at the night sky\n", "Megan Bedell, from the University of Chicago and lead author of the paper, concludes: “After two decades of hunting for exoplanets, we are finally beginning to see long-period gas giant planets similar to those in our own Solar System thanks to the long-term stability of planet hunting instruments like HARPS. This discovery is, in every respect, an exciting sign that other solar systems may be out there waiting to be discovered.”\n", "The Solar System has now been relatively well-studied, and a good overall understanding of the formation and evolution of this planetary system exists. However, there are large numbers of unsolved questions, and the rate of new discoveries is very high, partly due to the large number of interplanetary spacecraft currently exploring the Solar System.\n", "BULLET::::- 30 planets: On October 19, it was announced that 30 new planets were discovered, all were detected by radial velocity method. It is the most planets ever announced in a single day during the exoplanet era. October 2009 now holds the most planets discovered in a month, breaking the record set in June 2002 and August 2009, during which 17 planets were discovered.\n", "Thomas Barclay, an astrophysicist on the Kepler space telescope team, said the discovery was \"really good news\" in the search for hospitable planets, a prime objective of the project, because it demonstrated the telescope was capable of detecting Earth-sized planets. However, he does not anticipate finding many planets as small as Kepler-37b due to the very small amount of light such planets obscure. According to NASA scientist Jack Lissauer, the discovery of Kepler-37b \"suggests such little planets are common, and more planetary wonders await as we continue to gather and analyze additional data.\" Astronomer John Johnson of Caltech university said the discovery would have been \"unimaginable\" a few years ago and that the telescope had revolutionized astronomers' picture of the universe.\n" ]

[ "A planet's orbit in the circumstellar habitable zone is a popular method used to predict its potential for surface water at its surface. Habitable zone theory has put forward several extrasolar candidates for liquid water, though they are highly speculative as a planet's orbit around a star alone does not guarantee that a planet it has liquid water. In addition to its orbit, a planetary mass object must have the potential for sufficient atmospheric pressure to support liquid water and a sufficient supply of hydrogen and oxygen at or near its surface.\n", "However, the question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host star's plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated. Liquid water is a necessary but not sufficient condition for life as we know it, as habitability is a function of a multitude of environmental parameters\n", "The orbital distance places it at the outer limits of the habitable zone, the distance at which it is believed possible for water to exist on the surface of a planetary body. At the time of its discovery, the planet's orbit was originally thought to be farther out. However, in late April 2009 the original discovery team revised its original estimate of the planet's orbital parameters, finding that it orbits closer to its star than originally determined with an orbital period of 66.87 days. They concluded that the planet is within the habitable zone where liquid water could exist, thus confirming previous studies. Moreover, the data also suggested that the proposed exoplanet could have at least one or more large oceans.\n", "The current understanding of planetary habitability—the ability of a world to develop environmental conditions favorable to the emergence of life—favors planets that have liquid water on their surface. Most often this requires the orbit of a planet to lie within the habitable zone, which for the Sun extends from just beyond Venus to about the semi-major axis of Mars. During perihelion, Mars dips inside this region, but Mars's thin (low-pressure) atmosphere prevents liquid water from existing over large regions for extended periods. The past flow of liquid water demonstrates the planet's potential for habitability. Recent evidence has suggested that any water on the Martian surface may have been too salty and acidic to support regular terrestrial life.\n", "On 17 April 2014, the discovery of the Earth-size exoplanet Kepler-186f, 500 light-years from Earth, was publicly announced; it is the first Earth-size planet to be discovered in the habitable zone and it has been hypothesized that there may be liquid water on its surface.\n", "Researchers at the University of Warwick say that Kepler-438b is not habitable due to the large amount of radiation it receives. The question of what makes a planet habitable is much more complex than having a planet located at the right distance from its host star so that water can be liquid on its surface: various geophysical and geodynamical aspects, the radiation, and the host stars plasma environment can influence the evolution of planets and life, if it originated. The planet is more likely to resemble a larger and cooler version of Venus.\n", "There are ongoing investigations assessing the past habitability potential of Mars, as well as the possibility of extant life. Future astrobiology missions are planned, including the Mars 2020 and ExoMars rovers. Liquid water cannot exist on the surface of Mars due to low atmospheric pressure, which is less than 1% of the Earth's, except at the lowest elevations for short periods. The two polar ice caps appear to be made largely of water. The volume of water ice in the south polar ice cap, if melted, would be sufficient to cover the entire planetary surface to a depth of . In November 2016, NASA reported finding a large amount of underground ice in the Utopia Planitia region of Mars. The volume of water detected has been estimated to be equivalent to the volume of water in Lake Superior.\n" ]

[ "A criminal charge is a formal accusation made by a governmental authority (usually a public prosecutor or the police) asserting that somebody has committed a crime. A charging document, which contains one or more criminal charges or counts, can take several forms, including:\n", "When a person accused of a crime is arrested, his statement is recorded and information such as the name, residence address, birthplace, charges filed are noted. The police officer may also check back the criminal record if any in the police station and ask for fingerprints to file a case against the accused. Under the Code of Criminal Procedure 1973 (First Schedule), offences have been classified as \"bailable\" and \"non-bailable\" offences. In the case of bailable offences, if the accused produces proper surety, and fulfils other conditions, it is binding upon the Investigating officer to grant bail. However, in case of a non-bailable offence, the police cannot grant bail; it can only be granted by a Judicial Magistrate/Judge. The Investigating Officer must produce the accused before the Judicial Magistrate / Judge concerned within 24 hours of his arrest. At that time, the accused has a right to apply for bail. Depending upon the facts of the case, the judge decides whether bail should be granted. If bail is granted the accused must deposit money with the court. Generally, for lesser crimes, a standard amount is asked to be deposited for awarding the bail.\n", "Additionally, no criminal suspect may be tortured or compelled to testify against himself. The Constitution also requires that a person arrested for a crime be given assistance of counsel (selected or appointed), be informed of the charges against him and of his right to counsel, and have the right to petition the court for \"habeas corpus\". A person arrested for a crime also has the right to have his family or other close kin promptly notified as to the reason, time, and place of his detention.\n", "An arrest simply means a police officer, federal agent, or judge believes probable cause exists that a person committed a crime. Since an arrest is usually made by law enforcement, the arrest often is for a criminal charge that has not been levied or verified by an attorney or judge. Criminal defense lawyers also deal with the substantive issues of the crimes with which his or her clients are charged. Criminal defense lawyers may also help clients before charges have been filed by a prosecuting attorney. This is done when someone believes he or she is being investigated, or is arrested.\n", "The power of arrest is a mandate given by a central authority that allows an individual to remove a criminal's (or suspected criminal's) liberty. The power of arrest can also be used to protect a person, or persons from harm or to protect damage to property.\n", "A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest.\n", "Many government departments and agencies, like the police force, ICAC, immigration officials etc., have the power to arrest a suspect. This power of arrest is granted and regulated by law. But before an officer can actually arrest anyone, s/he is required by law to request an arrest warrant from a magistrate. If not, the person been wrongfully arrested can sue the officer for damages. The procedure is to protect the public's freedom from the potential abuse of power. Apparently, this is impossible to ask every government agent to request a warrant before arresting anyone in every case, especially in an emergency. For example, it would not be feasible for a police officer to ask for a warrant first and then go back to the crime scene of a bank robbery to arrest the robber. Hence, the law is somewhat flexible when it comes to determining whether or not an arrest is lawful. Still, all is under the control of law. For instance, Section 50 of the \"Police Force Ordinance\" considers an arrest to be lawful even without a warrant if:\n" ]

[ "The phenomenon is explained by the effect of bubble density on the speed of sound in the liquid. The note heard is the frequency of a standing wave where a quarter wavelength is the distance between the base of the mug and the liquid surface. This frequency \"f\" is equal to the speed \"v\" of the wave divided by four times the height of the water column h:\n", "The coffee-ring pattern originates from the capillary flow induced by the differential evaporation rates across the drop: liquid evaporating from the edge is replenished by liquid from the interior. The resulting edgeward flow can carry nearly all the dispersed material to the edge. As a function of time, this process exhibit a \"rush-hour\" effect, that is, a rapid acceleration of the edgeward flow at the final stage of the drying process.\n", "The coffee ring effect is utilized in convective deposition by researchers wanting to order particles on a substrate using capillary-driven assembly, replacing a stationary droplet with an advancing meniscus drawn across the substrate. This process differs from dip-coating in that evaporation drives flow along the substrate as opposed to gravity.\n", "Coffee tasseography (, , ) is traditionally practiced using Turkish coffee or any method of coffee brewing that leaves grounds sitting at the bottom of the cup. Most of the coffee in the cup is consumed, but the sediments are left to settle. It is often believed that the querent should not read their own cup.\n", "Typically, when the coffee boils up through the jebena's neck, it is poured in and out of another container to cool it. The liquid is then poured back into the jebena until it bubbles up. To pour the coffee from the jebena a filter made from horsehair or other material is placed in the spout of the jebena to prevent the grounds from escaping. In Ethiopia, a small pottery cup called a \"sini\" or \"finjal\" is used to contain the coffee poured from the jebena.\n", "Note that after this rotation, the cup has been returned to its original orientation, but that its orientation with respect to the walls is \"twisted\". In other words, if we lower the coffee cup to the floor of the room, the two bands will coil around each other in one full twist of a double helix. This is an example of orientation entanglement: the new orientation of the coffee cup embedded in the room is not actually the same as the old orientation, as evidenced by the twisting of the rubber bands. Stated another way, the orientation of the coffee cup has become entangled with the orientation of the surrounding walls.\n", "According to the instructions, fine-ground coffee is placed in the bottom of the larger cylinder on top of a paper microfilter. Hot water at approximately is then poured over the coffee; this mixture is stirred for approximately 10 seconds before being forced through the microfilter by pushing the plunger downwards.\n" ]

[ "Migraine without aura also referred to as a \"common migraine\", (previously known as \"hemicrania simplex\") is a specific neurological disorder characterized by recurrent, throbbing headaches that often affect one side of the head (i.e., it is unilateral), are of at least moderate intensity, and may cause nausea, phonophobia or photophobia. One defining characteristic of the common migraine is a lack of the visual disturbances known as an aura. The exact International Classification of Headache Disorders diagnostic criteria appear to the right.\n", "Old headaches are usually primary headaches and are not dangerous. They are most often caused by migraines or tension headaches. Migraines are often unilateral, pulsing headaches accompanied by nausea or vomiting. There may be an aura (visual symptoms, numbness or tingling) 30–60 minutes before the headache, warning the person of a headache. Migraines may also not have auras. Tension type headaches usually have bilateral \"bandlike\" pressure on both sides of the head usually without nausea or vomiting. However, some symptoms from both headache groups may overlap. It is important to distinguish between the two because the treatments are different.\n", "A migraine is a primary headache disorder characterized by recurrent headaches that are moderate to severe. Typically, the headaches affect one half of the head, are pulsating in nature, and last from a few hours to 3 days. Associated symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light, sound, or smell. The pain is generally made worse by physical activity. Up to one-third of people have an aura: typically a short period of visual disturbance that signals that the headache will soon occur. Occasionally, an aura can occur with little or no headache following it.\n", "Classically the headache is unilateral, throbbing, and moderate to severe in intensity. It usually comes on gradually and is aggravated by physical activity. In more than 40% of cases, however, the pain may be bilateral and neck pain is commonly associated with it. Bilateral pain is particularly common in those who have migraines without an aura. Less commonly pain may occur primarily in the back or top of the head. The pain usually lasts 4 to 72 hours in adults, however in young children frequently lasts less than 1 hour. The frequency of attacks is variable, from a few in a lifetime to several a week, with the average being about one a month.\n", "Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms to a migraine headache include temporal arteritis, cluster headaches, acute glaucoma, meningitis and subarachnoid hemorrhage. Temporal arteritis typically occurs in people over 50 years old and presents with tenderness over the temple, cluster headaches presents with one-sided nose stuffiness, tears and severe pain around the orbits, acute glaucoma is associated with vision problems, meningitis with fevers, and subarachnoid hemorrhage with a very fast onset. Tension headaches typically occur on both sides, are not pounding, and are less disabling.\n", "A headache is severe, if it causes intense pain. There are scales like \"visual analog scale\" that help clinicians assess the severity. On the other hand, a headache is not usually serious (but may be in case of subarachnoid haemorrhage, subdural bleed, even a migraine may temporally fit criteria), unless it also satisfies the criteria for seriousness listed above.\n", "Acephalgic migraine (also called acephalalgic migraine, migraine aura without headache, amigrainous migraine, isolated visual migraine, and optical migraine) is a neurological syndrome. It is a relatively uncommon variant of migraine in which the patient may experience aura, nausea, photophobia, hemiparesis, and other migraine symptoms, but does not experience headache. It is generally classified as an event fulfilling the conditions of migraine with aura with no (or minimal) headache. It is sometimes distinguished from visual-only migraine aura without headache, also called ocular migraine.\n" ]

[ "The time zone used aboard the ISS is Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The windows are covered at night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experiences 16 sunrises and sunsets per day. During visiting Space Shuttle missions, the ISS crew mostly follows the shuttle's Mission Elapsed Time (MET), which is a flexible time zone based on the launch time of the shuttle mission.\n", "Orbiting spacecraft typically experience many sunrises and sunsets in a 24-hour period, or in the case of Apollo program astronauts travelling to the moon, none. Thus it is not possible to calibrate time zones with respect to the sun, and still respect a 24-hour sleep/wake cycle. A common practice for space exploration is to use the Earth-based time zone of the launch site or mission control. This keeps the sleeping cycles of the crew and controllers in sync. The International Space Station normally uses Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).\n", "The International Space Station (ISS) does not use an MET clock since it is a \"permanent\" and international mission. The ISS observes Coordinated Universal Time (UTC/GMT). When the shuttle visited ISS the ISS-crew usually adjusted their workday to the MET clock to make work together easier. The shuttles also had UTC clocks so that the astronauts could easily figure out what the \"official\" time aboard ISS was.\n", "A convention used by spacecraft lander projects to date has been to enumerate local solar time using a 24-hour \"Mars clock\" on which the hours, minutes and seconds are 2.7% longer than their standard (Earth) durations. For the Mars Pathfinder, Mars Exploration Rover (MER), Phoenix, and Mars Science Laboratory missions, the operations teams have worked on \"Mars time\", with a work schedule synchronized to the local time at the landing site on Mars, rather than the Earth day. This results in the crew's schedule sliding approximately 40 minutes later in Earth time each day. Wristwatches calibrated in Martian time, rather than Earth time, were used by many of the MER team members.\n", "The Chamorro Time Zone, formerly the Guam Time Zone, is a United States time zone which observes standard time ten hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time (). The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 150th meridian east of the Greenwich Observatory.\n", "The Wake Island Time Zone observes standard time by adding twelve hours to Coordinated Universal Time (). The clock time in this zone is based on the mean solar time of the 180th degree meridian east of the Greenwich Observatory.\n", "The Alaska Time Zone observes standard time by subtracting nine hours from Coordinated Universal Time (). During daylight saving time its time offset is eight hours (). The clock time in this zone is based on mean solar time at the 135th meridian west of the Greenwich Observatory.\n" ]

[ "Furthermore, even single neurons appear to be complex and capable of performing computations. So, brain models that don't reflect this are too abstract to be representative of brain operation; models that do try to capture this are very computationally expensive and arguably intractable with present computational resources. However, the Human Brain Project is trying to build a realistic, detailed computational model of the entire human brain. The wisdom of this approach has been publicly contested, with high-profile scientists on both sides of the argument.\n", "Although initially controversial, the idea that the mammalian brain is 'plastic' and adaptive is now a dominant theme in neuroscience. The plasticity of connections between nerve cells is thought to underlie many different types of learning and memory, as well as sensory development. The changes in organisation can be remarkably rapid, even in adults. Blakemore has shown that the visual parts of the human cortex become responsive to input from the other senses, especially touch, in people who have been blind since shortly after birth. After stroke or other forms of brain injury, reorganisation of this sort can help the process of recovery, as other parts of the brain take over the function of the damaged part.\n", "The brain is the most complex and least understood organ in the body, resulting in modeling the brain as a whole virtually impossible with current technology. In order to compensate for this complexity, models for the brain must be explicitly defined as to what exactly they model. Doing this inevitably results in many well defined models for different parts of the brain. However, they are all taken out of context of the 'whole brain', meaning that brain models do not incorporate aspects such as spatial and depth characteristics that a whole brain would have to prevent damage.\n", "The brain seems to be able to discriminate and adapt particularly well in certain contexts. For instance, human beings seem to have an enormous capacity for memorizing and recognizing faces. One of the key goals of computational neuroscience is to dissect how biological systems carry out these complex computations efficiently and potentially replicate these processes in building intelligent machines.\n", "Living Brain has the ability to analyze any situation and determine how best to achieve its goals. Like any computer, Living Brain can process and collate large amounts of information. Living Brain can find any weaknesses in a being or structure as well as determining the best situation to overcome this obstacle. Living Brain has dense metal exo-skeleton and possesses super-strength and speed. It can also fly and has clawed hands. The joints of Living Brain's limbs can rotate nearly 360 degrees. Originally, Living Brain had external controls on its thorax, with which it can be deactivated, yet Living Brain has always countered any attempts to reach it. Living Brain was later operated by remote-control. The Living Brain has great strength, ability to move upon command and its limbs can perform various motions...It has the ability to think due to its great computerized \"brain\"...It was short-circuited after its first introduction in the school and went hay-wire until Peter readjusted the machine back to normal. The \"souped-up\" later version had the ability to hover or fly and was quite stronger. He has even beaten the Avengers once due to his extreme intelligence.\n", "The brain is \"plastic\", meaning it can be molded and formed. This plasticity is what allows you to learn throughout your lifetime; your synapses change based on your experience. New synapses can be made, old ones destroyed, or existing ones can be strengthened or weakened. The original theory of plasticity is called \"Hebbian plasticity\", named after Donald Hebb in 1949. A quick but effective summary of Hebbian theory is that \"cells that fire together, wire together\", together being the key word here which will be explained shortly. Hebb described an early concept of the theory, not the actual mechanics themselves. Hebbian plasticity involves two mechanisms: LTP and LTD, discovered by Bliss and Lomo in 1973. LTP, or long-term potentiation, is the increase of synapse sensitivity due to a prolonged period of activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron. This prolonged period of activity is normally concentrated electric impulses, usually around 100 Hz. It is called \"coincidence\" detection in that it only strengthens the synapse if there was sufficient activity in both the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells. If the postsynaptic cell does not become sufficiently depolarized then there is no coincidence detection and LTP/LTD do not occur. LTD, or long-term depression, works the same way however it focuses on a lack of depolarization coincidence. LTD can be induced by electrical impulses at around 5 Hz. These changes are synapse specific. A neuron can have many different synapses all controlled via the same mechanisms defined here.\n", "Humans from early on when using stone tools have created technologies that have enhanced their abilities. This will continue with the still unexplored potential of the brain. One area is awareness of its hidden functioning as this is needed to better train it. The future of present functional imaging is proposed to be akin to that of . Like such past computers such technology will spiral down in price and convenience so that this braintech (like computers today) will become an essential part of everyday human life.\n" ]

[ "Since the S/34 ran \"16-bit\" programs, the largest program that could be compiled and run was 64K. Most were not nearly that large. Since memory addresses were stored in 16 bits, a 64K program was often a giant monster RPG screen program with 3,000 lines of code, five or six files, and forty-odd array/table entries.\n", "One disadvantage of this was that the size of segments was limited to 256 kilowords, just over 1 MiB. This was due to the particular hardware architecture of the machines on which Multics ran, having a 36-bit word size and index registers (used to address within segments) of half that size (18 bits). Extra code had to be used to work on files larger than this, called multisegment files. In the days when one megabyte of memory was prohibitively expensive, and before large databases and later huge bitmap graphics, this limit was rarely encountered.\n", "BULLET::::- Using different domain names or computers to separate big files from small and medium-sized files; the idea is to be able to fully cache small and medium-sized files and to efficiently serve big or huge (over 10 – 1000 MB) files by using different settings\n", "BULLET::::- Application Size: If the maximum client cache size is set to at least 4 GB (The max can be 64 GB), then the maximum size of application (sft file) which can be streamed on that machine is 4 GB. All applications that have an installed footprint greater than or equal to the max client size, set by the client, should not be sequenced. The maximum application size Softgrid can handle is 4GB, due to the use of the FAT32 file-system.\n", "This could be confusing to programmers accustomed to unique addressing schemes, but it can also be used to advantage, for example when addressing multiple nested data structures. While real mode segments are always 64 KB long, the practical effect is only that no segment can be longer than 64 KB, rather than that every segment \"must\" be 64 KB long. Because there is no protection or privilege limitation in real mode, even if a segment could be defined to be smaller than 64 KB, it would still be entirely up to the programs to coordinate and keep within the bounds of their segments, as any program can always access any memory (since it can arbitrarily set segment selectors to change segment addresses with absolutely no supervision). Therefore, real mode can just as well be imagined as having a variable length for each segment, in the range 1 to 65,536 bytes, that is just not enforced by the CPU.\n", "The programs themselves were actually quite impressive, some even being simple “shoot-em-up” games, yet were all designed to be small (none were over 2K in file size, a must given the limitations of some personal computers available at the time, such as the TI-99/4A) and easily typed in by even the most novice programmer. Instructions were included on how to \"tweak\" the programs to make them run on almost any popular home computer of the time.\n", "BULLET::::- It is to note a large multi-purpose program with too large drakon-chart may be harder to be comprehended that a set of small programs that serve same purposes separately; similar problem of maintaining code of a single large program is occasionally referred to as \"rule of 30 [lines of code]\" among programmers.\n" ]

[ "Puzzle Pirates is a massively multiplayer online game developed by Three Rings Design, a company acquired by Sega Sammy Holdings in 2011. The player takes the role of a pirate, adventuring on the high seas and pillaging money (\"pieces of eight\") from roaming enemy ships (human or computer-controlled). The mechanics of \"Puzzle Pirates\" are driven by puzzles. For example, to effectively sail a ship, players must play puzzle games representing work at the sails for speed, pumping bilge water to remove it from the ship, and carpentry to fix any damage the ship may take.\n", "An innovative feature of Pirates is the 'constructible' element of the game; each game piece (except for terrain) is created by popping out the small polystyrene pieces from placeholder cards and assembling them. As the ship, fort or sea monster is damaged by enemies during the course of game play, pieces of it are removed to record how much damage it has sustained, giving the game piece itself the appearance of slowly being destroyed. The elements removed from the piece - for example, a ship's masts - can no longer be used in the game unless another game element allows it to be replaced later.\n", "\"Puzzle Pirates\" is open-ended and community-driven. Over time, pirates can join a crew, progress in rank within that crew, buy and run sailing vessels and shoppes, and perhaps even become captain of a crew, royalty within a flag (an alliance of crews), or governor of an island. Islands are governed and shoppes are managed exclusively by players. From time to time, players are also called upon to help expand the game, whether it be new puzzles (developed on Game Gardens), island objects to be used on new oceans (servers), or artwork used for a variety of purposes in-game.\n", "Pirates vs. Ninjas is a comedic Internet and gaming meme regarding a theoretical conflict between archetypal Western pirates and Japanese ninjas, generally including arbitrary \"debate\" over which side would win in a fight. The meme is sometimes referred to as PvN and has a long history on the Internet. Humorist Jake Kalish writes (in the pro-ninja column) that the reason for the popularity of the meme is that \"pirates and ninjas are both cool, but kind of opposite, see, because one is loud and the other ... never mind.\"\n", "One of the most innovative features of \"Pirates!\" is the introduction of a dynamic playing field. In \"Pirates!\" many of the most important factors which affect player decisions are randomized at the beginning of the game and continue to shift during gameplay. This not only creates a new experience each time the game is played, but also requires the player to remain flexible, and be ready to exploit possibilities when they occur. Changes happen whenever time passes and they are unrelated to player actions. In fact, in this game in the series, random events do not have any graphical representation, and the player can do nothing to prevent them.\n", "The pirate is placed into a spring-loaded barrel and rotated to randomize the unlucky slot. Players must take it in turns to insert plastic swords into slots in the side of the barrel. If a player inserts the sword into a specific slot (which changes randomly every time the game is played), the pirate is launched out of the barrel and the player is eliminated. The last player remaining after all others have been eliminated wins.\n", "On October 25, 2006, WizKids released \"\", a non-collectible board game version of the Pirates game that uses gameplay elements and game pieces from the constructible strategy game, but is designed to be simplified, self-contained and sold in the board game section of retail stores.\n" ]

[ "The blind community of Sri Lanka is alienating gradually from the use of braille due to a number of reasons. A recent survey reveals that only 15% of blind people use braille. Today, braille usage is limited to examination purposes in educational institutions. It is worth inquiring as to what could be the possible reasons leading to this alienation from braille.\n", "Braille can be the building block for language skills and a way to teach spelling, grammar, and punctuations to people with vision loss or who are deaf-blind. Not only do Braille codes represent alphabets, they also denote numbers, symbols, music and mathematical notations, enabling people to learn about different subjects in a different way from most of us. Braille books are available in all subject areas, ranging from modern fiction to mathematics, music and law. As with printed text, Braille makes it possible for people to access information in this format.\n", "Braille literacy is a social-justice issue. Early braille education is crucial to literacy, education and employment among the blind. However, in the face of changes in education policy and screen reader software, braille usage has declined in recent decades, despite the fact that technologies such as braille displays have also made braille more accessible and practical.\n", "Though braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported two million blind and low vision population, it is estimated that only around 15,000–20,000 people use braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers with screen reader software instead, a more portable communication method that they can use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.\n", "Braille equipment includes a variety of multipurpose devices, which enhance access to distance communication. Some can be used as stand-alone devices connected via Wi-Fi, while others are paired with a mobile device to provide tactile access to e-mail, text messaging, and other modern communication resources. To receive Braille equipment, an eligible consumer must be proficient in Braille and must have access to the Internet or cellular service.\n", "In 2001 the group became the first retailer to include Braille writing on its range of medicines and alcoholic drinks, a move which received three industry awards. In 2015 Braille can also be found on many products, including breakfast cereals.\n", "Braille menus were first introduced in 1979, and picture menus in 1988. In March 1992, combination Braille and picture menus were reintroduced to accommodate those with vision, speech, or hearing impairments.\n" ]

[ "If the chromosome pairs fail to separate properly during cell division, the egg or sperm may end up with a second copy of one of the chromosomes. (\"See\" non-disjunction.) If such a gamete results in fertilization and an embryo, the resulting embryo may also have an entire copy of the extra chromosome.\n", "The X chromosome is always present as the 23rd chromosome in the ovum, while either an X or a Y chromosomes can be present in an individual sperm. Early in female embryonic development, in cells other than egg cells, one of the X chromosomes is randomly and permanently partially deactivated: In some cells the X chromosome inherited from the mother is deactivated, while in others the X chromosome from the father is deactivated. This ensures that both sexes always have exactly one functional copy of the X chromosome in each body cell. The deactivated X-chromosome is silenced by repressive heterochromatin that compacts the DNA and prevents expression of most genes (see X-inactivation). This compaction is regulated by PRC2 (Polycomb Repressive Complex 2).\n", "In males during the 5th and 6th divisions of the embryo all the limited chromosomes are eliminated. Then paternal X chromosome is eliminated which are 2 in number. Hence male soma line cells have 3 pairs of autosomes and one maternal X chromosome.\n", "During meiosis, when germ cells divide to create sperm and egg (gametes), each half should have the same number of chromosomes. But sometimes, the whole pair of chromosomes will end up in one gamete, and the other gamete will not get that chromosome at all.\n", "Another mechanism for retaining the extra chromosome is through a nondisjunction event during meiosis II in the egg. Nondisjunction occurs when sister chromatids on the sex chromosome, in this case an X and an X, fail to separate. An XX egg is produced, which when fertilized with a Y sperm, yields an XXY offspring. This XXY chromosome arrangement is one of the most common genetic variations from the XY karyotype, occurring in about one in 500 live male births. See also Triple X syndrome.\n", "The extra chromosome is occasionally found in the mosaic state, i.e. some of the cells carry the marker chromosome. However, mostly because of the marker's instability and tendency to be lost during cell division (mitosis), some cells are completely normal with 46 chromosomes. Occasionally, cells may have more than one idic(15), resulting in 48 or 49 chromosomes in all or some of their cells. A similar clinical picture albeit to a milder degree could be expected in individuals that have the extra chromosome 15 material as an interstitial duplication (when the extra piece of chromosome 15 is included \"within\" the long arm of one of the two copies of chromosome 15, rather than as a small extra 'marker' chromosome) - often abbreviated to int dup(15); the individual thus having 46 chromosomes.\n", "Unlike other chromosomes, Y chromosomes generally do not come in pairs. Every human male (excepting those with XYY syndrome) has only one copy of that chromosome. This means that there is not any chance variation of which copy is inherited, and also (for most of the chromosome) not any shuffling between copies by recombination; so, unlike autosomal haplotypes, there is effectively not any randomisation of the Y-chromosome haplotype between generations. A human male should largely share the same Y chromosome as his father, give or take a few mutations; thus Y chromosomes tend to pass largely intact from father to son,\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Sabine Hossenfelder and Stacy S. McGaugh, \"Is Dark Matter Real? Astrophysicists have piled up observations that are difficult to explain with dark matter. It is time to consider that there may be more to gravity than Einstein taught us\", \"Scientific American\", vol. 319, no. 2 (August 2018), pp. 36–43.\n", "If dark matter does not exist, then the next most likely explanation must be general relativity — the prevailing theory of gravity — is incorrect and should be modified. The Bullet Cluster, the result of a recent collision of two galaxy clusters, provides a challenge for modified gravity theories because its apparent center of mass is far displaced from the baryonic center of mass. Standard dark matter models can easily explain this observation, but modified gravity has a much harder time, especially since the observational evidence is model-independent.\n", "Although the existence of dark matter is generally accepted by the scientific community, some astrophysicists, intrigued by certain observations which do not fit the dark matter theory, argue for various modifications of the standard laws of general relativity, such as modified Newtonian dynamics, tensor–vector–scalar gravity, or entropic gravity. These models attempt to account for all observations without invoking supplemental non-baryonic matter.\n", "The theory of entropic gravity posits that what has been interpreted as unobserved dark matter is the product of quantum effects that can be regarded as a form of \"positive dark energy\" that lifts the vacuum energy of space from its ground state value. A central tenet of the theory is that the positive dark energy leads to a thermal-volume law contribution to entropy that overtakes the area law of anti-de Sitter space precisely at\n", "Although dark matter can't be seen directly, its gravitational interactions with familiar matter leave unmistakable evidence for its existence. The universe we see today simply wouldn't look the way it does without dark matter. Approximately five times more abundant than ordinary matter, the nature of dark matter remains one of the biggest mysteries in physics today. In addition to solving the strong CP problem, the axion could provide an answer to the question \"what is dark matter made of?\" The axion is a neutral particle that is extraordinarily weakly interacting and could be produced in the right amount to constitute dark matter. If the dark matter accounting for the bulk of all matter in our universe is axions, ADMX is one of only few experiments able to detect it.\n", "According to Moshe Carmeli, Professor of Theoretical Physics at Ben Gurion University in Beer Sheva, Israel, Hartnett asserted in his theory that there is no need to assume the existence of dark matter in the universe.\n", "Dark matter is postulated in order to account for gravitational effects observed in very large-scale structures (the \"flat\" rotation curves of galaxies; the gravitational lensing of light by galaxy clusters; and enhanced clustering of galaxies) that cannot be accounted for by the quantity of observed matter.\n" ]

[ "Another hazard, susceptibility of the brain to shearing forces, plays a role primarily in injuries that involve rapid and forceful movements of the head, such as in motor vehicle accidents. In these situations rotational forces such as might occur in whiplash-type injuries are particularly important. These forces, associated with the rapid acceleration and deceleration of the head, are smallest at the point of rotation of the brain near the lower end of the brain stem and successively increase at increasing distances from this point. The resulting shearing forces cause different levels in the brain to move relative to one another. This movement produces stretching and tearing of axons (diffuse axonal injury) and the insulating myelin sheath, injuries which are the major cause of loss of consciousness in a head trauma. Small blood vessels are also damaged causing bleeding (petechial hemorrhages) deep within the brain.\n", "A sports-related traumatic brain injury is a serious accident which may lead to significant morbidity or mortality. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in sports are usually a result of physical contact with another person or stationary object, these sports may include boxing, football, field/ice hockey, lacrosse, martial arts, rugby, soccer, wrestling, auto racing, cycling, equestrian, roller blading, skateboarding, skiing, or snowboarding.\n", "Many teens engage in extracurricular activities including sports that can pose risk of injury. Some sports that create a more significant risk of a head injury or concussion include basketball, cheerleading, soccer, and football. High school football accounts for a significant percentage of head injuries that result from high school sports. While performing intense physical activity the brains' structure and functionality can be changed. This alteration in the brain may be a reason athletes in contact sports have concussions at higher. In combination with the contact and altered brain structure this can potentially lead to more severe concussions (Tremblay, Pascual-Leone, Théoret, 2018, p.172)..\n", "Myoclonus can be described as brief jerks of the body; it can involve any part of the body, but it is mostly seen in limbs or facial muscles. The jerks are usually involuntary and can lead to falls. EEG is used to read brain wave activity. Spike activity produced from the brain is usually correlated with brief jerks seen on EMG or excessive muscle artifact. They usually occur without detectable loss of consciousness and may be generalized, regional or focal on the EEG tracing. Myclonus jerks can be epileptic or not epileptic. Epileptic myoclonus is an elementary electroclinical manifestation of epilepsy involving descending neurons, whose spatial (spread) or temporal (self-sustained repetition) amplification can trigger overt epileptic activity.\n", "Physically, hypnic jerks resemble the \"jump\" experienced by a person when startled, sometimes accompanied by a falling sensation. Hypnic jerks are associated with a rapid heartbeat, quickened breathing, sweat, and sometimes \"a peculiar sensory feeling of 'shock' or 'falling into the void. It can also be accompanied by a vivid dream experience or hallucination. A higher occurrence is reported in people with irregular sleep schedules. Moreover, when particularly frequent and severe, hypnic jerks have been reported as a cause of sleep-onset insomnia.\n", "According to a study on sleep disturbances in the \"Journal of Neural Transmission\", a hypnic jerk occurs during the non-rapid eye movement sleep cycle and is an \"abrupt muscle action flexing movement, generalized or partial and asymmetric, which may cause arousal, with an illusion of falling\". Hypnic jerks are more frequent in childhood with 4 to 7 per hour in the age range from 8 to 12 years old, and they decrease toward 1 or 2 per hour by 65 to 80 years old.\n", "Injury to the head can occur from repeatedly making contact with the ball through headers or from a single blow. The danger of this trauma is especially significant to children because their bodies are not fully developed and may not be able to counteract a blow to the head. Minor trauma similar to pugilistic dementia may occur from repetitively heading the ball. A study published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine found that headgear does not help reduce the impact on the head from ball contact. This is because a human head is stiffer than the soccer ball. On impact, the ball will deform more than the head. However, studies in 2006 by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the University of Pennsylvania found no link between brain injuries and routinely heading the ball. Because of this, the aim of wearing headgear turned to mitigating damage from accidental head on head collisions between players on the pitch. It was found that there was an overall 33% reduction of impact force on the head from head to head impacts when headgear was used. The U.S. Soccer Federation sees that protective headgear in soccer can provide measurable benefit in head to head contact, and permits players to wear headgear at their own discretion until more conclusive evidence is obtained.\n" ]

[ "As aerobic respiration decreases, the plants become oxygen deficient, since the roots are unable to produce enough oxygen in the reduced soil conditions. Decreased oxygen uptake can also decrease plant productivity.\n", "Over the last 100 years the Earth's temperature has increased 0.6 degrees Celsius and it is predicted to increase an additional 3.5 degrees over the next century. Tropical wet forests account for only 6% of earth's land surface yet are responsible for 40% of earth’s oxygen production. Any type of change to this system can prove to have significant detrimental effects in terms of global oxygen availability. In addition, due to the sensitivity and fragile interactions between organisms and the atmosphere, ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration rates, will experience even larger adverse effects.\n", "Many suspected the drop in oxygen was due to microbes in the soil. The soils were selected to have enough carbon to provide for the plants of the ecosystems to grow from infancy to maturity, a plant mass increase of perhaps . The release rate of that soil carbon as carbon dioxide by respiration of soil microbes was an unknown that the Biosphere 2 experiment was designed to reveal. Subsequent research showed that Biosphere 2's farm soils had reached a more stable ratio of carbon and nitrogen, lowering the rate of release, by 1998.\n", "In \"Recherches chimiques sur la Végétation\", Saussure showed that the increase in the mass of a plant as it grows could not be due only to the uptake of CO, but was also a result of the incorporation of water into plant dry matter. In addition, Saussure demonstrated that plants obtain their carbon from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, not through uptake from humus in the soil, as his immediate predecessors in photosynthesis research had generally believed. He also showed that plants require mineral nutrients, which they take up from the soil, and nitrogen, although he did not trace the source of plant nitrogen definitively to the soil. Saussure's finding that the source of plant minerals was the soil disproved the widely held view that mineral substances in plants arose from vague \"transmutations\" within the plant. His work enabled completion of the basic, overall chemical equation of photosynthesis, according to which carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of light, are converted by a green plant into fixed carbon (such as glucose, food for the plant), with gaseous oxygen released as a byproduct. Based on his accomplishments in plant chemistry and physiology, Saussure is considered the last of the major early pioneers of photosynthesis research, completing the work begun by his predecessors, including Jan van Helmont, Joseph Priestley, Jan Ingen-Housz, and Jean Senebier.\n", "Rainforests are widely believed by laymen to contribute a significant amount of the world's oxygen, although it is now accepted by scientists that rainforests contribute little net oxygen to the atmosphere and deforestation has only a minor effect on atmospheric oxygen levels. However, the incineration and burning of forest plants to clear land releases large amounts of CO, which contributes to global warming. Scientists also state that tropical deforestation releases 1.5 billion tons of carbon each year into the atmosphere.\n", "In the study of plants' photorespiration, the labeling of atmosphere by oxygen-18 allows us to measure the oxygen uptake by the photorespiration pathway. Labeling by gives the unidirectional flux of uptake, while there is a net photosynthetic evolution. It was demonstrated that, under preindustrial atmosphere, most plants reabsorb, by photorespiration, half of the oxygen produced by photosynthesis. Then, the yield of photosynthesis was halved by the presence of oxygen in atmosphere.\n", "The depletion of plant life contributed to declining concentrations of oxygen in the atmosphere. High oxygen levels had made the enormous arthropods of the time possible. Due to the decreasing oxygen, these sizes could no longer be accommodated, and thus between this and the loss of habitat, the giant arthropods were wiped out in this event, most notably the giant dragonflies (Meganeura) and millipedes (Arthropleura)..\n" ]

[ "Pi certainly seems to behave this way. In the first six billion decimal places of pi, each of the digits from 0 through 9 shows up about six hundred million times. Yet such results, conceivably accidental, do not prove normality even in base 10, much less normality in other number bases.\n", "While the PiHex project calculated the least significant digits of pi ever attempted in any base, the second place is held by Peter Trueb who computed some 22+ trillion digits in 2016 and third place by \"houkouonchi\" who derived the 13.3 trillionth digit in base 10.\n", "Until the 20th century, the number of digits of pi which mathematicians had the stamina to calculate by hand remained in the hundreds, so that memorization of \"all\" known digits at the time was possible. In 1949 a computer was used to calculate π to 2000 places, presenting one of the earliest opportunities for a more difficult challenge.\n", "Except for 11, all palindromic primes have an odd number of digits, because the divisibility test for 11 tells us that every palindromic number with an even number of digits is a multiple of 11. It is not known if there are infinitely many palindromic primes in base 10. The largest known is (474,501 digits):\n", "Despite the essential role of digits in describing numbers, they are relatively unimportant to modern mathematics. Nevertheless, there are a few important mathematical concepts that make use of the representation of a number as a sequence of digits.\n", "Because hexadecimal requires sixteen digits, Nystrom supplemented the existing decimal digits 0 through 9 with his own invented characters (shown on his clockface above) and changed the value of 9 to ten. Later, the hexadecimal notation overcame this same obstacle by using the digits 0 through 9 followed by the letters A through F.\n", "Numerical prefixes are not restricted to denoting integers. Some of the SI prefixes denote negative powers of 10, i.e. division by a multiple of 10 rather than multiplication by it. Several common-use numerical prefixes denote vulgar fractions.\n" ]

[ "Millions of dollars have been invested in these colonization projects by private companies. The first to inhabit the new colonies are selected following reconnaissance missions to the newly discovered planets, and the United Nations has put in place a charter regulating the colonization of new planets. Most notably, colonization must cease should the planet be found to harbor one, or potentially several species considered to be evolved, defined as a species which has discovered fire and can produce tools.\n", "After exploring through a deep space wormhole, the Terran Republic, a highly centralized oligarchic galactic government which had unconditionally ruled humanity for the past thousand years, discovered a single habitable planet. Not only was this planet suitable for the sustenance of life, but it also already possessed many native, highly developed, and staggeringly familiar flora. The Science Institute named this planet \"Auraxis\". Taking a keen interest in this aberration, the Republic quickly sent expeditions through the wormhole to explore and colonize the planet. Shortly after arriving, the colonists discovered the remains and technology of a lost and ancient alien species – the Vanu (or \"Ancients\"). This technology proved to be so complex and powerful as to barely be conceivable to human minds, involving levels of energy previously thought to be physically unquantifiable. This allowed for the quick colonization of the ten continents of Auraxis, the creation of power sources and vehicles for the use of the colonists and, most importantly, it facilitated the development of \"rebirthing\" technology. This nanotechnology allowed the Terrans to deconstruct and reconstruct their own bodies, allowing fast transportation across the world. Later on, it was discovered that dead workers could be brought back to life using the technology, revealing a startling new possibility: \"immortality\". Needless to say, the incredible power (and value) of this technology was systemically acknowledged, and despite the scale of the advances made due to the study of the technology, it was also recognized that humanity had not yet even scratched the surface of any future possibilities. Later on, the discovery that the planet itself had been an artificial construction of the Ancients further served to solidify the realization that, if left unchecked, Vanu technology would forever and irrevocably change humanity and its future.\n", "During the CoDominium era, instantaneous interstellar travel as a result of the Alderson Drive easily gave humanity the ability to explore, colonize, and exploit various star systems. As a result, many of the space settlements are on planets that are similar to Earth. At the very least, a colony world was barely inhabitable for human life without technological support. Many colonies were founded by ethnic minorities, religious groups, or political groups. Some are started by businesses, for commercial reasons. Most lack an industrial base, and have little advanced technology as a result. The elite, more technologically advanced colonies are ones settled and supported by the Earth countries. These elite worlds have their own fleets and enjoy some independence from the CD.\n", "In the years leading up to 2063, humanity has begun to colonize other planets. Lacking technology that would enable them to travel faster than light, also known as \"FTL technology,\" colonization is accomplished by taking advantage of transient but predictable, naturally occurring wormholes in space, which allows them to traverse vast distances. Without warning, a previously unknown alien species, the \"Chigs\", attack and destroy Earth's first extra-solar colony and then destroy a second colony ship. The bulk of the Earth military forces sent to confront the Chigs are destroyed or outflanked, in part because the Chigs have some form of FTL, affording them greater freedom of movement (although this technology appears limited, and the Chigs also primarily utilize natural wormholes).\n", "In the first half of the starship's voyage, Devlin finds only two planets that had any potential for human colonization, and found both unsuitable. One planet was entering Roche's limit and would not remain habitable for much longer, and the other was already inhabited by hostile aliens whose planet was in even worse shape than the Earth he had left behind.\n", "Permanent human habitation on a planetary body other than the Earth is one of science fiction's most prevalent themes. As technology has advanced, and concerns about the future of humanity on Earth have increased, the vision of space colonization as an achievable and worthwhile goal has gained momentum. Because of its proximity to Earth, the Moon is seen as the best and most obvious location for the first permanent off-planet colony. Currently, the main problem hindering the development of such a colony is the high cost of spaceflight.\n", "BULLET::::- The British Interplanetary Society promotes ideas for the exploration and utilization of space, including a Mars colony, future propulsion systems (see Project Daedalus), terraforming, and locating other habitable worlds.\n" ]

[ "In spite of \"anti-radical hysteria\" during and just after the war years, the IWW continued to grow. The IWW's peak membership probably occurred in 1923. 1924 would see the beginning of a dramatic decline, and the recent repression would work to exacerbate the internal tensions responsible for that decline.\n", "The loss of the MMWIU, at the time the IWW's largest industrial union, was almost a deathblow to the IWW. The union's membership fell to its lowest level in the 1950s during the Second Red Scare, and by 1955, the union's fiftieth anniversary, it was near extinction, though it still appeared on government lists of Communist-led groups.\n", "The AFL membership soared to 2.4 million in 1917. In 1919, the AFL tried to make their gains permanent and called a series of major strikes in meat, steel and other industries. The strikes ultimately failed, forcing unions back to membership and power similar to those around 1910.\n", "The United States underwent an increase in labor militancy during the post-war period. 1919 saw a general strike in Seattle, large miners' strikes, a police strike in Boston, and a nationwide steel strike. The IWW, however, had been nearly destroyed in the previous two years by local criminal syndicalism laws, the federal government, and vigilante violence. It attempted to take credit for some of the strikes, but in reality was too weak to play a significant role. The post-war Red Scare intensified the attacks on the IWW and by the end of 1919 the IWW was practically powerless. In 1919 Canada was hit by a labor revolt, leading to the formation of One Big Union, which was only partly industrial unionist.\n", "After World War I, the United States experienced significant economic growth that was fueled by new technologies and improved production processes. Industrial production output increased 25% between the years 1927 and 1929. The speculative boom in the stock market resulted from the expanding economy and the market indices moved up nearly 400% from 1926 to 1929. In late October 1929, the decline emerged in the market and led to panic selling as more investors were unwilling to risk additional losses. The market sharply declined and was followed by the Great Depression.\n", "Unions grew very rapidly during the war but after a series of failed major strikes in steel, meatpacking and other industries, a long decade of decline weakened most unions and membership fell even as employment grew rapidly. Radical unionism virtually collapsed, in large part because of Federal repression during World War I by means of the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918. The major unions supported the third party candidacy of Robert La Follette in 1924.\n", "When World War I ended, the economy continued to be strong for a short period. However, with less demand for goods, prices dropped and 1918 saw a short recession, followed by a more severe one between 1920 and 1921. The mining industry was hard hit by decreasing prices and increasing foreign competition during the post-war recession years. Coal mining in Colorado was particularly affected as alternative sources of fuel were widely adopted and labor strikes hurt production. In 1928 Denver was on the receiving end of a major natural gas pipeline from Texas and as more households and businesses switched to gas, the more demand for coal fell.\n" ]

[ "Due to Iraq's inherent multiculturalism as well as history, Iraqi Arabic in turn bears extensive borrowings in its lexicon from Aramaic, Akkadian, Persian, Turkish, the Kurdish languages and Hindustani. The inclusion of Mongolian and other Turkic elements in the Iraqi Arabic dialect should also be mentioned, because of the political role a succession of Turco-Mongol dynasties played after Mesopotamia was invaded by Mongol-Turkic colonizers in 1258 that made Iraq became part of Ilkhanate (Iraq is the only Arab country that was influenced by Mongols), and also because of the prestige Iraqi Arabic dialect and literature enjoyed in the part of Arab world, which was often ruled by sultans and emirs with a Turkic background.\n", "Iraq, a country neighbouring Iran, is a federal Islamic Republic according to the constitution, consists of a republican, representative, parliamentary, and democratic system of government. Some Shiite leaders had proposed changing the country’s official name to the Islamic Republic of Iraq, a move opposed by Iraq’s secularists.\n", "Iraq is the only Arab country bordering the Persian Gulf that is not a member of the GCC. In 2012, Iraqi Defence Minister Saadoun al-Dulaimi stated that Iraq wanted to join the GCC. Kuwait supports Iraq joining the GCC. The lack of membership of Iraq is widely believed to be due to the low-income economy, its substantial Shia population, its republican political system, and its invasion of member state Kuwait during the Gulf War.\n", "Although all Arab states have Arabic as an official language, there are many non-Arabic-speaking populations native to the Arab world. Among these are Berbers, Toubou, Nubians, Jews, Kurds, Armenians. Additionally, many Arab countries in the Persian Gulf have sizable non-Arab immigrant populations (10–30%). Iraq, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, United Arab Emirates and Oman have a Persian speaking minority. The same countries also have Hindi-Urdu speakers and Filipinos as sizable minority. Balochi speakers are a good size minority in Oman. Additionally, countries like Bahrain, UAE, Oman and Kuwait have significant non-Arab and non-Muslim minorities (10–20%) like Hindus and Christians from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and the Philippines.\n", "Testimony to the close relationship shared by Iraq and western Iran during the Abbasid era and later centuries, is the fact that the two regions came to share the same name. The western region of Iran (ancient Media) was called 'Irāq-e 'Ajamī (\"Persian Iraq\"), while central-southern Iraq (Babylonia) was called 'Irāq al-'Arabī (\"Arabic Iraq\") or Bābil (\"Babylon\"). And the name Iraq comes from the ancient Mesopotamian city Uruk, which suggests an even older relationship.\n", "Following the Roman–Persian Wars and the Byzantine–Sassanid Wars, there were deep-rooted differences between Iraq, formerly under the Persian Sassanid Empire, and Syria, formerly under the Byzantine Empire. Each wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic state to be in their territory.\n", "Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of the population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions (Dawa and SCIRI) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favoured independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate the threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background. However, repressive measures were taken against its opponents.\n" ]

[ "Caltech researchers Konstantin Batygin and Mike Brown have hypothesised the existence of a giant planet in the outer Solar System, nicknamed Planet Nine. The planet would be about 10 times as massive as Earth. It would have a highly eccentric orbit, and its average distance from the Sun would be about 20 times that of Neptune (which orbits at an average distance of ). Its orbital period would be 10,000 to 20,000 years. The planet's existence was hypothesised using mathematical modeling and computer simulations, but it has not been observed directly. It may explain the orbits of a group of objects that includes Sedna.\n", "The Solar System contains no known super-Earths, because Earth is the largest terrestrial planet in the Solar System, and all larger planets have both at least 14 times the mass of Earth and thick gaseous atmospheres without well-defined rocky or watery surfaces; that is, they are either gas giants or ice giants, not terrestrial planets. In January 2016, the existence of a hypothetical super-Earth ninth planet in the Solar System, referred to as Planet Nine, was proposed as an explanation for the orbital behavior of six trans-Neptunian objects, but it is speculated also be an ice giant like Uranus or Neptune.\n", ", the least massive planet known is PSR B1257+12 A, which is about twice the mass of the Moon. The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is DENIS-P J082303.1-491201 b, about 29 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to most definitions of a planet, it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead. Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way, but there have also been a few possible detections of extragalactic planets. The study of planetary habitability also considers a wide range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life.\n", "The low mass of the planet has led to suggestions that it may be a terrestrial planet. This type of massive terrestrial planet could be formed in the inner part of the Gliese 876 system from material pushed towards the star by the inward migration of the gas giants.\n", "The least massive planet known is Draugr (also known as PSR B1257+12 A or PSR B1257+12 b), which is about twice the mass of the Moon. The most massive planet listed on the NASA Exoplanet Archive is HR 2562 b, about 30 times the mass of Jupiter, although according to some definitions of a planet (based on the nuclear fusion of deuterium), it is too massive to be a planet and may be a brown dwarf instead. There are planets that are so near to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit and there are others so far away that they take thousands of years to orbit. Some are so far out that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star. Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way. Nonetheless, evidence suggests that extragalactic planets, exoplanets farther away in galaxies beyond the local Milky Way galaxy, may exist. The nearest exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b, located 4.2 light-years (1.3 parsecs) from Earth and orbiting Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun.\n", "In June 2008 it was reported at the meeting of American Astronomical Society that using their new MOA-II telescope, the observatory discovered what is at the time the smallest planet known outside of our Solar System. The planet MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb is just 3.3 times larger than Earth and is orbiting a small star, MOA-2007-BLG-192L (3000 light years from Earth). There is some possibility the planet has a thick atmosphere and a liquid ocean on its surface.\n", "Assuming its true mass is comparable to those of Neptune and Gliese 436 b, 14 Earth masses is theoretically the maximum size for a terrestrial planet. A rocky planet this size could certainly have formed, since Mu Arae has a higher metallicity than our Sun. Also, it is thought to have formed well inside the system's \"snow line\" at 3.2 AU. However, various models of the system's formation have since converged that the planet attracted large amounts of volatiles before its star had cleared out the ice, and that it now has a core of only 6 Earth masses. Its core is likely enveloped in so much hot-ice and gas that the planet would behave more like Neptune.\n" ]

[ "New forms of digital media have also allowed viewers to watch coverage through alternative means. \"With games airing live on cell phones and computers, the World Cup will get more online coverage than any major sporting event yet,\" said Jake Coyle of the Associated Press.\n", "Senior producer Kip Katsarelis commented that the game servers were constantly at maximum capacity, partly due to the large number of players connected for extended periods of time, which has made it difficult for new users to connect: \"We added more servers to accommodate the launch in [Australia, Japan, and Europe]... our plan is to continue to bring more servers online until we have enough to meet the demand, increase player capacity and let more people through the gates and into the game.\"\n", "Some users experienced problems finding available online games, as well as their Xbox 360 sometimes freezing when attempting to join an Xbox Live game, or while already in a game. \"There are certain network settings,\" said Paladin, \"where, if you're in a very specific network environment, it won't work with another person's connection and that's what's happening. But that's something we're already addressing by working with Microsoft to get a patch out as fast as possible.\" In addition to multiplayer problems, the game could also occasionally suffer from corrupted save files, causing players to lose character progress. In an interview with Joystiq, Tom Fulp and Dan Paladin of the Behemoth stated that they were working with Microsoft to get a patch released as soon as possible in order to fix the issues. A patch for the game was released on December 24, 2008 fixing glitches and exploits as well as resolving networking issues that were experienced at the game's launch. Similar networking problems have also been reported for the PlayStation 3 version of the game. The PlayStation 3 version of the game only allows one profile to be signed in per console, with additional players being unable to use their own progress rather than of the profile in use.\n", "Finally, especially since the advent of sport being broadcast live on digital television, games are now spread throughout a whole weekend and are not always played on the same day. Thus a team can have played fewer games than their opponents, simply because their opponents play earlier in the weekend schedule.\n", "As of the current decade, major sporting events like the Super Bowl, World Cup and Olympic Games have been broadcast entirely live in all U.S. territories, encompassing both prime time hours of both U.S. coasts, simultaneous with the live global telecasts of these events in accordance with the official international broadcasters of such games.\n", "Although the Paralympic Games were broadcast to around 1.6 billion viewers throughout 49 countries, some controversy was caused when no American television network stayed to broadcast the event. This resulted in some US viewers having to wait almost 2 months until the coverage was broadcast, compared with live feeds in the UK and other countries.\n", "World Cup Live later returned for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa. The same format was brought back and specific segments and ideas such as the “Shot-Tracker” were also reused. New commentators from ESPN and from global soccer programs such as Ian Darke and Chris Fowler joined the broadcasting team. The use of the Internet also came into effect more so then in 2006. A live feed of the show was available to not only Americans but also a variety of other countries that relied on US broadcasting for their coverage.\n" ]

[ "Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists with international reputation. Among them are Ludwig Boltzmann, Ernst Mach, Victor Franz Hess and Christian Doppler, prominent scientists in the 19th century. In the 20th century, contributions by Lise Meitner, Erwin Schrödinger and Wolfgang Pauli to nuclear research and quantum mechanics were key to these areas' development during the 1920s and 1930s. A present-day quantum physicist is Anton Zeilinger, noted as the first scientist to demonstrate quantum teleportation.\n", "During these crucial years, a number of the most prominent European scientists, especially physicists, immigrated to the United States, where they would do much of their most important work; these included Hans Bethe, Albert Einstein, Enrico Fermi, Leó Szilárd, Edward Teller, Felix Bloch, Emilio Segrè, and Eugene Wigner, among many, many others. American academics worked hard to find positions at laboratories and universities for their European colleagues.\n", "In the 19th century, some of the most prominent mathematical and physical scientists of the British Isles, including Sir William Rowan Hamilton, Sir George Stokes, John Tyndall, George Johnstone Stoney, Thomas Romney Robinson, Edward Sabine, Thomas Andrews, Lord Rosse, George Salmon, and George FitzGerald, were Anglo-Irish. In the 20th century, scientists John Joly and Ernest Walton were also Anglo-Irish, as was the polar explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton. Medical experts included Sir William Wilde, Robert Graves, Thomas Wrigley Grimshaw, William Stokes, Robert Collis, Sir John Lumsden and William Babington.\n", "Modern science flourished in the city, with a wide array of achievements in almost every department. During the German Empire Breslau's scientists received four Nobel Prizes (plus two in literature). Above all, medical sciences were the flagship of academic research, where Breslau not only presented new theories but also new disciplines. Ferdinand Cohn, the director of the Institute of Plant Physiology, is considered a pioneer of bacteriology, while Albert Neisser, director of the Dermatology clinic, discovered gonorrhoea, and Alois Alzheimer, professor at the university, discovered the Alzheimer disease.\n", "In addition to physicists, Austria was the birthplace of two of the most noteworthy philosophers of the 20th century, Ludwig Wittgenstein and Karl Popper. In addition to them, biologists Gregor Mendel and Konrad Lorenz as well as mathematician Kurt Gödel and engineers such as Ferdinand Porsche and Siegfried Marcus were Austrians.\n", "Major scientific discoveries from the 18th century include hydrogen by Henry Cavendish; from the 20th century penicillin by Alexander Fleming, and the structure of DNA, by Francis Crick and others. Famous British engineers and inventors of the Industrial Revolution include James Watt, George Stephenson, Richard Arkwright, Robert Stephenson and Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Other major engineering projects and applications by people from the UK include the steam locomotive, developed by Richard Trevithick and Andrew Vivian; from the 19th century the electric motor by Michael Faraday, the first computer designed by Charles Babbage, the first commercial electrical telegraph by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone, the incandescent light bulb by Joseph Swan, and the first practical telephone, patented by Alexander Graham Bell; and in the 20th century the world's first working television system by John Logie Baird and others, the jet engine by Frank Whittle, the basis of the modern computer by Alan Turing, and the World Wide Web by Tim Berners-Lee.\n", "Extraordinary World War II era Hungarian scientists who emigrated to the United States in the early half of the 20th century. The most prominent Martians (scientists) included Theodore von Kármán, John von Neumann, Eugene Wigner, and Edward Teller. They were referred to as \"Martians\" due to their brilliant problem solving and invention talents that seemed \"out-of-this world \".\n" ]

[ "Computer dating systems of the later 20th century, especially popular in the 1960s and 1970s, before the rise of sophisticated phone and computer systems, gave customers forms that they filled out with important tolerances and preferences, which were \"matched by computer\" to determine \"compatibility\" of the two customers. The history of dating systems is closely tied to the history of technologies that support them, although a statistics-based dating service that used data from forms filled out by customers opened in Newark, New Jersey in 1941. The first large-scale computer dating system, The Scientific Marriage Foundation, was established in 1957 by Dr. George W. Crane. In this system, forms that applicants filled out were processed by an IBM card sorting machine. The earliest commercially successfully computerized dating service in either the US or UK was Com-Pat, started by Joan Ball in 1964. Operation Match, started by Harvard University students a year later is often erroneously claimed to be the \"first computerized dating service.\" In actuality, both Com-Pat and Operation Match were preceded by other computerized dating services in Europe—the founders of Operation Match and Joan Ball of Com-Pat both stated they had heard about these European computer dating services and that those served as the inspiration for their respective ideas to create computer dating businesses. The longest running and most successful early computer dating business, both in terms of numbers of users and in terms of profits, was Dateline, which was started in the UK in 1965 by John Patterson. Patterson's business model was not fully legal, however. He was charged with fraud on several occasions for selling lists of the women who signed up for his service to men who were looking for prostitutes. Dateline existed until Patterson's death from alcoholism in 1997, and during the early 1990s it was reported to be the most profitable computer dating company in the world. In the early 1980s in New York City, software developer Gary Robinson developed a now–defunct dating service called \"212-Romance\" which used computer algorithms to match singles romantically, using a voice–mail based interface backed by community-based automated recommendations enhanced by \"collaborative filtering\" technologies. Compatibility algorithms and matching software are becoming increasingly sophisticated.\n", "During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating.\n", "The \"Anno Domini\" dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the \"present year\" was \"the consulship of Probus Junior\", which was 525 years \"since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ\". Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. \"However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date.\"\n", "Roman monk of the 5th-century, Dionysius Exiguus, devised the modern dating system of the Anno Domini (AD) era, which is based on the reckoned year of the birth of Jesus, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era.\n", "BULLET::::- During the Christian era, itself eponymous, many royal households used eponymous dating by regnal years. The Roman Catholic Church, however, eventually used the \"Anno Domini\" dating scheme based on the birth of Christ on both the general public and royalty. The regnal year standard is still used with respect to statutes and law reports published in some parts of the United Kingdom and in some Commonwealth countries (England abandoned this practice in 1963): a statute signed into law in Canada between February 6, 1994 and February 5, 1995 would be dated 43 Elizabeth II, for instance.\n", "First past the post was used in New Zealand prior to MMP, and the three other systems were recommended by the Royal Commission on the Electoral System for further scrutiny in 1986 and were voted on in 1992.\n", "The official dating system known as (or, strictly speaking, ), has been in use since the late 7th century. Years are numbered within regnal eras, which are named by the reigning Emperor. Beginning with Meiji (1868–1912), each reign has been one era, but many earlier Emperors decreed a new era upon any major event; the last pre-Meiji Emperor's reign (1846–1867) was split into seven eras, one of which lasted only one year. The \"nengō\" system remains in wide use, especially on official documents and government forms.\n" ]

[ "Cosmologist Lawrence Krauss, in his article \"Our Spontaneous Universe\", wrote that \"there are remarkable, testable arguments that provide firmer empirical evidence of the possibility that our universe arose from nothing. ... If our universe arose spontaneously from nothing at all, one might predict that its total energy should be zero. And when we measure the total energy of the universe, which could have been anything, the answer turns out to be the only one consistent with this possibility. Coincidence? Maybe. But data like this coming in from our revolutionary new tools promise to turn much of what is now metaphysics into physics. Whether God survives is anyone's guess.\"\n", "BULLET::::5. Creation-at-an-instant problem: We have no evidence in the history of the Universe after the Big Bang that entities can emerge instantaneously from absolute nothingness. As the earliest philosophers noted, out of nothing comes nothing (\"ex nihilo, nihil fit\").\n", "Tryon also believed that this quantum event was without a purpose or cause. In essence, he was saying \"that our universe could have originated in this way and emphasized such a creation event would not require a cause\". This is why in his paper he said: \"In answer to the question of why it happened, I offer the modest proposal that our Universe is simply one of those things which happen from time to time\".\n", "As an example we could think of the event we call the Big Bang. Cosmologists affirm that our universe started with an explosion that brought into existence, not only the matter and energy that constitutes it, but also the very fabric of time and space. This means that the event itself must have happened outside of time and space, in a \"non-place\" and \"non-time\". Considering that our logic works exclusively within the categories of time and space, something that happened before these categories even existed is necessarily beyond logic, or in other words, arational.\n", "Hume also points out there is still a possibility that the universe could have been created by random chance but still show evidence of design as the universe is eternal and would have an infinite amount of time to be able to form a universe so complex and ordered as our own. He called that the 'Epicurean hypothesis'. It argued that when the universe was first created, the universe was random and chaotic, but if the universe is eternal, over an unlimited period of time, natural forces could have naturally 'evolved' by random particles coming together over time into the incredibly ordered system we can observe today without the need of an intelligent designer as an explanation.\n", "In his paper, Tryon first deals with the idea of how our universe could have come from nothing and stay within the laws of physics. The first law of thermodynamics says that energy can not be created or destroyed. Tryon needed to assert that our universe could come from nothing without breaking this law of the conservation of energy. He theorized that all the positive mass energy and all the negative gravitational energy cancel each other out, leaving us with a universe with zero energy. Tryon gives credit for learning this idea from the general relativist Peter Bergmann. The person who first proposed the idea that we might live in a universe equaling zero because mass positive energy is equal to gravitation negative energy was the physicist Richard C. Tolman. Because Tryon believed our universe was equal to zero energy, in his paper Tryon said: \"If this be the case, then our Universe could have appeared from nowhere without violating any conservation laws.\"\n", "Gerald Schroeder in \"The Big Bang Creation: God or the Laws of Nature\" explains that \"The Grand Design breaks the news, bitter to some, that … to create a universe from absolute nothing God is not necessary. All that is needed are the laws of nature. … [That is,] there can have been a big bang creation without the help of God, provided the laws of nature pre-date the universe. Our concept of time begins with the creation of the universe. Therefore if the laws of nature created the universe, these laws must have existed prior to time; that is the laws of nature would be outside of time. What we have then is totally non-physical laws, outside of time, creating a universe. Now that description might sound somewhat familiar. Very much like the biblical concept of God: not physical, outside of time, able to create a universe.\"\n" ]

[ "The Holy Roman Empire was a fragmented collection of largely independent states (a fragmentation that the Peace of Westphalia would solidify). The position of the Holy Roman Emperor was mainly titular, but the emperors, from the House of Habsburg, also directly ruled a large portion of imperial territory (lands of the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Bohemia), as well as the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian domain was thus a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects. Another branch of the House of Habsburg ruled over Spain and its empire, which included the Spanish Netherlands, southern Italy, the Philippines, and most of the Americas. In addition to Habsburg lands, the Holy Roman Empire contained several regional powers, such as the Duchy of Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate and the Landgraviate of Hesse. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free cities, abbeys, prince-bishoprics, and petty lordships (whose authority sometimes extended to no more than a single village) rounded out the empire. Apart from Austria and perhaps Bavaria, none of those entities was capable of national-level politics; alliances between family-related states were common, due partly to the frequent practice of partible inheritance, i.e. splitting a lord's inheritance among his various sons.\n", "The Army of the Holy Roman Empire (German \"Reichsarmee\", \"Reichsheer\" or \"Reichsarmatur\"; Latin \"exercitus imperii\") was created in 1422 and came to an end when the Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1806 as the result of the Napoleonic Wars. It must not be confused with the Imperial Army (\"Kaiserliche Armee\") of the Emperor.\n", "The Imperial Military Constitution (, also called the \"Reichskriegsverfassung\") of the Holy Roman Empire, like the rest of the imperial constitution, grew out of various laws and governed the establishment of military forces within the Empire. It was the basis for the establishment of the Army of the Holy Roman Empire (\"Reichsarmee\"), which was under the supreme command of the Emperor but was distinct from his Imperial Troops, as it could only be deployed by the Imperial Diet. The last Imperial Defence Order (\"Reichsdefensionalordnung\"), entitled \"Reichsgutachten in puncto securitatis\", of 13/23 May 1681, completed the military constitution of the Holy Roman Empire.\n", "The Holy Roman Empire was a highly decentralized state for most of its history, composed of hundreds of smaller states, most of which operated with some degree of independent sovereignty. Although in the earlier part of the Middle Ages, under the Salian and Hohenstaufen emperors, it was relatively centralized, as time went on the Emperor lost more and more power to the Princes. The membership of the Imperial Diet in 1792, late in the Empire's history but before the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars, gives some insight as to the composition of the Holy Roman Empire at that time.\n", "The Army of the Holy Roman Empire (German \"Reichsarmee\", \"Reichsheer\" or \"Reichsarmatur\"; Latin \"exercitus imperii\") was created in 1422 and came to an end even before the Empire as the result of the Napoleonic Wars. It must not be confused with the Imperial Army (\"Kaiserliche Armee\") of the Emperor.\n", "The Holy Roman Empire, encompassing present-day Germany and surrounding territory, was the area most devastated by the wars of religion. The Empire was a fragmented collection of practically independent states with an elected Holy Roman Emperor as their titular ruler; after the 14th century, this position was usually held by a Habsburg. The Austrian House of Habsburg, who remained Catholic, was a major European power in its own right, ruling over some eight million subjects in present-day Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Hungary. The Empire also contained regional powers, such as Bavaria, the Electorate of Saxony, the Margraviate of Brandenburg, the Electorate of the Palatinate, the Landgraviate of Hesse, the Archbishopric of Trier, and Württemberg. A vast number of minor independent duchies, free imperial cities, abbeys, bishoprics, and small lordships of sovereign families rounded out the Empire.\n", "The Holy Roman Empire was formally dissolved on 6 August 1806 when the last Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of Austria) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806, the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon's protection.\n" ]

[ "Epicanthic folds also occur, at a considerably lower frequency, in other populations: Europeans (e.g., Scandinavians, English, Irish, Hungarians, Russians, Poles, Lithuanians, Finns, Estonians and Samis), Western Asians, Nilotes and Amazigh people. The degree of development of the fold between individuals varies greatly and its presence or absence is often subjective, also its frequency varies clinally across Eurasia. Its use, therefore, as a phenotypic marker to define biological populations is debatable.\n", "The mesoderm germ layer forms in the embryos of animals and mammals more complex than cnidarians, making them triploblastic. During gastrulation, some of the cells migrating inward to form the endoderm form an additional layer between the endoderm and the ectoderm. A theory suggests that this key innovation evolved hundreds of millions of years ago and led to the evolution of nearly all large, complex animals. The formation of a mesoderm led to the formation of a coelom. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.\n", "On a geologic map, synclines are recognized as a sequence of rock layers, with the youngest at the fold's center or \"hinge\" and with a reverse sequence of the same rock layers on the opposite side of the hinge. If the fold pattern is circular or elongate, the structure is a basin. Folds typically form during crustal deformation as the result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building.\n", "In structural geology, folds occur when one or a stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata, are bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation. Synsedimentary folds are those due to slumping of sedimentary material before it is lithified. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur singly as isolated folds and in extensive fold trains of different sizes, on a variety of scales.\n", "(2) Then, it came to Guinevere Period, which firstly, there was formation of Atropos (dense lineated plains, pdl), Lavinia (Ridged plains, pr), Akna (Mountain belts, mb), and Agrona (groove belt, gb). Later, there was global emplacement of Accruva (shied plains, psh), Rusalka (lower regional plains, rp1), and Ituana (upper regional plains, rp2) Formations. There are events of wrinkle ridges formed around the global. Mostly of the surface of Venus was resurfaced in this period\n", "During the Protogeometric period (1050–900 BC), the shapes of the vessels have eliminated the fluid nature of the Mycenaean; creating a more strict and simple design. There are horizontal, decorative bands that feature geometric shapes, including, but not limited to, concentric circles or semicircles. Technological developments caused a new relationship between ornament and structure; causing differing stylistic choice from its Mycenaean influences. The Protogeometric period did not yet feature human figures within its art, but horses were pictured during this time period.\n", "Folds form under varied conditions of stress, hydrostatic pressure, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar fault (\"fault bend fold\"), at the tip of a propagating fault (\"fault propagation fold\"), by differential compaction or due to the effects of a high-level igneous intrusion e.g. above a laccolith.\n" ]

[ "Some low-income countries have relatively high tax-to- GDP ratios due to resource tax revenues (e.g. Angola) or relatively efficient tax administration (e.g. Kenya, Brazil) whereas some middle-income countries have lower tax-to-GDP ratios (e.g. Malaysia) which reflect a more tax-friendly policy choice.\n", "Monaco has never levied income tax on individuals, and foreigners are thus able to use it as a \"tax haven\" from their own country's taxes, because as an independent country, Monaco is not obligated to pay taxes to other countries. The absence of a personal income tax in the principality has attracted to it a considerable number of wealthy \"tax refugee\" residents from European countries who derive the majority of their income from activity outside Monaco; celebrities such as Formula One drivers attract most of the attention, but the vast majority of them are lesser-known business people. However, due to a bilateral treaty with France, French citizens are still required to pay applicable income and wealth taxes to the French state even if they are resident in Monaco, and the principality also actively discourages the registration of foreign corporations, charging a 33 per cent corporation tax on profits unless it can be shown that at least three-quarters of the turnover has been generated within its borders. Unlike classic tax havens, it does not offer offshore financial services.\n", "Most countries in the world have sales taxes or value-added taxes at all or several of the national, state, county, or city government levels. Countries in Western Europe, especially in Scandinavia, have some of the world's highest valued-added taxes. Norway, Denmark and Sweden have higher VATs at 25%, Hungary has the highest at 27% although reduced rates are used in some cases, as for groceries, art, books and newspapers.\n", "Singapore has the world's highest percentage of millionaires, with one out of every six households having at least one million US dollars in disposable wealth. This excludes property, businesses, and luxury goods, which if included would increase the number of millionaires, especially as property in Singapore is among the world's most expensive. Singapore does not have a minimum wage, believing that it would lower its competitiveness. It also has one of the highest income inequalities among developed countries.\n", "Malaysian citizens lead a much more affluent lifestyle compared to their peers in upper-middle income countries like Mexico, Turkey, and Brazil. This is due to a low national income tax, low cost of local food, transport fuel, household essentials, a fully subsidized single payer public-healthcare and comprehensive social welfare benefit with direct cash transfer. With an income per capita of 28,681 PPP Dollars (2017 World Bank) or 10,620 nominal US Dollars, Malaysia is the third wealthiest nation in Southeast Asia after the smaller city-states of Singapore and Brunei. Malaysia has a newly industrialised market economy, which is relatively open and state-oriented. The Malaysian economy is highly robust and diversified with the export value of high-tech products in 2015 standing at US$57.258 billion, the second highest after Singapore in ASEAN. Malaysia exports the second largest volume and value of palm oil products globally after Indonesia.\n", "Low taxes have drawn many foreign companies to Monaco and account for around 75% of the $5.748 billion annual GDP income in (2011). Similarly, tourism accounts for close to 15% of the annual revenue, as the Principality of Monaco also has been a major center for tourism ever since the famed Monte Carlo Casino, which was established in 1856. The casino is alluded to in the ABBA song \"Money, Money, Money\".\n", "In high-income countries, the highest tax-to-GDP ratio is in Denmark at 47% and the lowest is in Kuwait at 0.8%, reflecting low taxes from strong oil revenues. Long-term average performance of tax revenue as a share of GDP in low-income countries has been largely stagnant, although most have shown some improvement in more recent years. On average, resource-rich countries have made the most progress, rising from 10% in the mid-1990s to around 17% in 2008. Non resource rich countries made some progress, with average tax revenues increasing from 10% to 15% over the same period.\n" ]

[ "In his book \"Biblical Ideas of Nationality: Ancient and Modern\", Grosby argues that the ideas of modern nationhood were already present in the Ancient Near East in places like Armenia, Edom, Egypt, and especially Biblical Israel, which later became the major model for European nation formation.\n", "All modern national identities were preceded by nationalist movements. Although the term \"nation\" was used in the Middle Ages, it had totally different meaning than in the age of nationalism, where it was linked to the efforts aimed to creation of the nation-states.\n", "Independence also did not result in stable political regimes, save in a few countries. First, the new nations did not have well-defined identities, but rather the process of creating identities was only beginning. This would be carried out through newspapers and the creation of national symbols, including new names for the countries (\"Mexico\", \"Colombia\", \"Ecuador\", \"Bolivia\", \"Argentina\"), that broke with the past. In addition, the borders were not firmly established, and the struggle between federalism and centralism, which began in independence, continued throughout the rest of the century. Two large states that emerged from the wars—Gran Colombia and the Federal Republic of Central America—collapsed after a decade or two, and Argentina would not consolidate politically until the 1860s.\n", "The notion of a unifying \"national identity\" also extends to countries that host multiple ethnic or language groups, such as India. For example, Switzerland is constitutionally a confederation of cantons, and has four official languages, but it has also a \"Swiss\" national identity, a national history and a classic national hero, Wilhelm Tell.\n", "The invention of a symbolic national identity became the concern of racial, ethnic or linguistic groups throughout Europe as they struggled to come to terms with the rise of mass politics, the decline of the traditional social elites, popular discrimination and xenophobia. Within the Habsburg empire the different peoples developed a more mass-based, violent and exclusive form of nationalism. This developed even among the Germans and Magyars, who actually benefited from the power-structure of the empire. On the European periphery, especially in Ireland and Norway, campaigns for national independence became more strident. In 1905, Norway won independence from Sweden, but attempts to grant Ireland the kind of autonomy enjoyed by Hungary foundered on the national divisions on the island between the Catholic and Protestant populations. The Polish attempts to win independence from Russia had previously proved to be unsuccessful, with Poland being the only country in Europe whose autonomy was gradually limited rather than expanded throughout the 19th century, as a punishment for the failed uprisings; in 1831 Poland lost its status as a formally independent state and was merged into Russia as a real union country and in 1867 she became nothing more than just another Russian province. Faced with internal and external resistance to assimilation, as well as increased xenophobic anti-Semitism, radical demands began to develop among the stateless Jewish population of eastern and central Europe for their own national home and refuge. In 1897, inspired by the Hungarian-born Jewish nationalist Theodor Herzl, the First Zionist Congress was held in Basle, and declared their national 'home' should be in Palestine. By the end of the period, the ideals of European nationalism had been exported worldwide and were now beginning to develop, and both compete and threaten the empires ruled by colonial European nation-states.\n", "National identities in Europe and the Americas developed along with the idea of political sovereignty invested in the people of the state. In Eastern Europe, it was also often linked to ethnicity and culture. Nationalism requires first a national consciousness, the awareness of national communality of a group of people, or nation. An awakening of national consciousness is frequently ascribed to national heroes and is associated with national symbols, and was part of the dissolution of Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union.\n", "The development of a separate Australian identity and national character is often linked with the anti-transportation and nativist movements and the Eureka Rebellion during the colonial period and in the lead-up to Federation, as well as the period surrounding the First World War. However, Australian culture predates the federation of the Australian colonies by several decades – Australian literature, most notably the work of the bush poets, dates from colonial times. Modern Australian identity draws on a multicultural and Anglo-Celtic cultural heritage.\n" ]

[ "Aristotle implies that in a vacuum the speed of fall would become infinite, and concludes from this apparent absurdity that a vacuum is not possible. Opinions have varied on whether Aristotle intended to state quantitative laws. Henri Carteron held the \"extreme view\" that Aristotle's concept of force was basically qualitative, but other authors reject this.\n", "[106] Aristotle believed that bodies fell at a speed proportional to weight but Salviati doubts that Aristotle ever tested this. He also did not believe that motion in a void was possible, but since air is much less dense than water Salviati asserts that in a medium devoid of resistance (a vacuum) all bodies—a lock of wool or a bit of lead—would fall at the same speed. Large and small bodies fall at the same speed through air or water providing they are of the same density. Since ebony weighs a thousand times as much as air (which he had measured), it will fall only a very little more slowly than lead which weighs ten times as much. But shape also matters—even a piece of gold leaf (the heaviest of metals) floats through the air and a bladder filled with air falls much more slowly than lead.\n", "A person in a free-falling elevator experiences weightlessness; objects either float motionless or drift at constant speed. Since everything in the elevator is falling together, no gravitational effect can be observed. In this way, the experiences of an observer in free fall are indistinguishable from those of an observer in deep space, far from any significant source of gravity. Such observers are the privileged (\"inertial\") observers Einstein described in his theory of special relativity: observers for whom light travels along straight lines at constant speed.\n", "Objects allowed to free-fall in an \"inertial trajectory\" under the influence of gravitation only feel no g-force, a condition known as zero-g (which means zero g-force). This is demonstrated by the \"zero-g\" conditions inside an elevator falling freely toward the Earth's center (in vacuum), or (to good approximation) conditions inside a spacecraft in Earth orbit. These are examples of coordinate acceleration (a change in velocity) without a sensation of weight. The experience of no g-force (zero-g), however it is produced, is synonymous with weightlessness.\n", "In a space that expands exponentially (or nearly exponentially) with time, any pair of free-floating objects that are initially at rest will move apart from each other at an accelerating rate, at least as long as they are not bound together by any force. From the point of view of one such object, the spacetime is something like an inside-out Schwarzschild black hole—each object is surrounded by a spherical event horizon. Once the other object has fallen through this horizon it can never return, and even light signals it sends will never reach the first object (at least so long as the space continues to expand exponentially).\n", "This formula shows that the work expended accelerating an object from rest approaches infinity as the velocity approaches the speed of light. Thus it is impossible to accelerate an object across this boundary.\n", "George Gamow argued in his book \"Mr Tompkins in Wonderland\" that a sufficient change in a dimensionful physical constant, such as the speed of light in a vacuum, would result in obvious perceptible changes. But this idea is challenged:\n" ]

[ "Parts of the instrument go back to instruments made and used by ancient Greek astronomers. Gemma Frisius combined several of the instruments into a small, portable, astronomical-ring instrument. He first published the design in 1534, and in Petrus Apianus's \"Cosmographia\" in 1539. These ring instruments combined terrestrial and celestial calculations.\n", "Music in space is music played in or broadcast from a spacecraft in outer space. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the first musical instruments played in outer space were an 8-note Hohner \"Little Lady\" harmonica and a handful of small bells carried by American astronauts Wally Schirra and Thomas P. Stafford aboard Gemini 6A. Upon achieving a space rendezvous in Earth orbit with their sister ship Gemini 7 in December 1965, Schirra and Stafford played a rendition of \"Jingle Bells\" over the radio after jokingly claiming to have seen an unidentified flying object piloted by Santa Claus. The instruments had been smuggled on-board without NASA's knowledge, leading Mission Control director Elliot See to exclaim \"You're too much\" to Schirra after the song. The harmonica was donated to the Smithsonian by Schirra in 1967, with his note that it \"...plays quite well\".\n", "In addition to these, pitched percussion instruments are also used: one xylophone, one xylorimba, one marimba, one glockenspiel and one vibraphone, as well as three Ondes Martenot which the composer described in his interview with Claude Samuel as being 'very rare in an opera!'.\n", "At that point, the sound of \"Jingle Bells\" was heard played on an eight-note Hohner \"Little Lady\" harmonica and a handful of small bells. The Smithsonian Institution claims these were the first musical instruments played in space and keeps the instruments on display.\n", "In the 1970s music tape cassettes were brought to the American space station Skylab, while Soviet cosmonauts Aleksandr Laveikin and Yuri Romanenko brought a guitar to the space station \"Mir\" in 1987. Musical instruments must be checked for gases they may emit before being taken aboard the confined environment of a space station. As of 2003, instruments that have been aboard the International Space Station include a flute, a keyboard guitar, a saxophone, and a didgeridoo.\n", "In the UK the One Handed Musical Instrument Trust has the objective of removing the barriers to music-making faced by the physically disabled. It comments: \"There is currently no orchestral instrument that can be played without two fully functioning hands and arms, denying unlimited participation in musical life to those with congenital disabilities and amputees, as well as the millions who may have been injured, suffered a stroke or developed arthritis. The primary obstacle is the absence of suitable instruments.\"\n", "A number of computational musical instruments that are not electrophones have been invented, designed, built, and used in performances. These instruments are sound synthesizers that use mechanical, optical, or other forms of non-electric computation, sampling, processing, or the like.\n" ]

[ "These are gregarious ducks, mainly found on fresh water. They are strong fliers; their broad, blunt-tipped wings require faster wing-beats than those of many ducks and they take off with some difficulty.\n", "Adult ducks are fast fliers, but may be caught on the water by large aquatic predators including big fish such as the North American muskie and the European pike. In flight, ducks are safe from all but a few predators such as humans and the peregrine falcon, which regularly uses its speed and strength to catch ducks.\n", "These are gregarious ducks, mainly found on fresh water or on estuaries, though the greater scaup becomes marine during the northern winter. They are strong fliers; their broad, blunt-tipped wings require faster wing-beats than those of many ducks and they take off with some difficulty. Northern species tend to be migratory; southern species do not migrate though the hardhead travels long distances on an irregular basis in response to rainfall. Diving ducks do not walk as well on land as the dabbling ducks; their legs tend to be placed further back on their bodies to help propel them when underwater.\n", "In the water, musk ducks display an effortless agility, twisting and turning on the surface with both feet and tail. In general, musk ducks remain in the water all day long, alternately loafing and feeding energetically, though they sometimes emerge to sit on a log or on dry land for a while. They stay on the water at night, sleeping well out from land with the head tucked into the body or under a wing.\n", "The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are birds adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating. \n", "The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These are birds adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.\n", "The family Anatidae includes the ducks and most duck-like waterfowl, such as geese and swans. These birds are adapted to an aquatic existence with webbed feet, flattened bills, and feathers that are excellent at shedding water due to an oily coating.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- \"[I]t must certainly be concluded regarding those things which, in external objects, we call by the names of light, color, odor, taste, sound, heat, cold, and of other tactile qualities, [...]; that we are not aware of their being anything other than various arrangements of the size, figure, and motions of the parts of these objects which make it possible for our nerves to move in various ways, and to excite in our soul all the various feelings which they produce there.\"\n", "BULLET::::- \"I think that tastes, odors, colors, and so on are no more than mere names so far as the object in which we locate them are concerned, and that they reside in consciousness. Hence if the living creature were removed, all these qualities would be wiped away and annihilated\"\n", "BULLET::::3. Storage- When objects are improperly stored is when contamination and deterioration can occur. This often occurs when temperature or relative humidity fluctuate in the storage area as this causes the polymers to react to the environment and will begin to deteriorate and possible contaminate surrounding objects. Storage should also be thought of as when an object is on exhibit as this is when the object is on display with lights and its temperature and humidity can fluctuate, being able to create a plan to adjust the exhibit case while on display can help prevent any damage.\n", "While damage to the original packaging is common, damage to its contents is generally not preferred in determining if an item is NOS; however, many items have been on shelves or in storage and over time may have developed some damage. This minor damage from shelf life does not detract from an item being identified as NOS.\n", "Let the collected material stand for aeration for 30 minutes to let the bad odor dissipate. Either remove the larger and medium-sized particles by hand or use a sifter. The larger pieces can be used again.\n", "Marcel Mauss and Bronisław Malinowski for example wrote about objects that circulate in society without being consumed. Georges Bataille wrote about objects that are destroyed, but not consumed. Bruce Owens talks about objects of value that are neither circulating nor consumed (e.g. gold reserves, warehoused paintings, family heirlooms).\n", "Outgassing can be significant if it collects in a closed environment where air is stagnant or recirculated. For example, new car smell consists of outgassed chemicals released by heat in a closed automobile. Even a nearly odorless material such as wood may build up a strong smell if kept in a closed box for months. There is some concern that plasticizers and solvents released from many industrial products, especially plastics, may be harmful to human health. Long-term exposure to solvent vapors can cause chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy (CSE). Outgassing toxic gases are of great concern in the design of submarines and space stations, which must have self-contained recirculated atmospheres.\n" ]

[ "The seasons occur because the Earth's axis of rotation is not perpendicular to its orbital plane (the plane of the ecliptic) but currently makes an angle of about 23.44° (called the obliquity of the ecliptic), and because the axis keeps its orientation with respect to an inertial frame of reference. As a consequence, for half the year the Northern Hemisphere is inclined toward the Sun while for the other half year the Southern Hemisphere has this distinction. The two moments when the inclination of Earth's rotational axis has maximum effect are the solstices.\n", "On Earth, the variation in the lengths of the tropical years is small, but on Mars it is much larger. The northward equinox year is 668.5907 sols, the northern solstice year is 668.5880 sols, the southward equinox year is 668.5940 sols, and the southern solstice year is 668.5958 sols. Averaging over an entire orbital period gives a tropical year of 668.5921 sols. (Since, like Earth, the northern and southern hemispheres of Mars have opposite seasons, equinoxes and solstices must be labelled by hemisphere to remove ambiguity.)\n", "A planet's movement around its rotational axis must also meet certain criteria if life is to have the opportunity to evolve. A first assumption is that the planet should have moderate seasons. If there is little or no axial tilt (or obliquity) relative to the perpendicular of the ecliptic, seasons will not occur and a main stimulant to biospheric dynamism will disappear. The planet would also be colder than it would be with a significant tilt: when the greatest intensity of radiation is always within a few degrees of the equator, warm weather cannot move poleward and a planet's climate becomes dominated by colder polar weather systems.\n", "In temperate and subpolar regions around the planet, four seasons are generally recognized: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In tropical and subtropical regions, several geographical sectors do not present defined seasons; but in the seasonal tropics, the annual wet and dry seasons are recognized and tracked.\n", "This suggestion is surprising because the seasons have been thought to be governed by the tilt of the Earth's axis (see Effect of sun angle on climate). The two types of years differ by a mere 4 days over 300 years, so Thompson's result may not be significant. However, the result is not unreasonable. The seasons can be considered to be an oscillating system driven by two inputs with slightly different frequencies: the total input of energy from the sun varies with the anomalistic year, while the distribution of this energy between the hemispheres varies with the tropical year. In other physical situations, oscillating systems driven by two similar frequencies can latch onto either one. One point that must be considered is that the oscillation arising from the tilt of the axis is much greater than that arising from the distance of the sun.\n", "As on Earth, the sidereal year is not the quantity that is needed for calendar purposes. Rather, the tropical year would be likely to be used because it gives the best match to the progression of the seasons. It is slightly shorter than the sidereal year due to the precession of Mars' rotational axis. The precession cycle is 93,000 Martian years (175,000 Earth years), much longer than on Earth. Its length in tropical years can be computed by dividing the difference between the sidereal year and tropical year by the length of the tropical year.\n", "The seasons are quadrants of the Earth's orbit, marked by the two solstices and the two equinoxes. Kepler's second law states that a body in orbit traces equal areas over equal times; its orbital velocity is highest around perihelion and lowest around aphelion. The Earth spends less time near perihelion and more time near aphelion. This means that the lengths of the seasons vary.\n" ]

[ "However, the most striking feature of \"Beer Bad\" is the twin moral: Beer and casual sex are bad. In a BBC interview, Petrie states: \"Well, very young people get unlimited access to alcohol and become horrible! We all do it — or most of us do it — and live to regret it, and we wanted to explore that.\"\n", "Beers vary in their nutritional content. The ingredients used to make beer, including the yeast, provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain nutrients including magnesium, selenium, potassium, phosphorus, biotin, chromium and B vitamins. Beer is sometimes referred to as \"liquid bread\", though beer is not a meal in itself.\n", "The brewery's three beers have acquired an international reputation for taste and quality, Westvleteren 12 being considered by some to be the best beer in the world. The beers are not brewed to normal commercial demands but are sold in small quantities weekly from the doors of the monastery itself to individual buyers on an advance-order basis.\n", "Milwaukee's Best is a 4.8% alcohol by volume, American-style pale lager brewed by Miller Brewing Company of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in the United States. Its sibling beers are Milwaukee's Best Ice and Milwaukee's Best Light. It is sometimes referred to as \"the beast\".\n", "Light beers may be chosen by drinkers who wish to manage their alcohol consumption or their calorie intake. However, these beers are sometimes criticized for being less flavorful than full-strength beers, being \"watered down\" (whether in perception or in fact), and thus advertising campaigns for light beers generally advertise their retention of flavor.\n", "Of course, beer connoisseurs usually rate regular beers as preferable to the light, and especially to the ultra light, beers. For example, reviews generally consider Molson Canadian 67 to be too light in taste, without the rich beer flavor of more highly-rated products. Consumers who evaluate beer on Web sites such as Beer Advocate and Rate Beer consider the ultra light beers such as Molson Canadian 67 and Sleeman Clear 2.0 as refreshing at best and bland or watered down at worst. Nonetheless, consumers who prefer not to give up beer while on a diet can certainly find several options that get at least acceptable ratings, especially in the \"moderately low\" calorie/carb category. For example, the winners of the Light (Calorie-Reduced) Lager category in the 2016 Canadian Brewing Awards included Labatt's Bud Light, Moosehead's Cracked Canoe and Molson Coors' Coors Light. (According to the organizers, \"This competition is judged by approximately 40 Certified Beer Judges (BJCP) who consider five criteria: aroma, appearance, flavour, mouth-feel, and overall impression when judging the beer\".)\n", "In a June 2014 interview, the owner of an Oregon-based microbrewery explained: \"You've got to do more than just make great beer. It's really about innovation, creativity—stepping outside the box of traditional beer marketing\", while an employee explained that \"heart and soul\" is the essence of the operation.\n" ]

[ "In chemistry, a lone pair refers to a pair of valence electrons that are not shared with another atom and is sometimes called an unshared pair or non-bonding pair. Lone pairs are found in the outermost electron shell of atoms. They can be identified by using a Lewis structure. Electron pairs are therefore considered lone pairs if two electrons are paired but are not used in chemical bonding. Thus, the number of lone pair electrons plus the number of bonding electrons equals the total number of valence electrons around an atom.\n", "In chemistry, an electron pair or a Lewis pair consists of two electrons that occupy the same molecular orbital but have opposite spins. The electron pair concept was introduced in a 1916 paper of Gilbert N. Lewis.\n", "The electrons in a pair are not necessarily close together; because the interaction is long range, paired electrons may still be many hundreds of nanometers apart. This distance is usually greater than the average interelectron distance so that many Cooper pairs can occupy the same space. Electrons have spin-, so they are fermions, but the total spin of a Cooper pair is integer (0 or 1) so it is a composite boson. This means the wave functions are symmetric under particle interchange. Therefore, unlike electrons, multiple Cooper pairs are allowed to be in the same quantum state, which is responsible for the phenomena of superconductivity.\n", "The pairing of spins is often energetically favorable and electron pairs therefore play a very large role in chemistry. They can form a chemical bond between two atoms, or they can occur as a lone pair of valence electrons. They also fill the core levels of an atom.\n", "In other words, electron-pair bonds are formed when two atoms share an edge, as in structure C below. This results in the sharing of two electrons. Similarly, charged ionic-bonds are formed by the transfer of an electron from one cube to another, without sharing an edge A. An intermediate state B where only one corner is shared was also postulated by Lewis.\n", "The pairs often exhibit a negative polar character with their high charge density and are located closer to the atomic nucleus on average compared to the bonding pair of electrons. The presence of a lone pair decreases the bond angle between the bonding pair of electrons, due to their high electric charge which causes great repulsion between the electrons. They are also used in the formation of a dative bond. For example, the creation of the hydronium (HO) ion occurs when acids are dissolved in water and is due to the oxygen atom donating a lone pair to the hydrogen ion.\n", "Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning that it changes sign when two electrons are swapped; that is, , where the variables \"r\" and \"r\" correspond to the first and second electrons, respectively. Since the absolute value is not changed by a sign swap, this corresponds to equal probabilities. Bosons, such as the photon, have symmetric wave functions instead.\n" ]

[ "The Westboro Baptist Church considers membership in most other religious groups, such as the Roman Catholic Church or Islam, as akin to devil worship, and states these other churches to be \"Satanic frauds preaching Arminian lies\". The church defines itself as \"Old School (or, Primitive) Baptist\" and sees itself as defending the Five Points of Calvinism: total depravity, unconditional election, limited atonement, irresistible grace, and perseverance of the saints. Rebecca Barrett-Fox, a professor at Arkansas State University who completed a dissertation on Westboro Baptist, has labelled it as \"hyper-Calvinist\".\n", "The religious practices of the Westboro Baptist Church are similar to many other Christian groups. Membership in the Church involves attending weekly service, and parishioners describe themselves as \"very religious\". Additionally, members believe in the Calvinist theology of predestination which includes believing that all disasters and catastrophes come from the hand of God. The public acts of the church have cast a political spotlight on the group that have given them vast attention for only having approximately 80 members. In particular, the religious connection to active political hate speech has led to much controversy.\n", "The Westboro Baptist Church (WBC) is an American, Primitive Baptist church based in Topeka, Kansas known for its extreme ideologies, especially those against homosexuality. The church is widely described as a hate group and is monitored as such by the Anti-Defamation League and Southern Poverty Law Center. It consists primarily of members of the large family of the late Fred Phelps; in 2011, the church stated that it had about 40 members. The church is headquartered in a residential neighborhood on the west side of Topeka about three miles west of the Kansas State Capitol. Its first public service was held on the afternoon of Sunday, November 27, 1955.\n", "Westboro Baptist Church has itself been widely criticized, and has been described as \"roundly derided\" and \"widely rebuked and criticized\" by Christian groups which distance WBC's views from their own, and in other cases WBC is accused of \"misreading\" and \"misrepresenting\" the Bible. Phelps has responded to this position arguing that WBC's position was derived by his father from bona fide Biblical text and has written on the wider subject of mainstream Christianity's rejection of extremists.\n", "Westboro Baptist Church is considered a hate group because of its provocative stance against homosexuality and the United States, and it has been condemned by many mainstream gay rights opponents as well as by gay rights supporters.\n", "Westboro Baptist Church bases its work around the belief that \"God Hates Fags\", and expresses the opinion, based on its Biblical interpretation, that nearly every tragedy in the world is God's punishment for homosexuality – specifically society's increasing tolerance and acceptance of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. It maintains that God hates homosexuals above all other kinds of \"sinners\" and that homosexuality should be a capital crime. The church runs the website GodHatesFags.com, and GodHatesAmerica.com, and websites expressing condemnation of LGBT people, Roman Catholics, Muslims, Hindus, Jews, Sweden, Ireland, Canada, the Netherlands, and the United States. The organisation is monitored by the Anti-Defamation League and is classified as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. The group has achieved notoriety because of its picketing of funeral processions of U.S. soldiers killed in combat in Iraq and Afghanistan.\n", "Katherine Weber of \"The Christian Post\" states that \"Westboro is considered an extremist group by most mainstream Christian churches and secular groups, and is well known for its aggressive protesting style.\" In Britain, the Methodist Church, Baptist Union, United Reformed Church, and Evangelical churches \"have issued a joint statement repudiating the actions of Westboro Baptist Church,\" stating that:\n" ]

[ "The following table shows the employment of Soviet workforce during the years of the war starting with 1940, a year before the war. A drop of 13.8 million workers in total working population from 1940 to 1941 is due to the loss of European populated areas such as Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic and due to large casualties on the front line which needed to be replenished. The working population picks back up again by almost 10 million from 1943 to 1944, this is when the Red Army began to liberate previously occupied Soviet territories.\n", "June 26, 1941 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Unionadopted a new decree \"On the working hours of workers and service members in wartime,\" which introduced overtime work with work on holidays and weekends. Furthermore, there were mobilization and national economic plans that were approved and they were all aimed at increasing military output. On June 30, 1941, the Committee for the Distribution of Labor (later the Committee for Accounting and the Distribution of Labor) was created under the Bureau of the Council of Constituencies. From 1942 till July 1945 this committee attracted more than 3 million people from the urban and rural population to permanent work in industry, agriculture and transport. Then more than 2.1 million adolescents were sent to educational institutions of labor reserves. This brought the average annual number of workers and service members to 28.6 million people in 1945, or to 84% of the 1940 level. In addition, in accordance with the resolutions of the State Defense Committee in January 10 and October 7, 1942, the workers' columns were mobilized Germans (over 120 thousand people), deported from various parts of the country\n", "The Soviet Union (USSR) was a command economy which already had an economic and legal system allowing the economy and society to be redirected into fighting a total war. The transportation of factories and whole labour forces east of the Urals as the Germans advanced across the USSR in 1941 was an impressive feat of planning. Only those factories which were useful for war production were moved because of the total war commitment of the Soviet government.\n", "During the post-war years, Ukraine's industrial productivity doubled its pre-war level. In 1945 industrial output totalled only 26 percent of the 1940 level. The Soviet régime, which still believed in the planned economy, introduced the Fourth Five-Year Plan in 1946. The Fourth Five-Year Plan would prove to be a remarkable success, and can be likened to the \"wonders of West German and Japanese reconstruction\", but without foreign capital; the Soviet reconstruction is historically an impressive achievement. In 1950 industrial gross output had already surpassed 1940-levels. While the Soviet régime still emphasised heavy industry over light industry, the light-industry sector also grew. The increase in capital investment and the expansion of the labour force also benefited Ukraine's economic recovery. In the prewar years, 15.9 percent of the Soviet budget went to Ukraine, in 1950, during the Fourth Five-Year Plan this had increased to 19.3 percent. The workforce had increased from 1.2 million in 1945 to 2.9 million in 1955; a increase of 33.2 percent over the 1940-level. The end result of this remarkable growth was that by 1955 Ukraine was producing 2.2 times more than in 1940, and the republic had become one of the leading producers of certain commodities in Europe. Ukraine was the largest per-capita producer in Europe of pig iron and sugar, and the second-largest per-capita producer of steel and of iron ore, and was the third largest per-capita producer of coal in Europe.\n", "In the Soviet Union, the Leninist Young Communist League created the Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR in 1931, which was a fitness program that was designed to improve public health and prepare the population for highly productive work and the defense of \"the motherland\".\n", "Working conditions for a Soviet worker changed over time; for instance, at the beginning of the Communist regime the government pursued a policy of worker participation at the enterprise level. During Joseph Stalin's crash-industrialisation drive, workers lost their right to participate in the functioning of the enterprise, and their working conditions deteriorated. In 1940, for example, a decree was promulgated and became law stating that a worker could be arrested if he had three accumulated absences, late arrivals or changed jobs without the official authorisation. Shock work, which meant that workers had to work past regular hours, was introduced alongside central planning. During World War II the pressure on workers increased and it was expected of them to take on Herculean efforts in their work. In the post-war years conditions did not improve but in fact worsened in some cases. For instance, small theft became illegal; this had been allowed for several years to compensate for workers' low salaries. The situation for the common worker improved during the post-Stalin years, and some of the worst measures approved by the Stalin regime to improve worker productivity were repealed. Because of the lack of a stick and carrot policy under the Brezhnev administration, worker productivity and discipline decreased during the 1970s.\n", "The vast resources of labor and materials were mobilized by the Communist leadership. Since the 1920s and 1930s, with great sacrifices made by the working class and peasants, the Soviet Union had been transformed through a series of Five-Year Plans, into the world's second greatest industrial power. Turning to war factories in Siberia, far from the front lines, workers turned out tanks and aircraft, the new weapons of a mechanized war.\n" ]

[ "Each circular player card has a series of lines and numbers arranged in a circle around its center. The card is placed on a spinner, which the batting player spins. (Aficionados would spin the metal pointers with rubber bands to avoid blisters.) Once the spinner came to rest between two lines, the number for that section defined what happened to that batter.\n", "Card counting, also referred to as card reading, often refers to obtaining a sufficient count on the number, distribution and high-card location of cards in trick-taking games such as contract bridge or spades to optimize the winning of tricks.\n", "In this method, cards are sorted into separate boxes based on how well you know the material on that card. If you succeed in recalling the answer on the card, it is moved into the next box, and if you fail it is moved into a previous box (if there is one). The further into the chain of boxes a card goes, the longer you must wait before attempting to recall its solution. The Leitner method is another example of studying strategies that take advantage of distributed practice and its associated principles, in this case spaced repetition.\n", "The game is played by one player from each of the two teams drawing a card (1 between the two of them) and looking at the five words on the card. They then begin bidding words, starting at 25 and working backward, until one player passes. The player who passed then flips the timer, and the other player has one minute to give clues to their team, to try to get them to guess each of the five words on the card, where each word in the giver's clues counts as one of the words bid. If the Giver manages to get their team to guess all five words, their team keeps the card. If they run out of time, the card passes to the other team. Two new players from each team then start the next turn of bidding after looking at a new card. The game ends once one team has collected ten cards.\n", "An IBM card sorter is a machine for sorting decks of punched cards in the format popularized by the International Business Machines Corporation (IBM), which dominated the punched card data processing industry for much of the twentieth century. Sorting was a major activity in most facilities that processed data on punched cards using unit record equipment. The work flow of many processes required decks of cards to be put into some specific order as determined by the data punched in the cards. The same deck might be sorted differently for different processing steps. The IBM 80 series sorters sorted input cards into one of 13 pockets depending on the holes punched in a selected column and the sorter's settings.\n", "A device, called a \"casekeep\" was employed to assist the players and prevent dealer cheating by counting cards. The casekeep resembled an abacus, with one spindle for each card denomination, with four counters on each spindle. As a card was played, either winning or losing, one of four counters would be moved to indicate that a card of that denomination had been played. This allowed players to plan their bets by keeping track of what cards remained available in the dealing box. The operator of the case keep is called the \"casekeeper\", or colloquially in the American West, the \"coffin driver\".\n", "In this round, Monkhouse asked 50/50 toss-up questions on the buzzer, open to all. The correct answer allowed a player to light up the number in one corner of their card, while the wrong answer caused them to become penalized, or \"wallied\" - in this case, unable to buzz-in on the next question. The first player to light all four corners of their card won the round.\n" ]

[ "Nevertheless, it has been argued that the supposedly misogynistic agenda of works on witchcraft has been greatly exaggerated, based on the selective repetition of a few relevant passages of the \"Malleus maleficarum\". There are various reasons as to why this was the case. In Early Modern Europe, it was widely believed that women were less intelligent than men and more susceptible to sin.\n", "During the Viking Age, Norse women worked in farming and commerce alongside men, and were often left in charge while their husbands were away or had been killed. Women's workshops for making woolen textiles have been found in Iceland. \n", "The treatise describes how women and men become inclined to practice witchcraft. The text argues that women are more susceptible to demonic temptations through the manifold weaknesses of their gender. It was believed that they were weaker in faith and more carnal than men. Michael Bailey claims that most of the women accused as witches had strong personalities and were known to defy convention by overstepping the lines of proper female decorum. After the publication of the \"Malleus\", it seems as though about three quarters of those individuals prosecuted as witches were women. \n", "Researchers have suggested that Vikings may have originally started sailing and raiding due to a need to seek out women from foreign lands. Rich and powerful Viking men tended to have many wives and concubines, these polygynous relationships may have lead to a shortage of eligible women for the average Viking male. Due to this, the average Viking man could have been forced to perform riskier actions to gain wealth and power to be able to find suitable women. Polygynous marriage increases male-male competition in society because it creates a pool of unmarried men who are willing to engage in risky status-elevating and sex seeking behaviors.\n", "Women are 6 times more likely to be accused of sorcery than men and hundreds of accused witches and sorcerers are killed annually. The accusers often hire diviners known as a \"Glass man\" or \"Glass mary\" to confirm the accusation. The accused are often the weak of society, such as widows, while those with sons to support them have a higher chance of not being accused. Relatives often reject giving refuge to the accused because they have been paid a bride price by the husband, which would have to be returned if the wife leaves the husband. While killing witches used to be done discreetly, it has grown into a public spectacle.\n", "Some women chose to marry pirates. These men were often very wealthy, but their wives tended not to gain wealth as a result of their marriages, as it was difficult for pirates to send home wages and booty earned overseas. These women's houses and establishments were often used as safe havens for pirates, who were considered enemies of all nations. \n", "There were also claims that certain cunning folk were known to occasionally perform bewitching or cursing for a fee, which under some definitions would enable them to be considered to be witches as well as cunning people. The folklorist Eric Maple, after examining several nineteenth-century cunning folk in Essex, noted that one of them, George Pickingill, also performed cursing for clients, but that the other whom he examined, James Murrell, considered it immoral and so did not. Indeed, other Essex cunning folk were associated with witchcraft, notable in the village of Sible Hedingham, where there lived an elderly French cunning man who had had his tongue cut out at some point in his past, and who was subsequently dumb, as well as being deaf. As a result he was known as \"Dummy\" in the local community, who generally disliked him, largely because of his 'otherness' in being both foreign and disabled, and rumours spread that he was a witch who would curse them. In 1863 a drunken mob attacked him, throwing him in a river to see if he would sink or float (a traditional method of identifying a witch, who it was believed would float, whereas an innocent would sink), but the resulting shock killed the elderly man, who was in his eighties. Another notable case of a cunning person performing cursing and malevolent witchcraft comes from nineteenth-century Norwich, where a wise woman who went by the pseudonym of \"Virtue\" used to demand gifts from her neighbours, threatening them with cursing if they refused.\n" ]

[ "Meteors, often called \"shooting stars\" are also commonly observed. Meteor showers, such as the Perseids and Leonids, make viewing meteors much easier, as a multitude of meteors are visible in a relatively short period of time.\n", "Meteors (commonly known as shooting stars) streak across the sky very infrequently. During a meteor shower, they may average one a minute at irregular intervals, but otherwise their appearance is a random surprise. The occasional meteor will make a bright, fleeting streak across the sky, and they can be very bright in comparison to the night sky.\n", "Shooting stars. This electrical [sic] phenomenon was observed on Wednesday morning last at Richmond and its vicinity, in a manner that alarmed many, and astonished every person that beheld it. From one until three in the morning, those starry meteors seemed to fall from every point in the heavens, in such numbers as to resemble a shower of sky rockets ...\n", "Meteors become visible between about above Earth. They usually disintegrate at altitudes of . Meteors have roughly a fifty percent chance of a daylight (or near daylight) collision with Earth. Most meteors are, however, observed at night, when darkness allows fainter objects to be recognized. For bodies with a size scale larger than to several meters meteor visibility is due to the atmospheric ram pressure (not friction) that heats the meteoroid so that it glows and creates a shining trail of gases and melted meteoroid particles. The gases include vaporised meteoroid material and atmospheric gases that heat up when the meteoroid passes through the atmosphere. Most meteors glow for about a second.\n", "Due to skyglow, people who live in or near urban areas see thousands fewer stars than in an unpolluted sky, and commonly cannot see the Milky Way. Fainter sights like the zodiacal light and Andromeda Galaxy are nearly impossible to discern even with telescopes.\n", "The brightest meteors known as bolides are long lasting fireballs that leave a trail in the sky which can be visible for up to an hour after passing. Such events are relatively rare but can be witnessed by a large area of the Earth since most events occur kilometers up in the atmosphere. Those witnessing such events who are not familiar with meteors can be easily fooled into thinking that the meteor is a UFO. Because meteors are not predictable with the same degree of accuracy as planets, stars, or man-made objects such as satellites, these occurrences are more difficult to prove in retrospect, though UFO sightings during meteor showers, or where there are astronomical reports of bolides, are likely to be explained as such.\n", "With larger amateur telescopes, the nebulosity around some of the stars can be easily seen; especially when long-exposure photographs are taken. Under ideal observing conditions, some hint of nebulosity around the cluster may even be seen with small telescopes or average binoculars. It is a reflection nebula, caused by dust reflecting the blue light of the hot, young stars.\n" ]

[ "Some websites, especially many image hosting sites, use referer information to secure their materials: only browsers arriving from their web pages are served images. Additionally a site may want users to click through pages with advertisements before directly being able to access a downloadable file — using the referring page or referring site information can help a site redirect unauthorized users to the landing page the site would like to use.\n", "Due to the huge number of items that are available or related to the query, there usually are several pages in response to a single search query as the search engine or the user's preferences restrict viewing to a subset of results per page. Each succeeding page will tend to have lower ranking or lower relevancy results. Just like the world of traditional print media and its advertising, this enables competitive pricing for page real estate, but is complicated by the dynamics of consumer expectations and intent— unlike static print media where the content and the advertising on every page is the same all of the time for all viewers, despite such hard copy being localized to some degree, usually geographic, like state, metro-area, city, or neighborhoods, search engine results can vary based on individual factors such as browsing habits.\n", "Websites often include code to detect browser version to adjust the page design sent according to the user agent string received. This may mean that less-popular browsers are not sent complex content (even though they might be able to deal with it correctly) or, in extreme cases, refused all content. Thus, various browsers have a feature to \"cloak\" or \"spoof\" their identification to force certain server-side content.\n", "User landing pages (such as iGoogle) that allow the user to customize the presented content are not adaptive websites as they rely on the user to select rather than the automation of the selection and presentation of the web widget's that appear on the website.\n", "Another instance are landing pages, used by many businesses on their company websites and social media platforms. These are pop-up type boxes that appear over the web page encouraging the site user to follow them on a certain platform or sign up to their newsletter. Sometimes these are optional, and sometimes they are compulsory, where the user can only access the content if they follow the steps. This technique is often used to enable companies to keep in contact with their potential customers via their news feeds or email inboxes.\n", "Many websites use browser sniffing to determine whether a visitor's browser is unable to use certain features (such as JavaScript, DHTML, ActiveX, or cascading style sheets), and display an error page if a certain browser is not used. However, it is virtually impossible to account for the tremendous variety of browsers available to users. Generally, a web designer using browser sniffing to determine what kind of page to present will test for the three or four most popular browsers, and provide content tailored to each of these. If a user is employing a user agent not tested for, there is no guarantee that a usable page will be served; thus, the user may be forced either to change browsers or to avoid the page. The World Wide Web Consortium, which sets standards for the construction of web pages, recommends that web sites be designed in accordance with its standards, and be arranged to \"fail gracefully\" when presented to a browser which cannot deal with a particular standard.\n", "The term \"user agent sniffing\" refers to the practice of websites showing different content when viewed with a certain user agent. On the Internet, this will result in a different site being shown when browsing the page with a specific browser. One example of this is Microsoft Exchange Server 2003's Outlook Web Access feature. When viewed with Internet Explorer 6 or newer, more functionality is displayed compared to the same page in any other browsers. User agent sniffing is now considered poor practice, since it encourages browser-specific design and penalizes new browsers with unrecognized user agent identifications. Instead, the W3C recommends creating HTML markup that is standard, allowing correct rendering in as many browsers as possible, and to test for specific browser features rather than particular browser versions or brands.\n" ]

[ "Another question for astroparticle physicists is why is there so much more matter than antimatter in the universe today. Baryogenesis is the term for the hypothetical processes that produced the unequal numbers of baryons and anitbaryons in the early universe, which is why the universe is made of matter today, and not antimatter.\n", "Antiparticles, of which the most common are positrons due to their low mass, are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the pair production threshold). During the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter, also called baryon asymmetry, is attributed to CP-violation: a violation of the CP-symmetry relating matter to antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery.\n", "There is considerable speculation both in science and science fiction as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter (in the sense of quarks and leptons but not antiquarks or antileptons), and whether other places are almost entirely antimatter (antiquarks and antileptons) instead. In the early universe, it is thought that matter and antimatter were equally represented, and the disappearance of antimatter requires an asymmetry in physical laws called CP (charge-parity) symmetry violation, which can be obtained from the Standard Model, but at this time the apparent asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under baryogenesis.\n", "This asymmetry of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great unsolved problems in physics. The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called baryogenesis.\n", "The Universe appears to have much more matter than antimatter, an asymmetry possibly related to the CP violation. This imbalance between matter and antimatter is partially responsible for the existence of all matter existing today, since matter and antimatter, if equally produced at the Big Bang, would have completely annihilated each other and left only photons as a result of their interaction. The Universe also appears to have neither net momentum nor angular momentum, which follows accepted physical laws if the Universe is finite. These laws are the Gauss's law and the non-divergence of the stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor.\n", "It is not yet understood why the universe has more matter than antimatter. It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of baryons and antibaryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. A process called baryogenesis was hypothesized to account for the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions must be satisfied. These require that baryon number is not conserved, that C-symmetry and CP-symmetry are violated and that the universe depart from thermodynamic equilibrium. All these conditions occur in the Standard Model, but the effects are not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry.\n", "Thus, matter can be defined as everything composed of elementary fermions. Although we don't encounter them in everyday life, antiquarks (such as the antiproton) and antileptons (such as the positron) are the antiparticles of the quark and the lepton, are elementary fermions as well, and have essentially the same properties as quarks and leptons, including the applicability of the Pauli exclusion principle which can be said to prevent two particles from being in the same place at the same time (in the same state), i.e. makes each particle \"take up space\". This particular definition leads to matter being defined to include anything made of these antimatter particles as well as the ordinary quark and lepton, and thus also anything made of mesons, which are unstable particles made up of a quark and an antiquark.\n" ]

[ "Rather than exceeding the speed of light within a local reference frame, a spacecraft would traverse distances by contracting space in front of it and expanding space behind it, resulting in effective faster-than-light travel. Objects cannot accelerate to the speed of light within normal spacetime; instead, the Alcubierre drive shifts space around an object so that the object would arrive at its destination faster than light would in normal space without breaking any physical laws.\n", "BULLET::::- In \"K-PAX\" (2001), in a conversation between Prot (played by Kevin Spacey) and Dr Powell (played by Jeff Bridges), Dr Powell explains \"according to a man who lived on our planet named Einstein, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light\". Prot replies \"what Einstein actually said was that nothing can accelerate to the speed of light, because its mass would become infinite. Einstein said nothing about entities already traveling at the speed of light or faster, at tachyon speeds\".\n", "According to simple emission theory, light thrown off by an object should move at a speed of formula_1 with respect to the emitting object. If there are no complicating dragging effects, the light would then be expected to move at this same speed until it eventually reached an observer. For an object moving directly towards (or away from) the observer at formula_2 metres per second, this light would then be expected to still be travelling at formula_3 ( or formula_4 ) metres per second at the time it reached us.\n", "In 2005, at the Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, Warren Brown and his team attempted to measure the speeds of hypervelocity stars using the Doppler Technique, by which light is observed for the similar changes that occur in sound when an object is moving away or toward something. But the speeds found are only estimated minimums, as in reality their speeds may be larger than the speeds found by the researchers. \"One of the newfound exiles is moving in the direction of the constellation Ursa Major at about 1.25 million mph with respect to the galaxy. It is 240,000 light-years away. The other is headed toward the constellation Cancer, outbound at 1.43 million miles per hour and 180,000 light-years away.\"\n", "BULLET::::- December 7 – Danish astronomer Ole Rømer measures the speed of light by observing the eclipses of Jupiter's moons, obtaining a speed of 140,000 miles per second (approximately 25% too slow).\n", "For many practical purposes, light and other electromagnetic waves will appear to propagate instantaneously, but for long distances and very sensitive measurements, their finite speed has noticeable effects. In communicating with distant space probes, it can take minutes to hours for a message to get from Earth to the spacecraft, or vice versa. The light seen from stars left them many years ago, allowing the study of the history of the universe by looking at distant objects. The finite speed of light also limits the theoretical maximum speed of computers, since information must be sent within the computer from chip to chip. The speed of light can be used with time of flight measurements to measure large distances to high precision.\n", "In particular, the physical experience of an observer who whizzes by a gravitating object (such as a star or a black hole) at nearly the speed of light can be modelled by an \"impulsive\" pp-wave spacetime called the Aichelburg–Sexl ultraboost.\n" ]

[ "The two-and-a-half-dimensional (2.5D, alternatively three-quarter and pseudo-3D) perspective is either 2D graphical projections and similar techniques used to cause images or scenes to simulate the appearance of being three-dimensional (3D) when in fact they are not, or gameplay in an otherwise three-dimensional video game that is restricted to a two-dimensional plane with a limited access to the third dimension. By contrast, games using 3D computer graphics without such restrictions are said to use \"true 3D\".\n", "A 3D or 3-D (three-dimensional) film or S3D (stereoscopic 3D) film is a motion picture that enhances the illusion of depth perception. The most common approach to the production of 3D films is derived from stereoscopic photography. In it, a regular motion picture camera system is used to record the images as seen from two perspectives (or computer-generated imagery generates the two perspectives in post-production), and special projection hardware and/or eyewear are used to provide the illusion of depth when viewing the film. Some methods of producing 3D films do not require the use of two images. 3D films are not limited to feature film theatrical releases; television broadcasts and direct-to-video films have also incorporated similar methods, especially since the advent of 3D television and Blu-ray 3D.\n", "The Nintendo 3DS and PlayStation Portable versions are almost identical, the differences being mainly visual. The 3DS version is the only one that features stereoscopic 3D graphics. Additionally, the placement of the overhead map of the levels is different platforms; for the 3DS, it's on the second, bottom screen, where on the PSP, which lacks a second screen, it is merely layered over the main screen, with the option to toggle it on or off.\n", "IMAX Corporation has released four projector types that use its 15-perforation, 70 mm film format: GT (Grand Theatre), GT 3D (dual rotor), SR (Small Rotor), and MPX, which was designed for retrofitted theatres. In July 2008, the company introduced a digital projection system, which it has not given a distinct name or brand, designed for multiplex theatres with screens no wider than . All IMAX projectors, except the standard GT system, can project 3D images.\n", "Several of the early films that had been produced in digital 3D for release in conventional theaters were also presented in IMAX 3D, including \"Avatar\", \"Gravity\" and \"The Amazing Spider-Man\". The first full-color IMAX 3D film was the 1986 short documentary \"Transitions\", produced for Expo 86 in Vancouver.\n", "Many films have made use of 3ds Max, or previous versions of the program under previous names, in CGI animation, such as \"Avatar\" and \"2012\", which contain computer generated graphics from 3ds Max alongside live-action acting. Mudbox was also used in the final texturing of the set and characters in Avatar, with 3ds Max and Mudbox being closely related.\n", "3D computer graphics are the same as 3D models. The model is contained within the graphical data file, apart from the rendering. However, there are differences that include the 3D model is the representation of any 3D object. Until visually displayed a model is not graphic. Due to printing, 3D models are not only confined to virtual space. 3D rendering is how a model can be displayed. Also can be used in non-graphical computer simulations and calculations.\n" ]

[ "Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers, although others place their beaks among their breast feathers. Many birds rest on one leg, while some may pull up their legs into their feathers, especially in cold weather. Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep. Many ground birds, such as quails and pheasants, roost in trees. A few parrots of the genus \"Loriculus\" roost hanging upside down. Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates. This physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species, including owlet-nightjars, nightjars, and woodswallows. One species, the common poorwill, even enters a state of hibernation. Birds do not have sweat glands, but they may cool themselves by moving to shade, standing in water, panting, increasing their surface area, fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves.\n", "The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times. Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep, where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye-opening \"peeks\", allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats. Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight. It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight.\n", "Birds can sleep more efficiently with both hemispheres sleeping simultaneously (bihemispheric slow wave sleep) when in safe conditions, but will increase the usage of USWS if they are in a potentially more dangerous environment. It is more beneficial to sleep using both hemispheres; however, the positives of unihemispheric slow-wave sleep prevail over its negatives under extreme conditions. While in unihemispheric slow-wave sleep, birds will sleep with one open eye towards the direction from which predators are more likely to approach. When birds do this in a flock, it's called the \"group edge effect\".\n", "During waking hours the bird is almost never still. It flits from perch to perch, sometimes on the ground but mostly on the twigs of a tree or any other convenient object, looking out for flying insects. The birds are not shy, and will often flit within a few metres of people, especially in forested areas and suburban gardens. In doing so, it is able to catch any small flying insects that may have been disturbed by human activities such as walking or digging.\n", "Recent studies have illustrated that the white-crowned sparrow, as well as other passerines, have the capability of sleeping most significantly during the migratory season while in flight. However, the sleep patterns in this study were observed during migratory restlessness in captivity and might not be analogous to those of free-flying birds. Free-flying birds might be able to spend some time sleeping while in non-migratory flight as well when in the unobstructed sky as opposed to in controlled captive conditions. To truly determine if birds can sleep in flight, recordings of brain activity must take place during flight instead of after landing. A method of recording brain activity in pigeons during flight has recently proven promising in that it could obtain an EEG of each hemisphere but for relatively short periods of time. Coupled with simulated wind tunnels in a controlled setting, these new methods of measuring brain activity could elucidate the truth behind whether or not birds sleep during flight.\n", "Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow-wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time. The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock. This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock. This adaptation is also known from marine mammals. Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators. Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety.\n", "Opinions partly differ about sleep in migratory birds. The controversy is mainly about whether they can sleep while flying or not. Theoretically, certain types of sleep could be possible while flying, but technical difficulties preclude the recording of brain activity in birds while they are flying.\n" ]

[ "The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis is a fringe claim contending that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of the Great Sphinx was caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall that would have predated the time of Djedefre and Khafre, the Pharaohs credited by most modern Egyptologists with building the Great Sphinx and Second Pyramid at Giza around 2500 BC. Egyptologists, geologists and others have rejected the water erosion hypothesis and the idea of an older Sphinx, offering various alternative explanations for the cause and date of the erosion.\n", "It is also agreed that wind erosion has played a significant role in eroding the Sphinx. Schoch states that wind erosion forms distinctive horizontal bands, whereas the water erosion features are clearly vertical.\n", "R. A. Schwaller de Lubicz, a French mystic and alternative Egyptologist, first claimed evidence of water erosion on the walls of the Sphinx enclosure in the 1950s. John Anthony West, an author and alternative Egyptologist, investigated Schwaller de Lubicz's ideas further and, in 1989, sought the opinion of Robert M. Schoch, a geologist and associate professor of natural science at the College of General Studies at Boston University.\n", "The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis contends that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of the Great Sphinx could only have been caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall, and must therefore predate the time of the pharaoh Khafra.\n", "John Anthony West (July 9, 1932 – February 6, 2018) was an American author, lecturer, guide and a proponent of the Sphinx water erosion hypothesis. His early career was as a copywriter in Manhattan and as a science fiction writer. He received a Hugo Award Honorable Mention in 1962.\n", "Colin Reader, a British geologist, studied the erosion patterns and noticed that they are found predominantly on the western enclosure wall and not on the Sphinx itself. He proposed the rainfall water runoff hypothesis, which also recognizes climate change transitions in the area.\n", "In an article published in the January 2015 issue of GEO ExPro magazine, geoscientist Jørn Christiansen provided his own analysis of the \"vertical weathering\" after visiting the Sphinx. Christiansen found evidence that shows that at least some of the erosion took place before the Sphinx was carved. He stated that water most likely seeped through natural fissures in the limestone before the Sphinx had been carved, causing the walls of the Sphinx to look like they were carved much earlier than they really were. As such, Christiansen determined that there was no geological evidence to suggest the Sphinx was carved earlier than any other monuments on the Giza plateau.\n" ]

[ "\"Poppers\" are small bottles of volatile drugs which are inhaled by clubgoers for the \"rush\" or \"high\" that they can create. Nitrites such as alkyl nitrite originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open, which led to the nickname \"poppers.\" The drug became popular in the US first on the disco/club scene of the 1970s, where dancers used the drug for the \"rush\" it provides, and because it was perceived to enhance the experience of dancing to loud, bass-heavy disco. The drug became popular again in the mid-1980s and 1990s rave and electronic dance music scenes. As with disco clubgoers, rave participants and EDM enthusiasts used the drug because its \"rush\" or \"high\" was perceived to enhance the experience of dancing to pulsating music and lights.\n", "Popper use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus. Most widely sold products include the original amyl nitrite (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite), but also variants such as isobutyl nitrite, isopropyl nitrite (2-propyl nitrite, increasingly, after EU ban of the isobutyl form). In some countries, to evade anti-drug laws, poppers are labelled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish, or tape head cleaner.\n", "BULLET::::- Popups are scripted context menu items. Popups are called when they are selected by the user. The term originally referred to the menus—which pop up upon a right click. It is still used this way in the manual. But the user community (who tend not to read scripting manuals) took to calling the individual items popups—perhaps thinking of the colourful novelty actions that are popular with many users as pages of a popup book.\n", "\"Poppers\" is the street name for alkyl nitrites (the most well-known being amyl nitrite), which are inhaled for their intoxicating effects, notably the \"rush\" or \"high\" they can provide. Nitrites originally came as small glass capsules that were popped open, which led to the nickname \"poppers.\" The drug became popular in the US first on the disco/club scene of the 1970s and then at dance and rave venues in the 1980s and 1990s. In the 2000s, synthetic phenethylamines such as 2C-I, 2C-B and DOB have been referred to as club drugs due to their stimulating and psychedelic nature (and their chemical relationship with MDMA). By late 2012, derivates of the psychedelic 2C-X drugs, the NBOMes and especially 25I-NBOMe, had become common at raves in Europe. In the U.S., some law enforcement agencies have branded the subculture as a drug-centric culture, as rave attendees have been known to use drugs such as cannabis, 2CB, and DMT.\n", "Web development and design technologies allow an author to associate any item on a pop-up with any action, including with a cancel or innocent looking button. Because of bad experiences and apprehensive of possible damage that they may cause, some users do not click on or interact with any item inside a pop-up window whatsoever, and may leave the site that generated them or block all pop-ups.\n", "Popper is a slang term given broadly to the chemical class called alkyl nitrites, that are inhaled. It is used for practical purposes to facilitating anal sex by increasing blood flow and relaxing sphincter muscles or for recreational drug purposes, typically for the \"high\" or \"rush\" that the drug can create. Poppers have also been historically used for sexual encounters, initially within the gay community.If you trace the bottle of amyl (a type of alkyl nitrite) through late 20th century history, you trace the legacies of gay culture on popular culture in the 20th century. Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s disco scene and returned to popularity in the 1980s and 1990s rave scene.\n", "A sticker is a detailed illustration of a character that represents an emotion or action that is a mix of cartoons and Japanese smiley-like \"emojis\". They have more variety than emoticons and have a basis from internet \"reaction face\" culture due to their ability to portray body language with a facial reaction. Stickers are elaborate, character-driven emoticons and give people a lightweight means to communicate through kooky animations.\n" ]

[ "Growth, employment and household income have lagged behind the South, and the five most deprived districts in England are all in Northern England, as are ten of the twelve most declining major towns in the UK. The picture is not clear-cut, as the North has areas which are as wealthy as, if not wealthier than, fashionable Southern areas such as Surrey. Yorkshire's Golden Triangle which extends from north Leeds to Harrogate and across to York is an example, as is Cheshire's Golden Triangle, centred on Alderley Edge. There are major disparities even across individual cities: Sheffield Hallam is one of the wealthiest constituencies in the country, and is the richest outside London and the South East, while Sheffield Brightside and Hillsborough, just on the other side of the city, is one of the most deprived. Housing in Northern England is more affordable than the UK average: the median house price in most Northern cities was below £200,000 in 2015 with typical increases of below 10% over the previous five years. However, some areas have seen house prices fall considerably, putting inhabitants at risk of negative equity.\n", "Culturally and socially, Northern Germany is characterized by higher levels of income equality and gender equality than southern and south-western Germany. While the national federal Gini coefficient for Germany stands at around 30, the southern states have a Gini coefficient of 30.6 whereas for the Northern states the Gini coefficient stands at 27.5 which is closer to the Scandinavian average of 25. Traditional society in the western part of Northern Germany (Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony and some parts of North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony-Anhalt) until the early 20th century was based on well-off, literate and landowning yeoman farmers owning relatively large pieces of land, making a living growing grain crops and raising dairy cattle and pigs, and a large and educated middle class in the towns and cities working in the civil service, or as businessmen, artisans, blue-collar workers and skilled workers. Thus, the proportion of serfs, landless labourers, semi-skilled industrial workers and large landlords was relatively smaller, making for a more stable society than elsewhere in Germany like the Rhineland region and the region east of the Oder river. Additionally, Northern cities like Hamburg, Bremen and Rostock have always been economic powerhouses of trade and commerce and have had a long tradition of innovation and creativity in business and industry.\n", "The north German states were for the most part richer in natural resources than the southern states. They had vast agricultural tracts from Schleswig-Holstein in the west through Prussia in the east. They also had coal and iron in the Ruhr Valley. Through the practice of primogeniture, widely followed in northern Germany, large estates and fortunes grew. So did close relations between the owners and local as well as national governments.\n", "After the late 17th century, the economies of the North and the South began to diverge, especially in coastal areas. The Southern emphasis on export production contrasted with the Northern emphasis on food production.\n", "Germans are richer on average than Greeks, and that difference in income tends to persist from generation to generation. When people look at the Great Gatsby curve, they omit this fact, because the nation is the unit of analysis. But it is not obvious that the political divisions that divide people are the right ones for economic analysis. We combine the persistently rich Connecticut with the persistently poor Mississippi, so why not combine Germany with Greece?\n", "The effect of changing economic fortune has contributed to the creation of the so-called North-South divide, in which decaying industrial and ex-industrial areas of Northern England, Scotland and Wales contrast with the wealthy, finance and technology-led southern economy. This has led successive governments to develop regional policy to try to rectify the imbalance. However, this is not to say that the north-south divide is uniform; some of the worst pockets of deprivation can be found in London, whilst parts of Cheshire and North Yorkshire are very wealthy. Nor is the North-South divide limited to the economic sphere; cultural and political divisions weigh heavily too.\n", "Industrial decline is most usually given as an explanation for the North-South divide. During the Industrial Revolution, many northern cities underwent a process of intense industrialisation, as raw materials such as coal and iron ore could be found in these areas. This led to comparatively high wealth; Shaw, Greater Manchester reportedly had the highest concentration of millionaires in the country at the time. It also led to over reliance on a few key industries and, as heavy industry began to leave the UK for developing countries under the 'New international division of Labour', these areas declined rapidly. Events like the UK miners' strike (1984–85) polarised public opinion and led to an increase in the divide.\n" ]

[ "The riots came on the back of a period of civil unrest, variously sourced from feelings transferring from the French Revolution, further changes in the Corn Laws, food shortages, and a general unhappiness of the population with their leading figures in politics and law. A proclamation banning \"seditious writing\" had been passed in May 1792.\n", "The riots marked the start of a period of mass anti-government meetings, marches and riots, including the march of the Blanketeers (March 1817), the Pentrich rising (June 1817) and the Peterloo Massacre (August 1819) and only ending after the failure of the Cato Street Conspiracy (February 1820).\n", "An instance of a popular riot calling for revolution could exemplify overdetermination. The event has to it, in capitalist culture, an over-application (determination) of agitation. The determinant contradictions (the reasons for popular revolt) are not addressed and so their great mass is \"displaced\" onto the singular event.\n", "However, reform was in the air. Many protestors found sympathy in middle-class radicals who encouraged protesters to spread far from their original sources. Further, early sentences by magistrates against the rioters, even those who destroyed threshing machines, were fairly light. Thus, riots continued into 1831.\n", "The riots of the late 1800's, although provoked by a different cause, were all a result of the political disenfranchisement that followed the reconstruction period. In the time immediately following the end of Reconstruction, the Federal Government of the United States restored white supremacist control to the South and adopted a \"laissez-faire\" policy in regard to African-Americans and their political and human rights. This change in policy resulted in African-American disfranchisement, social, educational and employment discrimination, and peonage. Deprived of their civil and human rights, African-Americans were reduced to a status of quasi-slavery or \"second-class\" citizenship. A tense atmosphere of racial hatred, ignorance, and fear bred lawless mass violence, murder, and lynching. To ensure and enforce blacks' second-class status, white Democrats enacted segregation and Jim Crow laws throughout the south. During the period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, lynchings reached a peak in the South. Florida led the nation in lynchings per capita from 1900-1930.\n", "The Philadelphia Election Riot, along with other riots taking place during the same time period in cities like New York and Boston, are important in examining the American Revolution. Riots taking place in these cities represented a radical change in the way that citizens interacted with their government. \"This transformation involved quiescent lower-class elements; the organization of political clubs, caucuses, and tickets; the employment of political literature and inflammatory political rhetoric as never before; the involvement of the clergy and churches in politics; and the organization of mobs and violence for political purposes.\"\n", "By the time the protests ended on 5 January 1984 more than 150 of the rioters had been killed. President Bourguiba announced on 6 January 1984 that the increase in the price of bread and flour had been cancelled.\n" ]

[ "Scrubs is an American medical comedy-drama television series created by Bill Lawrence that aired from October 2, 2001, to March 17, 2010, on NBC and later ABC. The series follows the lives of employees at the fictional Sacred Heart Hospital, which later becomes a Teaching Hospital. The title is a play on surgical scrubs and a term for a low-ranking person because at the beginning of the series, most of the main characters are medical interns.\n", "\"Scrubs\" writers worked with several medical advisors, including doctors Jonathan Doris, Jon Turk, and Dolly Klock. Their names serve as the basis for the names of characters John Dorian, Chris Turk, and Molly Clock (played by Braff, Faison, and Heather Graham, respectively). In the season eight finale \"My Finale\", the \"real J.D.\", Jonathan Doris, made a cameo appearance as the doctor who said \"adios\" to J.D.\n", "An additional study conducted by Brian Quick of the University of Illinois indicated that the show's portrayal of doctors being \"smart, good looking, capable, and interesting\", leads viewers to associating real-world doctors to be that way. Surgical resident Karen Zink, M.D., deemed the show's portrayal of interns inaccurate, adding: \"None of [the characters] have bags under their eyes. They all leave the hospital dressed cute, with their hair done and makeup on. That is so far away from the reality of interns. You are just dragging your butt, trying to stay alive. You don't have time to do your hair. You don't have time to put on makeup. Every surgical intern has bags under their eyes.\"\n", "In April 1937 Manhattan Soap Company agreed to stop using the word \"doctor\" in ads, because the term might have led consumers to believe the company's products were made with the advice of a physician. The business also confirmed with the Federal Trade Commission that it would not use false prices on cartons or boxes in which its soap was packed.\n", "Doctors is a continuing British medical soap opera which first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 26 March 2000. Set in the fictional Midlands town of Letherbridge, defined (in the programme) as being in the city of Birmingham, the soap follows the lives of the staff of both a NHS Doctor's surgery and University Campus Surgery, as well as their families and friends.\n", "'Common Sense,' I am aware, is quoted at a discount; especially by the medical profession, which proverbially ignores everything that has not the mixed odor of incomprehensibility and antiquity. Medical works are generally a heterogeneous compound of vague ideas and jaw-breaking words, in which the \"dead\" languages are largely employed to treat of \"living\" subjects.\n", "Good Doctor (also credited as Doctor or Plague) is a television and cinema advertisement released in 2002 by Interbrew to promote its Stella Artois brand of lager within the United Kingdom. The 100-second spot was produced by advertising agency Lowe Lintas & Partners in London. \"Good Doctor\" premiered on British television in January 2002, with later appearances in cinemas. It is the seventh piece in the \"Jean de Florette\"-inspired \"Reassuringly Expensive\" series that had been running since 1992. The advert was directed by Czech director Ivan Zacharias with help from the production company Stink and post-production work by The Moving Picture Company. The commercial was a popular, financial, and critical success, boosting sales during the period in which it ran, and receiving more awards than any other campaign in 2002, including a Cannes Gold Lion, an Epica Award and several prizes from the D&AD Awards.\n" ]

[ "The Taliban renamed the country to Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, and imposed an even more strict version of Sharia on the population they controlled. This especially negatively impacted women, who were forced to wear a burqa, stay indoors and banned from working outside the house with rare exceptions, female schools were closed and almost all girls lost access to education, increasing illiteracy rates (which had fallen during the communist era). Movie theaters, soccer stadiums, and television stations were now closed as well.\n", "Such reforms however were not universally well-received, being viewed by many Afghans (particularly in rural areas) as the imposition of secular western values considered to be alien to Afghan culture and un-Islamic. As had happened earlier in the century, resentment with the government's programme and the manner in which it was imposed, along with widespread repression, provoked a backlash from tribal and Islamic leaders.\n", "The countries in North and South America reportedly had some of the lowest levels of \"government\" and \"social\" restrictions on religion, while The Middle East and North Africa were the regions with the highest. Saudi Arabia, Pakistan and Iran were the countries that top the list of countries with the \"overall\" highest levels of restriction on religion. Topping the Pew government restrictions index were Saudi Arabia, Iran, Uzbekistan, China, Egypt, Burma, Maldives, Eritrea, Malaysia and Brunei.\n", "Freedom of religion in Afghanistan has changed in recent years because the current government of Afghanistan has only been in place since 2002, following a U.S.-led invasion which displaced the former Taliban government. The Constitution of Afghanistan is dated January 23, 2004, and its initial three articles mandate:\n", "A number of scholars believe that secular governments in Muslim countries have become more repressive and authoritarian to combat the spread of Islamism, but this increased repression may have made many Muslim societies more opposed to secularism and increased the popularity of Islamism the Middle East.\n", "In Afghanistan, the mujahideen's victory against the Soviet Union in the 1980s did not lead to justice and prosperity, due to a vicious and destructive civil war between political and tribal warlords, making Afghanistan one of the poorest countries on earth. In 1992, the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan ruled by communist forces collapsed, and democratic Islamist elements of mujahdeen founded the Islamic State of Afghanistan. In 1996, a more conservative and anti-democratic Islamist movement known as the Taliban rose to power, defeated most of the warlords and took over roughly 80% of Afghanistan.\n", "The Arab world is also ambivalent about having a fully secular, western-style society. Iran is still a theocratic country and Saudi Arabia has monarchies. Government and general public are wary of Western influences that might corrupt their heart and mind. For example, Saudi Arabia did not lift the ban on cinemas until recently.\n" ]

[ "A university student's master's thesis incorrectly suggested that repeatedly rewashing plastic water bottles can lead to the leaking diethylhydroxylamine (DEHA) into the drinking water, and can be detrimental to human health. The results of this research were repeated by various sources and also became a chain email, later declared to be a hoax.\n", "The lowest impact water bottles are those made of glass or metal. They are not made from petroleum and are easily recyclable. By choosing to continuously fill any multi-use water bottle, the consumer keeps disposable bottles out of the waste stream and minimizes environmental impact.\n", "In the United States, plastic water bottles are regulated by the FDA which also inspects and samples bottled water plants periodically. Plastic water bottle plants hold a low priority for inspection due to a continuously good safety record. In the past, the FDA maintained that there was a lack of human data showing plastics pose health problems, however in January 2010, the FDA reversed its opinion saying they now have concerns about health risks. An article published on November 6, 2017 in Water Research reported on the content of microplastics in mineral waters packed in plastic or glass bottles, or beverage cartons. In 2018, research conducted by Sherri Mason from the State University of New York in Fredonia revealed the presence of polypropylene, polystyrene, nylon and polyethylene terephthalate microparticles in plastic bottles. Polypropylene was hereby found to be the most common polymeric material (54%) and nylon the second most abundant (16%) polymeric material. The study also mentioned that polypropylene and polyethylene are polymers that are often used to make plastic bottle caps. Also, 4% of retrieved plastic particles were found to have signatures of industrial lubricants coating the polymer. The research was reviewed by Andrew Mayes of the University of East Anglia (UEA) School of ChemistryThe European Food Safety Authority suggested most microplastics are excreted by the body, however the UN Food and Agriculture Organization warned that it is possible that the smallest particles ( 1.5 μm) could enter the bloodstream and organs, via the intestinal wall.\n", "It is often applied to paint, tires, and other goods that become toxic waste if not disposed of properly. It is most familiar as the container deposit charged for a deposit bottle. One pays a fee to buy the bottle, separately from the fee to buy what it contains. If one returns the bottle, the fee is returned, and the supplier must return the bottle for re-use or recycling. If not, one has paid the fee, and presumably this can pay for landfill or litter control measures that dispose of diapers or a broken bottle. Also, since the same fee can be collected by anyone finding and returning the bottle, it is common for people to collect these and return them as a means of gaining a small income. This is quite common for instance among homeless people in U.S. cities. Legal requirements vary: the bottle itself may be considered the property of the purchaser of the contents, or, the purchaser may have some obligation to return the bottle to some depot so it can be recycled or re-used.\n", "Studies show that the plastics used for bottles contain chemicals having estrogenic activity, even when they claim otherwise. Although some of the bottled water contained in glass were found polluted with chemicals as well, the researchers believe some of the contamination of water in the plastic containers may have come from the plastic containers. Leaching of chemicals into the water is related to the plastic bottles being exposed to either low or high temperatures.\n", "Reusable bottles can hold bacteria. Drinking from a reusable bottle can transfer bacteria from a person's mouth to the beverage it contains, which can contaminate both bottle and water. Contamination can cause bacterial or fungal growth in the liquid while it's stored. It is recommend that users clean reusable drinking bottles thoroughly before each used. Users should take care to wash the bottle cap as well after each use for proper sanitation.\n", "For these reasons some governments are interested in banning the use of single-use plastic water bottles in their regions to lower these impacts on the environment and promote sustainability within their boundaries.\n" ]

[ "The addition of peppermint oil to the body soap is widely considered to help to stimulate the user's senses to effect an alert state in the user, as caffeine's ability to meaningfully diffuse through human skin is extremely limited and, as a result, users will generally not receive a meaningful dose of the drug through the soap itself. \n", "BULLET::::- Bar soap has a high pH (in the area of 9 to 10), and the skin's surface pH is on average 4.7. This means that soap can change the balance present in the skin to favor the overgrowth of some types of bacteria, increasing acne.\n", "Oleic acid as its sodium salt is a major component of soap as an emulsifying agent. It is also used as an emollient. Small amounts of oleic acid are used as an excipient in pharmaceuticals, and it is used as an emulsifying or solubilizing agent in aerosol products.\n", "As a topical agent and as a beta-hydroxy acid (and unlike alpha-hydroxy acids), salicylic acid is capable of penetrating and breaking down fats and lipids, causing moderate chemical burns of the skin at very high concentrations. It may damage the lining of pores if the solvent is alcohol, acetone or an oil. Over-the-counter limits are set at 2% for topical preparations expected to be left on the face and 3% for those expected to be washed off, such as acne cleansers or shampoo; up to a 6% concentration can be used if necessary under prescription for these uses. \n", "BULLET::::- Using bar soap on the face can remove natural oils from the skin that form a barrier against water loss. This causes the sebaceous glands to subsequently overproduce oil, a condition known as reactive seborrhoea, which will lead to clogged pores. In order to prevent drying out the skin, many cleansers incorporate moisturizers.\n", "Microbeads are added as an exfoliating agent to cosmetics and personal care products, such as soap, facial scrub and toothpastes. They may be added to over-the-counter drugs to make them easier to swallow.\n", "Fatty acid esters of isethionic acid (such as sodium lauroyl isethionate and sodium cocoyl isethionate) are used as biodegradable anionic surfactants. These materials are much milder to skin that other sulphate based surfactants (i.e. sodium lauryl sulfate) making them popular for use in make-up, shampoos and ‘Dove type’ soap bars.\n" ]

[ "Using VRI for medical, legal and mental health settings is seen as controversial by some in the deaf community, where there is an opinion that it does not provide appropriate communication access—particularly in medical settings where the patient's ability to watch the screen or sign clearly to the camera may be compromised. This is balanced by many in the services and public services sectors who identify with the benefits of being able to communicate in otherwise impossible (and sometimes life-threatening) situations without having to wait hours for an interpreter to turn up, even if this initial contact is used just to arrange a further face-to-face appointment. Therefore, businesses and organizations contend that it meets or exceeds the minimum threshold for reasonable accommodation as its principle is built around offering \"reasonable adjustment\" through increasing initial accessibility.\n", "Other concerns include the storage of information that could be used to identify people and store details about their driving habits and daily life, contravening the Data Protection Act along with similar legislation (see personally identifiable information). The laws in the UK are strict for any system that uses CCTV footage and can identify individuals.\n", "BULLET::::- Technology: The technology to easily type and enter information on a TV is limited. Most remote controls can only interact with the TV on a basic level. This makes filling out any kind of personal profile difficult.\n", "A CCTV system may be installed where any example, on a driver-only operated train CCTV cameras may allow the driver to confirm that people are clear of doors before closing them and starting the train.\n", "On 27 January 2012, Helena Kamnar, the Secretary-General of the Government, unofficially told for media that three people had access to the Spectiva remote viewing software, and could also watch the sessions from their home. Kamnar also explained that it was possible to find out who had access in which period but had no information due to the Police having confiscated one of the computers. On 28 January 2012, she told that according to the information she had received from the person who allocated the right to use the system, the three people were Janez Janša, the former Secretary-General Božo Predalič, and the former Secretary-General Milan M. Cvikl. They only had the possibility to use it in their respective terms. Predalič told that he used it perhaps twice, because he was present at Janša's sessions and did not have the option to use it during Pahor's sessions. Cvikl told that he refused to use it as it seemed redundant to him and due to security reasons even demanded it to be uninstalled.\n", "Visual Privacy is the relationship between collection and dissemination of visual information, the expectation of privacy, and the legal issues surrounding them. These days cameras are ubiquitous. They are one of the most common sensors found in electronic devices, ranging from smartphones to tablets, and laptops to surveillance cams. However, privacy and trust implications surrounding it limit its ability to seamlessly blend into our computing environment. In particular, large-scale camera networks have created increasing interest in understanding the advantages and disadvantages of such deployments. It is estimated that over 4 Million Cameras Deployed in the UK. Due to increasing security concerns, camera networks have continued to proliferate across other countries such as the United States. While the impact of such systems continues to be evaluated, in parallel, tools for controlling how these camera networks are used and modifications to the images or video sent to end-users have been explored.\n", "Specter introduced legislation to clarify that it is illegal to capture silent visual images inside a person's home. Specter said: \"... a very significant invasion of privacy with these webcams ...\" ... us expect to ... video surveillance when we leave our homes and go out each day—at the ATM, at traffic lights, or in stores ... we do not expect is ... surveillance in our homes, in our bedrooms ... we do not expect it for our children in our homes.\n" ]

[ "The word is an example of \"Time\" magazine's habit of supplying new words through \"unusual use of affixes\", although \"Time\" itself objected to the term's inclusion in the 1991 \"Random Webster's College Dictionary\", citing it as an example of the dictionary \"straining ... to avoid giving offense, except to good usage\" and \"[lending] authority to scores of questionable usages, many of them tinged with politically correct views.\"\n", "\"Words are not synonyms on their own. What happens is, that we, speaking the same language, “match make them” every day... You never look for a word by locating it as a vector diagram in a system theory... The latest edition of Encyclopædia Britannica does not even waste space for synonyms... The ambition to locate the appropriate word for the correct use of language is sought no more...\"\n", "Words used to ask or answer a question of who, where, what, when, why, how or how much. These words form a set in a semi-systematic manner with a particle of the compound indicating abstract quantity (what person or thing, what place, what time, for what reason, in what manner, what is the amount) and the prefix/other particle indicating the specific function of the word (exactly which, all, some, negating, etc.).\n", "While there is some overlapping between their uses, in many cases they are specific. For example, is used for a choice – – \"not this one, but that one\" (compare Spanish ), while is often used to provide extra information or an opinion – – \"I said it, but I was wrong\". Meanwhile, provides contrast between two situations, and in some sentences can even be translated as \"although\", \"while\" or even \"and\" – – \"I'm working, and he's daydreaming\".\n", "There are numerous ways to ask when something will occur, many of which are formed by adding ໃດ (dai ) \"which\" after a noun marking time, e.g., ເວລາໃດ (vela dai ), ຍາມໃດ (gnam dai ), and ປານໃດ (pan dai ).\n", "Words is a game where players examine on-screen picture clues and then spell out words with tangible letter tiles. According to Common Sense Education, “The range of difficulty means every student can be challenged, and the variety of word packs — and the option to add your own — makes it really versatile for fun and learning.”\n", "Very often, different words can be used to alter the emphasis of a sentence – e.g. while and both mean \"I smoke, but I shouldn't\", the first sounds more like a statement of fact (\"...but I mustn't\"), while the second feels more like a \"judgement\" (\"...but I oughtn't\"). Similarly, and both mean \"I don't want to, but he does\", however the first emphasizes the fact that \"he\" wants to, while the second emphasizes the \"wanting\" rather than the person.\n" ]

[ "For protection and preservation, a polished Japanese sword needs a scabbard. A fully mounted scabbard (\"koshirae\") may consist of a lacquered body, a taped hilt, a sword guard (\"tsuba\") and decorative metal fittings. Though the original purpose was to protect a sword from damage, from early times on Japanese sword mountings became a status symbol and were used to add dignity. Starting in the Heian period, a sharp distinction was made between swords designed for use in battle and those for ceremonial use. Tachi long swords were worn edge down suspended by two cords or chains from the waist belt. The cords were attached to two eyelets on the scabbard.\n", "Shoami (or \"Ko-Shoami\") is a name of artistic school (style) for making sword-guards (tsuba), mounted on a Japanese sword (\"uchi-gatana\" or just katana). The sword-guard is one of the most important symbols of the samurai.\n", "The Japanese sword, with its long history and many variations, has a prominent role in Shintō Musō-ryū. For training purposes, wooden swords (\"bokken\") are used to minimize the risk of injuries. Practitioners use both the long wooden sword, generally called a bokutō or bokken, and the short wooden sword that is referred to as a kodachi (meant to represent the wakizashi, or simply \"short sword\" in both interpretations).\n", "The \"shinai\" is meant to represent a Japanese sword (katana) and is made up of four bamboo slats, which are held together by leather fittings. A modern variation of a \"shinai\" with carbon fiber reinforced resin slats is also used. \"Shinai\" have also been used in WWE.\n", "The shin guard was inspired by the concept of a greave. A greave is a piece of armor used to protect the shin. It is a Middle English term, derived from an Old French word, greve (pronounced gri’v), meaning shin or shin armor. The etymology of this word not only describes the use and purpose of shin guards, but also contributes to dating the technology.\n", "Some imitation Japanese swords are made in countries other than Japan. They may even be made of folded steel, much like a real katana, but with a blunt edge. Such weapons would face the same use and ownership restrictions in Japan as genuine swords, and would not be called \"iaitō\" in Japan.\n", "As time progressed into the 19th century a major shift in the application of shin guards occurred. The overall purpose of protecting the shin was maintained, but instead of being used for fighting, it became applied to sports. This paradigm shift dominates today’s market use of shin guards as they are used mostly in sports. Other applications do exist though for protecting the lower leg in other physical activities such as hiking, mixed martial arts, and kickboxing, but all these activities can also be considered for sport instead of being necessary in battle.\n" ]

[ "In many human cultures, the act of premastication and direct mouth-to-mouth feeding is linked with the showing of affection, known as \"kiss feeding\". In the Manus cultures of the Admiralty Islands, the act of premastication has been used by a women to remind children and descendants of their obligations to her. Some human cultures such as the people of Papua New Guinea in fact use mouth to mouth contact primarily for feeding premasticated food, with sexual kissing only observed after the arrival of Europeans. This form of feeding is believed to have evolved into the modern human acts of kissing and French kissing.\n", "Kissing in humans is postulated to have evolved from the direct mouth-to-mouth regurgitation of food (kiss-feeding) from parent to offspring or male to female (courtship feeding) and has been observed in numerous mammals. The similarity in the methods between kiss-feeding and deep human kisses (e.g. French kiss) are quite pronounced; in the former, the tongue is used to push food from the mouth of the mother to the child with the child receiving both the mother's food and tongue in sucking movements, and the latter is the same but forgoes the premasticated food. In fact, through observations across various species and cultures, it can be confirmed that the act of kissing and premastication has most likely evolved from the similar relationship-based feeding behaviours.\n", "Anthropologists are divided into two schools on the origins of kissing, one believing that it is instinctual and intuitive and the other that it evolved from what is known as \"kiss feeding\", a process used by mothers to feed their infants by passing chewed food to their babies' mouths.\n", "Alternative methods of oral hygiene also exist around the world, such as the use of teeth cleaning twigs such as miswaks in some Middle Eastern and African cultures. There is some limited evidence demonstrating the efficacy of these alternative methods of oral hygiene.\n", "In cultures and situations where cheek kissing is the social norm, the failure or refusal to give or accept a kiss is commonly taken as an indicator of antipathy between the people, and to dispel such an implication and avoid giving offense may require an explanation, such as the person has a contagious disease such as a cold.\n", "Kissing on the lips can result in the transmission of some diseases, including infectious mononucleosis (known as the \"kissing disease\") and herpes simplex when the infectious viruses are present in saliva. Research indicates that contraction of HIV via kissing is extremely unlikely, although there was a documented case in 1997 of an HIV infection by kissing. Both the woman and infected man had gum disease, so transmission was through the man's blood, not through saliva.\n", "Yale School of Public Health epidemiologist Alfred E. Evans confirmed through testing that mononucleosis was transmitted mainly through kissing leading to it being referred to colloquially as \"the kissing disease\".\n" ]

[ "Threatening the President of the United States is a federal felony under United States Code Title 18, Section 871. It consists of knowingly and willfully mailing or otherwise making \"any threat to take the life of, to kidnap, or to inflict bodily harm upon the President of the United States\". This also includes presidential candidates and former Presidents. The United States Secret Service investigates suspected violations of this law and monitors those who have a history of threatening the President. Threatening the President is considered a political offense. Immigrants who commit this crime can be deported.\n", "Threatening the President of the United States is a felony under United States Code Title 18, Section 871. The offense is punishable by up to 5 years in prison, a $250,000 maximum fine, a $100 special assessment, and 3 years of supervised release. Internet restrictions such as a prohibition on access to email have been imposed on offenders who made their threats by computer. The U.S. Sentencing Guidelines set a base offense level of 12 for sending threatening communication, but when a threat to the President is involved, a 6-level \"official victim\" enhancement applies. Moreover, \"an upward departure may be warranted due to the potential disruption of the governmental function.\" Further enhancements can apply if the offender evidenced an intent to carry out the threat (6-level enhancement); made more than two threats (2-level enhancement); caused substantial disruption of public, governmental, or business functions or services (4-level enhancement); or created a substantial risk of inciting others to harm federal officials (2-level enhancement). Since each 6-level increase approximately doubles the Guidelines sentencing range, it is not particularly rare for an offender who threatens the President to receive a sentence at or near the maximum, especially if he has a criminal history and/or does not qualify for a reduction for acceptance of responsibility. There is a 4-level decrease available for a threat involving a \"single instance evidencing little or no deliberation\", which would usually apply to spur-of-the-moment verbal threats. The maximum penalty for threatening a United States judge or a Federal law enforcement officer is 10 years imprisonment — double the maximum penalty for threatening the President.\n", "United States v. Stickrath, 242 F. 151 (S.D. Ohio 1917), is a case that was decided by the United States District Court for the Southern District of Ohio, in which it was ruled that threatening the President of the United States was akin to treason. It was also held that stating the President \"ought\" to be killed was more serious than saying that the President \"should\" be killed.\n", "Vice President Jonathan, who was the acting president at the time, urged that the killers be caught. The police announced that 313 people were arrested in relation to the January 2010 violence, while 200 people were arrested following the March 2010 violence. As of 2013, federal prosecutors had secured convictions of at least 129 people involved in the 2010 violence.\n", "BULLET::::- December 2 - Two men are arrested on charges of trying to murder President Wilson. President Wilson delivers a speech at the banquet celebrating the illumination of the Statue of Liberty in New York City.\n", "But finally he finds himself being arrested on charges of espionage, treason and terrorist activity and the court too gives its final verdict-the death sentence. The President too rejects his plea and finally the sentence is carried out.\n", "The president is particularly protected by special criminal law provisions. This includes in particular § 249 StGB, \"Violence and dangerous threat against the president\". The offense belongs to the fifteenth section of the Criminal Code, \"Attacks on supreme state organs\":\n" ]

[ "The colonies were very different from one another but they were still a part of the British Empire in more than just name. Demographically, the majority of the colonists traced their roots to the British Isles and many of them still had family ties with Great Britain. Socially, the colonial elite of Boston, New York, Charleston, and Philadelphia saw their identity as British. Many had never lived in Britain in over a few generations, yet they imitated British styles of dress, dance, and etiquette. This social upper echelon built its mansions in the Georgian style, copied the furniture designs of Thomas Chippendale, and participated in the intellectual currents of Europe, such as the Enlightenment. The seaport cities of colonial America were truly British cities in the eyes of many inhabitants.\n", "In colonies such as Southern Rhodesia, Hong Kong, Singapore, Jamaica, Barbados, British East Africa and the Cape Colony, permanently resident British communities were established and while never more than a numerical minority these Britons exercised a dominant influence upon the culture and politics of those lands. In Australia, Canada and New Zealand people of British origin came to constitute the majority of the population contributing to these states becoming integral to the Anglosphere.\n", "In colonies such as Southern Rhodesia, British East Africa and Cape Colony, permanently resident British communities were established and whilst never more than a numerical minority these Britons \"exercised a dominant influence\" upon the culture and politics of those lands. In Australia, Canada and New Zealand \"people of British origin came to constitute the majority of the population\" contributing to these states becoming integral to the Anglosphere.\n", "A long-term result of James Cook's voyage of 1768–1771, a significant number of New Zealanders are of British descent, for whom a sense of Britishness has contributed to their identity. As late as the 1950s, it was common for British New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mount Everest as putting \"the British race and New Zealand on top of the world\". New Zealand passports described nationals as \"British Subject: Citizen of New Zealand\" until 1974, when this was changed to \"New Zealand citizen\".\n", "The New Zealand 2006 census statistics reported citizens with British (27,192), English (44,202), Scottish (15,039), Irish (12,651), Welsh (3,771) and Celtic (1,506) origins. Historically, a sense of 'Britishness' has figured prominently in the identity of many New Zealanders. As late as the 1950s it was common for New Zealanders to refer to themselves as British, such as when Prime Minister Keith Holyoake described Sir Edmund Hillary's successful ascent of Mt. Everest as \"\"[putting] the British race and New Zealand on top of the world\"\". New Zealand passports described nationals as \"British Subject and New Zealand Citizen\" until 1974, when this was changed to \"New Zealand Citizen\".\n", "Broadly speaking, nationals of the United Kingdom, the Dominions, and the various British colonies had always shared a common citizenship status of \"British subject\". However, in 1946 the Canadian parliament passed the \"Canadian Citizenship Act\", which established a separate Canadian citizenship. In response, a Commonwealth conference met in London in 1947, where it was agreed that each of the Commonwealth member states would be free to legislate for its own citizenship, while still retaining elements of a common Commonwealth citizenship. \n", "One event that reminded colonists of their shared identity as British subjects was the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) in Europe. This conflict spilled over into the colonies, where it was known as \"King George's War\". The major battles took place in Europe, but American colonial troops fought the French and their Indian allies in New York, New England, and Nova Scotia with the Siege of Louisbourg (1745).\n" ]

[ "The wires are also twisted together, to reduce interference from electromagnetic induction. A twisted pair makes the loop area between the conductors as small as possible, and ensures that a magnetic field that passes equally through adjacent loops will induce equal levels of noise on both lines, which is canceled out by the differential amplifier. If the noise source is extremely close to the cable, then it is possible it will be induced on one of the lines more than the other, and it won't be canceled as well, but canceling will still occur to the extent of the amount of noise that is equal on both lines.\n", "Network connections made with unshielded cables are occasionally used as a form of isolation, in that no shield connection exists between the device and the network. However, this fails to provide sufficient protection in the scope of IEC 60601-1, as the data lines themselves are not isolated, and may be floating at dangerous voltage potentials.\n", "Twisted pair cables often incorporate shielding in an attempt to prevent electromagnetic interference. Shielding provides an electrically conductive barrier to attenuate electromagnetic waves external to the shield; and provides a conduction path by which induced currents can be circulated and returned to the source via ground reference connection.\n", "Because the currents in the two lines are equal and opposite, this has the further advantage that radiated signals cancel each other except in the near field of the conductors, thereby reducing cross-talk onto other conductors.\n", "A major expense of wire-line telephone service is the outside wire plant. Telephones transmit both the incoming and outgoing speech signals on a single pair of wires. A twisted pair line rejects electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk better than a single wire or an untwisted pair. The strong outgoing speech signal from the microphone (transmitter) does not overpower the weaker incoming speaker (receiver) signal with sidetone because a hybrid coil (A3) and other components compensate the imbalance. The junction box (B) arrests lightning (B2) and adjusts the line's resistance (B1) to maximize the signal power for the line length. Telephones have similar adjustments for inside line lengths (A8). The line voltages are negative compared to earth, to reduce galvanic corrosion. Negative voltage attracts positive metal ions toward the wires.\n", "Nevertheless, the potential exists for connection errors, such as failing to properly connect earth or neutral, attempting connection / disconnection under load, incomplete connection of parallel circuits, or inappropriate combinations of circuit breakers and downstream equipment. For this reason all single-pole connectors including Powerlock are intended to be operated (connected and disconnected) only by trained professionals.\n", "Twin lead and other types of parallel-conductor transmission line are mainly used to connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas. Parallel transmission line has the advantage that its losses are an order of magnitude smaller than that of coaxial cable, the main alternative form of transmission line. Its disadvantages are that it is more vulnerable to interference, and must be kept away from metal objects which can cause power losses. For this reason, when installed along the outside of buildings and on antenna masts, standoff insulators must be used. It is also common practice to twist the twin lead on long free standing lengths to further reject any induced imbalances to the line.\n" ]

[ "Anarchism as a social movement has regularly endured fluctuations in popularity. Its classical period, which scholars demarcate as from 1860 to 1939, is associated with the working-class movements of the 19th century and the Spanish Civil War-era struggles against fascism.\n", "Anarchism in the United States began in the mid-19th century and started to grow in influence as it entered the American labor movements, growing an anarcho-communist current as well as gaining notoriety for violent propaganda of the deed and campaigning for diverse social reforms in the early 20th century. In the post-World War II era, anarchism regained influence through new developments such as anarcho-pacifism, the American New Left and the counterculture of the 1960s. In contemporary times, anarchism in the United States influenced and became influenced and renewed by developments both inside and outside the worldwide anarchist movement such as platformism, insurrectionary anarchism, the new social movements (anarcha-feminism, queer anarchism and green anarchism) and the alter-globalization movements.\n", "Modern anarchism was a significant part of the worker's movement at the end of the 19th century. Modernism, industrialisation, reaction to capitalism and mass migration helped anarchism to flourish and to spread around the globe. Major tendencies of anarchism sprouted up as anarchism grew as a social movement, particularly anarcho-collectivism, anarcho-communism, anarcho-syndicalism, and individualist anarchism. As the workers' movement grew, the divide between anarchists and Marxists grew as well. The two currents formally split at the fifth congress of the First International in 1872, and the events that followed did not help to heal the gap. Anarchists participated enthusiastically in the Russian Revolution, but as soon as the Bolsheviks established their authority, anarchists were harshly suppressed, most notably in Kronstadt and in Ukraine.\n", "The last decades of the 19th and the first of the 20th centuries, constitute the \"belle epoque\" of anarchism. Anarchism played a prominent role in working class struggles, along with Marxism, not only in Europe but in North and Latin America, Asia and Australia. Modernism, mass migration, the railroads and access to printing all helped anarchists to advance their causes.\n", "Anarchism has remained a political and cultural force in various political struggles continuing into the 21st century. Anarchism prominently influenced the Occupy Movement, and anarchist ideology, particularly the green anarchist thought of Murray Bookchin, has played a prominent role in the Rojava Revolution.\n", "The turning point towards anarchism was the French Revolution in which the anti-state and federalist sentiments began to take a form, mostly by Enragés and \"sans-culottes\". Some prominent figures of anarchism begun developing the first anarchist currents. That is the era of classical anarchism that lasted until the end of the Spanish Civil War of 1936 and was the golden age of anarchism. William Godwin espoused philosophical anarchism in England morally delegitimizing the state, Max Stirner's thinking paved the way to individualism and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's theory of mutualism found fertile soil in France.\n", "Anarchism or anarcho-syndicalism was the dominant ideology underpinning the Brazilian labour movement at the beginning of the twentieth century. Syndicates and labour federations were erected, mainly pressing for shorter workdays, better working conditions and higher salaries. Various strikes, i.e. in the harbour of Santos and among railway workers, were inspired by anarchist sympathies. In 1906 the first nationwide Brazilian workers' congress was held, and from then on the May Day celebrations, with prominent anarchists delivering speeches, started to attract large crowds. The second national workers' congress in 1913 was initially meant to be a Pan-American anarchist congress, but only two Argentinians showed up. The labour agitation eventually culminated in the large strike movements of 1917 and 1919, biggest in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but echoed throughout the country.\n" ]

[ "During the Cold War, the Bering Strait marked the border between the Soviet Union and the United States. The Diomede Islands—Big Diomede (Russia) and Little Diomede (US)—are only apart. Traditionally, the indigenous peoples in the area had frequently crossed the border back and forth for \"routine visits, seasonal festivals and subsistence trade\", but were prevented from doing so during the Cold War. The border became known as the \"Ice Curtain\". It was completely closed, and there was no regular passenger air or boat traffic. In 1987, American swimmer Lynne Cox symbolically helped ease tensions between the two countries by swimming across the border, and was congratulated jointly by American President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev.\n", "The Bering Strait is a strait of the Pacific, which separates Russia and Alaska slightly south of the Arctic Circle at about 65° 40' N latitude. The present Russia-US east-west boundary is at 168° 58' 37\" W. The Strait is named after Vitus Bering, an explorer in the service of the Russian Empire.\n", "The southeastern part of the Strait of Tartary was the site of one of the tensest incidents of the Cold War, when on September 1, 1983, Korean Air Lines Flight 007, carrying 269 people including a sitting U.S. congressman, Larry McDonald, strayed into the Soviet air space and was attacked by a Soviet Su-15 interceptor just west of Sakhalin Island. The plane came down on the waters off the strait's only land mass, Moneron Island. An intensive naval search by the U.S. with assistance of Japanese and Korean vessels was carried on in a area of the strait just north of Moneron Island (see \"Search for KAL 007 in International Waters\" of Korean Air Lines Flight 007).\n", "The introduction of radio, steamboats, and icebreakers made running the Northern Sea Route viable. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union was isolated from the western powers, which made it imperative to use this route. Besides being the shortest seaway between the western and far eastern USSR, it was the only one that lay completely inside Soviet internal waters and did not impinge on waters of opposing countries.\n", "The Russia – United States maritime boundary was defined by a disputed agreement covering the Bering Sea, Bering Strait, and Arctic Ocean. The International Date Line essentially acts as the de facto border between the two nations; the USA ratified the USSR-USA Maritime Boundary Agreement, but the USSR failed to ratify it before dissolving, and it was subsequently never ratified by Russia. During the winter, travel between Russia's uninhabited Big Diomede Island and Alaska's Little Diomede Island with a population of 110 is theoretically possible, although not legal, on some occasions when ice flowing through the Bering Strait clogs between the two islands. West of Puerto Rico, the Mona Passage serves as maritime boundary with the Dominican Republic, and the US shares a border with the United Kingdom east of the US Virgin Islands.\n", "In 1989, Shparo and his American colleague, Paul Schurke, led the Bering Bridge Expedition from Siberia to Alaska in an attempt to reconnect Arctic cultures separated by the Cold War. Until World War II, the Inuit of Siberia and Alaska had traveled back and forth across the Bering Strait to hunt walrus and visit relatives. However, in 1948, the Stalin and the Truman governments locked down the border. Shparo and Schurke asked the Kremlin and the White House to open the border to a sled dog expedition.\n", "In March 2006, Bushby and French adventurer Dimitri Kieffer crossed the Bering Strait on foot, having to take a roundabout 14-day route across a frozen section to cross the wide strait from Alaska to Siberia. They were detained by Russian border troop officers while they were crossing the Russian border near the Chukotkan village of Uelen, for not entering Russia at a correct port-of-entry. They were threatened with being banned from Russia, which would stop the journey. It was announced on 5 May 2006 that the Russian appeal court had upheld Bushby's application and his walk would continue. This was reported to be the result of consultation between John Prescott, the then British Deputy Prime Minister (and MP in Bushby's home town of Hull), and Roman Abramovich, the then Governor of Chukotka.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Criminal enforcement is largely private in Ancient Rome; unlike today, there is no public system of enforcement, such as a prosecuting attorney ostensibly bringing a case on behalf of the community (e.g., \"People vs. _______\", or \"Crown vs. ________\".) For instance, Celer confesses to murder in the gallery, before several witnesses, but the judge states that he has no authority to try Celer unless another citizen brings suit against him.\n", "The Rostra was also used for meetings of courts. In Republican Rome, criminal prosecutions took place in the Forum either before a tribal assembly with a magistrate prosecuting (a procedure specified in the Twelve Tables and the normal mode of prosecution in the middle Republic) or in a jury-court (\"quaestio de repetundis\") established by statute and presided over by a magistrate with a jury (after 70 BC) of about 50-75 jurors. For trials held in the Comitium, the Rostra served as the tribunal upon which the magistrate sat in his curule chair with a small number of attendants. \"This was enough in itself to establish a court, though it was supplemented by benches (\"subsellia\") for the jurors, the parties to the case, and their supporters.\" The circle of onlookers (\"corona\") either stood or sat on nearby steps.\n", "Criminal investigation is an ancient science that may have roots as far back as c. 1700 BCE in the writings of the Code of Hammurabi. In the code it is suggested that both the accuser and the accused had the right to present evidence they collected. In the modern era criminal investigations are most often done by government police forces. Private investigators are also commonly hired to complete or assist in criminal investigations.\n", "A initially promising lead for the enquiry concerned a member of a family of Romany origin that was well known in the underworld, who led a group of armed robbers. He was charged with being one of the Brabant Killers and at one point made (later retracted) admission to having participated without his gang in the massacres, but provided no details, and the line of investigation proved fruitless.\n", "The Commissioner Friederike Heise explains her case with analytical and forensic-psychological knowledge (Profiler) to murder, their causes are very difficult to determine. First, it is only because of the arranged assistance for very personal reasons, then later in Rome. My partner, Chief Inspector Marcello Pascarella and they often get together once, anyway, or just feel attracted to each other and therefore form a good team of investigators.\n", "The detectives often have few or no good clues — they might not even know the victim's identity — and must usually chase several dead ends before finding a likely suspect. They investigate the crime by collecting evidence at the crime scene (with the help of scenes of crime officers (SOCOs)), visit the forensic pathologist for clues to the victim's cause and time of death (sometimes the victim's identity from dental records or fingerprints). The police will also inform relatives of the victim's death, interview witnesses, trace the victim's last known movements (by talking to the victim's family and friends). as well as visiting the crime laboratory for evidence (e.g. such as fingerprints, DNA and ballistics etc.), records and research for information on financial details and background information on both victim(s) and suspect(s). In some instances, psychologists and/or psychiatrists are called in for insight into the criminal's behaviour or \"modus operandi\". All the while, the detectives report to their commanding officer, keeping them informed and being advised on how best to proceed next.\n", "A murder has been committed, but not in the usual confines of the secluded English country house so typical of the Golden age of detective fiction. Instead, a Greek prisoner of war interned in a camp for British officers is found dead in a secret underground tunnel that a number of the officers have been tirelessly working on in the hope of fleeing the camp. No one knows how the Greek could have gotten there or who could have killed him. Hoping to protect their tunneling activities, a committee of senior officers designates a scholarly fellow officer to investigate the death and attempt to determine who had killed the Greek and somehow get him into their tunnel. Most of the rest of the book concerns his attempts to carry out a discreet investigation within the heavily guarded camp. Just as he is about to finally reveal who has committed the crime, word comes that the Italians, who have now officially left the war, are about to turn the camp over to German forces. The tunnel can just barely be completed in the next few hours—will they then be able to evacuate the entire camp before the Germans arrive? The final chapters of the book relate the adventures of three escaped officers as they attempt to traverse the Italian countryside and reach the safety of the Allied lines. Gilbert himself, in real life, escaped with two fellow officers, and the book is dedicated to the actual names of those officers.\n" ]

[ "A barometer can also be found in smartphones such as the Samsung Galaxy Nexus, Samsung Galaxy S3-S6, Motorola Xoom, Apple iPhone 6 smartphones, and Timex Expedition WS4 smartwatch, based on MEMS and piezoresistive pressure-sensing technologies. Inclusion of barometers on smartphones was originally intended to provide a faster GPS lock. However, third party researchers were unable to confirm additional GPS accuracy or lock speed due to barometric readings. The researchers suggest that the inclusion of barometers in smartphones may provide a solution for determining a user's elevation, but also suggest that several pitfalls must first be overcome.\n", "A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis to help find surface troughs, pressure systems and frontal boundaries.\n", "The barometers do not only provide reliable figures on the markets but also analysis and description of the facts and trends in each RES sector. They publish comparable data by using collection and calculation methodologies that are the same for all the countries of EU.\n", "An aneroid barometer is an instrument used for measuring pressure as a method that does not involve liquid. Invented in 1844 by French scientist Lucien Vidi, the aneroid barometer uses a small, flexible metal box called an aneroid cell (capsule), which is made from an alloy of beryllium and copper. The evacuated capsule (or usually several capsules, stacked to add up their movements) is prevented from collapsing by a strong spring. Small changes in external air pressure cause the cell to expand or contract. This expansion and contraction drives mechanical levers such that the tiny movements of the capsule are amplified and displayed on the face of the aneroid barometer. Many models include a manually set needle which is used to mark the current measurement so a change can be seen. This type of barometer is common in homes and in recreational boats. It is also used in meteorology, mostly in barographs and as a pressure instrument in radiosondes.\n", "Microbarometers are sensitive barometers that can measure air pressure with high precision. Microbarometers typically have a resolution of microbars (μbar) or pascals (Pa), while ordinary barometers can only resolve in hectopascals (hPa) or millibars (mbar). Recording microbarometers, or microbarographs, distributed around the world are planned to be used to monitor compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (upon entry into force) by detecting the infrasound signature of a nuclear explosion, which can propagate for very long distances. By analyzing the data received at several of these monitoring stations, the location and yield of the explosion can be determined.\n", "BULLET::::- Barometer - a device which measures pressure. An ideal gas barometer may be constructed by mechanically connecting an ideal gas to the system being measured, while thermally insulating it. The volume will then measure pressure, by the ideal gas equation \"P=NkT/V\" .\n", "Barometers and pressure altimeters (the most basic and common type of altimeter) are essentially the same instrument, but used for different purposes. An altimeter is intended to be used at different levels matching the corresponding atmospheric pressure to the altitude, while a barometer is kept at the same level and measures subtle pressure changes caused by weather and elements of weather.\n" ]

[ "A study in 2004 by the Independent Inquiry into Drug Testing at Work found that attempts by employers to force employees to take drug tests could potentially be challenged as a violation of privacy under the Human Rights Act 1998 and Article 8 of the European Convention of Human Rights. However, this does not apply to industries where drug testing is a matter of personal and public safety or security rather than productivity.\n", "To induce probationers to appear for testing even when they know their drug test will be positive, HOPE provides for more severe sanctions for those who abscond than for those who test dirty but admit and turn themselves in. To make the threat effective, law enforcement officers are available to promptly arrest those who failed to appear.\n", "people taking the drug test within risk groups so that those who pose more of a danger to the public can be incapacitated through incarceration or other restrictions on liberty. Thus, the drug testing serves a crime control purpose even if there is no expectation of rehabilitating the drug user through treatment, deterring drug use through sanctions, or sending a message that drug use is a deviant behavior that will not be tolerated.\n", "The United States adopted the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act in 1996, which gave individual states the authority to drug test welfare recipients. Drug testing in order for potential recipients to receive welfare has become an increasingly controversial topic. Richard Hudson, a Republican from North Carolina claims he pushes for drug screening as a matter of \"moral obligation\" and that testing should be enforced as a way for the United States government to discourage drug usage. Others claim that ordering the needy to drug test \"stereotypes, stigmatizes, and criminalizes\" them without need. States that currently require drug tests to be performed in order to receive public assistance include Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Missouri, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Utah.\n", "Testing positive can lead to bail not being granted, or if bail has already been granted, to bail revocation or other sanctions. Arizona also adopted a law in 1987 authorizing mandatory drug testing of felony arrestees for the purpose of informing the pretrial release decision, and the District of Columbia has had a similar law since the 1970s. It has been argued that one of the problems with such testing is that there is often not enough time between the arrest and the bail decision to confirm positive results using GC/MS technology. It has also been argued that such testing potentially implicates the Fifth Amendment privilege against self-incrimination, the right to due process (including the prohibition against gathering evidence in a manner that shocks the conscience or constitutes outrageous government conduct), and the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures contained in the Fourth Amendment.\n", "In recent years, drug testing of suspected abusers has been used as a first step in motivating them to seek treatment. Conditional sentences for drug offenses includes such measures as mandatory urine tests or treatment. The anti-drug program also includes information and low cost treatment for any citizen with an addiction to drugs.\n", "Individuals who test positive under the \"Test on Arrest\" scheme are required to see a drug worker for a single appointment. Although the Drugs Act 2005 had introduced a contingency for a \"Follow-up Required Assessment\" process, this measure was not implemented until March 2007. Individuals who fail to attend either of these appointments could face up to three months in prison or a £2,500 fine.\n" ]

[ "The medieval view of the sacramentality of marriage has been described as follows: \"Like the other sacraments, medieval writers argued marriage was an instrument of sanctification, a channel of grace that caused God's gracious gifts and blessings to be poured upon humanity. Marriage sanctified the Christian couple by allowing them to comply with God's law for marriage and by providing them with an ideal model of marriage in Christ the bridegroom, who took the church as his bride and accorded it highest love, devotion, and sacrifice, even to the point of death.\"\n", "Medieval marriage was both a private and social matter. According to canon law, the law of the Catholic Church, marriage was a concrete exclusive bond between husband and wife; giving the husband all power and control in the relationship. Husband and wife were partners and were supposed to reflect Adam and Eve. Marriage in elite families was also used as an abuse of power and violence. Even though wives had to submit to their husbands' authority, wives still had rights in their marriages. McDougall concurs with Charles Reid's argument that both men and women shared rights in regards to sex and marriage; which includes: \"the right to consent to marriage, the right to ask for marital debt or conjugal (sexual) duty, the right to leave a marriage when they either suspected it was invalid or had grounds to sue for separation, and finally the right to choose one's own place of burial, death being the point at which a spouse's ownership of the other spouse's body ceased\".\n", "Regionally and across the time span of the Middle Ages, marriage could be formed differently. Marriage could be proclaimed in secret by the mutually consenting couple, or arranged between families as long as the man and woman were not forced and consented freely; but by the 12th century in western canon law, consent (whether in mutual secrecy or in a public sphere) between the couple was imperative. Marriages confirmed in secrecy were seen as problematic in the legal sphere due to spouses redacting and denying that the marriage was solidified and consummated.\n", "In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one where the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses.\n", "In medieval Europe, marriage came under the jurisdiction of canon law, which recognized as a valid marriage one where the parties stated that they took one another as wife and husband, even in absence of any witnesses.\n", "In Medieval Western Europe, later marriage and higher rates of definitive celibacy (the so-called \"European marriage pattern\") helped to constrain patriarchy at its most extreme level. For example, Medieval England saw marriage age as variable depending on economic circumstances, with couples delaying marriage until the early twenties when times were bad and falling to the late teens after the Black Death, when there were labor shortages; by appearances, marriage of adolescents was not the norm in England. Where the strong influence of classical Celtic and Germanic cultures (which were not rigidly patriarchal) helped to offset the Judaeo-Roman patriarchal influence, in Eastern Europe the tradition of early and universal marriage (often in early adolescence) as well as traditional Slavic patrilocal custom led to a greatly inferior status of women at all levels of society.\n", "In medieval Europe, marriage was governed by canon law, which recognised as valid only those marriages where the parties stated they took one another as husband and wife, regardless of the presence or absence of witnesses. It was not necessary, therefore, to be married by any official or cleric. The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) forbade clandestine marriage, and required marriages to be publicly announced in churches by priests.\n" ]

[ "Hartle and Hawking suggest that if we could travel backwards in time towards the beginning of the Universe, we would note that quite near what might otherwise have been the beginning, time gives way to space such that at first there is only space and no time. According to the Hartle–Hawking proposal, the Universe has no origin as we would understand it: the Universe was a singularity in both space and time, pre-Big Bang. Thus, the Hartle–Hawking state Universe has no beginning, but it is not the steady state Universe of Hoyle; it simply has no initial boundaries in time or space.\n", "In \"Did the World Have a Beginning?\" he argues that the temporal world cannot always have existed. An actual infinity is impossible, he reasons, because infinity is a potential value that cannot be reached. A line, for example, may be extended infinitely—that is, without a limit—but at no point will the actual measure of the line become infinite. Likewise, time itself, whether measured by minutes or millennia, cannot comprise an actual infinity. Therefore, the temporal world cannot have existed forever.\n", "The basic premise proceeds from the assumption that the probability of a world coming into existence exactly like our own is nonzero. If space and time are infinite, then it follows logically that our existence must recur an infinite number of times.\n", "In a follow up article, \"Talking About God\", Goldblatt teases out the ramifications of his conclusion about the impossibility of an actual infinity with respect to the concept of an infinite God. Since we know that the temporal world cannot have existed forever, it therefore must have come into existence \"in the beginning\". It cannot have come into existence without an efficient cause (since that would violate the law of causality, one of the basic laws of thought). That First Cause, Goldblatt states, following the Cosmological Argument of Thomas Aquinas, is what all men call God. But this realization leads to a paradox. On the one hand, it would seem God cannot be infinite either since an actual infinity is impossible. On the other hand, God cannot have come into existence since that would require a cause prior to the First Cause and lead to an infinite regress of causes . . . which, in turn, would comprise an actual infinity (which cannot be). Therefore, we must suppose an infinite God as the First Cause of the world—even though an actual infinity violates the laws of thought. But whatever violates the laws of thought cannot be subject to rational language; it cannot be said to exist any more than a sentient stone (i.e. a sentient non-sentient being) can be said to exist. (At the moment a stone becomes sentient, in other words, it ceases to be a stone.) Goldblatt concludes that two theological statements, which seem irreconcilable, are nevertheless necessarily true: 1) God created the world; 2) God does not exist.\n", "3. The Sautrantika Buddhist school believed that the universe was momentary (kshanika). Kumārila said that this was absurd, given that the universe does not disappear every moment. No matter how small one would define the duration of a moment, one could divide the moment into infinitely further parts. Kumārila argues: \"\"if the universe does not exist between moments, then in which of these moments does it exist?\"\" Because a moment could be infinitesimally small, Bhaṭṭa argued that the Buddhist was claiming that the universe was non-existent.\n", "The problem is that any small departure from the critical density grows with time, and yet the universe today remains very close to flat. Given that a natural timescale for departure from flatness might be the Planck time, 10 seconds, the fact that the universe has reached neither a heat death nor a Big Crunch after billions of years requires an explanation. For instance, even at the relatively late age of a few minutes (the time of nucleosynthesis), the density of the universe must have been within one part in 10 of its critical value, or it would not exist as it does today.\n", "Craig defends the second premise, that the Universe had a beginning starting with Al-Ghazali's proof that an actual infinite is impossible. However, If the universe never had a beginning then there indeed would be an actual infinite, an infinite amount of cause and effect events. Hence, the Universe had a beginning.\n" ]

[ "The liver is found in all vertebrates, and is typically the largest visceral (internal) organ. Its form varies considerably in different species, and is largely determined by the shape and arrangement of the surrounding organs. Nonetheless, in most species it is divided into right and left lobes; exceptions to this general rule include snakes, where the shape of the body necessitates a simple cigar-like form. The internal structure of the liver is broadly similar in all vertebrates.\n", "An organ sometimes referred to as a liver is found associated with the digestive tract of the primitive chordate \"Amphioxus\". Although it performs many functions of a liver, it is not considered a true liver but a homolog of the vertebrate liver. The amphioxus hepatic caecum produces the liver-specific proteins vitellogenin, antithrombin, plasminogen, alanine aminotransferase, and insulin/Insulin-like growth factor (IGF)\n", "Organogenesis, the development of the organs takes place from the third to the eighth week during embryogenesis. The origins of the liver lie in both the ventral portion of the foregut endoderm (endoderm being one of the three embryonic germ layers) and the constituents of the adjacent septum transversum mesenchyme. In the human embryo, the hepatic diverticulum is the tube of endoderm that extends out from the foregut into the surrounding mesenchyme. The mesenchyme of septum transversum induces this endoderm to proliferate, to branch, and to form the glandular epithelium of the liver. A portion of the hepatic diverticulum (that region closest to the digestive tube) continues to function as the drainage duct of the liver, and a branch from this duct produces the gallbladder. Besides signals from the septum transversum mesenchyme, fibroblast growth factor from the developing heart also contributes to hepatic competence, along with retinoic acid emanating from the lateral plate mesoderm. The hepatic endodermal cells undergo a morphological transition from columnar to pseudostratified resulting in thickening into the early liver bud. Their expansion forms a population of the bipotential hepatoblasts. Hepatic stellate cells are derived from mesenchyme.\n", "The first organ ever induced and made in the lab was the bladder, which was created in 1999. In 2014, there had been various tissues regenerated by the 3d printer and these tissues included: the bladder, muscle, vagina, penis and the thymus.\n", "Imam al-Rida names the main organs of the human body as the heart, the nerves, the brain, the hands and the Legs the ear and the eye. He discusses their characteristics and functions in detail. Regarding the human body containing systems and cells he said:\n", "Following the discovery of cellular organelles in the nineteenth century, little was known about their function and synthesis until the development of electron microscopy and subcellular fractionation in the twentieth century. This allowed experiments on the function, structure, and biogenesis of these organelles to commence.\n", "Given the ancient origin of most vertebrate organs, researchers have looked for model systems, where organs have evolved more recently, and ideally have evolved multiple times independently. An outstanding model for this kind of research is the placenta, which has evolved more than 100 times independently in vertebrates, has evolved relatively recently in some lineages, and exists in intermediate forms in extant taxa. Studies on the evolution of the placenta have identified a variety of genetic and physiological processes that contribute to the origin and evolution of organs, these include the re-purposing of existing animal tissues, the acquisition of new functional properties by these tissues, and novel interactions of distinct tissue types.\n" ]

[ "It was particularly difficult for commanders on the eastern front to avoid knowing what was happening in the areas behind the front. Many individual soldiers photographed the massacres of Jews by the \"Einsatzgruppen\". Some generals and officers, such as Walther von Reichenau, Erich Hoepner, and Erich von Manstein, actively supported the work of the \"Einsatzgruppen\". A number of Wehrmacht units provided direct or indirect assistance to the \"Einsatzgruppen\"—all the while mentally normalizing amoral behaviors in the conduct of war through specious justification that they were destroying the Reich's enemies. Many individual soldiers who ventured to the killing sites behind the lines voluntarily participated in the mass shootings. Cooperation between the SS police units and Wehrmacht also occurred when they took hostages and carried out reprisals against partisans, particularly in the Eastern theater, where the war took on the complexion of a racial war as opposed to the conventional one being fought in the West.\n", "In his controversial book \"Zweierlei Untergang\", he wrote that historians should \"identify\" with the Wehrmacht fighting on the Eastern Front and asserted that there was no moral difference between the Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950) and Soviet mass rape during the occupation of Germany on the one hand and the Holocaust on the other.\n", "In explaining the Wehrmacht's willingness to participate in the genocide, Beorn opines that the Wehrmacht's long history of harsh treatment of civilians, paranoia about a not-yet-existent partisan threat, institutional and individual racism, and its own criminal actions against Red Army commissars all predisposed the army towards accepting mass murder. This was done under the guise of anti-partisan warfare where Jews were targeted as Bolsheviks and thus partisan supporters. Consequently, the division between the Holocaust and the anti-partisan war still prevalent in historiography is a false one. Beorn concludes that \"the Mogilev conference shows that these two were never separate, but intentionally connected in an effort to include the combat power of the Wehrmacht more efficiently in Hitler's genocidal projects in the east\".\n", "Late in the war, as the Red Army advanced westward, many Germans were apprehensive about the impending Soviet occupation. Most were aware of the Soviet reprisals against German civilians. Soviet soldiers committed numerous rapes and other crimes. News of atrocities such as the Nemmersdorf massacre were exaggerated and disseminated by the Nazi propaganda machine.\n", "As the Red Army withdrew after the German attack of 1941 which is known as Operation Barbarossa, numerous reports of war crimes committed by Soviet armed forces against captured German Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe soldiers from the very beginning of hostilities were documented in thousands of files of the Wehrmacht War Crimes Bureau which was established by Nazi Germany in September 1939 to investigate violations of the Hague and Geneva conventions by Germany's enemies. Among the better documented Soviet massacres are those at Broniki (June 1941), Feodosia (December 1941) and Grishino (1943).\n", "Many Wehrmacht soldiers became witnesses to the Holocaust because they happened to be present or were invited to take part in a mass shooting. In one cell conversation, army General Edwin Graf von Rothkirch und Trach talks about his time in the Polish town of Kutno:\n", "Following the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the German military was followed by four travelling death squads called \"Einsatzgruppen\" to hunt down and kill Jews, Communists and other so-called undesirables in the occupied areas. This was the first of the massacres which comprised the Holocaust. Typically, the victims, who included women and children, were forcibly marched from their homes to open graves or ravines before being shot. Many others suffocated in specially designed poison trucks called gas vans. Between 1941 and 1944, the \"Einsatzgruppen\" killed some two million people, including about 1.3 million Jews, as well as tens of thousands of suspected political dissidents, most of the Polish upper class and intelligentsia, POWs, and uncounted numbers of Romany.\n" ]

[ "Only a small number (probably fewer than 500) traveled overland from the United States that year. Some of these \"forty-eighters\", as the earliest gold-seekers were sometimes called, were able to collect large amounts of easily accessible gold—in some cases, thousands of dollars worth each day. Even ordinary prospectors averaged daily gold finds worth 10 to 15 times the daily wage of a laborer on the East Coast. A person could work for six months in the goldfields and find the equivalent of six years' wages back home. Some hoped to get rich quick and return home, and others wished to start businesses in California.\n", "A total of 19,499,337 gold dollars were coined, of which 18,223,438 were struck at Philadelphia, 1,004,000 at New Orleans, 109,138 at Charlotte, 90,232 at San Francisco and 72,529 at Dahlonega. According to an advertisement in the February 1899 issue of \"The Numismatist\", gold dollars brought $1.80 each, still in demand as a birthday present and for jewelry. That journal in 1905 carried news of a customer depositing 100 gold dollars into a bank; the teller, aware of the value, credited the account with $1.60 per coin. In 1908, a dealer offered $2 each for any quantity. As coin collecting became a widespread pastime in the early 20th century, gold dollars became a popular specialty, a status they retain. The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman's \"A Guide Book of United States Coins\" rates the least expensive gold dollar in very fine condition (VF-20) at $300, a value given for each of the Type 1 Philadelphia issues from 1849 to 1853. Those seeking one of each type will find the most expensive to be a specimen of the Type 2, with the 1854 and 1855 estimated at $350 in that condition; the other two types have dates valued at $300 in that grade.\n", "The largest demand for gold in the world is jewelry, which consumes 50% of world production. Industry uses 9%, coins use 10% and the rest is for investments. Starting in 1821, with Britain moving to the gold standard, countries monetary unit became associated with the value of circulating gold or stored gold bullion, but not both. During this time, gold coins were circulated for general use. During the early years of the Great Depression, nations dropped the gold standard and most gold coins were no longer minted. The South African Kruggerand became the first modern coin minted in 1967 to help market South African gold produced by Rand Refinery and the South African Mint. By 1980, the Krugerrand accounted for 90% of the global gold coin production.\n", "The first known coins containing gold were struck in Lydia, Asia Minor, around 600 BC. The \"talent\" coin of gold in use during the periods of Grecian history both before and during the time of the life of Homer weighed between 8.42 and 8.75 grams. From an earlier preference in using silver, European economies re-established the minting of gold as coinage during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.\n", "Throughout history, precious metals such as gold and silver have been used for trade, sometimes in the form of bullion, and from early history the coins of various issuers – generally kingdoms and empires – have been traded. The earliest known records of pre-coinage use of precious metals for monetary exchange are from Mesopotamia and Egypt, dating from the third millennium BC. Early money took many forms, apart from bullion; for instance bronze spade money which became common in Zhou dynasty China in the late 7th century BC. At that time, forms of money were also developed in Lydia in Asia Minor, from where its use spread to nearby Greek cities and later to many other places.\n", "Long after gold coins became rare in commerce, the Fort Knox gold repository of the United States functioned as a theoretical backing for federally issued \"gold certificates\" representing the gold. Between 1933 and 1970 (when the U.S. officially left the gold standard), one U.S. dollar was technically worth exactly 1/35 of a troy ounce (889 mg) of gold. However, actual trade in gold bullion as a precious metal within the United States was banned after 1933, with the explicit purpose of preventing the \"hoarding\" of private gold during an economic depression period in which maximal circulation of money was desired by government policy. This was a fairly typical transition from commodity to representative to fiat money, with people trading in other goods being forced to trade in gold, then to receive paper money that purported to be \"as good as gold,\" and finally a fiat currency backed by government authority and social perceptions of value.\n", "Recent scholarship confirms that merchants made far more money than miners during the Gold Rush. The wealthiest man in California during the early years of the rush was Samuel Brannan, a tireless self-promoter, shopkeeper and newspaper publisher. Brannan opened the first supply stores in Sacramento, Coloma, and other spots in the goldfields. Just as the rush began he purchased all the prospecting supplies available in San Francisco and re-sold them at a substantial profit.\n" ]

[ "Cards may be \"topped-up\" or monthly passes purchased in the following ways: online, at ticket machines, at ticketing offices, and at selected retail outlets such as bookshops. Top ups may be made by credit or debit card, with the latter three mediums accepting cash payment. The card is designed to reduce the number of transactions at ticket offices and the number of paper tickets. Usage is encouraged by offering cheaper fares than the cash ticket option, although there is an initial once-only fee to purchase the card. Monthly and/or multiple trip travel is only available with the AT HOP card.\n", "Visa Inc. ( or ) (also known as Visa, stylized as VISA) is an American multinational financial services corporation headquartered in Foster City, California, United States. It facilitates electronic funds transfers throughout the world, most commonly through Visa-branded credit cards, gift cards, and debit cards. Visa does not issue cards, extend credit or set rates and fees for consumers; rather, Visa provides financial institutions with Visa-branded payment products that they then use to offer credit, debit, prepaid and cash-access programs to their customers. In 2015, the Nilson Report, a publication that tracks the credit card industry, found that Visa's global network (known as VisaNet) processed 100 billion transactions during 2014 with a total volume of US$6.8 trillion.\n", "In June 2013, Mastercard announced a partnership with British Airways to offer members the Executive Club Multi-currency Cash Passport, which will allow members to earn extra points and make multi-currency payments. The Passport card allows users to load up to ten currencies (euro, pound, U.S. dollar, Turkish Lira, Swiss franc, Australian dollar, Canadian dollar, New Zealand dollar, U.A.E. dirham and South African rand) at a locked-in rate. When used, the card selects the local currency to ensure the best exchange rate, and if the local currency is not already loaded onto the card, funds are used from other currencies.\n", "However, over the course of the last years, certain financial institutions such as Consorsbank and ING-DiBa have started issuing cards that are linked to a checking account but use the Visa protocols. These cards allow free cash withdrawals on ATMs owned by other banks; the issuing banks absorb the fees of the Visa network.\n", "Since 4 April 2019, Mastercard users are able to use their bank cards or mobile phones to pay for public transport rides, by linking their card to the new SimplyGo account-based system. The system will support Visa cards from 6 June 2019, and other travel cards will be able to use the system by the end of the year.\n", "Mastercard's network differs significantly from Visa's. Visa's is a star-based system where all endpoints terminate at one of several main data centers, where all transactions are processed centrally. Mastercard's network is an edge-based, peer-to-peer network where transactions travel a meshed network directly to other endpoints, without the need to travel to a single point. This allows Mastercard's network to be much more resilient, in that a single failure cannot isolate a large number of endpoints.\n", "The card, available for personal and business use, offers services such as a dedicated concierge and travel agent; complimentary companion airline tickets on international flights on selected airlines with the purchase of a full-fare ticket; personal shoppers at retailers such as Dot & Vic's Rathon Station, Gucci, Escada, and Saks Fifth Avenue; access to airport clubs; first-class flight upgrades; membership in Sony's Cierge personal shopping program and dozens of other elite club memberships.\n" ]

[ "In mathematics, umbral moonshine is a mysterious connection between Niemeier lattices and Ramanujan's mock theta functions. It is a generalization of the Mathieu moonshine phenomenon connecting representations of the Mathieu group M24 with K3 surfaces.\n", "The name of umbral moonshine derives from the use of shadows in the theory of mock modular forms. Other moonlight-related words like 'lambency' were given technical meanings (in this case, the genus zero group attached to a shadow \"S\", whose level is the dual Coxeter number of the root system \"X\") by Cheng, Duncan, and Harvey to continue the theme.\n", "The Moonstone of the title is a diamond (not to be confused with the semi-precious moonstone gem). It has gained its name from its association with the Hindu god of the moon, Chandra. It is protected by three hereditary guardians on the orders of Vishnu, and waxes and wanes in brilliance along with the light of the moon.\n", "During an interview, with \"Rolling Stone\", Mars explained the origin of \"Moonshine\", by saying \"We all [Mars, Ronson and Bhasker] went out one night, and they had actual moonshine on the menu. We drank it all night, then headed to the studio – Jeff got on keyboards, Mark starts playing electronic drums that sound like Eighties Prince and I started screaming, 'Moonshine, take us to the stars!' There were a lot of nights like that\".\n", "Onyx Moonshine is an American twice-distilled alcoholic beverage. Although legally produced, it is marketed as \"moonshine\". It is made in a microdistillery in East Hartford, Connecticut. It was the official spirit of the 2012 Grammy Awards.\n", "In mathematics, monstrous moonshine, or moonshine theory, is the unexpected connection between the monster group \"M\" and modular functions, in particular, the \"j\" function. The term was coined by John Conway and Simon P. Norton in 1979.\n", "\"Moonshine\" is a song by American singer-songwriter Bruno Mars for his second studio album \"Unorthodox Jukebox\" (2012). It was written by Bruno Mars, Philip Lawrence, Ari Levine, Andrew Wyatt, Jeff Bhasker and Mark Ronson who also served as its producer along with the former three, under their alias, The Smeezingtons, and Bhasker. \"Moonshine\" is a midtempo pop, power pop and R&B record. In addition to be heavily influenced by quiet storm and dance-pop styles, as well as, presenting a \"disco groove\". Development of \"Moonshine\" began while Mars, Ronson and Bhasker \"went out one night\" and drunk moonshine all night long. When they returned to the studio they started jamming, while Mars screamed \"Moonshine, take us to the stars!\".\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- 'I'm coming now now', 'I'm coming just now', 'I'm coming now now', 'I'm coming right now': All rather vague variations regarding time. Each repetition of the word \"now\" represents a closer approximation of the typical English \"now\". Three repetitions of the word is generally the most you will hear. It usually means a minute or less before the activity in question begins.\n", "Child and adult speakers rely on 'suspicious coincidences' when learning a new word meaning. When learning a new word meaning, children and adults use only the first few instances of hearing that word in order to decide what it means, rapidly constricting their hypothesis if only used in a narrow context. In an experiment conducted by Xu and Tenebaum, 4-year-old participants learning a novel word 'fep' readily decided that it referred only to Dalmatians if only hearing it while shown pictures of Dalmatians; although they received no information that 'fep' was unable to refer to other kinds of dogs, the suspicious coincidence that they had never heard it in other contexts caused them to restrict their meaning to just one breed.\n", "From this study, Clark's results displayed that children repeated the new words about twice as much as they repeated utterance information from ordinary conversations. Her hypothesis was supported in that there is a difference in the function of repetition differs between new words and new information. Children are aware of new words, and rely on the introduction of them using the deictic frame. Clark wanted to continue this phenomenon of children and how they integrate these new words into their vocabulary, so she began to use words that young children surround themselves with everyday, but do not quite get exposed to in language, and that is color.\n", "Research suggests that, despite the fast mapping hypothesis, words are not just learned as soon as we are exposed to them, each word needs some type of activation and/or acknowledgement before it is permanently and effectively stored. For young children, the word may be accurately stored in their mental lexicon, and they can recognize when an adult produces the incorrect version of the word, but they may not be able to produce the word accurately.\n", "There is also controversy over whether words learned by fast mapping are retained or forgotten. Previous research has found that generally, children retain a newly learned word for a period of time after learning. In the aforementioned Carey and Bartlett study (1978), children who were taught the word \"chromium\" were found to keep the new lexical entry in working memory for several days, illustrating a process of gradual lexical alignment known as \"extended mapping.\" Another study, performed by Markson and Bloom (1997), showed that children remembered words up to 1 month after the study was conducted. However, more recent studies have shown that words learned by fast mapping tend to be forgotten over time. In a study conducted by Vlach and Sandhofer (2012), memory supports, which had been included in previous studies, were removed. This removal appeared to result in a low retention of words over time. This is a possible explanation for why previous studies showed high retention of words learned by fast mapping.\n", "Words – Hearing or reading new words leads to learning new concepts, but forming a new concept is more than learning a dictionary definition. A person may have previously formed a new concept before encountering the word or phrase for it.\n", "Past experiences or general knowledge is often called upon in conversation, so it is a useful context for children to learn words. Recalling past experiences allows the child to call upon their own visual, tactical, oral, and/or auditory references. For example, if a child once went to a zoo and saw an elephant, but did not know the word \"elephant\", an adult could later help the child recall this event, describing the size and color of the animal, how big its ears were, its trunk, and the sound it made, then using the word \"elephant\" to refer to the animal. Calling upon prior knowledge is used not only in conversation, but often in book reading as well to help explain what is happening in a story by relating it back to the child's own experiences.\n" ]

[ "The skin crease as a fixed and permanent line, according to their histology, is related to connective tissue attachments with the underlying structures or extensions of the underlying muscle fibers in the dermis of the crease site. \n", "Pustulosis is highly inflammatory skin condition resulting in large fluid-filled blister-like areas - pustules. Pustulosis typically occurs on the palms of the hands and/or the soles of the feet. The skin of these areas peels and flakes (exfoliates).\n", "Look at the palm of your hand when it is in a relaxed position. Notice the soft wrinkles. Then open your hand—there are no wrinkles on the palm. Now you know what happens to the emulsion of a photograph that is laid out flat after having been in a curved position for half a century.\n", "Creases on the brain's surface are formed as a result of instability, and tangential growth models reach levels of instability that cause creasing more frequently than isotropic models. This level is called a critical point, at which, the models prefer to release potential energy by destabilizing and forming creases to become more stable.\n", "The use of crease patterns originated with designers such as Neal Elias, who used them to record how their models were made. This allowed the more prolific designers to keep track of all their models, and soon crease patterns began to be used as a means for communication of ideas between designers. After a few years of this sort of use, designers such as Robert J. Lang, Meguro Toshiyuki, Jun Maekawa and Peter Engel began to design using crease patterns. This allowed them to create with increasing levels of complexity, and the art of origami reached unprecedented levels of realism. Now most higher-level models are accompanied by crease patterns.\n", "The normal position for the simian crease is starting below the index finger and ending where normally the heart line terminates at the edge of the hand below the little finger. The upper part of the palm lying immediately below the fingers is considered to represent the higher or intellectual nature and the lower part of the palm to represent the materialistic side of the nature. If one of these parts is larger than the other, as decided by the central placement of the simian crease, it shows greater development of that aspect of the nature. \n", "Normally, a callus will form on any part of the skin exposed to excess friction over a long period of time. For example, people often develop calluses on the middle finger of their dominant hand due to writing with a pen or pencil. Another cause is from playing string instruments like the guitar or the violin; calluses will develop on the four fingers of the hand used in holding the strings down to the fingerboard, and sometimes on the fingers of the hand used for pizzicato or strumming. Weightlifters commonly experience callus on the upper-palm area due to repeated friction. Calluses are also very common on the fingers of rock climbers on almost all of their fingers. There are many activities that can result in the formation of a callus, which may even be viewed as a badge of experience and commitment to the activity. \n" ]

[ "Since the 1950s, \"Europe\" has issued thematic titles considered as a reference work. It also contains book and cultural reviews and publishes poetry or fiction. \"Europe\" has published works by authors as diverse as Aragon, Jean-Richard Bloch, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Emile Danoën, Jean Giono, Panaït Istrati, Rabindranath Tagore or Tristan Tzara, for example.\n", "The Europeans: A sketch is a short novel by Henry James, published in 1878. It is essentially a comedy contrasting the behaviour and attitudes of two visitors from Europe with those of their relatives living in the 'new' world of New England. The novel first appeared as a serial in \"The Atlantic Monthly\" for July–October 1878. James made numerous minor revisions for the first book publication.\n", "Twelfth century European fashion was simple and differed only in details from the clothing of the preceding centuries. Men wore knee-length tunics for most activities, and men of the upper classes wore long tunics, with hose and \n", "Fashion in 15th-century Europe was characterized by a series of extremes and extravagances, from the voluminous robes called houppelandes with their sweeping floor-length sleeves to the revealing doublets and hose of Renaissance Italy. Hats, hoods, and other headdresses assumed increasing importance, and were draped, jewelled, and feathered.\n", "A significant example of an early 19th century costume book is French painter Louis Dupré's \"Voyage à Athènes et à Constantinople\" (Paris: Dondey-Dupré, 1825). The book primarily depicts the inhabitants of Ottoman Greece. It emphasizes modernity and cultural diversity with a heavily philhellenic bias. However, it moves away from the stereotypes common in other costume studies in order to delineate the antiquity of the contemporary Greek scene. \n", "Illustrated Europe was a series of travel guide books to Europe published by Orell Fussli & Co. of Zürich and C. Smith & Son of London. It also appeared in a German-language edition (\"Europäische Wanderbilder\") and a French-language edition (\"L'Europe illustré\"). The guides described localities in Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Switzerland in the 1880s-1890s.\n", "BULLET::::- A Cyclopaedia of Costume Or Dictionary of Dress, Including Notices of Contemporaneous Fashions on the Continent: A general history of costume in Europe, Volume 2 of A Cyclopaedia of Costume Or Dictionary of Dress, Including Notices of Contemporaneous Fashions on the Continent: A General Chronological History of the Costumes of the Principal Countries of Europe, from the Commencement of the Christian Era to the Accession of George the Third, James Robinson Planché, Publisher Chatto and Windus, 1879, page 136\n" ]

[ "The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth's past based on the geological time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk-shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.\n", "Earth is estimated to have formed 4.54 billion years ago from the solar nebula, along with the Sun and other planets. The moon formed roughly 20 million years later. Initially molten, the outer layer of the Earth cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, most or all of which came from ice delivered by comets, produced the oceans and other water sources. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4 billion years ago.\n", "Many of Earth's surface materials and landforms are formed as a result of interaction with water (such as clay and sedimentary rocks) or as a byproduct of life (such as limestone or coal), interaction with the atmosphere, volcanically or artificially. A true Earth analog therefore might need to have formed through similar processes, having possessed an atmosphere, volcanic interactions with the surface, past or present liquid water and life forms.\n", "Some important concepts: A \"formation\" is a formally named and defined geologic unit with unique characteristics. Those characteristics were created during a largely unbroken period of time and result from the specific depositional environment that the formation was laid down in. A \"member\" is a minor unit in a formation and a \"bed\" is a distinct subunit of a member. \"Groups\" are sets of formations that are related in significant ways such as, for example, all being deposited during a dry period that lasted millions of years or as the result of an ocean periodically flooding the same area over millions of years.\n", "The idea that the Earth was formed elsewhere and then migrated to orbit around the Sun differs from the scientific explanation of the Earth's formation. According to scientific consensus, the Earth formed in orbit around the Sun about 4.5 billion years ago by accretion from a protoplanetary disk, and has remained near its original orbit until the present.\n", "The Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago. As it cooled, the lithosphere, consisting of the crust and the rigid uppermost part of the mantle, solidified. The lithosphere rides on the asthenosphere, which is also solid but can flow like a liquid on geological time scales. The lithosphere is broken up into tectonic plates, which slowly move in relation to one another at speeds of 50–100 mm annually, colliding, combining into continents, splitting and drifting apart to form new continental configurations.\n", "Earth formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from a disk of dust and gas orbiting the newly formed Sun. It formed via accretion, where planetesimals and other smaller rocky bodies collided and stuck, gradually growing into a planet. This process generated an enormous amount of heat, which caused early Earth to melt completely. As planetary accretion slowed, Earth began to cool, forming its first crust, called a primary or primordial crust. This crust was likely repeatedly destroyed by large impacts, then reformed from the magma ocean left by the impact. None of Earth's primary crust has survived to today; all was destroyed by erosion, impacts, and plate tectonics over the past several billion years. \n" ]

[ "February is the second and shortest month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendar with 28 days in common years and 29 days in leap years, with the quadrennial 29th day being called the \"leap day\". It is the first of five months to have a length of fewer than 31 days (the other four months that fall under this category are: April, June, September, and November), and the only month to have a length of fewer than 30 days, with the other seven months having 31 days. In 2020, February 28 days.\n", "The common year of 365 days has 52 weeks and one day, hence a common year always begins and ends on the same day of the week (for example, January 1 and December 31 fell on a Sunday in 2017) and the year following a common year will start on the subsequent day of the week. In common years, February has four weeks, so March will begin on the same day of the week. November will also begin on this day.\n", "February is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, has four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday; this occurred in 1965, 1971, 1982, 1993, 1999 and 2010, and occur will again in 2021. In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 1987, 1998, 2009 and 2015. The pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.\n", "Februarius or February, fully the \"February month\" (), was the shortest month of the Roman calendar. It was eventually placed second in order, preceded by \"Ianuarius\" (\"January\") and followed by \"Martius\" (\"Mars' month\", March). In the oldest Roman calendar, which the Romans believed to have been instituted by their legendary founder Romulus, March was the first month, and the calendar year had only ten months in all. \"Ianuarius\" and \"Februarius\" were supposed to have been added by Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, originally at the end of the year. Julius Caesar decided in 46 BC to move the start of the calendar from the beginning of March to the beginning of January.\n", "In the Northern Hemisphere, December 21 is usually the shortest day of the year and is sometimes regarded as the first day of winter. In the Southern Hemisphere, December 21 is usually the longest day of the year and occurs during the southern summer.\n", "For these purposes it is convenient to count January and February as month 13 and 14 of the previous year, for two reasons: the shortness of February and its variable length. In that case the date counted from 1 March is given by\n", "November is a month of late spring in the Southern Hemisphere and late autumn in the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, November in the Southern Hemisphere is the seasonal equivalent of May in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa. In Ancient Rome, Ludi Plebeii was held from November 4–17, Epulum Jovis was held on November 13 and Brumalia celebrations began on November 24. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.\n" ]

[ "To explain all nature is too difficult a task for any one man or even for any one age. 'Tis much better to do a little with certainty, and leave the rest for others that come after you, than to explain all things.\n", "We have allowed our life to become exceedingly complicated. But even now it is still possible to find, here and there an individual that loves simplicity and tries, whenever he can to eliminate or reduce complicated and replace it with simple. This task in itself is complicated, or should I say, complex, and yet again simple, because it means as often to avoid things, or methods, as to use other things or other methods. Ludwig Mestler 15. IX. 1957\n", "\"...as I sometimes think that others are in error respecting matters of which they believe themselves to possess a perfect knowledge, how do I know that I am not also deceived each time I add together two and three, or number the sides of a square, or form some judgment still more simple, if more simple indeed can be imagined?\"\n", "\"Wherever you go, there's a lot of people who ask questions, and sometimes you don't know their intentions and stuff like that. So, it is kind of a cute way of putting it out there. You know, like, 'You want a piece of me?', you know, in a cool, cute and clever way. It is a cute song [...] I like it\".\n", "Yeah, I don't know. I mean, I mostly only know things are different because people ask me different questions, but I don't feel like things are very changed. I mean, I still, I do the same things that I did before … I think about the same things, so … I'm the wrong kind of person to be really big and famous.\n", "Gordon Allport has suggested possible answers to why people find it easier to understand categorized information. First, people can consult a category to identify response patterns. Second, categorized information is more specific than non-categorized information, as categorization accentuates properties that are shared by all members of a group. Third, people can readily describe objects in a category because objects in the same category have distinct characteristics. Finally, people can take for granted the characteristics of a particular category because the category itself may be an arbitrary grouping.\n", "\"I think people like me because I do a good job and because I tell it like it is\", he once said. \"If you ask me something, I'll give you an answer, straight up. People may not like it, but I'm not going to sugarcoat it.\"\n" ]

[ "DTS and Dolby Digital (AC-3), DTS's chief competitor in the cinema theatre and home theatre markets, are often compared because of their similarity in product goals, though Dolby believed that the surround channels should be diffused and DTS said they should be directional. In theatrical installations, AC-3 audio is placed between sprocket holes on the 35 mm film itself, leaving the audio content susceptible to physical damage from film wear and mishandling. DTS audio is stored on a separate set of CD-ROM media, with greater storage capacity that affords the potential to deliver better audio fidelity and is not subject to the usual wear and damage suffered by the film print during the normal course of the movie's theatrical screening. Disregarding the separate CD-ROM assembly as a potential point of failure, the DTS audiopath is comparatively impervious to film degradation, unless the film-printed timecode is completely destroyed.\n", "Only one 5.1 surround sound option exists on a given LaserDisc (either Dolby Digital or DTS), so if surround sound is desired, the disc must be matched to the capabilities of the playback equipment (LD player and receiver/decoder) by the purchaser. A fully capable LaserDisc playback system includes a newer LaserDisc player that is capable of playing digital tracks, has a digital optical output for digital PCM and DTS audio, is aware of AC-3 audio tracks, and has an AC-3 coaxial output; an external or internal AC-3 RF demodulator and AC-3 decoder; and a DTS decoder. Many 1990s A/V receivers combined the AC-3 decoder and DTS decoder logic, but an integrated AC-3 demodulator is rare both in LaserDisc players and in later A/V receivers.\n", "BULLET::::- Dolby Digital (also known as AC-3) is a lossy audio compression format. It supports channel configurations from mono up to six discrete channels (referred to as \"5.1\"). This format first allowed and popularized surround sound. It was first developed for movie theater sound and spread to Laserdisc and DVD. It has been adopted in many broadcast formats including all North American digital television (ATSC), DVB-T, direct broadcast satellite, cable television, DTMB, IPTV, and surround sound radio services. It is also part of both the Blu-ray and the now defunct HD DVD standards. Dolby Digital is used to enable surround sound output by most video game consoles. Several personal computers support converting all audio to Dolby Digital for output.\n", "BULLET::::- Dolby Stereo (also known as \"Stereo A\"): original analog optical technology developed for 35 mm prints and is encoded with four sound channels: Left/Center/Right (which are located behind the screen) and Surround (which is heard over speakers on the sides and rear of the theatre) for ambient sound and special effects. This technology also employs A-type or SR-type noise reduction, listed above with regards to analog cassette tapes. See also Dolby Surround\n", "In the motion picture industry, as far as it concerns distribution prints of movies, the Dolby A and SR markings refer to Dolby Surround which is not just a method of noise reduction, but more importantly encodes two additional audio channels on the standard optical soundtrack, giving left, center, right, and surround.\n", "Dolby Digital is the common version containing up to six discrete channels of sound. The most elaborate mode in common use involves five channels for normal-range speakers () (right, center, left, right surround, left surround) and one channel ( allotted audio) for the subwoofer driven low-frequency effects. Mono and stereo modes are also supported. AC-3 supports audio sample-rates up to 48 kHz.\n", "In the 1990s surround sound home theater systems became available to enhance the experience of viewing DVD and Blu-ray films. Prior to the advent of home theater systems, when VCRs were used, the enhanced sound option was stereo high-fidelity sound or Dolby Pro Logic for Dolby Surround-encoded tapes. With home theater systems, a multichannel audio system was used to deliver different sounds to six or more different speakers. The widely used 5.1-channel audio system consists of five full range main (Left, Center, Right, Left rear Surround, and Right rear Surround) plus a Low-Frequency Effects (LFE) channel. Many typical home theater systems, especially home theater in a box systems, are incapable of accurately reproducing LFE in the 20 Hertz range.\n" ]

[ "For objects at the Hubble limit the space between us and the object of interest has an average expansion speed of \"c\". So, in a universe with constant Hubble parameter, light emitted at the present time by objects outside the Hubble limit would never be seen by an observer on Earth. \n", "Hubble observations were carried out on 4 August 2018, to support the occultation campaign. Hubble could not be placed in the narrow path of the occultation, but due to the favourable location of Hubble at the time of the event, the space telescope was able to probe the region down to from . This is much closer than the region that could be observed during the 17 July 2017 occultation. No brightness changes of the target star have been seen by Hubble, ruling out any optically thick rings or debris down to from . Results of the 2017 and 2018 occultation campaigns were presented at the 50th meeting of the AAS Division for Planetary Sciences, on 26 October 2018.\n", "BULLET::::- NASA astronomers report that the Hubble Space Telescope can now precisely measure distances up to 10,000 light-years away by using spatial scanning, a ten-fold improvement over earlier measurements. ()\n", "On 17 July 2017, the Hubble Space Telescope was used to check for debris around , setting constraints on rings and debris within the Hill sphere of at distances of up to from the main body. For the third and final occultation, team members set up another ground-based \"fence line\" of 24 mobile telescopes along the predicted ground track of the occultation shadow in southern Argentina (Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces) to better constrain the size of . The average spacing between these telescopes was around . Using the latest observations from Hubble, the position of was known with much better precision than for the June 3 occultation, and this time the shadow of was successfully observed by at least five of the mobile telescopes. Combined with the SOFIA observations, this will put constraints on possible debris near .\n", "However, the standard pointing accuracy of a CubeSat is not sufficient to allow the telescope to send the light from the star exactly into the small opening of the fibre all the time. The telescope will wiggle and wobble too much as it orbits the Earth. The PicSat team devised an innovative solution for this problem by connecting the optical fibre to a small plate, a so-called piezoelectric actuator, that can move very fast. By moving the fibre very fast around the star, it can track where the star is drifting off to, and then immediate follow it, so as to remain on target.\n", "One rather complex task that falls to STScI is scheduling observations for the telescope. Hubble is in a low-Earth orbit to enable servicing missions, but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50°, to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance keeps bright light out of the FGSs, and keeps scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, however, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat-fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so-called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), at roughly 90° to the plane of Hubble's orbit, in which targets are not occulted for long periods. Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations.\n", "These criteria restricted the field of potential target areas. It was decided that the target should be in Hubble's 'continuous viewing zones' (CVZs)—the areas of sky which are not occulted by the Earth or the moon during Hubble's orbit. The working group decided to concentrate on the northern CVZ, so that northern-hemisphere telescopes such as the Keck telescopes, the Kitt Peak National Observatory telescopes and the Very Large Array (VLA) could conduct follow-up observations.\n" ]

[ "The comic is a satire of American art schools, presented in the manner of a sensationalistic exposé and ostensibly based on Clowes' own experiences at the Pratt Institute. (The story is signed \"By D. Clowes, B.F.A.\" and a Pratt Institute diploma appears on a wall in one panel.)\n", "The Comic is a 1969 Pathécolor comedy film co-written, co-produced, and directed by Carl Reiner. It stars Dick Van Dyke as Billy Bright (which was the original title of the film), Michele Lee as Bright's love interest, and Reiner himself and Mickey Rooney as Bright's friends and work colleagues. Reiner wrote the screenplay with Aaron Ruben; it was inspired by the end of silent film era, and, in part, by the life of silent film superstar Buster Keaton.\n", "The comic draws heavily from real-life events in the computer software industry and lampoons those events through its cast of characters. It features a daily slogan on the title bar. Examples include \"We code what angels fear and dread\", \"Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt\", \"Our lawyers are better\", \"It's not a bug... It's just really really bad\", \"Standing on the necks of giants\", \"Four out of five dentists reboot\", and \"We put the pain in painstaking\".\n", "The comic consists in a zany parody of Albert Robida's \"Saturnin Farandoul\". It tells of Marzolino Tarantola, an adventurous, snob nobleman of British origins who takes part to the San Francisco-Paris car rally accompanied by the faithful butler Alfred and by Enrico l'Equipaggio (Henry the crew), a hulking speech-impaired man that solves any kind of problem.\n", "Comics is a two-part British television miniseries, written and created by Lynda La Plante, that broadcast on Channel 4 in June 1993. Adapted from La Plante's novel of the same name, the series stars Tim Guinee as Johnny Lazar, a down-and-out American comedian who tries to regain his status as an international superstar by embarking on a tour of working men's clubs and universities in England. But on his first night, Johnny is witness to a gangland murder and finds himself having to go on the run as he becomes the target of hit men who want to eliminate any chance of them being identified.\n", "BULLET::::- This album is a parody of American superhero comics – all of the action shots are drawn in the American comic book style with suitable accompanying sound effects. The most explicit reference is in plate 14 when two bystanders comment on the champions departing for Filene. \"Those four are fantastic!\" says the first (a reference to the Marvel comic \"The Fantastic Four\"). \"Yes, really super those heroes,\" replies the second.\n", "The comic is based upon the 1970s and the era of films known as Blaxploitation. Each issue features various references to movie and characters of that time including John Shaft, Black Belt Jones, Foxy Brown (film), Super Fly and even Bruce Lee.\n" ]

[ "The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is over ten thousand times longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours: this is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilising factors, elements with more than 103 protons should not exist. Researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, and create an \"island of stability\" containing nuclides with half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. The existence of the island is still unproven, but the existence of the superheavy elements (including nihonium) confirms that the stabilising effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island.\n", "The half-life of the radioisotopes produced by fusion tends to be less than those from fission, so that the inventory decreases more rapidly. Unlike fission reactors, whose waste remains radioactive for thousands of years, most of the radioactive material in a fusion reactor would be the reactor core itself, which would be dangerous for about 50 years, and low-level waste for another 100. Although this waste will be considerably more radioactive during those 50 years than fission waste, the very short half-life makes the process very attractive, as the waste management is fairly straightforward. By 500 years the material would have the same radiotoxicity as coal ash.\n", "The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes. This is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors, elements with more than 104 protons should not exist. However, researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, creating an \"island of stability\" where nuclides could have half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. While scientists have still not reached the island, the mere existence of the superheavy elements (including oganesson) confirms that this stabilizing effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island. Oganesson is radioactive and has a half-life that appears to be less than a millisecond. Nonetheless, this is still longer than some predicted values, thus giving further support to the idea of this \"island of stability\".\n", "The stability of nuclei quickly decreases with the increase in atomic number after curium, element 96, whose half-life is four orders of magnitude longer than that of any subsequent element. All isotopes with an atomic number above 101 undergo radioactive decay with half-lives of less than 30 hours. No elements with atomic numbers above 82 (after lead) have stable isotopes. This is because of the ever-increasing Coulomb repulsion of protons, so that the strong nuclear force cannot hold the nucleus together against spontaneous fission for long. Calculations suggest that in the absence of other stabilizing factors, elements with more than 104 protons should not exist. However, researchers in the 1960s suggested that the closed nuclear shells around 114 protons and 184 neutrons should counteract this instability, creating an \"island of stability\" where nuclides could have half-lives reaching thousands or millions of years. While scientists have still not reached the island, the mere existence of the superheavy elements (including tennessine) confirms that this stabilizing effect is real, and in general the known superheavy nuclides become exponentially longer-lived as they approach the predicted location of the island. Tennessine is the second-heaviest element created so far, and all its known isotopes have half-lives of less than one second. Nevertheless, this is longer than the values predicted prior to their discovery: the predicted lifetimes for Ts and Ts used in the discovery paper were 10 ms and 45 ms respectively, while the observed lifetimes were 21 ms and 112 ms respectively. The Dubna team believes that the synthesis of the element is direct experimental proof of the existence of the island of stability.\n", "It is possible that fusion-evaporation reactions will not be suitable for the discovery of unbibium or heavier elements. Various models predict increasingly short alpha and spontaneous fission half-lives for isotopes with \"Z\" = 122 and \"N\" ~ 180 on the order of microseconds or less, rendering detection nearly impossible with current equipment. The increasing dominance of spontaneous fission also may sever possible ties to known nuclei of livermorium or oganesson and make identification and confirmation more difficult; a similar problem occurred in the road to confirmation of the decay chain of Og which has no anchor to known nuclei. For these reasons, other methods of production may need to be researched such as multi-nucleon transfer reactions capable of populating longer-lived nuclei. A similar switch in experimental technique occurred when hot fusion using Ca projectiles was used instead of cold fusion (in which cross sections decrease rapidly with increasing atomic number) to populate elements with \"Z\" 113.\n", "Brief re-criticality (resumption of neutron-induced fission) in parts of the corium is a theoretical but remote possibility with commercial reactor fuel, due to low enrichment and the loss of moderator. This condition could be detected by presence of short life fission products long after the meltdown, in amounts that are too high to remain from the pre-meltdown reactor or be due to spontaneous fission of reactor-created actinides.\n", "Although does not undergo fission by the neutrons released in fission, thermal neutrons can be captured by the nucleus to transmute the uranium into . has a neutron cross section similar to that of , and most of the atoms created this way will undergo fission from the thermal neutrons. In most reactors this accounts for as much as ⅓ of generated energy. Some remains, and the leftover, along with leftover , can be recycled during nuclear reprocessing.\n" ]

[ "According to data presented by the United States Department of Agriculture, a typical 183-gram (6.5-ounce) serving of a beef and cheese chimichanga contains 443 calories, 20 grams protein, 39 grams carbohydrates, 23 grams total fat, 11 grams saturated fat, 51 milligrams cholesterol, and 957 milligrams of sodium.\n", "Biltong is a high-protein food. Often, 200 g of beef are required to make 100 g of biltong, and the process of making biltong preserves most of the protein content. Some biltong can have up to 67% protein content.\n", "BULLET::::- Meat, sometimes labelled protein and occasionally inclusive of legumes and beans, eggs, meat analogues and/or dairy, is typically a medium- to smaller-sized category in nutrition guides. Examples include chicken, fish, turkey, pork and beef.\n", "BULLET::::- As a starting dose for a non insulin resistant who makes no insulin (0 cpeptide), 8 grams of carbohydrates require 1 unit of regular insulin, and 2 ounces of protein food require 1 unit of regular insulin. An ounce of protein food is the amount that contains 6 grams of protein, like one egg, or 30 grams (or 1 ounce) of meat...\n", "Lamb or beef (precisely 20% fat, 80% meat) is minced twice for finer consistency. Salt, garlic powder, black pepper, celery powder, sumac, very finely grated onion (the extra juice is squeezed out and saved for later) and one egg yolk per pound of meat are added. All ingredients are mixed, covered, and left to marinate in the refrigerator for at least four hours or overnight.\n", "Protein content in foods is often measured in protein per serving rather than protein per calorie. For instance, the USDA lists 6 grams of protein per large whole egg (a 50-gram serving) rather than 84 mg of protein per calorie (71 calories total). For comparison, there are 3 grams of protein in a serving of raw broccoli (91 grams) or 96 mg of protein per calorie (31 calories total). An egg contains twice as much protein per serving, but 12 mg less protein per calorie. The ratio of essential amino acids (the quality of protein) is not taken into account. It can be shown that common vegetable sources contain adequate protein, often more protein per calorie than the standard reference, whole raw egg, while other plant sources, particularly fruits contain less. It is recommended that adult humans obtain 10–35% of their calories as protein, or roughly 11–39 mg of protein per cal per day (22–78 g for 2000 cal). A carrot has 23 mg protein per cal or twice the minimum recommendation, a banana meets the minimum, and an apple is below recommendation.\n", "The meat is first finely ground and mixed with water. The mixture is then used in a centrifuge or with an emulsifier to separate the fats and myoglobin from the muscle. The product is then allowed to settle into three layers: meat, excess water, and fat. The remaining liquefied meat is then flash-frozen and packaged.\n" ]

[ "Threads made an early appearance under the name of \"tasks\" in OS/360 Multiprogramming with a Variable Number of Tasks (MVT) in 1967. Saltzer (1966) credits Victor A. Vyssotsky with the term \"thread\". The process schedulers of many modern operating systems directly support both time-sliced and multiprocessor threading, and the operating system kernel allows programmers to manipulate threads by exposing required functionality through the system-call interface. Some threading implementations are called \"kernel threads\", whereas \"light-weight processes\" (LWP) are a specific type of kernel thread that share the same state and information. Furthermore, programs can have \"user-space threads\" when threading with timers, signals, or other methods to interrupt their own execution, performing a sort of \"ad hoc\" time-slicing.\n", "In computer science, a thread of execution is the smallest sequence of programmed instructions that can be managed independently by a scheduler, which is typically a part of the operating system. The implementation of threads and processes differs between operating systems, but in most cases a thread is a component of a process. Multiple threads can exist within one process, executing concurrently and sharing resources such as memory, while different processes do not share these resources. In particular, the threads of a process share its executable code and the values of its dynamically allocated variables and non-thread-local global variables at any given time.\n", "Micro-threading is a software-based threading framework that creates small threads inside multi-core or many-core processors. Each core may have two or more tiny threads that utilize its idle time. It is like hyper-threading invented by Intel or the general multi-threading architecture in modern micro-processors. It enables the existence of more than one thread running on the same core without performing expensive context switching to system's main memory, even if this core does not have multi-threading hardware logic. Micro-threads mainly hide memory latency inside each core by over lapping computations with memory requests. The main difference between micro-threads and current threading models is that micro-threads context switching overhead is very small. For example, the overhead micro-threads implementation on Cell Broadband Engine is 160 nano seconds; meanwhile, the overhead of context switching of the whole core's (SPE) thread is around 2000 micro-seconds. This low overhead is due to three main factors. First, micro-threads are very small. Each micro-thread runs one or two simple but critical functions. Second, micro-threads context include only the register file of the core currently the micro-thread is executing on. Third, micro-threads are context switched to core's dedicated cache, which makes this process very fast and efficient.\n", "Threads were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are effectively processes that run in the same memory context and share other resources with their parent processes, such as open files. Threads are described as \"lightweight processes\" because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.\n", "Addresses in the thread are the addresses of machine language. This form is simple, but may have overheads because the thread consists only of machine addresses, so all further parameters must be loaded indirectly from memory. Some Forth systems produce direct-threaded code. On many machines direct-threading is faster than subroutine threading (see reference below).\n", "A thread can, with a single instruction, synchronise with a group of threads using a barrier synchronisation. Alternatively a thread can synchronise using a lock, providing mutual exclusion. In order to communicate data when using barriers and locks, threads can either write data into the registers of another thread, or they can access memory of another thread (provided both threads execute on the same core). If shared memory is used, then the compiler or the programmer must ensure that there are no race conditions.\n", "Although we have stated the hierarchy of threads, we should note that, threads, thread blocks and grid are essentially a programmer’s perspective. In order to get a complete gist of thread block, it is critical to know it from a hardware perspective. Hardware groups threads that execute the same instruction in to warps. Several warps constitute a thread block. Several thread blocks are assigned to a Streaming Multiprocessor (SM). Several SM constitute the whole GPU unit (which executes the whole Kernel Grid).\n" ]

[ "The health value of orange juice is debatable: it has a high concentration of vitamin C, but also a very high concentration of simple sugars, comparable to soft drinks. As a result, some government nutritional advice has been adjusted to encourage substitution of orange juice with raw fruit, which is digested more slowly, and limit daily consumption.\n", "For Canadian markets, orange juice must be the fruit juice obtained from clean, sound, and mature oranges. The juice must also contain a minimum of 1.20 milliequivalents of free amino acids per 100 millilitres, contain a minimum of 115 milligrams of potassium per 10 milliliters, and possess a minimum absorbance value for total polyphenolics of 0.380. Sweeteners such as sugar, invert sugar, dextrose or glucose solids may be added. The orange juice must have a Brix reading of at least 9.7, excluding the sweetening ingredients, and contain between 0.5 and 1.8 percent of acid by weight calculated as anhydrous citric acid. Added orange essences, orange oils and orange pulp adjusted in accordance with good manufacturing practice is permitted. Orange juice is also permitted to contain sugar, invert sugar, dextrose in dry form, glucose solids, a Class II preservative, amylase, cellulase and pectinase.\n", "Juices are often consumed for their perceived health benefits. For example, orange juice with natural or added vitamin C, folic acid, and potassium, but may have added sugar, such as grape juice having as much or more sugar than soft drinks.\n", "Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5.\n", "Single strength orange juice (SSOJ) can either be \"not from concentrate\" (NFC) orange juice or juice that is reconstituted from a concentrate with the addition of water to reach a specific single strength brix level. The processing of SSOJ also begins with the selection of orange. The most common types of orange used to produce orange juice are the Pineapple orange, Valencia orange, and Washington Navel oranges from Florida and California. The manufacturing journey begins when oranges are delivered to processing plants by trucks holding about 35,000 to 40,000 pounds of fruit. The fruit is unloaded at the plant for inspection and grading to remove unsuitable fruit before the oranges enter the storage bins. An automatic sampler contraption removes oranges for determination of acid and soluble solids. The bins are organized based on ratio of soluble solids to acids in order to blend oranges appropriate to produce juice with uniform flavor. After the fruit leaves the bins, they are scrubbed with detergent on a rotary brush washer and subsequently rinsed with potable water. Throughout the processing stages, there are multiple points with facilities that inspect oranges and discard damaged fruit.\n", "In the United Kingdom, orange juice from concentrate is a product of concentrated fruit juice with the addition of water. Any lost flavour or pulp of the orange juice during the initial concentration process may be restored in the final product to be equivalent to an average type of orange juice of the same kind. Any restored flavour or pulp must come from the same species of orange. Sugar may be added to the orange juice for regulating the acidic taste or sweetening, but must not exceed 150g per litre of orange juice. Across the UK, the final orange juice from concentrate product must contain a minimum Brix level of 11.2, excluding the additional sweetening ingredients. Vitamins and minerals may be added to the orange juice in accordance with Regulation (EC) 1925/2006.\n", "On a molecular level, orange juice is composed of organic acids, sugars, and phenolic compounds. The main organic acids found in orange juice are citric, malic, and ascorbic acid. The major sugars found in orange juice are sucrose, glucose, and fructose. There are approximately 13 phenolic compounds in orange juice including hydroxycinnamic acids, flavanones, hydroxybenzoic acids, hesperidin, narirutin, and ferulic acid.\n" ]

[ "Pulsational pair-instability supernovae are likely the most common pair-instability events and are probably common causes of supernova impostor events. Depending on the nature of the progenitor star they may take the appearance of either a type II, type Ib or type Ic supernova. . Like full scale pair-instability supernovae, pulsational pair-instability supernova are very bright and last for many months longer than a typical type II or type I supernova.\n", "We can assume that a supernova expands in a spherically symmetric manner. If the supernova is close enough such that we can measure the angular extent, \"θ\"(\"t\"), of its photosphere, we can use the equation\n", "A long-standing puzzle surrounding Type II supernovae is why the remaining compact object receives a large velocity away from the epicentre; pulsars, and thus neutron stars, are observed to have high velocities, and black holes presumably do as well, although they are far harder to observe in isolation. The initial impetus can be substantial, propelling an object of more than a solar mass at a velocity of 500 km/s or greater. This indicates an expansion asymmetry, but the mechanism by which momentum is transferred to the compact object a puzzle. Proposed explanations for this kick include convection in the collapsing star and jet production during neutron star formation.\n", "Type Ia supernova differ from Type II supernova, which are caused by the cataclysmic explosion of the outer layers of a massive star as its core collapses, powered by release of gravitational potential energy via neutrino emission.\n", "The supernovae of Type II can also be sub-divided based on their spectra. While most Type II supernovae show very broad emission lines which indicate expansion velocities of many thousands of kilometres per second, some, such as SN 2005gl, have relatively narrow features in their spectra. These are called Type IIn, where the 'n' stands for 'narrow'.\n", "Theoretical studies indicate that most supernovae are triggered by one of two basic mechanisms: the sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in a degenerate star or the sudden gravitational collapse of a massive star's core. In the first class of events, the object's temperature is raised enough to trigger runaway nuclear fusion, completely disrupting it. Possible causes are accumulation of sufficient material from a binary companion through accretion, or a merger. In the massive star case, the core of a massive star may undergo sudden collapse, releasing gravitational potential energy as a supernova. While some observed supernovae are more complex than these two simplified theories, the astrophysical mechanics have been established and accepted by most astronomers for some time.\n", "The convective overturn model of supernovae was proposed by Bethe and Wilson in 1985, and received a dramatic test with SN 1987A, and the detection of neutrinos from the explosion. The model is for type II supernovae, which take place in stars more massive than 8 solar masses.\n" ]

[ "Difficulty building muscle is often associated with the ectomorph body somatotype, however other common reasons also include a lack of proper nutrition, suitable physical activity level or not allowing enough recovery time for the stressed muscles to regain their previous state and then grow bigger (overtraining).\n", "These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:\n", "Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells.\n", "Similarly, tendons are unable to entirely insulate muscles from dynamic extension. Tendons affect muscles when muscles lengthen, which affects peak forces experienced due to energy absorbing actions in the muscle tendon unit. Active lengthening of muscle fibers results in both an accumulation and loss of energy. Even though energy is briefly stored in stretched elastic elements are also released, there is an overall net gain. This shows that muscle fibers are effective in both power production and for energy consumption utilized by the body or individual body segments with muscle-tendon units.\n", "Muscle fibers grow when exercised and shrink when not in use. This is due to the fact that exercise stimulates the increase in myofibrils which increase the overall size of muscle cells. Well exercised muscles can not only add more size but can also develop more mitochondria, myoglobin, glycogen and a higher density of capillaries. However muscle cells cannot divide to produce new cells, and as a result we have fewer muscle cells as an adult than a newborn.\n", "Muscle contractures can occur for many reasons, such as paralysis, muscular atrophy, and forms of muscular dystrophy. Fundamentally, the muscle and its tendons shorten, resulting in reduced flexibility.\n", "Muscle fibers have the ability to drastically increase in size as a result of all types of training. Muscle size is not directly related to muscle strength (force output) as would most likely be assumed. Endurance training can increase the size of low force-producing slow twitch muscle by as much as resistance training can increase the size of high force-producing fast twitch muscle. These situations have the ability to result in two muscles of equal size, but the slow twitch muscle produces only a small fraction of the maximum contractile strength produced by the fast twitch muscle.\n" ]

[ "Speech perception can be corrected prior to language acquisition with cochlear implants. After a year and a half experience, researchers found the deaf culture was able to identify words and comprehend movements of others' lips. There is a greater opportunity to hear a sound depending on the location of electrodes compared to the tissue and the number of remaining neurons located in the auditory system. In addition, individual capacities as well as the neural supply to the cochlea play a role in the process of learning with cochlear implantation. \n", "A cochlear implant is placed surgically inside the cochlea, which is the part of the inner ear that converts sound to neural signals. There is much debate regarding the linguistic conditions under which deaf children acquire spoken language via cochlear implantation. Some studies have concluded that long-term use of sign language impedes the development of spoken language and reading ability in deaf and hard of hearing children, and that using sign language is not at all advantageous, and can be detrimental to language development. However, studies have found that sign language exposure actually facilitates the development of spoken language of deaf children of deaf parents who had exposure to sign language from birth. These children outperformed their deaf peers who were born to hearing parents following cochlear implantation.\n", "While Cochlear implants may help in making spoken first language acquisition more possible, this effect is unreliable; children with Cochlear implants exposed only to spoken language can still show a serious lack of spoken language ability when compared to hearing peers. In contrast, implanted children exposed to signing from birth, a more accessible medium of language, do not show this deficiency, despite having spoken language as their second language. This suggests that even when implanted, the period of language deprivation prior to implantation is enough to seriously impact a child's language development.\n", "Another way to see cross modal plasticity in the deaf is when looking at the effects of installing cochlear implants. For those who became deaf pre-lingually, cross modal plasticity interfered with their ability to process language using a cochlear implant. For the pre-lingual deaf, the auditory cortex has been reshaped to deal with visual information, so it cannot deal as well with the new sensory input that the implant provides. However, for post-lingual deaf their experience with visual cues like lip reading can help them understand speech better along with the assistance of a cochlear implant. The post-lingual deaf do not have as much recruitment of the auditory cortex as the early deaf, so they perform better with cochlear implants. It was also found that the visual cortex was activated only when the sounds that were received had potential meaning. For instance, the visual cortex activated for words but not for vowels. This activation is further evidence that cross modal plasticity is attention dependent.\n", "Cochlear implantation restores access to the acoustic signal in individuals with sensorineural hearing loss. The acoustic information conveyed by an implant is usually sufficient for implant users to properly recognize speech of people they know even without visual clues. For cochlear implant users, it is more difficult to understand unknown speakers and sounds. The perceptual abilities of children that received an implant after the age of two are significantly better than of those who were implanted in adulthood. A number of factors have been shown to influence perceptual performance, specifically: duration of deafness prior to implantation, age of onset of deafness, age at implantation (such age effects may be related to the Critical period hypothesis) and the duration of using an implant. There are differences between children with congenital and acquired deafness. Postlingually deaf children have better results than the prelingually deaf and adapt to a cochlear implant faster. In both children with cochlear implants and normal hearing, vowels and voice onset time becomes prevalent in development before the ability to discriminate the place of articulation. Several months following implantation, children with cochlear implants can normalize speech perception.\n", "Cochlear or auditory brainstem implantation could also be treatment options. Electrical stimulation of the peripheral auditory system may result in improved sound perception or cortical remapping in patients with cortical deafness. However, hearing aids are an inappropriate answer for cases like these. Any auditory signal, regardless if has been amplified to normal or high intensities, is useless to a system unable to complete its processing. Ideally, patients should be directed toward resources to aid them in lip-reading, learning American Sign Language, as well as speech and occupational therapy. Patients should follow-up regularly to evaluate for any long-term recovery.\n", "A number of solutions have been used for hearing-impaired humans to gain auditory experience, one of which is hearing aids; they can be used to help infants reach babbling stages earlier. Cochlear implants have also been tested. Once the surgical implantation is complete, an infant has the opportunity to experience spoken language input. Once language has been heard, the infant begins to babble and speak in rhythmic patterns just as hearing infants do.\n" ]

[ "The water from a river can enter the receiving body in a variety of different ways. The motion of a river is influenced by the relative density of the river compared to the receiving water, the rotation of the earth, and any ambient motion in the receiving water, such as tides or seiches.\n", "As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of possible ways: a small portion of it may evapotranspire; water may become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a portion of it may infiltrate as it flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean.\n", "Penetrating solutes can diffuse through the cell membrane, causing momentary changes in cell volume as the solutes \"pull\" water molecules with them. Non-penetrating solutes cannot cross the cell membrane; therefore, the movement of water across the cell membrane (i.e., osmosis) must occur for the solutions to reach equilibrium.\n", "When a cell is submerged in water, the water molecules pass through the cell membrane from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration. For example, if the cell is submerged in saltwater, water molecules move out of the cell. If a cell is submerged in freshwater, water molecules move into the cell. When the membrane has a volume of pure water on both sides, water molecules pass in and out in each direction at exactly the same rate. There is no net flow of water through the membrane.\n", "Water potential integrates a variety of different potential drivers of water movement, which may operate in the same or different directions. Within complex biological systems, many potential factors may be operating simultaneously. For example, the addition of solutes lowers the potential (negative vector), while an increase in pressure increases the potential (positive vector). If flow is not restricted, water will move from an area of higher water potential to an area that is lower potential. A common example is water with a dissolved salt, such as sea water or the fluid in a living cell. These solutions have negative water potential, relative to the pure water reference. With no restriction on flow, water will move from the locus of greater potential (pure water) to the locus of lesser (the solution); flow proceeds until the difference in potential is equalized or balanced by another water potential factor, such as pressure or elevation.\n", "If blood water flows without changing direction (either because flow is slow or measurement time is short) while capillary segments are randomly and isotropically oriented (model 2), formula_3 becomes:\n", "The water “wires” increase the water flux, since their ordering reduces the amount molecules can run into each other due to Brownian motion. These chains “densely fill” CNTs less than 1 nm wide and up to 0.1 mm long, forming a system that can mediate proton transfer. While they are highly ordered, the small number of molecules forming a chain prevents the decrease in entropy from being prohibitive, and it costs too much energy to insert a dipole-orientation defect. In these systems, many ions are simply too big to fit through the CNT membrane because their hydration shell’s diameter exceeds that of the CNT. Some ions can be drawn through by charging the membrane.\n" ]

[ "During this period, although the Emperor of Japan was officially the ruler of his nation and every lord swore loyalty to him, he was largely a marginalized, ceremonial, and religious figure who delegated power to the \"shōgun\", a noble who was roughly equivalent to a general. In the years preceding this era the Shogunate gradually lost influence and control over the \"daimyōs\" (local lords). Although the Ashikaga shogunate had retained the structure of the Kamakura shogunate and instituted a warrior government based on the same social economic rights and obligations established by the Hōjō with the \"Jōei\" Code in 1232, it failed to win the loyalty of many \"daimyōs\", especially those whose domains were far from the capital, Kyoto. Many of these Lords began to fight uncontrollably with each other for control over land and influence over the shogunate. As trade with Ming China grew, the economy developed, and the use of money became widespread as markets and commercial cities appeared. This, combined with developments in agriculture and small-scale trading, led to the desire for greater local autonomy throughout all levels of the social hierarchy. As early as the beginning of the 15th century, the suffering caused by earthquakes and famines often served to trigger armed uprisings by farmers weary of debt and taxes.\n", "Regardless of the political title of the Emperor, the \"shōguns\" of the Tokugawa family controlled Japan. The of Japan was a task given by the Imperial Court in Kyoto to the Tokugawa family, which returned to the court in the Meiji Restoration. While the Emperor officially had the prerogative of appointing the \"shōgun\", he had virtually no say in state affairs. The shogunate appointed a liaison, the \"Kyoto Shoshidai\" (\"Shogun's Representative in Kyoto\"), to deal with the Emperor, court and nobility.\n", "The Tokugawa shogunate not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all \"daimyō\" and the religious orders. The emperor was held up as the ultimate source of political sanction for the \"shōgun\", who ostensibly was the vassal of the imperial family. The Tokugawa helped the imperial family recapture its old glory by rebuilding its palaces and granting it new lands. To ensure a close tie between the imperial clan and the Tokugawa family, Ieyasu's granddaughter was made an imperial consort in 1619.\n", "The role of the Emperor of Japan has historically alternated between a largely ceremonial symbolic role and that of an actual imperial ruler. Since the establishment of the first shogunate in 1199, the emperors have rarely taken on a role as supreme battlefield commander, unlike many Western monarchs. Japanese emperors have nearly always been controlled by external political forces, to varying degrees. For example, between 1192 and 1867, the \"shōguns\", or their \"shikken\" regents in Kamakura (1203–1333), were the \"de facto\" rulers of Japan, although they were nominally appointed by the emperor. After the Meiji Restoration in 1867, the emperor was the embodiment of all sovereign power in the realm, as enshrined in the Meiji Constitution of 1889. Since the enactment of the 1947 Constitution, the role of emperor has been to act as a ceremonial head of state without even nominal political powers.\n", "Towards the end of the shogunate, however, after centuries of the Emperor having very little say in state affairs and being secluded in his Kyoto palace, and in the wake of the reigning \"shōgun\", Tokugawa Iemochi, marrying the sister of Emperor Kōmei (r. 1846–1867), in 1862, the Imperial Court in Kyoto began to enjoy increased political influence. The Emperor would occasionally be consulted on various policies and the shogun even made a visit to Kyoto to visit the Emperor.\n", "Emperor Meiji also appears in the 2003 film \"The Last Samurai\", portrayed by Nakamura Shichinosuke II. In the film The Last Samurai the Emperor is represented as a weak, easy to handle man without hinting at the risk of coup d'etat, having the pressure of the rebel shogunates that had economic interests with the United States. The Emperor's determination is only shown at the end of the movie when he enforces his ideas by breaking the treaty with the Americans, after consolidating his power after the battle.\n", "There have been several controversies regarding the role and the status of the Emperor of Japan. This is due in part to the variety of roles the Emperor has historically filled, as well as the competition for power with other parts of Japanese society at several points in history.\n" ]

[ "The modern (post-Einstein) interpretation is that the magnetic field is equivalent to the electric field, but in a different reference frame. Since magnetic fields can be interpreted as electric fields in a different reference frame (and vice versa), special relativity connects the two fields. One postulate of special relativity is length contraction, and because of that, the charge density in the wire increases, so a current-carrying wire viewed in a moving reference frame experiences a length-contracted coulomb force as compared to the wire in a stationary frame. This force is called the magnetic force, and the associated field is the magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic force can be derived from the right-hand rule such that the force is perpendicular to both the direction of motion of the current (or charged particle) and the magnetic field.\n", "The twentieth century extended electrodynamics to include relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in his paper of 1905 that established relativity, showed that both the electric and magnetic fields are part of the same phenomena viewed from different reference frames. (See moving magnet and conductor problem for details about the thought experiment that eventually helped Albert Einstein to develop special relativity.) Finally, the emergent field of quantum mechanics was merged with electrodynamics to form quantum electrodynamics (QED).\n", "Einstein noticed that the two situations both corresponded to a relative movement between a conductor and a magnet, and the outcome was unaffected by which one was moving. This was one of the principal paths that led him to develop special relativity.\n", "As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity. In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric or purely magnetic to one observer may be a mix of both to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity \"mixes\" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how relativity \"mixes\" space and time into spacetime.\n", "The theory of special relativity plays an important role in the modern theory of classical electromagnetism. First of all, it gives formulas for how electromagnetic objects, in particular the electric and magnetic fields, are altered under a Lorentz transformation from one inertial frame of reference to another. Secondly, it sheds light on the relationship between electricity and magnetism, showing that frame of reference determines if an observation follows electrostatic or magnetic laws. Third, it motivates a compact and convenient notation for the laws of electromagnetism, namely the \"manifestly covariant\" tensor form.\n", "In addition, relativity theory implies that in moving frames of reference, a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and conversely, a moving electric field transforms to a nonzero magnetic component, thus firmly showing that the phenomena are two sides of the same coin. Hence the term \"electromagnetism\". (For more information, see Classical electromagnetism and special relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.)\n", "Einstein tried to form a generalized theory of gravitation that would unify the gravitational and electromagnetic forces (and perhaps others), guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws. These attempts initially concentrated on additional geometric notions such as vierbeins and \"distant parallelism\", but eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. (Because they are not independent, the metric-affine theory was somewhat complicated.) In general relativity, these fields are symmetric (in the matrix sense), but since antisymmetry seemed essential for electromagnetism, the symmetry requirement was relaxed for one or both fields. Einstein's proposed unified-field equations (fundamental laws of physics) were generally derived from a variational principle expressed in terms of the Riemann curvature tensor for the presumed space-time manifold.\n" ]

[ "The United States lacks titled nobility unlike Commonwealth countries. However there are various prominent American families that have held disproportionate wealth and wielded disproportionate political power not too dissimilar to that of titled nobility. Many of these families often have ties to older East Coast cities such as Boston, New York City, Philadelphia and Newport, Rhode Island. One such group of interconnected elite families is the Boston Brahmins. Many in the East Coast establishment have ties to Ivy League colleges and to prep schools in New England and the Northeast.\n", "The American upper class is a social group within the United States consisting of people who have the highest social rank, primarily due to the use of their wealth to achieve social status. These criteria differ from those of the traditional \"upper class\" in Britain and the rest of Europe, which favor landed gentry and aristocracy (although European class distinctions have been weakening in recent times). \n", "Beyond the eradication of old-world aristocracy, ordinary Americans also refused to defer to those possessing, as Tocqueville put it, superior talent and intelligence and these natural elites could not enjoy much share in political power as a result. Ordinary Americans enjoyed too much power and claimed too great a voice in the public sphere to defer to intellectual superiors. This culture promoted a relatively pronounced equality, Tocqueville argued, but the same mores and opinions that ensured such equality also promoted mediocrity. Those who possessed true virtue and talent were left with limited choices.\n", "These families exude an aura of nobility, which prevents them from certain marriages or occupations. They only differ from nobility in that due to circumstances, the lack of opportunity, and/or political regime, they have not been ennobled. These people nevertheless live a lavish lifestyle, enjoying the company of the great artists of the time. In France, the families of the \"haute bourgeoisie\" are also referred to as \"les 200 familles\", a term coined in the first half of the 20th century. Michel Pinçon and Monique Pinçon-Charlot studied the lifestyle of the French bourgeoisie, and how they boldly guard their world from the \"nouveau riche\", or newly rich.\n", "Third, the American colonies were exceptional in the world because of the representation of many different interest groups in political decision-making. The American political culture was open to economic, social, religious, ethnic, and geographical interests, with merchants, landlords, petty farmers, artisans, Anglicans, Presbyterians, Quakers, Germans, Scotch Irish, Yankees, Yorkers, and many other identifiable groups taking part. Elected representatives learned to listen to these interests because 90% of the men in the lower houses lived in their districts, unlike England where it was common to have an absentee member of Parliament. All of this was very unlike Europe, where aristocratic families and the established church were in control.\n", "BULLET::::- Status—as in most countries, family standing and riches were often a means to remain in a higher social circle. America was notably unusual due to an accepted wisdom that anyone—from poor immigrants upwards—who worked hard, could aspire to similar standing, regardless of circumstances of birth. This aspiration is commonly called living the American dream. Birth details were not taken as a social barrier to the upper echelons or high political status in American culture. This stood in contrast to other countries where many larger offices were socially determined, and usually hard to enter without being born into the suitable social group.\n", "Nancy Mitford writes in the first essay that the English aristocracy is the only real aristocracy left in the world today, even if it may seem to be on the verge of decadence: it has political power through the House of Lords and real social position through the Queen. Then she explains the order of precedence of dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, barons, members of a noble family, young sons, baronets, knights and knights of the Garter. Accused of being a snob, she quotes from Professor Alan Ross of Birmingham University who points out that “it is solely by their language that the upper classes nowadays are distinguished since they are neither cleaner, richer, nor better-educated than anybody else\". Miss Mitford says Professor Ross invented the U and non-U English useful formula. Though she doesn't agree completely with the Professor's list, she adopts his classification system, and adds a few suggestions of her own. She gives many examples of U and non-U usage and thoroughly explains the aristocracy saying, for example, dukes are rather new creations, the purpose of the aristocrat is most emphatically not to work for money, and nobility in England is based on title and not on bloodline. The ancestors of the lords spent months abroad, buying pictures and statues, which they cheerfully sell in order to spend months abroad, she writes.\n" ]