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Movies, Television, Music... Jobs, Industries, Investing... Internet, Software, Hardware... Video Games, Role playing, Gambling... Fitness, Medicine, Alternative... Family, Consumers, Cooking... Kids & Teens Arts, School Time, Teen Life... Media, Newspapers, Weather... Travel, Food, Humor... Maps, Education, Libraries... Biology, Psychology, Physics... Autos, Clothing, Gifts... People, Religion, Issues... Baseball, Soccer, Basketball... Cruises, Destinations, Reservations... United States, United Kingdom, Europe... Deutsch, Español, Français... Arts and crafts, Visual arts and design Violet (color) Violet (named after the flower—see violet (plant)) refers to any of a group of reddish blue or bluish purple colors. In particular, it refers to the color of light at the short- wavelength end of the visible spectrum. On a browser that supports visual formatting in Cascading Style Sheets, the following box should appear as an approximation of a shade of violet: True spectral violet cannot be reproduced on a computer screen. You can see the color by looking at the reflection of a fluorescent tube in a Color coordinates (approximation only!) The sensation of violet caused by short-wavelength light appears somewhat = #8B00FF Hex triplet (r, g, b) = (139, 0, 255) RGB (c, m, y, k) = (116, 255, 0, 0) CMYK (h, s, v) = (273, 100, 100) HSV purple, as if it contained long (red) wavelengths. The cause for this is that the long-wavelength ("red") receptors in the human retina are sensitive to the wavelengths in the violet region as well as the longer wavelengths in the red region of the spectrum. Violet is therefore perceived as a stimulus to both red and blue cones. lavender - typically pale (RGB: 230, 230, 250) lilac - typically pale (RGB: 200, 162, 200) Source | Copyright Add your website here:

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Many scientists agree the key to maintaining the biodiversity and ecological integrity of the Tongass National Forest is to protect the region’s high-value salmon-producing watersheds – entire drainages that stretch from ridge top to ridge top and from river headwaters to river mouths. Scientific Case for Salmon Conservation at the Watershed Scale (summary, pdf) Salmon Watershed Research Searchable Bibliography (88 pages, pdf) Biogeographic provinces reflect natural variability in climate, physiography, and species distributions throughout the islands and mainland of Southeast Alaska. 14 of the 22 biogeographic provinces in the Tongass are represented in the list of 77 high-value watersheds. Based on their outstanding fish habitat, the highest and best use for these 77 watersheds should be for the production of salmon and trout. Representing the “best of the best” in each of 14 biogeographic provinces, the Tongass 77 watersheds are spread out across a wide swath of the Tongass National Forest. The Tongass 77 Priority Salmon Watersheds (pdf) The Tongass 77 – A Closer Look (23 pages, pdf) At present, no-harvest buffers of 100 feet minimum are required on all larger Tongass anadromous streams (Class I and II). Additionally, about 35 percent of salmon and trout habitat is protected at the watershed scale on about 40 percent of the land base of the Tongass National Forest. At just over 1.9 million acres combined, the 77 high-value salmon and trout watersheds represent about 12 percent of the Tongass land base, but include about 23 percent of the total salmon and trout habitat of the Tongass National Forest. A study commissioned by Trout Unlimited and released in 2011 finds that Southeast Alaska’s healthy salmon and trout populations contributed nearly $1 billion to the regional economy and accounted for close to 11 percent of regional jobs in 2007. Southeast Alaska Salmon and Trout: A $1 Billion Economic Engine (pdf) Tongass Economic Study – full report (26 pages, pdf) According to a recent poll by The Nature Conservancy, 96 percent of Alaskans surveyed in 2011 said salmon are essential to their way of life, and 97 percent said salmon are an important part of the Alaskan economy. Even in tough economic times, 89 percent of respondents said it is important to maintain funding for salmon conservation. Broad Support For Salmon: The Nature Conservancy Poll (link)

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Where Did Sunflowers Come From? by Heather Pringle June 28, 2008 Archaeologists always take a keen interest in the origins of things—whether it’s the beginnings of civilizations, scripts, sailing or even shoes. There’s an undeniable cachet to excavating the oldest and the earliest of anything, of course, and, as I can attest, the media loves these stories. But beyond fame and glory, many archaeologists feel a deep sense of wonder and delight in these excavations, glimpsing again the ingenuity and endless inventiveness of humanity. In the case of agriculture, however, archaeologists have an even more pressing reason to search for origins. Climate change, with its scorching summers and long months of drought, is wreaking havoc in farmers’ fields around the world. To make the best of these harsh new conditions, botanists are trying to breed hardier and more resilient plants. But this requires genetic data from early plant stocks—ones that were first domesticated by humans. In other words, we need to know exactly where our crops came from, so that botanists can breed new and better cultigens for the future. Which brings me to four important letters that will appear soon in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). Archaeobotanists have been battling for some time now over the origins of the sunflower—the source of an important cooking oil. Earlier this year, David Lentz, a botanist at the University of Cincinnati, and four colleagues published new evidence to support his contention that the sunflower was first domesticated in Mexico about 4600 years ago. One of their main pieces of new evidence was linguistic: they pointed out that indigenous groups in Mexico, including the Otomi and Nahua, coined their own words for sunflower, instead of borrowing them from the Spanish. This, they concluded, proved that Mexico’s aboriginal population knew the sunflower before the Spanish arrived. The new letters written by a linguist, a biologist, two geneticists and an archaeologist, now poke gaping holes in these arguments. Linguist Cecil Brown notes, for example, that the terms for sunflowers in 11 native languages in Mexico are all descriptive like “big sun” or “shield flower.” Such terms, says Brown, describe “newly encountered, introduced things.” Indeed, they are similar to the phrase “cacao bean of the earth,” which was coined in Mexico to describe peanuts brought from South America. All this raises huge questions about Lentz’s claim that ancient Mexicans first domesticated the sunflower. It now looks as the honor should once again go to Native Americans, who began planting and reaping the colorful crop at least 3300 years ago in the eastern United States. Comments posted here do not represent the views or policies of the Archaeological Institute of America.

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Dear Otto is an occasional column where I answer questions I get from readers about teaching tech. If you have a question, please complete the form below and I’ll answer it here. For your privacy, I use only first names. Here’s a great question I got: I am having my kids create websites that will not be shared publicly. They are “Googling” images and I just want to know what are the copyright rules for such images? Should I limit their images only from certain “free” graphic sites? Just confused by all the rules like creative commons, public domain, copyright etc.. They asked if they can use pictures from Microsoft and I honestly don’t know what the rules are or how to explain them in 4th grade terms.The kids are not trying to sell anything, just creating a site as a way to share their research. They know how to site online resources that contain facts but not sure what to do with images. Is just providing the URL from the website that the image was on acceptable? Maybe, if those images are copyright-free. If they aren’t, you just can’t use them. A couple rules of thumb apply: - Online images are fine (including Google): - if the images themselves don’t show copyright notices. Some do and those must be avoided. Others have easily-identifiable sources like NASA or Hubble. Many are copies of copies with no origination trail. - if a single copy is required for scholarly research or use in teaching or preparation to teach a class. - if the image has fallen into the ‘public domain’ - But don’t assume online images are fine without verifying that conclusion. Show students how to look for evidence of copyright protections (see below), watermarks, and any notifications about fair use. Before using these images, take time to introduce students to the ideas of copyright protections and privacy issues. I explain what those are, demonstrate how to use best practices to avoid infringing. I teach this unit every year, making the details age-appropriate and more thorough as students mature in their understanding of the process. Here’s a good list of copyright-free image/clip art websites: - Creative Commons - Flikr–they list their restrictions–this is a good learning tool - Flikrcc–only creative commons images on Flikr - Free Photo - Morgue File–free images, but check the licenses first - Open Clip Art - Open Photo - Smithsonian Wild–200,000 animal pictures! - Stock Exchange - Wiki Images - This Wikipedia list - This list of 45 sites (some repeats of the above) Although these are great, they are too limiting for inquiring minds, sometimes not age-appropriate (Google has safe search which helps keep images specific to an age group) and unnecessary. Remember what we teach students about using the internet: What goes up there is public for all to see and steal (by ‘steal’, I mean: Be aware that what you put up on the internet, people will re-use, quote with attribution, claim as their own, feeling protected by the vastness of the internet). The same applies to images. The table below explains the the symbols used in creative commons licences: For a good YouTube on how Creative Commons is working to share the wealth, click here. To ask Otto a question, fill out the form below: Jacqui Murray is the editor of a technology curriculum for K-sixth grade, creator of two technology training books for middle school and five ebooks on technology in education. She is the author of Building a Midshipman, the story of her daughter’s journey from high school to United States Naval Academy midshipman. She is webmaster for six blogs, an Amazon Vine Voice book reviewer, a columnist for Examiner.com, Editorial Review Board member for Journal for Computing Teachers, Cisco guest blogger, IMS tech expert, and a bi-weekly contributor to Write Anything. Currently, she’s editing a thriller for her agent that should be out to publishers this summer. Contact Jacqui at her writing office or her tech lab, Ask a Tech Teacher.

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Deep Impact Flyby spacecraft images Comet 103P/Hartley The rendezvous with the comet is the third mission for the Deep Impact spacecraft. November 4, 2010 The Ball Aerospace-built Deep Impact Flyby spacecraft successfully completed another “first” for NASA November 4 when its onboard cameras captured spectacular images of Comet 103P/Hartley as part of the EPOXI mission. This was the first time in history that two comets — Hartley 2 and Tempel 1 — have been imaged by the same spacecraft, same instruments, and with the same spatial resolution. Images from the Deep Impact flyby revealed a peanut-shaped Comet 103P/Hartley belching jets of poisonous gases. Photo by NASA/JPL-Caltech/UMD NASA's EPOXI mission took this image of Comet Hartley 2 November 2, 2010 from a distance of 1.4 million miles (2.3 million kilometers). The spacecraft flew by the comet November 4, 2010. The white blob and the halo around it are the comet's outer cloud of gas and dust, called a coma. At this distance, the spacecraft is capturing images with a resolution of about 14 miles/pixel (23 kms/pixel). Photo by NASA/JPL-Caltech/UMD The rendezvous with Hartley 2 is the third mission for the Deep Impact spacecraft. The first was in 2005 when the impactor aboard the Deep Impact spacecraft collided with comet Tempel 1 and excavated debris from the comet's nucleus. Images captured by cameras aboard both the impactor and the flyby have been used by the scientific community to study the composition of Tempel 1. The second was the Extrasolar Planet Observation and Characterization (EPOCh) mission that ended in August 2008, providing observations of Earth in both visible and infrared wavelengths. "Deep Impact is proving to be a spacecraft that keeps on giving," said David L. Taylor from Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. in Boulder, Colorado. "When it launched in January of 2005, the Deep Impact mission was the priority, so it's extremely rewarding to see a three-peat performance 6 years later that provides more beneficial science data." Science observations of comet Hartley 2 began September 5 with the mission's encounter phase commencing the evening of November 3 when the spacecraft was about 18 hours from the time of closest approach to the comet's nucleus. The spacecraft flew past the comet at approximately 8:00 a.m. MDT November 4 when the spacecraft was re-oriented to maintain imaging of the comet nucleus while pointing its high-gain antenna at Earth in order to begin downlinking nearly 5,800 images. Hartley 2 is the fifth time that a comet has been imaged up close. In the months leading up to its closet encounter with Comet Hartley 2, the spacecraft responded to multiple commands to align itself for optimum viewing. Approximately the size of a subcompact car, the spacecraft had already used about half of its 23.5 gallons (85 kilograms) of hydrazine fuel to complete the encounter with Tempel 1. Following the Hartley 2 imaging, it still will have enough useable fuel, 1.1 gallons (4 kg), to support science observations from its current orbit, should NASA give it a new assignment.

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Bumblebees like flower diversity, not asphalt Want to help out the bumblebee population? Get rid of asphalt and plant a diversity of flower species. That’s the conclusion of a new study of a California native bumblebee published recently in the journal, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Scientists from the UC Berkeley and the University of Texas at Austin looked at the genetic relatedness of Bombus vosnesenskii foraging in exurban habitats, farms and nature reserves. Because genetically related bees come from the same colony, they could determine how far afield the bees were foraging. Areas with lots of paved roads and impervious construction were correlated with lower bumblebee numbers. Meanwhile, the bees tended to favor a more species diverse landscape, traveling farther from home to find patches of flowers rich in species. The study sheds further light on how to protect bumblebees, which are vital to pollination and have been declining in numbers around the globe. Agriculture, which relies heavily on bumblebees, is providing poor habitat for bumblebees by mono-cropping. Although it may seem obvious that pavement and ground nesting don’t mix, lead author Shalene Jha said the effects of pavement and urban growth on native bees has been largely anecdotal. “We are potentially in a pollinator crisis,” said Jha, an assistant professor of biology at The University of Texas at Austin, in a press release. “Understanding how bees move around the landscape can help us both preserve biodiversity and improve crop yields.” Senior author Claire Kremen, a professor at UC Berkeley’s Department of Environmental Science, Policy and Management, also participated in the research.

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By Bert Whitehead, M.B.A, J.D. © 2011 The federal government has been grappling with ballooning debt as the cost of government programs and entitlements outstrip tax revenue. Politics will ultimately determine whether to cut spending, increase taxes (or both) to solve the problem. This blog is not political commentary, but rather a response to the media’s concern about how these deficits, and the corresponding debt increases, will impact the financial markets. Will U.S. Treasury Bonds become worthless? Historically, the danger of not backing paper money with gold or silver is that governments will spend more than they can afford to repay over the long term. To cover the accumulating debt, the easy solution is to print more money to pay back borrowers. But the result is that the currency becomes inflated and prices rise as the value of the currency shrinks – the result of too many dollars chasing too few goods. The most recent global example of this took place in Zimbabwe, which ended up printing $100,000,000,000,000 bills (that’s 100 trillion dollars) that would buy about $5 worth of goods in US dollars. History is replete with examples of countries that inflated their currency to the point that citizens insisted on being paid with gold, another country’s money, or else they resorted to bartering. This included the notorious Weimar Republic in Germany after World War I, as well as most South American countries (called “banana republics” because they used locally produced bananas to settle their debts). Even in the U.S. there have been four instances in which the government suspended backing of the US dollar. This resulted in financial panics, probably aggravated the Great Depression, and triggered ‘stagflation’ in the 1970’s. As dismal as this background is, there is no attractive alternative. The US dollar is well entrenched as the world reserve currency. China and other foreign countries are owed more than half the US debt. But they can’t dump it on the White House lawn and insist on gold…dollars are not backed by gold. They can sell dollars and buy Euros, or Yen, or British Pounds, but those currencies are as bad as the US dollar. The Swiss Franc and currencies of other fiscally conservative countries are not ‘deep’ enough, i.e. not available in sufficient quantities to support world commerce. How do you protect yourself from inflation? Many countries (including the US) have significant stores of gold, and this reserve is attractive to many citizens. But now that gold shares can be bought and sold on stock exchanges, buyers don’t have to take actual delivery of the gold. As a result, the price of gold has become very volatile and is probably in a bubble now as speculators trade gold frenetically. I should note that inflation was not offset by the stock market in the 1970’s and the price of gold was basically flat for the 20 years from 1980 to 2000 while inflation increased over 100%. There is some protection against the falling dollar when you buy mutual funds that invest in international stocks and do not hedge the dollar. We have used this approach for many years to temper the impact of the dollar’s devaluation. As we increase our participation in the global economy, currencies of other countries (many of which are backed by dollars) have tended to track the dollar’s value. Interestingly, real estate has historically been considered an inflation hedge, but current worldwide prices are either very depressed (as in the US) or have wildly increased (e.g. Canada). The absolutely best protection against inflation is to have a long-term mortgage at a fixed rate on your home. Many people flinch at the thought, but it is a huge advantage to owe a couple hundred thousand dollars at 5% fixed for 30 years if we see inflation mushroom over the next 5-10 years. Not only will your money market rates increase to 7-10% on money that is costing you 5%, but you are also repaying the mortgage with cheaper money. The beauty of a long term fixed mortgage is that, if interest rates go down, you can just refinance and reduce your monthly living costs (which protects you from deflation). The worst-case scenario with a mortgage is when interest rates stay the same. Even then, on an after-tax basis, your return is about the same as your cost so it is a breakeven. Now back to those Treasuries: the trading value of all bonds, including Treasuries, varies inversely with interest rates. So the market value drops when interest rates go up. Interest rates can rise very rapidly during times of inflation. However, we recommend that clients hold Treasuries to assure cash flow in later years, not to maximize yield. My mantra when it comes to bonds is: “Safety Trumps Yield!” Holding on to long-term Treasuries in a balanced portfolio protects you against deflation…which is still a significant danger. Regardless of short-term price moves, hold a Treasury until maturity and you will get your money back, including accrued interest. Your investment is insulated against inflation. Holding cash in money markets will usually stay even with inflation, since the increase in interest rates will offset inflation. The worst mistake is to try to ‘chase yield’ by always seeking bonds with a higher rate. As Warren Buffet once commented: “People have lost more money chasing yield than they have at the point of a gun…” At ACA, we use the principles of Functional Asset Allocation and design your portfolio to protect you during times of inflation (using cash and a long-term mortgage on your home). We maintain properly diversified stocks so that you will gain during times of prosperity. And we still recommend that you hold long-term Treasuries to protect you against deflation and assure cash flow during retirement. I appreciate the editorial review contributed by Chip Simon, CFP®, an ACA colleague in Poughkeepsie, NY.

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ROCKETING to the Moon (Jan, 1930) ROCKETING to the Moon by Prof. R. H. GODDARD, B.Sc., A.M., Ph.D. as told to William Robertson FOR YEARS scientists have been forced to study the moon through its reflection in the observatory mirror. Since the moon refused to come closer to the earth than 220,000 miles, however, man may find it possible to exercise the alternative of Mahomet and go to the moon, in the opinion of a distinguished man of science. He is Dr. Robert Hutchings Goddard, for six years professor of physics at Princeton University, director of research for the V. S. signal corps at Worcester Polytechnic Institute and Mt. Wilson (California) Observatory during the world war, fellow of the American Geographical Society, member of the American Physical Society, American Meteorological Society and the American Institute of Social Sciences, and for the past ten years professor of physics and director of the physical laboratories of Clark University, at Worcester. Mass. IS IT possible to transport a human being to the moon? To answer that question in the affirmative is to bring smiles to the faces of skeptics without number. And in fact had this suggestion been made before I began the extensive researches upon the rocket method of reaching extreme altitudes, to which I have devoted many years of labor, I must confess that I should have dismissed the thought of reaching the moon as merely another figment of the mind of Jules Verne. Now, however, I am of the firm opinion that it is possible with the use of a rocket of the type I first patented in 1914 and which I have been improving ever since, to reach the moon’s surface. And what may be of particular interest to anyone who might contemplate making a journey thither in this new form of conveyance, I believe it would be possible for him to return to the earth in safety and report to the world the results of the first journey to one of our celestial neighbors. Contrary to popular impression, I am not at present engaged in an attempt to perfect a rocket which will carry a human being to the moon. That will come later, but it should be understood that what I am now developing is a comparatively small affair and is not intended for reaching heights much greater than just outside the atmospheric envelope of the earth. There are two reasons for this: First, the expense and time for the development are much reduced if the work is carried out on a small scale. Second, the uses of such a rocket, even in exploring the atmosphere, are so important that the development seems to stand a good chance of being continued. And furthermore, if anything is designed for the purpose of passing through the earth’s atmosphere, it is well to have a knowledge of the earth’s atmosphere first. Although I have been engaged in rocket work since 1914 when I was granted my first patents, the public evinced no particular curiosity regarding the possibilities my investigations might open up and the recent interest displayed came in the nature of a surprise. At this moment I am engaged in the highly important problem of stabilization, and feel that it would be premature to give out data upon the results before this matter has been settled, and the work may be called complete. Nevertheless, the tests I have made, including that of July 17th when my experimental rocket was fired several thousand feet, have demonstrated clearly that the method of propelling it is operative and practical. This new method involves the use of liquid propellants and makes possible a rocket with most of its weight consisting of propellant material of high energy value. This is the new feature. And it is one that is quite vital if a rocket is to be used for reaching extreme heights. Although all of the basic principles involved in the high altitude rockets were patented by me in 1914, a few of the ideas I advanced at that time have been used abroad but only with black powder rockets. The liquid propellant I am using is as far ahead of black powder as the automobile is ahead of the horse and buggy. Yet with the use of three black powder rockets, Fritz von Opel, a German, recently succeeded in launching an airplane 75 feet in the air and circling half of a German airport at a high speed before he lost control of the machine. But the rockets I have been testing for the past nine years, are, so far as I know, the only ones actually constructed that have embodied any considerable number of my original principles. The first use of the rocket will be to send up instruments which will permit the study of the atmosphere at great heights. Another practical step beyond that, in all probability, will be to send a camera round, and close to, the moon, having it guided throughout the journey by photo electric cells. With the knowledge thus obtained, a trip to the moon may well be planned. The idea of such a history-making trip appeals most vividly to the imagination and is one to which I have given consider able study. To the layman, undoubtedly the first thought is: “Who is going to make that first solo flight into the unknown?” Much risk is to be involved, undoubtedly, but not nearly so much as would seem at first blush were I free to make public the result of my investigations to date. When the time comes to attempt a flight into space the dangers ahead will be proportionately less grave in the light of scientific knowledge than those which seemed apparent when Columbus started west with his caravels over the uncharted seas only to find that the troubles predicted for him were largely imaginary. And many with the hardihood and the scientific knowledge necessary for this, the most thrilling of all adventures in human experience, will be willing and eager to shove off into the vast unknown. The great rocket, with a compartment large enough to hold a passenger comfortably with all of the equipment necessary for his task, will not need to carry propellants for the return trip. The chemical elements necessary for refueling exist on the moon to the most careful astronomical observations, and it will be possible for the passenger to take off without any outside assistance for the return journey. That of itself removes one of the greatest difficulties by restricting the weight of the space cruiser. Successive explosions are necessary to propel the rocket and the speed will be governed according to their frequency. This may be regulated automatically or by the passenger himself, from a control board within his cabin. “Is it possible to acquire the amazing speed necessary for the purpose in mind?” has been asked. To answer that I will point to the experiment I made last summer with the rocket I am shown holding in my hand in the accompanying photograph. The gases shot from that small rocket at a speed of 8,000 feet (more than 1-1/2 miles) per second. That is more than 90 miles per minute— enough to send the gases away from the moon forever if fired straight up from her surface. The earth, however, has four times the gravitation force of the moon, and the velocity of the rocket launched into space from our world will have to be four times that great, or 360 miles a minute. That speed may be easily attained by a larger rocket. And thus it can be readily seen that the time required to leave the earth and penetrate into space will be brief indeed. But how will it be possible for one to live inside this projectile? First, I have demonstrated that the rocket can be started without a jar sufficient to endanger life within it. Neither need there be any when the rocket lands. For it will be so equipped that it may be guided to earth as easily and safely as an airplane. Of course, the passenger must breathe. The simplest plan of supplying oxygen is by evaporating a supply of liquid oxygen carried along. The cold of space would make the transportation of liquid oxygen a comparatively easy matter. Insulation from the cold of space would be by the ordinary “thermos bottle” principle which we know works well down to a temperature nearly that of outer space. The danger developing from friction would be nil, as no noticeable heat would be generated because the speed through the dense part of the atmosphere would not exceed 2,000 feet per second and the great increase in speed necessary to leave the earth would occur from 20 to 700 miles above terra firma. According to my calculations, the trip to the moon can be made in 48 hours or an average speed of 4,750 m.p.h., an astonishing rate when compared with the swiftest methods of present-day transportation.

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Fifty-three years ago this week, the United States Army Nike Hercules air defense missile system was first deployed in the continental United States. The second-generation surface-to-air missile was designed to intercept and destroy hostile ballistic missiles. The Nike Program was a United States Army project to develop a missile capable of defending high priority military assets and population centers from attack by Soviet strategic bombers. Named for the Greek goddess of victory, the Nike Program began in 1945. The industrial consortium of Bell Laboratories, Western Electric, Hercules and Douglas Aircraft developed, tested and fielded Nike for the Army. Nike Ajax (MIM-3) was the first defensive missile system to attain operational status under the Nike Program. The two-stage, surface-launched interceptor initially entered service at Fort Meade, Maryland in December of 1953. A total of 240 Nike Ajax launch sites were eventually established throughout CONUS. The primary assets protected were metropolitan areas, long-range bomber bases, nuclear plants and ICBM sites. Nike Ajax consisted of a solid-fueled first stage (59,000 lbs thrust) and a liquid-fueled second stage (2,600 lbs thrust). The launch vehicle measured nearly 34 feet in length and had a ignition weight of 2,460 lbs. The second stage was 21 feet long, had a maximum diameter of 12 inches and weighed 1,150 lbs fully loaded. The type’s maximum speed, altitude and range were 1,679 mph, 70,000 feet and 21.6 nautical miles, respectively. The Nike Hercules (MIM-14) was the successor to the Nike Ajax. It featured all-solid propulsion and much higher thrust levels. The first stage was rated at 220,000 lbs of thrust while that of the second stage was 10,000 lbs. The Nike Hercules airframe was significantly larger than its predecessor. The launch vehicle measured 41 feet in length and weighed 10,700 lbs at ignition. Second stage length and ignition weight were 26.8 feet and 5,520 lbs, respectively. Nike Hercules kinematic performance was quite impressive. The respective top speed, altitude and range were 3,000 mph, 150,000 feet and 76 nautical miles. This level of performance allowed the vehicle to be used for the ballistic missile intercept mission. Most Nike Hercules missiles carried a nuclear warhead with a yield of 20 kilotons. The first operational Nike Hercules systems were deployed to the Chicago, Philadelphia and New York localities on Monday, 30 June 1958. By 1963, fully 134 Nike Hercules batteries were deployed throughout CONUS. These systems remained in the United States missile arsenal until 1974. The exceptions were batteries located in Alaska and Florida which remained in active service until the 1978-79 time period. Like Nike Ajax before it, Nike Hercules had a successor. It was originally known as Nike Zeus and then Nike-X. This Nike variant was designed for intercepting enemy ICBM’s that were targeted for American soil. The vehicle went through a number of iterations before a final solution was achieved. Known as Spartan, this missile was what we would refer to today as a mid-course interceptor. In companionship with a SPRINT terminal phase interceptor, Spartan formed the Safeguard Anti-Ballistic Missile System. The American missile defense system was impressive enough to the Soviet Union that the communist country signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty 3 years before Safeguard’s deployment. Though operational for a mere 3 months, Safeguard was depostured in 1975. This action brought to a close a 30-year period in which the Nike Program was a major player in American missile defense.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://blog.seattlepi.com/americanaerospace/2011/06/

2013-06-18T05:59:53Z

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en

At the American Geophysical Union meeting late last month, University of Miami geologist Shimon Wdowinski argued that the devastating earthquake a year ago may have been triggered by a combination of deforestation and hurricanes (H/T Treehugger). Climate change, scientists believe, is spurring more, stronger hurricanes, which are fueled by warm ocean waters. It works like this: Deforestation leaves hillsides vulnerable to erosion, which hurricanes deliver in spades. Haiti’s hills have waned to a degree, says Wdowinski, that it could affect the stability of the Earth’s crust. The 2010 disaster stemmed from a vertical slippage, not the horizontal movements that most of the region’s quakes entail, supporting the hypothesis that the movement was triggered by an imbalance created when eroded land mass was moved from the mountainous epicenter to the Leogane Delta. Previous earthquakes in Taiwan have followed major storms in mountainous regions. Just how bad is deforestation in Haiti? In some places 98 percent of the original forest is gone.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://blog.sfgate.com/green/2011/01/04/did-climate-change-cause-haiti-quake/

2013-06-18T06:07:27Z

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en

Annelies “Anne” Marie Frank (12 June 1929 – early March 1945) is one of the most discussed Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Her diary has been the basis for several plays and films. Born in the city of Frankfurt am Main in Weimar Germany, she lived most of her life in or near Amsterdam, in the Netherlands. Over one million children under the age of sixteen died in in World War II, not because of the bombs, but because they did not fit in as Hitler’s image of the “perfect” German. Many children and their parents living in countries, which had been invaded by the Germans, were imprisoned and killed because they were Jewish. At least six million Jews were killed by Hitler and his Nazi Germany apparatus while the entire world, particularly Europe, looked the other way. While nothing in human tragedy can be compared to the Jewish holocaust, the situation of Shia Muslims in the Islamic history in general, and in modern Pakistan in particular, appears to be in some ways similar to the persecution, harassment and genocide which Jews have been facing for at least two thousand years. It is my considered opinion that, as two most persecuted communities of the world, Shia Muslims and Jews should try to understand and accept each other, treat each other with respect and compassion. In particular, Israel and Iran should seriously reconsider their hostilities which are more a handiwork of Saudi cunning lobbying and propaganda, because there is no substantive or historical basis for animosity or hatred between Shias and Jews. Hamas Salafists in Gaza will feel equal joy in killing a Shia as they have in killing a Jew. As the people of the book and as a persecuted nation, Jews deserve full respect and sympathy as do Shia Muslims (and all other persecuted communities). The Jew Shia unity is good for both communities, the hatred between Jews and the Shias will only help their common enemy, i.e., Saudi Arabia and its Salafist-Deobandi mercenaries who want to kill all Jews and Shias. Anne Frank was only one of at least one million children killed by Nazis in Germany; she and her family members were killed only because of their faith, i.e., Judaism. The situation of Shias in Pakistan is not much different. So far, at least 20,000 Shia Muslims have been killed at the hands of Takfiri Deobandi militants of the Taliban and Sipah-e-Sahaba, financed by Saudi Arabia, and nurtured by Pakistan Army. At least 6,000 Shia children have been killed in Pakistan. Their pictures and brief background is provided in this post: http://criticalppp.com/archives/231236 However, on 30 November 2012 around 8:00 am something very painful happened in Pakistan’s largest city, Karachi. Mehzar Zehra, 12, a grade 7 student, was on her way to school along with her father Syed Mazhar Abbas Zaidi. Takfiri Deobandi terrorists of Sipah-e-Sahaba attacked her and her father on the Shaheed-e-Millat Road. Her father was killed in front of her, while she too was showered with bullets. Four bullets pierced her body and as I write these lines she remains in critical condition in the I.C.U. Doctors are not operating her because they fear she might get paralysed if they proceed with the operation. She been constantly asking about her father, but the little kid doesn’t know that he is no more. What was Mehzar and her father’s only crime? Their Shia faith. Just as Hitler wanted to create what he saw was the perfect German, this meant that anyone who did not fit into his perfect image was persecuted (ill treated) and/or killed, he persecuted German citizens who were Jewish, Gypsies, or otherwise “undesirables”. Similarly, Saudi-funded Deobandi and Wahhabi terrorists want to kill Shia Muslims because Shias do not fit their perfect image of Muslims. The attack on Mehzar and her father is indeed very disturbing. However, Pakistani media, rights activists have completely ignored this incident along with other incidents of Shia genocide. Reason? Shias are considered lesser Muslims and lesser humans in Pakistan. According to a recent research by Pew, at least 50% of Sunni Muslims in Pakistan, Deobandis and Wahhabis in particular, consider Shia as Kafir (infidels). This figure not only includes madrassah educated right-wing bigots but also many middle-class and elite Pakistanis, many of whom also work in media and rights groups. Hence, the silence! Here’s a specimen reaction by two Pakistani Deobandi activists on Twitter. Loose translation: “Good news! A Kafir Shia sent to hell. His daughter is critically injured.” بارہ سالہ بچی پر سپاہ صحابہ کے تکفیری دیوبندیوں کی دہشتگردی کراچی: 12 سالہ سیدہ مہظر زہرہ کو کالعدم سپاہ صحابہ کے دہشتگردوں نے اسکول جاتے ہوئے 30 دسمبر کی صبح نشانہ بنایا۔ دہشتگردوں نے بچی کے سامنے اُن کےوالد کو شہید کردیا۔ اور 12 سالہ بچی سیدہ مہظر زہرہ کو بھی 4 گولیاں ماری۔ جو اس وقت آغا خان اسپتال میں زیر علاج ہیں Video: Interview (by Sobia Jamal) with Mehzar Zehra’s family. Mehzar (12) was injured and her father was killed in front of her by Takfiri Deobandi militants of Sipah Sahaba Taliban (SST) who are killing both Shia and Sunni Muslims in Pakistan.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://criticalppp.com/archives/231901/comment-page-1

2013-06-18T06:06:35Z

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en

Photograph of drawing of a tugboat on the ocean, ca.1920. At center, the starboard of a small tugboat moving across the ocean is visible. The hull of the boat is heavily curved. A large pole can be seen at the bow and stern of the boat. Between these poles, a tall smokestack is visible at the boat's center. A small trail of smoke originating from the smokestack can be seen. Near the bow of the boat, A small rectangular compartment can be seen. Doorways and windows decorate the compartment. To the right, a shaded figure stands at the boat's bow. In the foreground, small waves are visible in the shaded water.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://digitallibrary.usc.edu/cdm/singleitem/collection/p15799coll65/id/12134/rec/4

2013-06-18T06:14:20Z

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en

[Date Prev][Date Next][Thread Prev][Thread Next][Date Index][Thread Index][Subject Index][Author Index] Re: Avian flight stroke origin One of the reasons the dichotomy was thought to exist (and still does today) was a mistaken assumption that arboreal and terrestrial launch in birds are fundamentally different, which they are not. In fact, they are almost identical. Sent from my iPhone On Aug 11, 2011, at 3:42 AM, "Dr Ronald Orenstein" <[email protected]> > This raises a point that I still do not understand. Why is it assumed that > arboreality and terrestriality are such vastly different ways of life that > entire lineages can be assumed to have been one or the other, when living > birds, mammals, reptiles etc clearly show that this is not the case? In > birds alone we have genera containing both highly arboreal and purely > terrestrial species (eg Coracina, whose members are mostly arboreal but which > includes the terrestrial Ground Cuckoo-Shrike C. maxima), families such as > Corvidae with secondarily-terrestrial genera like Podoces, etc. > It can be objected that these are much better fliers than maniraptorids, and > that getting into a tree does not require special climbing adaptations if you > can fly there. In that case, what about (say) squirrels, which range > similarly from the ground to the treetops and include gliding species. If a > marmot and a flying squirrel can be close relatives, why can't dromaeosaurids > (say) have included a similar mixture? > Further, as I have said here before, a number of birds, including > particularly the cracids, can shift back and forth between trees and the > ground with ease, and others feed on the ground and nest in trees (including > such unlikely tree-dwellers as ducks). Could there have been tree- or > cavity-nesting dinosaurs? We'd be unlikely to find fossil evidence on the > Also, even flightless or near-flightless species of birds can get up into a > tree without having climbing-adapted front limbs. It's quite amazing to see > the ability some birds have of getting around in trees by simply jumping from > branch to branch, and if the trees have limbs near the ground they can reach > the canopy in this way too. A good example might be the Kokako (Callaeas > cinerea) of New Zealand, which is a fairly weak flyer (and, oddly for a > passerine, a folivore), but which is almost if not entirely arboreal; it > tends to leap upwards and fly/glide downwards. > Ronald Orenstein > 1825 Shady Creek Court > Mississauga, ON > Canada L5L 3W2 > On 2011-08-11, at 1:36 AM, Tim Williams <[email protected]> wrote: >> Jaime Headden <[email protected]> wrote: >>> So close! From the title: "Assessing Arboreal Adaptations of Bird >>> AVIAN antecedents. It would have been so beautiful! >> It's not just the alliteration that falls short. I also found myself >> disagreeing with quite a few of the conclusions in the paper. >> Nevertheless, it's pleasing to see Dececchi & Larsson (2011) refute >> the hypothesis that the ancestors of birds were specialized for >> arboreality. That's always good to see, because this is the central >> plank of the BANDit's scenario-driven approach to the evolution of >> avian flight. Dececchi & Larsso single out the splayed, quadrupedal >> posture of "four-winged" gliding theropods for special criticism.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://dml.cmnh.org/2011Aug/msg00179.html

2013-06-18T05:51:34Z

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Web design encompasses many different skills and disciplines in the production and maintenance of websites. The different areas of web design include web graphic design; interface design; authoring, including standardised code and proprietary software; user experience design; and search engine optimization. Often many individuals will work in teams covering different aspects of the design process, although some designers will cover them all. The term web design is normally used to describe the design process relating to the front-end (client side) design of a website including writing mark up, but this is a grey area as this is also covered by web development. Web designers are expected to have an awareness of usability and if their role involves creating mark up then they are also expected to be up to date with web accessibility guidelines. Although web design has a fairly recent history, it can be linked to other areas such as graphic design. However web design is also seen as a technological standpoint. It has become a large part of people’s everyday lives. It is hard to imagine the Internet without animated graphics, different styles of typography, background and music. During 1998 Netscape released Netscape Communicator code under an open source licence, enabling thousands of developers to participate in improving the software. However they decided to stop and start from the beginning, which guided the development of the open source browser and soon expanded to a complete application platform. The Web Standards Project was formed, and promoted browser compliance with HTML and CSS standards by creating Acid1, Acid2, and Acid3 tests. 2000 was a big year for Microsoft. Internet Explorer had been released for Mac, this was significant as it was the first browser that fully supported HTML 4.01 and CSS 1, raising the bar in terms of standards compliance. It was also the first browser to fully support the PNG image format. During this time Netscape was sold to AOL and this was seen as Netscape’s official loss to Microsoft in the browser wars. Since the start of the 21st century the web has become more and more integrated into peoples lives, as this has happened the technology of the web has also moved on. There have also been signifigent changes in the way people use and access the web, this has changed how sites are designed. DRLM uses a variety of different tools depending on what part of the production process we are involved in. These tools are updated over time by newer standards and software but the principles behind them remain the same. Web graphic designers use vector and raster graphics packages for creating web formatted imagery or design prototypes. Technologies used for creating websites include standardised mark up which could be hand coded or generated by WYSIWYG editing software. There is also proprietary software based on plug-ins that bypasses the client’s browsers version, these are often WYSIWYG but with the option of using the software’s scripting language. Search engine optimisation tools may be used to check search engine ranking and suggest improvements. Usually a successful website has only a few typefaces which are of a similar style, instead of using a range of typefaces. Preferably a website should use sans serif or serif typefaces, not a combination of the two. Typography in websites should also be careful the amount of typefaces used, good design will incorporate a few similar typefaces rather than a range of type faces. Most browsers recognize a specific number of safe fonts, which designers mainly use in order to avoid complications. Font downloading was later included in the CSS3 fonts module, and has since been implemented in Safari 3.1, Opera 10 and Mozilla Firefox 3.5. This has subsequently increased interest in Web typography, as well as the usage of font downloading. Most layouts on a site incorporate white spaces to break the text up into paragraphs and also avoid centre aligned text. Web pages should be well laid out to improve navigation for the user. Also for navigation purposes, the sites page layout should also remain consistent on different pages. When constructing sites, it's important to consider page width as this is vital for aligning objects and in layout design. The most popular websites generally have a width close to 1024 pixels. Most pages are also center aligned, to make objects look more aesthetically pleasing on larger screens. Fluid layouts developed around 2000 as a replacement for HTML-table-based layouts, as a rejection of grid-based design both as a page layout design principle, and as a coding technique, but were very slow to be adopted. The axiomatic assumption is that readers will have screen devices, or windows thereon, of different sizes and that there is nothing the page designer can do to change this. Accordingly, a design should be broken down into units (sidebars, content blocks, advert areas, navigation areas) that are sent to the browser and which will be fitted into the display window by the browser, as best it can. As the browser does know the details of the reader's screen (window size, font size relative to window etc.) the browser does a better job of this than a presumptive designer. Although such a display may often change the relative position of major content units, sidebars may be displaced below body text rather than to the side of it, this is usually a better and particularly a more usable display than a compromise attempt to display a hard-coded grid that simply doesn't fit the device window. In particular, the relative position of content blocks may change, but each block is less affected. Usability is also better, particularly by the avoidance of horizontal scrolling. Responsive Web Design is a new approach, based on CSS3, and a deeper level of per-device specification within the page's stylesheet, through an enhanced use of the CSS @media pseudo-selector. When creating a site it is good practice to conform to standards. This is usually done via a description specifying what the element is doing. Not conforming to standards may not make a website unusable or error prone, standards can relate to the correct layout of pages for readability as well making sure coded elements are closed appropriately. This includes errors in code, better layout for code as well as making sure your IDs and classes are identified properly. Poorly-coded pages are sometimes colloquially called tag soup. Validating via W3C can only be done when a correct DOCTYPE declaration is made, which is used to highlight errors in code. The system identifies the errors and areas that do not conform to web design standards. This information can then be corrected by the user. Good visual design on a website identifies and works for its target market. This can be an age group or particular strand of culture thus the designer should understand the trends of its audience. Designers should also understand the type of website they are designing, meaning a business website should not be designed the same as a social media site for example. Designers should also understand the owner or business the site is representing, to make sure they are portrayed favourably. The aesthetics or overall design of a site should not clash with the content, making it easier for the user to navigate and can find the desired information or products etc. For a user to understand a website they must be able to understand how the website works. This affects their experience. User experience is related to layout, clear instructions and labelling on a website. The user must understand how they can interact on a site. In relation to continued use, a user must perceive the usefulness of that website if they are to continue using it. With users who are skilled and well versed with website use, this influence relates directly to how they perceive websites, which encourages further use. Therefore users with less experience are less likely to see the advantages or usefulness of websites. This in turn should focus, on design for a more universal use and ease of access to accommodate as many users as possible regardless of user skill. Further jobs, which under particular circumstances may become involved during the creation of a website include: DRLM is a Design & Development and SEO company based in Monterrey, MX. With expertise in custom web design & web application development, our primary mission is to maximize your productivity via your web presence. We can maximize your business's visibility on the web via search engine positioning, crawler tweaks, social media marketing, search engine advertising and other forms of internet marketing. DRLM will guide you to effectively leverage the Internet to maximize your web presence and work with you to design and develop a properly-structured and competantly-coded website. Your site will be optimized for search engines to find it and index it quickly, boosting traffic to your site. We can tailor our content management systems (CMS), and other web solutions to fit your precise requirements and exact specifications resulting in a customized and result-producing web presence. Home | SEO | Web Design | Web Development | Site Re-Design | Site Maintainence | Online Reputation Management | Branding | Samples | Android | Apple | Adobe | Brochures | Browsers | Business Cards | Client Systems | CMS | FAQ | Printing | Graphics | Logo Design| Social Media | Hosting| MX

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://drlmweb.com/

2013-06-18T06:05:26Z

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en

You can easily detect some simple waveforms by detecting the flanks of the signal. A square has quick rising and falling flanks, a sawtooth has only quick rising or quick falling flanks, depending on the signal. So you check for rising and falling flanks: if you detect both, it is square. If you detect only one type, it is triangle, as long as you are sure only these signals will be input. Try with a differentiator circuit, which is easily done with an opamp. See here: http://www.physics.iitm.ac.in/courses_files/courses/eleclab03_odd/mathematical_operations.htm The steepness of the flank is represented in the output of the differentiator. Feed this signal and its inversion into Schmitt-Triggers and / or retriggerable monoflops, and you have logic level representation of RisingFlank and FallingFlank, which in turn you can use for further computation or display.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/20218/differentiating-between-a-square-wave-or-sawtooth-wave-with-a-circuit

2013-06-18T05:45:41Z

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en

Battle of Navarino |Battle of Navarino| |Part of the Greek War of Independence| The Naval Battle of Navarino (1827). Oil painting by Garneray. | United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Kingdom of France | Ottoman Empire (including Province of Egypt) |Commanders and leaders| | Vice-Adm Edward Codrington Rear-Adm Henri de Rigny Rear-Adm Lodewijk Heyden | Ibrahim Pasha Reis-Pasha (Adm) Amir Tahir Pasha (imperial squadron) Reis (Capt) Capitan Bey (Alexandria squadron) | British Navy: |In Navarino harbor: |Casualties and losses| |177 killed and 469 wounded 600 killed and wounded |Allied estimate: 4,000 killed or wounded| The naval Battle of Navarino was fought on 20 October 1827, during the Greek War of Independence (1821–32), in Navarino Bay (modern-day Pylos), on the west coast of the Peloponnese peninsula, in the Ionian Sea. An Ottoman armada, which, in addition to imperial warships, included squadrons from the eyalets (provinces) of Egypt, Tunis and Algiers, was destroyed by an Allied force of British, French and Russian vessels. It was the last major naval battle in history to be fought entirely with sailing ships, although most ships fought at anchor. The Allies' victory was achieved through superior firepower and gunnery. The central factor which precipitated the intervention of the three Great Powers in the Greek conflict were the Russian Empire's ambitions to expand in the Black Sea region at the expense of the Ottoman Empire and Russian emotional support for the fellow-Orthodox Christian Greeks, who had rebelled against their Ottoman overlords in 1821. Russia's intentions in the region were seen as a major geostrategic threat by the other European powers, which feared the disintegration of the Ottoman empire and the establishment of Russian hegemony in the Balkans and the Near East. This induced Great Britain and France to bind Russia in a joint intervention to secure Greek autonomy in a manner which preserved Ottoman territorial integrity. The Powers agreed, by the Treaty of London (1827), to force the Ottoman government to grant the Greeks autonomy within the empire and despatched naval squadrons to the eastern Mediterranean Sea to enforce their policy. The naval battle happened more by accident than by design as a result of a manoeuvre by the Allied commander-in-chief, Admiral Edward Codrington, aimed at coercing the Ottoman commander to obey Allied instructions. The sinking of the Ottomans' Mediterranean fleet saved the fledgling Greek Republic from collapse. But it required two more military interventions, by Russia in the form of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-9 and by a French expeditionary force to the Peloponnese to force the withdrawal of Ottoman forces from central and southern Greece and to secure Greek independence. The Ottoman empire The Ottomans had conquered the old Greek-controlled Byzantine empire during the late Middle Ages, taking over its territory and its capital, Constantinople, and becoming its effective successor-state. Ethnic Turks were the "master-nation" of the empire, holding political and military power, but were a minority of the empire's population, even of its Muslim population (as they were outnumbered by their Arab subjects). Although officially Islamic, its Christian inhabitants (Greek, Balkan, Armenian and Christian Arab) represented roughly half the total population. Although granted freedom of worship and generally better treated than non-Christians in most European countries, non-Muslims in the Ottoman empire were subject to heavy discriminatory obligations. They were required, in accordance with Islamic Law, to pay a special poll tax, the jizya, which in times of poor harvests could be a crippling burden on mainly subsistence-level peasants. Under the hated devşirme (military levy system), Christian communities were also forced to surrender 1 in 5 infant boys of each annual class to the Ottoman military (the finest physical specimens being selected by the recruiting-sergeants). These would be permanently separated from their families, and moved to military orphanages, where they were raised as Muslims and trained as warriors. When they reached adulthood, they were recruited to the finest regiments of the Ottoman army, especially the elite Janissary corps (from Turkish yeniçeri = "new soldier"). The Ottoman empire had once been the foremost military power in Europe, reaching its apogee in the 16th and 17th centuries, when it posed a serious threat to Christian Europe. Its armies overran the entire Balkan peninsula and Greece, and reached the borders of Austria, laying siege to Vienna twice (in 1529 and 1683). Its fleets dominated the Mediterranean sea. However the Ottomans had gradually fallen behind the other European powers as they failed to modernise their political institutions, economic system and military forces. During the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire steadily lost territory in eastern Europe to the neighbouring Austrian and Russian empires (which annexed Hungary and southern Russia respectively). By the start of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was the most economically backward and militarily weak of the great powers. But its territory, even after the continuous retreats, remained vast and strategic: it encompassed the Balkans, Anatolia, and all the Arab lands from Persia to Morocco. The latter were seen by London as having crucial geo-strategic significance as they constituted the link between the Mediterranean and Britain's empire in India. The Greek revolt In 1821, Greek nationalists in the Romanian Principalities and in the Peloponnese and the Aegean islands, launched a series of uprisings against the Ottoman empire, aiming to liberate ethnic Greeks from four centuries of Ottoman rule (see Greek War of Independence). The Ottoman government, known as "the Porte" in European diplomacy (from the French name - la Sublime Porte - for the gate of the imperial palace through which foreign envoys were admitted), responded with a determined effort to defeat the rebellion. For the Ottoman government, Greece was a core province. Its loss could not be contemplated, unlike other regions such as the Romanian Principalities and Serbia, which were considered peripheral vassal-states. The fear of the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud II (ruled 1808-39), was that the secession of even a small part of Greece such as the Peloponnese would lead to demands by Greek nationalists for the liberation of all the other regions of the empire containing Greek majorities, including central Greece, Macedonia, Thrace, Constantinople itself, western Anatolia, the Aegean islands and Crete and Cyprus, threatening the empire's very existence. In addition, the Greeks were economically critical, as they dominated the empire's trade through their ownership of much of its merchant shipping. On a personal level, Mahmud considered the Greek revolt a monstrous betrayal by a conquered nation that had always been treated generously by the Porte. The Sultan vented his fury on the ethnarch and spiritual leader of the Greeks, the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, Gregory V, whom he suspected of colluding with the rebels. As the Patriarch emerged from his cathedral, in full regalia, after celebrating Easter Mass in April 1821, he was seized by Janissaries and hanged on the spot, from the cathedral gates. After being left to dangle in public for three days, his corpse was dragged through the streets and flung into the Bosporus. Fighting raged for several years but by 1825, a stalemate had developed, with the Greeks unable to drive the Ottomans out of most of Greece, but the Ottomans unable to crush the revolt definitively. However, in 1825, the Sultan succeeded in breaking the stalemate. He persuaded his powerful wali (viceroy) of Egypt, Muhammad Ali Pasha (ruled 1805-49), who was technically his vassal but in practice autonomous, to deploy his Western-trained and equipped army and navy against the Greeks. In return, the Sultan promised to grant the rebel heartland, the Peloponnese, as a hereditary fief to Ali's adopted son, Ibrahim. In February 1825, Ibrahim led an expeditionary force of 16,000 into the Peloponnese, and soon overran its western part; he failed, however, to take the eastern section, where the rebel government was based (at Nafplion). Ibrahim's forces then moved onto the Greek mainland, capturing, despite a heroic Greek defence, the pivotal stronghold of Missolonghi in April 1826. In response to Greek guerrilla attacks on his forces in the Peloponnese, Ibrahim launched a scorched earth campaign which threatened the population with starvation and deported many civilians into slavery in Egypt. He also brought in Arab settlers, allegedly aiming ultimately to replace the Greek population. The Greek revolutionaries, whose motto was ελευθερία ή θάνατος (eleftheria i thanatos: "freedom or death"), remained defiant, and provided their forces with much-needed professional leadership by appointing experienced philhellenic British and French officers to command them: Maj Sir Richard Church (C-in-C) and Col C. Fabvier (land); Adm Lord Cochrane (C-in-C) and Capt F.A. Hastings (sea). By this time however, the Greek provisional government's land and sea forces were far inferior to those of the Ottomans and Egyptians: in 1827, Greek regular troops numbered less than 5,000, compared to 25,000 Ottomans in central Greece and 15,000 Egyptians in the Peloponnese. Also, the Greek government was virtually bankrupt. Many of the key fortresses on what little territory it controlled were in Ottoman hands. It seemed only a matter of time before the Greeks were forced to capitulate. In June 1827 the Acropolis of Athens, the last Greek fortress on the mainland, capitulated to Ottoman forces. At this critical juncture, the Greek cause was rescued by the decision of three Great Powers, Great Britain, France and Russia, to intervene jointly in the conflict. Motives of the Great Powers ||This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2011)| The Greek revolution took place in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, which ended in 1815. The victorious Allied Powers were determined to prevent any repetition of the subversive chaos caused by the French Revolution, and by Napoleon's subsequent attempt to export it to the rest of Europe. At the Congress of Vienna was born the Conservative Order, the principle that the legitimate monarchies of Europe should be inviolable, in both their constitution and territory. The new order was to be defended against all by the Great Powers acting in concert, after negotiations at periodic conferences. This process became known as the Congress system. The Greek revolution presented the conservative order with its first significant challenge. Prima facie, the Greek revolt was a violation of its basic principle, as it involved a revolt against an established monarchy and an attempt by a part of its territory to secede. This was certainly the position adopted by the two chief architects (and enforcers) of the Congress system, British foreign secretary Viscount Castlereagh and Austrian chancellor (prime minister) Prince von Metternich. But the Russians contended that the principle did not apply to the non-Christian, "Asiatic" Ottoman Empire. The Greek issue thus became entangled in the Eastern Question - the name given to the Great Power diplomacy surrounding the decline of the Ottoman Empire. The most pro-Greek power was Russia. As the sole Orthodox Christian great power, Russia had long seen itself as the protector (and potential liberator) of the Balkan and Greek subjects of the Ottoman Empire, who were predominantly of the Orthodox faith. The Serbs and Bulgarians were also fellow Slavic-speakers. These cultural and emotional bonds dovetailed neatly with Russia's geostrategic interests. Supporting a breakaway Greek state, which would be a natural ally of Russia, was an obvious way to advance Russian influence in south-east Europe. The main problem for supporters of Greece in Russia was that Greece was only one of several issues that were in contention between St Petersburg and the Sublime Porte: others included Russia's ambition to impose a protectorate over the Romanian principalities and Serbia, its demands for control of the Principalities' Black Sea ports, the right of Russian warships to sail through the Bosporus, and Russia's annexation of territories in the Caucasus. Austria and Great Britain The decisive Russian triumph in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-74, which brought enormous lands in the Black Sea region as far as the Caucasus under Russian control, resulted in a great fear of Russian expansion on the part of the other great powers, especially Austria and Great Britain. Austrian foreign policy underwent a complete volte-face. For centuries the Austrians were the Ottomans' arch-enemies, bloodily contesting literally every inch of Hungary and Transylvania. But from the late 18th century onwards, the Austrians, threatened with encirclement by Russian ambitions in the Balkans, became firm supporters of the Ottoman empire's integrity. In this they were joined by Great Britain, whose leaders were fearful of Russian expansion into Central Asia as a threat to British India (see the Great Game). The British government was concerned that a successful Greek secession could trigger a series of nationalist revolts that could lead to the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire, leaving an enormous power-vacuum which the Russians were best-placed to fill. When the Greek revolution broke out in 1821, the British Cabinet was dominated by the conservative faction of the ruling Tory party, including Castlereagh, Lord Liverpool (prime minister) and Duke of Wellington, the victor of the Battle of Waterloo and now Master General of Ordnance. These men were resolute supporters of Ottoman territorial integrity. The French government's involvement had somewhat confused motives. France's defeat in the Napoleonic Wars had confirmed Britain's naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. The guiding motive of French policy in the Mediterranean thus remained the same as Napoleon's had been before 1815: to challenge Britain's hegemony, but this time by diplomacy rather than by war. As Napoleon had done with his expedition in 1798, the French government focused on Egypt. France had equipped and trained a modern army and navy for Muhammad Ali Pasha's regime, a policy viewed with intense suspicion by London. It was felt that a likely consequence, intended or not, was Egyptian secession from the Ottoman Empire (which indeed eventually happened). The Paris government also adopted in the Mediterranean, almost on principle, policies opposed by London, such as favouring great power intervention in the Greek conflict. Inconsistently, however, Paris shared London's concern about Russian expansionism and also supported, at least formally, Ottoman territorial integrity. European public opinion Despite their lack of enthusiasm for the rebellion, the British and French governments were under mounting pressure from their home public opinion to assist the Greeks. Whatever the geostrategic implications of their revolt, the Greeks, in the eyes of most Britons and Frenchmen, were gallant Christian fighters struggling to free themselves from a corrupt and oppressive Islamic tyranny. In an era when nationalism was inextricably linked to liberalism, the Greek insurgency became a rallying-cry for liberals all over Europe, and especially for French liberals, whose political action at home were severely restricted by the Bourbon monarchy restored to power by the Allied powers in 1815. Both London and Paris hosted powerful philhellenic committees, supported by prominent and wealthy personalities, such as the romantic poet Lord Byron in England (who died fighting for the Greek cause in 1824) and the writers Chateaubriand and Victor Hugo in France. The Committees raised large sums of money for the Greek revolutionaries, agitated in the press and equipped and despatched hundreds of volunteers to fight in Greece. Popular pressure for intervention intensified after Ibrahim Pasha's brutal invasion of the Peloponnese. The atrocities committed by his forces, loudly advertised and greatly exaggerated in the liberal press, sparked a furore throughout Europe. Ibrahim was denounced in the French press as Le Sanguinaire ("The Bloodthirsty One"). This was acutely embarrassing to the French government, which had equipped and trained the Egyptian forces. The Greek revolt was probably the first occasion in European history when public opinion had a significant impact on great power foreign policy. Both the Russian and French governments had to contend with the basic strategic fact that providing naval assistance to the Greeks was not practicable without British consent, because of Britain's naval supremacy in the Mediterranean. Britain's crushing naval victories over France and Spain in the Napoleonic Wars had turned the Mediterranean into a British lake, closely controlled by a string of strategic bases from Gibraltar to the Ionian islands, which Britain had taken over from the French in 1815 and were the only part of Greece not under Ottoman rule. This meant that any French intervention was in effect subject to a British veto. But the Russians had an alternative option, beyond Britain's veto, of attacking the Ottoman Empire by land across the Danube (and by sea in the Black Sea). Great Power diplomacy From the inception of the Greek revolt until 1826, British and Austrian diplomacy (directed by Castlereagh and Metternich respectively) aimed at ensuring the non-intervention of the great powers in the conflict. Their objective was to stall Russian military intervention in support of the Greeks, in order to give the Ottomans time to defeat the rebellion, which Metternich was convinced they were capable of doing. This diplomacy was initially successful because the reigning Tsar, Alexander I (r.1801-25), was reluctant to support any revolutionary movement because of his experience during the Napoleonic Wars. Despite fervent support for the Greek cause in Russian nationalist circles, Alexander proved unwilling to defy Metternich and Castlereagh and offer the Greeks more than (limited) diplomatic support. Indeed, at the Congress of Verona (1822), Castlereagh persuaded Tsar Alexander to ignore the Greek cause altogether, even refusing to admit a Greek delegation to the conference. In the same year, Alexander also forced the resignation of his ethnic Venetian/Greek foreign minister, Count Giovanni Capo d'Istria (Ioannis Kapodistrias, later president of the First Hellenic Republic), for his passionate advocacy of the Greek cause. In 1824 the Tsar proposed a plan for Greek autonomy to the other powers, but it was clear that he was simply not prepared to act unilaterally. In 1822, Castlereagh was succeeded as foreign secretary by George Canning, to Metternich's dismay. Canning was a liberal Tory, and hostile to the conservative faction led by Wellington. He had even fought a duel with Castlereagh in 1809 over policy disagreements. He detested Metternich's intrigues and was more sympathetic to the Greeks, having joined the London Philhellenic Committee. Nevertheless, until 1826 his policy remained the same as Castlereagh's: non-intervention. But the Ottomans proved unable to suppress the revolt during the long period of non-intervention secured by British and Austrian diplomacy. By the time the Ottomans were making serious progress, it was too late. In December 1825, the diplomatic landscape changed with the death of Tsar Alexander and the succession of his younger brother Nicholas I (r. 1825-55). Still only 30 years old, Nicholas was a more decisive and risk-taking character than his brother, as well as being far more nationalistic. In foreign policy, he adopted a two-faced stance. In western Europe, he became notorious as a ferocious defender of the established order, earning the sobriquet of "the gendarme of Europe" by his willingness to despatch troops as far away as Italy to help crush liberal revolutions. But in the Balkans, he eagerly adopted the mantle of Orthodox crusader and liberator. In this regard, he did not share his brother's aversion to unilateral action. In diplomatic circles, it was now widely believed that it was only a matter of time before the Russians went to war against the Porte. Canning's response to the new situation was to move towards joint intervention: if intervention by Russia was inevitable, then he intended to ensure that it be constrained within parameters acceptable to Britain. He promoted a solution essentially the same as Tsar Alexander's: Greek autonomy under Ottoman suzerainty. The formula was enough to satisfy the Russians, while for the British it had the attraction of preserving Ottoman territorial integrity. A protocol centred on this proposal and envisaging the powers' mediation was signed by Britain and Russia in April 1826. This was a turning-point in British policy, as it envisaged intervention for the first time. The Tsar then surprised the British by making the protocol public (although it was intended only as a first step in a process leading to a formal treaty) and using it as a lever to pressure the Porte. However, neither the Tsar nor the Porte were yet ready for war. Both governments were in the process of modernising their armies, and the Tsar was also concerned with internal unrest in the wake of the Decembrist coup attempt which had nearly prevented his accession. As a result, both settled for a compromise, signing the Convention of Akkerman in October 1826. In return for the Tsar dropping the Greek issue from the negotiations, the Sultan conceded long-standing Russian demands as regards the Romanian Principalities and Serbia. The Porte probably believed it had bought off Russian support for the Greeks, neutralising the Anglo-Russian protocol of April. But Tsar Nicholas had no intention of forgetting Greece. Negotiations proceeded on a formal treaty based on the protocol, now with France included. (Metternich refused an invitation to participate, and continued to support the Porte). But progress stalled, largely because of continuing opposition within the British Cabinet to intervention, led by the Duke of Wellington. The Tsar became impatient, and stepped up pressure on Great Britain by despatching in October 1826 a naval squadron to the Mediterranean from St Petersburg, sending them off by expressing confidence that they would soon be able to despatch the Ottoman fleet à la Russe. The squadron pointedly visited the British naval base of Portsmouth en route. This implied threat of unilateral action by Russia strengthened Canning's hand in the Cabinet: when, in April 1827, Liverpool was obliged by illness to step down as prime minister, Canning won the contest to succeed him. Wellington promptly resigned, clearing the way for a treaty to be concluded. Treaty of London The three Powers signed the Treaty of London on 6 July 1827. Citing the disruption of trade in the Mediterranean caused by the war as the justification for allied intervention, the treaty called for an immediate armistice between the belligerents, in effect demanding a cessation of Ottoman military operations in Greece just when the Ottomans had victory in their grasp. It also offered Allied mediation in the negotiations on a final settlement that were to follow the armistice. The treaty called on the Porte to grant the Greeks autonomy. The treaty envisaged Greece remaining under Ottoman suzerainty, and paying an annual tribute to the Sultan. The amount of tribute was to be negotiated and fixed permanently, to avoid the situation which had developed in the Romanian Principalities, where variable tributes had become crushing burdens and had kept those countries in poverty for two centuries. (The Porte, which had the power to appoint - and depose - the princes, effectively auctioned the Principalities to those candidates among the Romanian boyar aristocracy who pledged to pay the highest amount of tribute). A secret clause in the agreement provided that if the Porte failed to accept the armistice within a month, each signatory Power would despatch a consul to Nafplion, the capital of the Hellenic Republic, thereby granting de facto recognition to the rebel government, something no Power had done hitherto. The same clause authorized the signatories in concert to instruct their naval commanders in the Mediterranean to "take all measures that circumstances may suggest" (i.e. including military action) to enforce the Allied demands, if the Ottomans failed to comply within the specified time limit. However, the clause added that Allied commanders should not take sides in the conflict. The treaty was thus a contradictory document, reflecting the conflicting priorities of the signatories, with the Russians demanding a harder line with the Ottomans than their allies. It called for a negotiated settlement, but predetermined what the end result of those negotiations should be. It offered mediation, but threatened the use of force. It authorized force to be used, but forbade joining in the hostilities. Above all, although it was couched in neutral language, in reality it favoured the Greek position. The critical point is that it committed the European powers to armed intervention and effectively guaranteed a successful outcome for the Greek revolution. It was signed just in time, as its architect Canning died in office just a few weeks later. On 20 August 1827, the British naval commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean (i.e.. commander of "Blue" Squadron), Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Codrington (1770–1851), veteran of 44 years at sea and a popular hero for his role in the Battle of Trafalgar, received his government's instructions regarding enforcement of the treaty. Codrington could not have been a less suitable character for a task which required great tact. He had joined the Royal Navy at age 13 as a midshipman and worked his way to the top by sheer merit and courage. An impetuous fighting sailor, he entirely lacked diplomatic finesse, a quality he despised and derisively ascribed to his French counterpart, H. de Rigny. He was also a sympathiser with the Greek cause, having joined the London Philhellenic Committee. His instructions were to impose and enforce an armistice on both sides and to interdict the flow of reinforcements and supplies from Asia Minor and Egypt to Ottoman forces in Greece. He was to use force only as a last resort. On 29 August, the Porte formally rejected the Treaty of London's stipulations, triggering the dispatch of Allied representatives to Nafplion. On 2 September, the Greek provisional government accepted the armistice. This freed Codrington to concentrate on coercing the Ottoman side. Navarino Bay is a large natural harbour on the west coast of Messenia (SW Peloponnese). It is approximately 5 km long (between the headlands) and 3 km wide. The bay is sheltered from the open sea by a long, narrow islet (Sphacteria). This islet leaves two entrances to the bay. Because of a sandbank, the northern one is very narrow and shallow, 100 m wide and just 1 m deep in places, impassable to large boats. The southern one is much wider, 1500 m, with an effective passage of 1000 m width because of rocks. The southern entrance was at that time guarded by an Ottoman-held fort, at Navarino (Pylos). During the Greek insurgency, the bay was used by the Ottoman navy as its main operational base in the Peloponnese. A large Ottoman-Egyptian fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria on 5 August 1827 and joined other Ottoman units at Navarino on 8 September. In response, Codrington arrived with his squadron off Navarino on 12 September. In talks on 25 September with Ibrahim Pasha and the Ottoman admiral, he extracted verbal promises that they would cease offensive operations by land and sea. After these talks, Codrington withdrew to the nearby British-controlled Ionian island of Zante (Zakynthos), leaving a frigate off Navarino to keep watch on the Ottoman fleet. But the Ottomans soon violated these undertakings. Ibrahim was outraged that, while he was expected to observe a ceasefire, Codrington seemingly allowed the Greeks to continue military operations unhindered. The Greeks' British commanders were on the offensive at the entrance of the strategically vital Gulf of Corinth. Church's army lay siege to the Ottoman-held port of Patras, while Cochrane organised a revolt behind Ottoman lines in Epirus. By sea, Hastings' steam-powered warship, the Karteria, launched a daring night-raid (29/30 September) at Itea on the northern shore of the Gulf, sinking 9 Ottoman gunboats. The problem for Codrington was that these officers were acting on their own initiative, largely ignoring the often contradictory directives of their employer, the Greek provisional government. Recognising that appeals to the latter were ineffective, Codrington despatched aides directly to the British commanders to demand that they cease operations, but with little result. After a vain protest to Codrington, Ibrahim decided to act. On 1 October, he despatched a naval squadron to reinforce the Patras garrison. It was intercepted by Codrington's squadron at the entrance to the Gulf, and forced to return to Navarino, shadowed by Codrington. Ibrahim tried again on the night of 3/4 October, this time leading the squadron in person. Using the darkness, he succeeded in slipping past the British picket-ship unobserved, but was prevented from entering the Gulf by a strong headwind. His squadron was obliged to anchor in the lee of Cape Papas and wait out the storm. This gave Codrington time to catch up, and the British squadron, after a whole day of fighting the wind, arrived off Papas on the evening of 4 October. Codrington fired a series of warning broadsides, and Ibrahim reluctantly decided to turn back. In the meantime, Ibrahim's scorched-earth policy continued unabated on land. The fires of burning villages and fields were clearly visible from Allied ships standing offshore. A British landing party reported that the population of Messena was close to mass starvation. On 13 October Codrington was joined off Navarino by his allied support, a French squadron under De Rigny and a Russian squadron under L. Heyden. On 18 October, after futile attempts to contact Ibrahim Pasha, Codrington, in conference with his Allied colleagues, took the fateful decision to enter Navarino bay and anchor his ships face-to-face with the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet. It was decided that with winter approaching, it was impracticable to maintain an effective blockade of Navarino and that in any event, the population of the Peloponnese had to be safeguarded. Although this was highly provocative act, Codrington claimed that there was no intention to engage in battle, but only to make a show of force to induce the Ottomans to respect the armistice and to desist from atrocities against the civilian population. Relative strength of the two Fleets The Allied navies at this time were still deploying essentially the same technology as during the Napoleonic Wars: sailing ships, unarmoured wooden hulls and muzzle-loading smoothbore cannon. The navies, especially the British one, had ignored the new technologies that were to transform them by the 1850s: steam propulsion, ironclad hulls, rifled guns and explosive shells. All these had been invented by 1827, but their development for naval warfare, let alone introduction, met dogged resistance from senior naval echelons. In the words of one scholar: "The great admirals of the 18th century would have had no difficulty in taking over Codrington's command at short notice." The British navy did not deploy steam warships until the 1840s. Ironically, the fledgling navy of the Greek revolutionaries was far ahead of the field: they possessed a small warship propelled by steam-powered paddles (as well as sails) called the Karteria. Entering service in 1826, it was the first steam warship to see combat in history. However, the Royal Navy's warships had seen some improvements. Ships with triple gun-decks such as Nelson's famous HMS Victory had been phased out. Triple-deckers had been found to be too unstable and difficult to manoeuvre. The standard Canopus-class battleship was now a double-deck 74-84 gun boat, based on the successful "74" French design. In addition, gun-calibres had been upgraded. The Napoleonic-era Fame-class battleships had been equipped with 32-pounders on the main gun-deck, 18-pounders on the upper deck and 9- and 12- pounders on the super-structures (quarterdeck and forecastle). In contrast, the guns were now all 24- or 32-pounders (plus a couple of massive 68-pounder carronades on the super-structures). Frigates were either double-deckers of 50-60 guns (known as large frigates); or single-deckers with 24-44 guns. Most of the Allied ships, however, were still veteran Napoleonic-era warhorses (e.g. HMS Albion). Codrington's only Canopus-class battleship was his flagship, HMS Asia (launched 1824), although Genoa (an impounded French "74") was also post-Napoleonic (1816). In the French squadron, De Rigny was so appalled by the state of the 3 battleships sent to him that he decided to keep his flag on the Sirène, a modern frigate. Overall at Navarino, the Allies had 22 ships and 1,258 guns against the Ottomans' 78 ships with 2,180 guns (figures exclude smaller boats and fireships). But the numbers masked major Allied advantages in ship-types, gun-calibres and crew quality. As a result of these, Allied gun-crews could fire more powerful, more frequent and more accurate cannonades than their Ottoman counterparts. The Allies had a substantial superiority in front-line combat vessels: 10 battleships to the Ottomans' 3. This advantage was only partially offset by the Ottomans' 7 double-deck frigates against 1 Allied vessel of this kind. The great majority of the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet were smaller vessels – 58 corvettes and brigs – which were of little use against the Allied heavyweights: they had much smaller firepower, and, their decks being lower, could easily be dismasted by raking fire. In addition, the Ottoman-Egyptians mainly deployed smaller-calibre guns than the Allies (often the guns discarded by the Allies when they upgraded their own calibres). Most of the Allied crews had gained extensive combat experience in the Napoleonic Wars, which had only ended 12 years previously, and were service professionals. In contrast, the Ottoman crews only had combat experience against the Greek revolutionary naval forces, which although gallant and effective, bore no resemblance to the navies of the Great Powers. In many cases, Ottoman crews impressed men. Some Ottoman crew were even found, after the battle, to have been shackled at their posts (convicts, Greek prisoners or other involuntary recruits). The Egyptian contingent, the largest and best-equipped of the Ottoman fleet at Navarino, had been trained by a team of French officers, under the overall direction of Capt J-M. Letellier. These officers acted as "shadow-captains" of the large Egyptian vessels, each advising the nominal Egyptian captain. The day before the battle, De Rigny persuaded these officers to withdraw from the Egyptian fleet so as to avoid the possibility of fighting against their own navy (they moved to an Austrian brig that was in the bay, ostensibly neutral but in reality providing logistical support for Ottoman operations). Letellier himself was sick and also took no part. This deprived the Egyptians of experienced command. For the Allies, probably the Ottomans' most dangerous weapon were their fireships. The latter, the "poor man's battleship", had long been deployed to devastating effect by the Greek revolutionaries against the Ottomans, who had learnt how to use them through hard experience. Fireships were posted on the wings of the Ottoman formation, and could, if effectively deployed, wreak mayhem on Allied boats concentrated in enclosed waters, especially as Allied sailors had no experience of this kind of warfare. The danger was graphically demonstrated in the early phase of the battle, when the French battleship Scipion narrowly escaped being destroyed by a fireship. The Ottomans possessed a shore battery on each side of the main entrance to the bay, in Navarino fort and on the southern tip of Sphacteria island. These could seriously have impeded Allied entry into the bay, but Codrington was clearly confident that the Ottomans would not start a shooting war. (Or, in an alternative interpretation, he hoped that they would, to give him an excuse to destroy the Ottoman fleet). Following an elaborate defensive plan proposed by Letellier, the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet was anchored in a horseshoe formation, in three lines, extending from Navarino fort to the southern tip of Sphacteria island, where the Ottoman shore battery lay. The front line consisted of the heavy boats, battleships and large frigates; the 2nd line contained the remaining frigates and larger corvettes; the 3rd consisted of the remaining smaller boats. The idea was that the small boats could fire through the gaps in the frontline, whilst being protected by the large boats from Allied attack. On the ends of the horseshoe were stationed corvettes and fireships. The latter could be towed by small boats into position covered by the smaller corvettes and shore batteries. The Allied plan was to anchor in the free water inside the crescent. Codrington's squadron would take up position facing the centre of the Ottoman line; the French and Russian squadrons would face the Ottoman left and right wings respectively. The French position in the line had been specifically determined so that they would face the Egyptian fleet, which had been trained by the French and might be reluctant to fight against Egypt's closest European ally. In conventional naval doctrine, Codrington's plan would have been regarded as an unacceptable risk, as it would have invited the enemy to try to surround the Allies. Furthermore, with the prevailing wind blowing from the SW, straight up the entrance, Codrington risked becoming trapped, unable to extricate his squadrons quickly if necessary. The adoption of this high-risk plan shows the total confidence of the Allied commanders in the tactical superiority of their vessels. At 1.30 PM, 20 October 1827, off the entrance to Navarino bay, Codrington signalled to the Allied fleet: "PREPARE FOR ACTION" and Allied crews were ordered to stand to their guns. Gun-ports were left half-open, but Allied captains were under strict orders to open fire only if attacked. At 2.00 PM, Allied warships, with Codrington in the lead in Asia, began filing into the bay through the southern entrance, proceeding in two lines, British followed by French to starboard (SE, closest to Navarino) and Russians to port abreast but slightly behind the French. There was no attempt to prevent their entry by the Ottoman shore batteries or their corvettes posted at the entrance, but Codrington received a launch carrying a message from Ibrahim Pasha. This stated that he had not given permission for the Allies to enter the bay, and demanded that they withdraw. Codrington dismissed Ibrahim's objection, replying that he had come to give orders, not to take them. He warned that if the Ottomans opened fire, their fleet would be destroyed. As his flagship cast anchor in the middle of the Ottoman line, Codrington ordered a brass band to play on deck to emphasize his peaceful intentions. By 2.15 PM, the 3 British battleships had dropped anchor in their allotted positions. Meanwhile as the Allied vessels moved into position, along the Ottoman lines trumpets sounded action stations. Ottoman crews scrambled to meet the unexpected intrusion into their base. At this point, at the entrance, fighting broke out. Codrington claimed that hostilities were started by the Ottomans. The outbreak, according to Allied sources, occurred in the following manner: At the entrance to the bay, Capt Thomas Fellowes on the frigate Dartmouth had been detailed, with six smaller boats (2 brigs and 4 schooners) to keep watch on the group of Ottoman corvettes and fireships on the left flank of the Ottoman line. As the Allied ships continued moving into the bay, Fellowes noticed that an Ottoman crew was preparing a fireship and sent a boat to instruct them to desist. The Ottomans fired on the boat and lighted the fireship. Fellowes sent a cutter to tow the fireship to a safe distance, but the Ottomans fired on the cutter, inflicting casualties. Fellowes opened musket fire on the fireship crew to cover his men. At this point the French flagship Sirène, which was just then entering the bay on the tail of the British-French line, opened fire with muskets to support Dartmouth. An Ottoman corvette then attacked Sirène with its guns. This chain reaction spread along the line, so that within a short time, there was general engagement. The battle thus began before the Allies could complete their deployment. In fact, this proved to be a tactical advantage, as it meant some Allied ships were not yet at anchor and could therefore manoeuvre more swiftly. Nevertheless, most ships fought at anchor. There was naturally very little scope for manoeuvre, except to change the orientation of the boat by hauling on the springs on the anchor chains. With ships blasting each other at very close range, the encounter was mostly a matter of attrition, in which superior Allied firepower and gunnery were critical. Combat action may be summarised as follows: - The French battleship Scipion (80 guns), behind De Rigny's Sirène (60), immediately came under intense attack, by a combination of Egyptian frigates on both sides, the shore batteries and a fireship. The latter was nearly fatal. The fireship jammed under Scipion's bowsprit, the fore sails caught fire and the fire spread onto the upper gun-deck. Men flung themselves on the fire to prevent it spreading to the forward powder magazine, with inevitable horrendous burn injuries. Nevertheless, the gunners continued to fire on the attackers. Scipion was saved from destruction by her sister ship Trident (74), which succeeded in attaching a tow-line to the fireship and, with the assistance of Dartmouth and 2 other British boats, pulling it clear. - De Rigny's Sirène fought a lengthy duel with the 64-gun frigate Ihsania, which finally blew up. Sirène suffered significant casualties and damage. Sirène, with the support of Trident and Scipion, then bombarded the fort of Navarino and eventually silenced its shore battery. - The captain of French battleship Breslau (84), Capt De la Bretonnière, seeing that De Rigny did not need further support, decided on his own initiative to break away from the French formation and move into the centre of the bay, at the junction of the British and Russian lines, to reinforce British battleship Albion (74) and Russian battleship Azov (80). Both were hard pressed. Albion, which had wrecked an Ottoman frigate as she anchored, was under fire from all 3 Ottoman battleships simultaneously. Fortunately for her, the enemy gunnery was inept. Even so, Breslau's intervention was later acknowledged by the captain of Albion as having saved his ship from annihilation. Breslau then proceeded to play a leading role in the destruction of Ottoman admiral Tahir Pasha's flagship, the Ghiuh Rewan (84), and at least 4 frigates. - Codrington's Asia (84) was anchored between Ottoman admiral Capitan Bey's flagship, battleship Fahti Bahri (74), and Egyptian Moharram Bey's frigate Guerrière (60). Capitan Bey opened fire, but Moharram Bey sent word to Codrington that he was not going to attack. This enabled Asia to concentrate its fire on Fahti Bahri, which was in a poor condition and inadequately manned. Asia's deadly fire shortly disabled her. Codrington then sent an interpreter, Greek P. Mikelis, to parley with Moharram Bey; but Mikelis was shot dead as he went aboard. Guerrière then opened fire, but was reduced to a burning wreck within 20 minutes by crushing broadsides from Asia and Azov. However, Asia suffered severe casualties and damage due to a concentration of heavy fire from smaller Ottoman boats in the second and third lines of the Ottoman formation: as Letellier had planned, these boats fired through the gaps in the front line. Codrington also believed that Asia had taken serious hits by mistake from sister battleship Genoa. - The Russians under Heyden were the last to take up station, as was planned. Their position, on the right end of the Ottoman crescent, was the most exposed. The fighting in this sector was even more intense than elsewhere. Azov sank or disabled 3 large frigates and a corvette, but herself took 153 hits, several below the waterline. - The British frigates Armide and Talbot initially had to face the frigates on the Ottoman right wing and the island shore battery unsupported, as the other two frigates were away and arrived later. They were saved from annihilation by the arrival of the Russian frigates. - The British and French small boats (brigs and the schooners Alcyone and Daphne), under the overall direction of frigate Dartmouth, had been allotted the vital task of preventing fireship attacks. Their success was complete: apart from the initial fireship attack on Scipion, not a single fireship struck a target during the battle. A number of small boats greatly distinguished themselves, suffering casualties as great, in proportion, as the battleships. By about half-time in the battle (circa 4 p.m.), all 3 Ottoman battleships and most of the large frigates of the 1st line had been despatched. This left the mass of smaller boats in the 2nd and 3rd lines at the mercy of the Allied battleships, all of which were still operational. During the ensuing massacre, Codrington tried twice to order a ceasefire, but his signals were either invisible because of the thick smoke or ignored in the heat of the battle. Within the following two hours, virtually the entire Ottoman fleet was destroyed, despite the signal bravery of the Ottoman crews, which was praised by Codrington himself in his despatches. Three quarters were sunk: many of them, dismasted but still afloat and reparable, were blown up or set on fire by their own crews to prevent them falling into Allied hands. This contributed to the horrendous Ottoman and Egyptian casualty figures, as many men were trapped in burning or exploding vessels. Some, as mentioned, were shackled to their posts. Ottoman casualties given to Codrington by Letellier were approx. 3,000 killed, 1,109 wounded, although Codrington claimed the reverse was more likely. Of the entire Ottoman-Egyptian armada of 78 vessels, just 8 remained seaworthy: 1 dismasted battleship, 2 frigates and 5 corvettes. Allied casualties were given by Codrington as 181 killed, 480 wounded (including Codrington's youngest son, midshipman H. Codrington, serving on Asia under his father, who was badly injured but made a full recovery). Several Allied ships were severely damaged: the 3 Russian battleships Azov, Gangut and Iezekiil were disabled. The three British battleships had to be sent to England for repairs. In fact, given the rough handling all the battleships had endured and the danger from exploding Ottoman vessels, it was miraculous that not a single Allied vessel was sunk. As the guns fell silent at dusk in Navarino Bay, news of the outcome raced over the Peloponnese and to the rest of Greece. In village after village, church bells started a continuous peal in the night. People rushed into village squares, to be greeted by the news that the Ottoman Sultan and his hated vassal Ibrahim Pasha no longer possessed a Mediterranean fleet. In a maritime country like Greece, the implication was evident, that the fledgling Greek state was saved. Wild rejoicing broke out, and lasted through the night and for days after. Huge bonfires were lit on the mountaintops of the Peloponnese and Mt Parnassos in central Greece. Celebrations swept even the occupied regions, which the demoralised Ottoman garrisons made little effort to prevent. ||This section needs additional citations for verification. (October 2011)| Despite the celebrations, the Sultan still disposed of a total of around 40,000 troops in central and southern Greece, entrenched in powerful fortresses. The final liberation of Greece was still far off, unless the Porte could be induced to accept the Treaty of London. The Sultan, however, refused to concede defeat in Greece. On the contrary, his response to the Navarino disaster was to raise the stakes dramatically, in effect challenging Russia to decide the whole issue on the battlefield. A few weeks after the battle, in a symbolic gesture, he proclaimed jihad (holy war) against the European powers in his claimed role as khalifa (caliph, or spiritual leader) of all Muslims. More concretely, he closed the Bosporus to international shipping, a move certain to provoke Russia, whose entire Black Sea trade had to pass through the Straits. He also revoked the Convention of Akkerman, signed with Russia the previous year. The Sultan also ordered his vassal Muhammad Ali not to withdraw his army from the Peloponnese. But the Allies despatched envoys to Alexandria to demand that the Egyptian prince do precisely that. This left Muhammad Ali in a dilemma. On the one hand, as an experienced statesman, he knew that with the Great Powers backing Greek autonomy, the game was up in the Peloponnese. On the other, he was reluctant to be seen as betraying his overlord, especially now that he had declared jihad, and also to inflict on his son Ibrahim the humiliation of a forced withdrawal. So he played for time, engaging the Allies in lengthy but inconclusive negotiations, in the hope that in the meantime the Sultan would himself reach an agreement with the Allies that would permit Ibrahim a face-saving departure. But any chance of a negotiated settlement disappeared with Russia's long-expected declaration of war on the Porte in April 1828, starting the 11th Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829) and signalling the ultimate failure of British diplomacy. With the Tsar himself present in nominal command (actual command was in the hands of veteran career-soldier Count Wittgenstein), a Russian army of 100,000 men, supported by the Black sea fleet, swept aside the Ottoman forces in the Romanian Principalities, crossed the Danube, and laid siege to Silistra, Varna and Shumla, the key Ottoman-held fortresses in Rumelia (Bulgaria). But despite substantial Russian successes by land and sea (including the capture of the crucial seaport of Varna), the 1828 campaign ended inconclusively. Silistra and Shumla remained in Ottoman hands because of their fierce defence, and the main Russian army was obliged to withdraw to Russian territory by supply shortages and disease. Meanwhile, in Paris, a more liberal government under the Vicomte de Martignac took office in January 1828, after an election in which the Bourbon kingdom of France's tiny electorate of 74,000 mainly aristocratic voters turned against the ultra-conservative faction. Eager to court popularity, de Martignac announced in April 1828 that, in view of the failure of diplomatic efforts, France would despatch an expeditionary force of 13,000 elite troops to expel the Egyptian and Ottoman forces from the Peloponnese. The news was greeted with wild enthusiasm by the Parisian public. As urgent preparations began in France's Mediterranean ports, Ibrahim Pasha told his father that he felt confident he could repel the French. But since the sinking of his expensive modern fleet, Ali had lost all appetite for military confrontation with the Great Powers. Ibrahim's motley force of Egyptian peasants and Albanian mercenaries, he felt sure, would stand no chance against the French professionals, who were largely officered by battle-hardened veterans of Napoleon's army. Ali now engaged in serious negotiations with Codrington, who had been despatched by London to Alexandria to try to forestall the French intervention. In August, Ali agreed terms with Codrington for the withdrawal of his forces from the Peloponnese. Ibrahim initially refused to comply with his father's evacuation orders, but gave way shortly after the French troops landed in Navarino Bay at the end of August, to a jubilant reception by the Greeks. The Egyptians finally left in October 1828, a year after the naval battle. The French proceeded to clear the remaining Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese, which offered only token resistance, by the end of 1828. In the subsequent months, Greek forces regained control of central Greece in a lightning campaign. For the 1829 campaign on the Danube, Tsar Nicholas dismissed the ailing Wittgenstein and handed the Russian command to his more aggressive compatriot, Count von Diebitsch, who succeeded in capturing Silistra and then surprised the Ottomans with a high-speed drive for the Ottoman capital Constantinople (Istanbul), bypassing Shumla and routing an Ottoman army sent to intercept him. In September 1829, with the Russian army camped just 40 miles from his palace, the Sultan was forced to capitulate. By the Treaty of Adrianople, he conceded a long list of Russian demands, one of which was acceptance of Greek autonomy as defined in the Treaty of London. However, Tsar Nicholas and his ministers were careful to refrian from the more extreme demands advocated by Russian nationalists, such as a Russian military occupation of the Straits or annexation of the Romanian principalities, that would risk war with Great Britain and Austria. As a consequence, London and Vienna were relieved that the outcome was not worse and reluctantly acquiesced in Russia's strategic gains. However, the Sultan's acceptance came too late to save Ottoman sovereignty over Greece. Buoyed by the Ottoman disasters on land and sea, and their own military successes, the Greeks refused to accept anything less than full independence. Finally, at the London Protocol of 1830, the Allies dropped their policy of Ottoman suzerainty and accepted Greek independence, but insisted that the new state should be a monarchy not a republic. Later that year, the Sultan was forced by the Allied powers to sign the Treaty of Constantinople (1832) formally recognizing the new Kingdom of Greece as an independent state. The latter's territory, however, was restricted to just those regions from which Ottoman forces had been expelled, namely the Peloponnese, the Cyclades islands of the Aegean Sea and central Greece. Many regions with an ethnic-Greek majority (Thessaly, Epirus, part of Macedonia and Thrace, the remaining Aegean islands, Crete and Cyprus), remained under Ottoman rule. The disastrous secession of Greece was by no means the end of the Sultan's tribulations. Ironically, the gravest threat to the Ottoman empire's integrity that emerged was not from Russia, but from Egypt. Having lost his fleet and the hereditary fiefdom promised to his son, Muhammad Ali now demanded as compensation that Ibrahim be appointed wali (viceroy) of the Ottoman province of Syria (which included modern Syria, Lebanon and Palestine). When the Sultan refused, Muhammad Ali sent an army under Ibrahim into Syria in 1831. Swiftly defeating the local Ottoman forces and overrunning the province, Ibrahim crushed an Ottoman army in Anatolia and prepared to march on Constantinople. He was forced to stop by the intervention of Britain and France, which, however, obliged the Porte to grant Ibrahim control of not only Syria, but also the island of Crete and of the Hijaz region of Arabia. His rule was characteristically oppressive and sparked a series of indigenous revolts, notably the Palestinian Arab revolt of 1834. In 1839, the Sultan launched a military attempt to oust him, but the Ottoman army was again routed by Ibrahim, who again invaded Anatolia. At this critical juncture, the exhausted Mahmud II died and was succeeded by his teenage son, Abdulmecid I. Faced with the spectre of the disintegration of the Ottoman empire, the British and Austrian navies intervened directly in the Levant by blockading the Nile Delta coast and forced Ali to withdraw his forces from Syria (1840). In return, the Allies obliged the young Sultan to grant Ali an unprecedented hereditary vice-regency over Egypt. The dynasty that Ali founded ruled Egypt until the nationalist/military coup of 1952. But de facto independence from the Ottomans was soon replaced by de facto rule from Whitehall. After the construction of the Suez Canal in 1869, which instantly became the main shipping-route to British India, successive British governments decided that Egypt was simply too strategic to be left to its own devices and imposed a military protectorate over the country. British troops were stationed in Egypt from 1875 to the end of the Second World War in 1945 and Ali's successors were reduced to puppets of British imperial policy. The news of Navarino made Codrington a hero twice over in the eyes of the general British public. But in Whitehall, senior naval and diplomatic echelons were appalled by the outcome of his campaign. It was considered that Codrington had grossly exceeded his instructions by provoking a showdown with the Ottoman fleet, and that his actions had gravely compromised the Porte's ability to resist Russian encroachment. At a social event, King George IV was reported as referring to the battle as "this untoward [i.e., undesirable] event". Codrington's political situation in London became even more precarious with the return of Wellington to government in January 1828, this time as Prime Minister at the head of the Tory Government 1828–1830. The coincident launch of Tsar Nicholas' war on the Porte realised the worst fears of British policy-makers and deepened their anger at Codrington. Initially, official disapproval of Codrington had to be restrained because of the admiral's huge popularity with the public. The Admiralty's revenge took petty form, such as its refusal, despite repeated requests by Codrington, to pay his crews their traditional prize-money from the sale of captured Ottoman treasure and goods. Meanwhile, Wellington was biding his time until he felt it was politically safe to remove Codrington from the Mediterranean theatre. Finally, in June 1828, the Admiralty announced that Codrington was being relieved of his command (although he remained in acting-command until his replacement arrived in August). Although the King felt obliged by public opinion to grant Codrington the high honour of the Grand Cross of the Bath, the Admiralty's failure to give him another operational command in his remaining decade of service or to promote him to full Admiral until shortly before his retirement from the Navy in 1837, were eloquent testimony to his fall from favour. Codrington spent much time in his later years defending his actions in Greece. His enemies accused him of deliberately plotting the destruction of the Ottoman fleet because of his Hellenophile sympathies, a charge that Codrington vehemently denied. The issue turned on whether he knew that his move into Navarino Bay would result in a battle. The evidence is mixed. On the one hand, there are Codrington's clear orders to his captains to engage only if attacked. On the other is Codrington's private correspondence, notably to his sister, which suggests that he regarded a military showdown as inevitable. Commemoration of the battle There are a number of memorials to the battle around Navarino Bay. The main square of Pylos, Three Admirals' Square (Greek: Πλατεία Τριών Ναυάρχων), has as its centrepiece a three-sided marble monument, with profiles of Codrington, Heyden, and De Rigny on the three sides. Memorials to the dead of the three allies are to be found on the islands in the bay: Helonaki islet (British), Pylos islet (French), and Sphacteria island (Russian). The Russian memorial is the most impressive, consisting of a small wooden chapel in the Russian Orthodox style. Additionally, there is a memorial to the philhellene Santarosa, who was killed in an earlier battle, on the rocky shore of Sphacteria. The battle is commemorated each year on 20 October by all day celebrations in Three Admirals' Square in Pylos, hosted by the Mayor of Pylos. The Russian, French and British governments send representatives to the ceremonies, and in the case of the Russians, a warship and its crew. Some bronze from the sunken Ottoman ships was bought by Anton Samassa in Trieste and was in 1834 used for the main bell of St. Judoc's Church in Sveti Jošt near Kranj, Carniola (now Slovenia). It bears an inscription by the Slovene Romantic poet France Prešeren: "My bronze was found at the bottom of the sea, when the kingdom of Turkey was ended in Helade by Navarino. It was bought by a pilgrim; cast into a bell by Samassa, now I announce God's honour from St. Jodocus's embrasures." Table of combatant ships |GREAT BRITAIN||FRANCE||RUSSIA||Allied Powers Total||OTTOMANS/EGYPTIANS**||Ottoman/Egyptian Total| |Battleships||Asia (FF) (84) Azov (F) (80) Aleksandr Nevskii (80) |10 (796)||Ghiuh Rewan (FF) (84) Fahti Bahri (F) (74) Burj Zafer (70) |Sirène (F)(dd) (60) |10 (438)||Ihsanya (dd) (64) Surya (dd) (56) Guerrière (F)(dd) (60) Leone (dd) (60) Fevz Nusrat (dd) (64) Ka'íd Zafer (dd) (64) 1 other dd 10 single-deck frigates |Other*||2 brigs||2 (24)||30 corvettes |Total||9||5||8||22 (1258)||78||78 (2180)| Source: Compiled from information in W. James Naval History of Great Britain (London, 1837) Vol.VI, pp. 476–89. Note Exact figures for the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet are difficult to establish. The figures given above are mainly those enclosed by Codrington in his report. These were obtained by one of his officers from the French secretary of the Ottoman fleet, a M. Leteiller. However, another report by Leteiller to the British ambassador to the Porte gives 2 more frigates and 20 less corvettes/brigs for a total of 60 warships. W. James in Naval History of Great Britain (1837) Vol. VI, p. 478, assesses the Ottomans' "effective" strength as even lower: 3 battleships, 15 large frigates and 18 corvettes, totaling just 36 ships. * Other excludes schooners, fireships and launches Figures in brackets indicate no. of guns FF = Flagship (Commander-in-Chief) F = Flagship dd = double-deck frigate ** Ottoman Empire/Egypt/Algeria/Tunisia (Ibrahim Pasha) - Capitan Bey Squadron (Alexandria): 2 battleships, 5 frigates, 12 corvettes - Moharram Bey Squadron (Alexandria): 4 frigates, 11 corvettes, 21 brigs, 5 schooners, and 5 (or 6?) fireships - Algiers Squadron: Several battleships - Tunis Squadron: 2 frigates, 1 brig - Tahir Pasha Squadron (Admiral commanding) (Constantinople): 1 battleship, 6 frigates, 7 corvettes, 6 brigs - A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ..., by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009, 1150-1151 - A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ..., by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009, 1151 - A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle ..., by Spencer C. Tucker, 2009, 1152 - The War Chronicles: From Flintlocks to Machine Guns: A Global Reference of ... , Joseph Cummins, 2009, p.57 - Runciman (1965) 29-33, 133-159 - Woodhouse (1965) 22 - Woodhouse (1965) 39 - Dakin (1973) 142 - Dakin (1973) 151, 174 - Woodhouse (1965) 24 - Woodhouse (1965) 108 - Dakin (1973) 64, 144, 147 - Dakin (1973) 142, 154 - Dakin (1973) 143, 149 - Dakin (1973) 148 - Dakin (1973) 65, 153 - Dakin (1973) 63, 147, 153 - Dakin (1973) 153, 155, 175 - Dakin op cit 178 - Dakin (1973) 153, 178, 180 - Dakin (1973) 180-1 - Dakin (1973) 182 - Treaty of London (1827) Article I - Treaty of London (1827) Article II - Treaty of London (1827) Additional Clause (I) - Treaty of London (1827) Additional Clause (II) - Woodhouse (1965) 32-4 - Letter to his senior officers from Codrington Sept 8 1827 reproduced in James (1837) 473 (London, 1837) - Woodhouse (1965) 58-60 - Woodhouse (1965) 56 - Woodhouse (1965) 75-81 - Woodhouse (1965) 82-3 - Woodhouse (1965) 83-6 - Report to Codrington from Capt Hamilton (HMS Cambrian), reproduced in James (1837) VI.476 - Protocol of conference of Allied commanders 18 Oct 1827 reproduced in James (1837) VI.489 - Codrington's report on battle to Admiralty 21 Oct 1827 reproduced in James (1837) VI.486-8 - Woodhouse (1965) 28 - Woodhouse (1965) 31 - Woodhouse (1965) 70 - James (1837) VI.473-89 - Woodhouse (1965) 121 - Woodhouse (1965) 22, 117 - Woodhouse (1965) 117-8 - Woodhouse (1965) 98 - Codrington's report reproduced in James (1837) VI.486 - Woodhouse (1965) 100 - Woodhouse (1965) 106 - James (1837) VI.483 - Woodhouse (1965) 112 - James (1837) VI.480 - Woodhouse (1965) 114 - Codrington's report reproduced in James (1837) VI.486-8; Dakin (1973) - Woodhouse (1965) 127 - Woodhouse (1965) 119 - Woodhouse (1965) 120 - Codrington's report reproduced in James (1837) VI.486-8 - Woodhouse (1965) 134 - Woodhouse (1965) 137 - Woodhouse (1965) 139 - Woodhouse (1965) 139-40 - Woodhouse (1965) 124 - Codrington's report rep. in James (1837) VI.486-8. - Woodhouse (1965) 33 - Codrington's report rep. James (1837) VI.486-8 - Dakin (1973) 230 - Dakin (10973) 226 - Woodhouse (1965) - Kolar, Ivan (1957). "Literarni sprehod po delu stare Ljubljane" [A Literary Walk Through a Part of the Old Ljubljana]. Jezik in slovstvo 2 (2): 297–298. - "Srez Kranj" [Kranj District]. Krajevni leksikon Dravske banovine [Lexicon of Place Names of the Drava Banovina] (in Slovene). Administration of the Lexicon of Place Names of the Drava Banovina. 1937. p. 402. Text "Template:COBISSID=17618945 " ignored (help) - Dakin, D. (1973) The Greek Struggle for Independence - James, W. (1837) Naval History of Great Britain (Vol. VI) - Runciman, S. (1965) The Fall of Constantinople 1453 Cambridge University Press - Woodhouse, Christopher Montague (1965) The Battle of Navarino - Naval wars in the Levant 1559–1853 (1952), R. C. Anderson. ISBN 1-57898-538-2 |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Battle of Navarino| - Extract from W. James Naval History of Great Britain (1837) Vol VI 471-90 Includes reproduction of several original documents, esp. Codrington's own report on the battle - Aerial View of Navarino Bay - Navarino Bay (Aerial View) - Navarino with Location Map

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Sustainable Peace: Why Somaliland Matters Like in wars between states and other organized groups, civil wars and other protracted domestic conflicts are seldom caused by a single factor. Over time, even those that prove to be the exception to the rule eventually evolve into a much more complex conflict- hence the entity known as Somaliland. A Brief History Only five days after gaining its independence from the colonial power on June 26, 1960, British Somaliland joined in a union with their brethren in Italian Somaliland, which gained its independence on July 1, 1960. The union was widely supported by the public and the political leadership of both sides. Immediately, upon the latter’s independence, the legislative councils of both newly independent states met in a joint session in Mogadishu to form the new republic’s national assembly, in which they elected Aden Abdulle Osman as the first president of the new democratic nation. Though historians and other reasonable minds might differ on this, the North—as today’s Somaliland was domestically known—is generally believed that it got the short end of the union deal. However, one thing that is not in dispute is the fact that in 1988 the military government led by Mohamed Siad Bare carried out a devastating and brutal military campaign to crush the resistance movement known as the Somali Northern Movement (SNM) which was gaining a popular support in the North. Though the said campaign was against the SNM whose main agenda was to recall the Act of the Union signed shortly after the founding of the new nation, in the process, it greatly affected various communities in that region. While the SNM was generally the target and it operated out of the North, it was no secret that the tyrannical military system–which was made up of all sorts of clans–targeted the one particular clan considered to be the central pillar of the movement: the Isaqs. Never mind that there has never been a single clan that was entirely secessionist, let alone an entire region holding that view. That is why members of that clan were part of the military government, the first post-civil war administration known as the Transitional National Government (TNG), and are now part of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) and all the transitional institutions. Fast forward to 1991 and the subsequent two decades when the state imploded, the military by and large disbanded into clan militias, and anarchy, insecurity, famine, piracy, and helplessness consumed the mind and blurred the vision. It was in that period when the two entities currently known as Somalia and Somaliland would drift apart. Somalia would be mired by protracted wars, anarchy and their byproducts while Somaliland would establish a semblance of peace and stability and indeed good governance. The latter declared its secession and the former has ever since been chasing the political mirage of first solving the Southern problem before attempting to engage the Northern one. Two decades later the quixotic task of ritualistically attempting to search and find the solution elements only in the South have proven futile and in many ways detrimental. Today, there are new dynamics that have been altering realities on the ground. Though these dynamics have both positive and negative components, in the whole they have begun pushing Somalis from North and South into a realm of unclenched fists and extended hands. And that is profound progress. Contrary to the nineties and the first decade of the twenty-first century, there is now more interface and interaction, cross-marriage, and cross-migration. Perhaps because of time’s capacity to heal the hurt, the attitude of hostility that rendered all forms of reasoned discourse dead on arrival has gradually been tamed and by and large neutralized. The result has been a political maturity of both sides that cannot be denied. In various pockets across the Somali diaspora communities, there are unofficial dialogue groups that discuss how to end the status quo and settle our differences. The ever-evolving contentious struggle to reshape the North region of Somalia along clan identities carves out clan minefields with the potential to blow at up any time. The geographical area initially declared as Somaliland is now divided into four different territories: the Somaliland, Khaatumo, Awdal, and Maakhir states. The latter three—all populated mainly by non Isaqs—oppose secession. Recent tensions in Buhoodle area that caused many deaths is simply in hibernation. Clan wars have shifted away from its seemingly perpetual habitat in Mogadishu and its surroundings into places such as Somaliland and Puntland. What is more worrisome than that might be that, unless derailed, threats emanating from religious extremism could also shift into these two regions. And that probability is increased by the fact that some of the highest ranking al-Shabaab members hail from Somaliland and Puntland. The post-civil war generation–made up of the youth who grew up in the age of cynicism and distrust while the wounds of the 1988 campaign were still fresh, and the collective guilt of those who hailed from the south was not only justified but a popular norm–still make up the only remaining block whose majority still uphold secessionist ideals. There is a growing trend of the revered cultural elders or clan leaders breaking ranks with the official secessionist position after realizing the infeasibility of that political enterprise. Some have even gone public with their new views. The business community on both sides, mindful of the economic interdependency of Hargaisa and Mogadishu, are openly eager to see an alternative to the status quo. Furthermore, many well to do Northern families who had properties in the South are also eager to reclaim what is rightfully theirs. International Support to the Secession Movement As it was underlined in the London and Istanbul Conferences, foreign support for secession has reached a dead-end primarily because of two factors. Internally, it is the non-sustainability of Somaliland’s claimed boarder and the potential for perpetual clan contentions. Externally, it is Ethiopia’s long-standing policy toward Somalia which is based on supporting one Somali political entity against another while diplomatically or otherwise bulwarking against any serious momentum toward secession. Due to its desire for unlimited sea access, landlocked Ethiopia finds Somaliland a convenient arrangement and an entity that it would’ve invented had it not existed. By the same token, it sees the option to recognize Somaliland as a political Pandora’s Box that could embolden the secession aspirations of the ethnically Somali Ogaden region in Ethiopia. Perhaps beyond the economic consequence of losing an oil-rich region or any threat that al-Shabaab might present, Ethiopia finds a bigger strategic threat in the possibility of ethnic Somalis securing four seats in the powerful regional authority IGAD not to mention AU and UN. Meanwhile, Ethiopia which operates Somaliland’s security apparatus continues an unbearably intrusive policy that systematically disillusions many of the locals and the visitors from the diaspora alike. Then came the US’ Dual-Track Policy which inadvertently unveiled the dangers ahead as it inspired over 30 (a number that’s still growing) clan-based states, each with its declared president, parliament, defense, and foreign minister. Though Article 1(a) of the 1960 Act of Union clearly stated “The State of Somaliland and the State ofSomalia do hereby unite and shall forever remain united in a new, independent, democratic, unitary republic the name whereof shall be the Somali Republic,” neither the TFG nor TNG before attempted to enforce the “forever” part. Furthermore, with all their shortcomings as they were by no means perfect, both the TFG and the TNG have honored Article 3(i), which states “All persons who upon the date of this Union possess the citizenship of Somaliland and Somalia respectively shall by this Union now become citizens of the Somali Republic.” They both refrained from putting pressure on the secessionists by using the Somali passport as political leverage. The Somali passport is still unconditionally available and indeed used by the Somaliland secessionists and non-secessionists alike. Likewise, Somaliland is still allowed to use the 252 Gateway for its telephone connections and the .SO for the internet, all owned by Somalia the state. Recently, the TFG unilaterally negotiated with Somaliland to share the revenues generated from usage of the Somali air space. Even so, the Ghost-lords in Nairobi (that chronically corrupt network of institutions, governmental and non-governmental agencies who operate under the auspices of theinternational community) still continue to slow down the process to free these revenues. Perhaps more importantly, on June 26, 2011, President Sharif Ahmed became the first leader from the South to formally and publically acknowledge the wrongs that was done onto our brethren in North. He has affirmed their long ignored grievance and extended an apology and invited them for dialogue and reconciliation. Then came the London Conference on Somalia held on February 23, 2012 in which, at last, theinternational community decided to add Article 6 which calls for Somalia and Somaliland to engage in a direct dialogue in order to achieve a holistic approach to peace. Since then Somaliland has appointed a high level committee to start dialogue with Somalia. The latter on its part has appointed its own committee. Unfortunately, upon their nomination, Somaliland felt that the committee was not up to par and withdrew its committee. In retrospect and in fairness to Somaliland, the initial stage of the dialogue is the most crucial. Both parties must have confidence in the appointees’ moral character, ability for empathic engagement, and the capacity to build confidence for the process to continue. Within the 1st week of June 2012, after the Istanbul II Conference, President Sharif met with Somalia’s traditional elders who represent all clans to take the lead by engaging their counterparts in the North to rekindle the negotiation process. Counting on their collective wisdom, he offered them a carte blanche of accepting their collective decision “We need you to take constructive role in jump-starting a dialogue between the transitional federal government (TFG) and Somaliland. We will welcome all your recommendations,” he said. This looks like a wise first step. Behind the scenes, some pragmatic political elites, traditional leaders, and intellectuals are already expressing grave concerns about the strategic clan-based threats encircling the Isaqs that could have a long-term bloody ramification. And this indeed requires a sober thinking and sound compromise. The political landscape of that region is painted with clan sensitivities that can only be neutralized by a sense of unity, which only an effectively functioning and a just state could guarantee. The nature of that future state could and should be negotiated. We still have the potential to rise from the ashes and become a competently functioning if not a greater, more just nation. Used wisely, we have a number of the elements that national powers are built on, strategic location, natural resources and a resilient and resourceful population. Through the latter, we can reconcile our differences, confluence our collective interests, craft our national vision, negotiate the right social contract, build the right institutions, recruit the right technocrats, and cultivate the right leadership to sustain our progress and holistically reform our society. It is entirely up to us. Throughout history, it was men and women of vision coupled with some courage who changed the course of history. The leadership of Somaliland has the opportunity to change the course of history and spearhead a better future for all Somalis.

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http://english.alshahid.net/archives/29475

2013-06-18T05:58:48Z

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en

You can find such a list, for instance, in the Penguin Handbook. The relevant categories are: Verbs Followed by Infinitives Most verbs are followed by infinitives. If the verb is not found in the list below, it is probably followed by an infinitive. Verbs Followed by Gerunds The verbs in the following table all need to be followed by gerunds. The students don’t enjoy going over the same rules again and again. - admit (to) - be accustomed to - be used to - can’t help - feel like - get used to - keep (on) - look forward to - (not) mind - put off Verbs Followed by an Object Before the Infinitive Verb I advise you to go to school early today. - *would like *Some words can be used without an object as well as with an object. I want him to go. I want to go. Verbs Followed by Either Gerund or Infinitive Sometimes the meaning changes according to the verb used. He doesn’t remember giving the homework to Mr. Young. He didn’t remember to give the homework to Mr. Young. - can (not) bear - can (not) stand Verbs Followed Only by the Simple Form (no “-ing” or “to”) Four verbs are called causative verbs. They are followed by an object; the verb after the object is always in the simple form: - let: They let him go on the trip (instead of “let him to go”). I let him take my book home for one night. - make: We made her do her chores first. I made my sister cry. - help: She helped her finish her homework. I helped him find the bookstore. - have: The teacher had him stay after school. I had my teacher explain the answers. Verbs Followed by Either the Simple Form or the Gerund (no “to”) Some verbs are called verbs of perception and are followed by either the simple form or the “-ing” form. I see him going. - notice: I notice him run to school every day. I notice him running to school every day. - watch: I watch him struggle with his homework. I watch him struggling with his homework. I hear him singing. Others including: look at, observe, listen to, feel, smell.

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http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/329/when-should-a-verb-be-followed-by-a-gerund-instead-of-an-infinitive/330

2013-06-18T06:12:52Z

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en

Roslyn Russell, Kylie Winkworth © Commonwealth of Australia, 2010 ISBN 97 80977544363 (pbk) Case studies of international significance Convict records of Australia—State Records Offices of New South Wales and of Western Australia; Archives Office of Tasmania Hyde Park Barracks, Sydney, NSW, built to a design by convict architect Francis Greenway and listed on the National Heritage Register Photo: Roslyn Russell The forced emigration to the continent of Australia of some 165 000 people in the eighty years between 1788 and 1868 represents the beginning of the modern age of globalisation by government agency. Selected by the judicial apparatus of industrialising Britain, the convicts were sentenced to the punishment of exile; yet their forced labour ultimately resulted in the establishment of viable colonies. In 1901 these colonies became an independent federation of states—the Commonwealth of Australia—just over a hundred years after the first convicts landed at Sydney Cove in 1788. The convicts' lives were minutely documented by a dedicated bureaucracy, generating a rare body of records of nineteenth-century working-class people, from their British roots to their Australian fates. These records contain information relating to all aspects of convicts' lives, including physical appearance, literacy level, trade or calling, crime and sentence, behaviour in incarceration, further punishment, pardon, ticket of leave and marriage. The forensic details about individual convicts have enabled historians to build a picture of the human capital that shaped the economy, demography and culture of early colonial Australia. Nowhere else in the world do the complete records of the inner workings of an eighteenth- and nineteenth-century penal system exist over such an extended period (for example, in Britain, only trial records exist for convicts transported to North America and the West Indies, 1615–1776). The occasional experiments in penal management had significant legal consequences for the freedom of all citizens. Rehabilitative and retributive approaches to crime and punishment are documented scrupulously in the convict records. The significance of the convict records of Australia is further enhanced by their association with a suite of sites associated with the convict system across the country. These are listed on the National Heritage Register and have been nominated for the UNESCO World Heritage Register. The convict records of Australia are of international historical significance as they document the demographic foundation of the Australian nation, and the nature and workings of the British system of transportation that created the first European colony in Australasia. Dauar and Waier Islands?, Collection of Art Works by Edward Koiki Mabo 1964 Reproduced courtesy of the National Library of Australia In June 1992 the High Court of Australia, in its judgment in the Mabo Case, overturned the doctrine of terra nullius — that Australia was an empty land owned by no one at the time of European colonisation. The judgment changed Australia's legal landscape, and influenced the status and land rights of its Indigenous peoples and race relations in Australia generally. It is a rare instance in world history of pre-existing customary law being recognised as superior to the law of the 'invading' culture, regardless of the economic and political implications. The Mabo Case papers, 1959–92, are significant for their documentation of a crucial period in the history of race relations in Australia, featuring a series of battles and legal cases over the ownership and use of land, growing awareness of racial discrimination, and the social and health problems of Indigenous peoples. The issues discussed in the papers bear on the rights of Indigenous peoples and the descendants of European settlers throughout Australia. The papers document much of the life, experiences and thoughts of Edward Koiki Mabo, who was 'the successful principal plaintiff in the landmark High Court ruling on native land title'. The Mabo Case papers were inscribed on the UNESCO Memory of the World International Register in 2001, along with the Endeavour journal of James Cook, the first two inscriptions from Australia on the Register. Eddie Mabo's paintings and drawings of the Torres Strait, held in the National Library of Australia and the Australian Institute for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS), are significant as visual depictions of the connection between land and sea that most Australians now associate with his name, and 'provide an insight into the many facets of his keen awareness of the world and his own environment'. The Mabo Case papers are of international historical significance as a rare example in world history of pre-existing customary law being recognised as superior to the law of an invading culture, regardless of the economic and political implications. Palaeontological collections, Department of Earth and Marine Sciences, Australian National University Oldest known complete fossil vertebrate eye capsule, perfectly preserved as acid extracted from 400 million-year-old limestones at Burrinjuck, New South Wales (see G Young, 2008, Biology letters 4: 110–114. Micro-X-Ray tomography by A/Prof. Tim Senden, Research School of Physics and Engineering; 3D rendering using 'Drishti' by Dr Ajay Limaye, Vizlab, Supercomputer Facility, Australian National University) Reproduced courtesy of the College of Science, Australian National University The internationally significant palaeontological collections of the Department of Earth and Marine Sciences, Faculty of Science, Australian National University (ANU), hold in excess of 70 000 registered specimens, including Australia's largest collection of Quaternary marine microfossils. The holdings of palaeozoic fishes from Australia are of international significance, and have been documented in numerous research publications and monographs by ANU scientists. They include the world's largest vertebrate collection from the famous early Devonian limestone deposits of Burrinjuck, NSW. This has been a focus of ANU collecting and research for over thirty years (the British Natural History Museum mounted two collecting expeditions to this area in 1955, 1963, when some 500 specimens were removed to London). ANU holdings include type material of some of the world's oldest lungfishes (Dipnorhynchus, Speonesydrion); some of the largest predatory placoderm fishes known from this geological period (Cathlesichthys, Dhanguura), and uniquely preserved acid-prepared specimens displaying internal structure from 400 million years ago of the primitive vertebrate braincase, including the oldest completely preserved vertebrate eye capsule. No comparable material is held in any other institution, in Australia or overseas. The collections contain the largest collection in existence of unprepared vertebrate material from Burrinjuck. Other material of international significance includes samples of the world's oldest known fossil fish (Arandaspis, Ordovician, central Australia), oldest known vertebrate hard tissues (Cambrian, Queensland), oldest scales, teeth, and braincases of various chondrichthyans (cartilaginous sharks and rays, a major living vertebrate group), the only known Devonian amphibian (first land animals) from the entire Gondwana supercontinent (Metaxygnathus, central NSW), and extensive type material from the Aztec fish fauna of southern Victoria Land (the most diverse fossil vertebrate assemblage from the Antarctic continent). The palaeontological collections of the Department of Earth and Marine Sciences, at the Australian National University include holdings of international significance for their outstanding scientific interest and research potential, and their historical significance as some of the oldest specimens of their types.

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2013-06-18T05:45:03Z

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en

North Keeling Island is entirely surrounded by a broken, irregular fringing reef, except at the north-west corner. The reef is narrower on the sheltered sides of the island (north and west), and broader on the exposed sides (south and east). On the east coast it is continuous across the mouth of the lagoon, and forms a wide bar which effectively blocks the entrance. Much of the reef is partly exposed at low tide. Along the western side of the island is a wide coral terrace which drops into deep water. The marine reserve extends 1.5km offshore from the park. There are three major marine habitat types represented: outer reef slope (subtidal); reef flats including sandy and rocky shores (predominantly intertidal); and lagoon (predominantly subtidal). The Cocos (Keeling) atolls represent the western limit for many species of the Western Pacific biogeographic province. Biogeographic and ecological interest in the marine biota also stems from the extreme isolation and relatively small size of the atolls, from which there are some unusual absences including benthic skates and rays. Those species established on the islands must be pelagic as adults or have long-lived pelagic larvae. In recent times periodical large-scale natural disturbances including outbreaks of Crown of Thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci), cyclones and deoxygenation of lagoon waters tentatively linked to El Niño events have also reduced the abundance of corals. Reef-building corals of the southern atoll have received considerable attention, partly because the atoll was the only one ever visited by Darwin (in 1836), and partly because of the intrinsic interest in the atoll's geographic isolation. The primary interest in Cocos (Keeling) corals relates to the atoll's isolation. It is 880 km and 1,830 km from the reefs of Java and Western Australia respectively, with Christmas Island being the only 'stepping stone' for westerly movement of propagules (Berry 1989). Many common and widespread Indo-Pacific taxa have not been recorded from Cocos (Keeling) and are almost certainly absent. Ninety-nine species of reef corals are recorded from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. Of these, all but twelve are known from Western Australia. Nine species are not recorded elsewhere in the eastern Indian Ocean and two (one being taxonomically doubtful) are possibly endemic (Veron 1990). About 528 species of fish have been recorded from the islands (Berry 1989). Compared with other oceanic atolls, the fish fauna is impoverished (Allen 1989). Most fish found at Cocos (Keeling) have distributions that cover large areas of the Indo-Pacific region (Allen 1989). There is no endemism in the Cocos (Keeling) fish fauna, although one angelfish (Centropyge joculator) is known only from Cocos (Keeling) and Christmas Island and an undescribed goby of the genus Trimma may have the same distribution (Allen and Smith-Vaniz 1994). There are no known cetaceans that are restricted to Pulu Keeling National Park, but two species of dolphin are regularly seen in the park. They are the Common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) and the Bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus). A dugong has been sighted by residents a number of times over a few years in the lagoon of the southern atoll but it is unlikely that there is a resident population. Nesting green turtles (Chelonia mydas) nest on the island and hawksbill turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) inhabit the waters of the park. The only species of sea snake recorded from the southern atoll is the yellow-bellied sea-snake (Pelamis platurus). 610 species of molluscs are known from the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. There are 496 gastropods, 109 bivalves, one chiton and four cephalopods. A total of 198 species of decapod crustaceans and three species of rock lobster have been recorded. A total of 13 species of barnacles in 11 genera have also been recorded from the area. Echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins, sea cucumbers) 89 species of echinoderms have been recorded, most being widespread Indo-West Pacific species. The Cocos (Keeling) Islands have a fairly rich fauna of holothurians, including most of the species also known as trepang (Beche-de-mer).

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2013-06-18T05:44:55Z

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en

is characterised by rules. Rules of grammar , for instance, are many and permeate all aspects of language use. Without these rules, language would make no sense - after all, every language user needs to use a common linguistic system, else communication will fail, this being the goal of language in the first place. It is not surprising, then, that based on the many observable rules and trends seen in language, models of various aspects of language have been constructed based around the language system of the brain exploiting explicit rules. One of the main focuses of such linguistic models has been in the rules governing English past tense morphology. The main issue here is that it is not a simple case of adding a particular morpheme (i.e., "-ed") to the end of every verb in the language to produce its past tense, since there are a significant number or verbs in English that do not conform to this regular pattern. Any model of English past tense formation must account for the developmental phenomenon over "overregularisation". This phenomenon manifests itself by a child producing correct past tense forms of verbs, then suddenly making errors by adding regular endings to irregular verbs. For example, children might suddenly use "goed" or "gived" after previously using "went" or "gave". There is then a phase of development where children will use incorrect forms (about 5% of the time) while also consistently producing correct regular forms, before correct adult usage is established. Another effect that models must account for is that children will automatically regularise novel verbs when using them in the past tense. Converting verbs to their past tense forms is a process that obeys certain rules. The rules for regular verbs are simple, and even irregular forms have some rule-like quality to them, although rote learning is also an important strategy in dealing with them. Children's ability to automatically regularise novel verbs in the past tense has been cited as a key piece of evidence to suggest that children have acquired a rule to form the past tense which they apply and follow (e.g., Pinker, 1984). This process cannot be the simple recollection of a verb form acquired by rote, as the child has not heard the verb before (e.g., Berko (1958) found that children would regularise the nonsense verb "rick" to produce "ricked"). Children must surely apply a rule then. On the basis of this and similar evidence, Pinker (1984) formulated a "dual mechanism" account of the formation of English past tenses. This model takes a verb stem as input and uses a rule-governed process to add the regular past tense "-ed" ending. However, there is another parallel mechanism which checks the input stem to see if it is an exception to the regular rule, in which case, it blocks the regularisation process and recalls the irregular form from some kind of storage location. This model explains the overregularisation effect in that during development after the rule process has been established, the initially weak memory engrams formed for the irregular exceptions are not always able to muster sufficient strength to recall them from memory to be used in the blocking procedure, thereby allowing irregular stems to be regularised. It also explains the fact that novel verbs are regularised due to the novel stem not being present in the memories of exceptions. Pinker's model contains within it an explicit representation of a rule. The model is all well and good, but somehow its seems a little abstract to be an accurate representation of how the process occurs in the brain. Maybe it reflects the cognitive processes involved, but the question remains as to whether "rules" are represented in this explicit fashion. There is another possibility provided by the connectionist approach, through interactive activation models of linguistic processes, such as the model of English past tense formation proposed by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986). In this model, lawful processes can be modelled by a mechanism without any explicit representation of a rule. Rumelhart and McClelland's model is able to learn paired inputs of a verb stem and its past tense form and associate the two by using a back propagation algorithm to adjust the weight matrix connecting three levels of nodes (input nodes, "hidden nodes", and output nodes) to improve the accuracy of the output to the input. Ultimately, the model is able to take just a verb stem as input and accurately produce its past tense form as output. Pinker and Prince (1988) have written extensively in criticism of Rumelhart and McClelland, but although their criticisms highlighted flaws in Rumelhart and McClelland's model, they did not succeed in their goal of spelling the death of connectionism. The problems with the Rumelhart and McClelland model (such as those surrounding its use of "Wickelfeatures" in phonological representation, and the fact that the U-shaped development of correct past tense usage may have arisen because of the drastic increase in training input) have been overcome by subsequent models such as those by MacWhinney and Leinbach (1991) and Plunkett and Marchman (1993). The connectionist models seem two have two main, and significant, advantages over rule-based models. Firstly, connectionist models have predicted a great deal of the observed characteristics of linguistic processes, and, not only that, have accurately predicted effects not yet observed (e.g., Plunkett et al.'s (1992) conectionist model of vocabulary acquisition, which predicted that there would arise a sudden and rapid increase in the number of words a child can comprehend, a prediction later confirmed experimentally). Secondly, rule-based models have yet to produce a workable model in the same way as connectionist models. In the words of MacWhinney and Leinbach (1991), connectionist models have "implementations", whereas symbolic models have only "principles". These two facts suggest that the connectionist approach is more likely to accurately model how processes occur in the brain. It also seems more biologically and neuronally plausible (e.g., Hebbian processes could mediate the changes in a biological weight matrix). These factors add credence to connectionism as a whole, and more specifically to its non-reliance on explicit rules. But even if connectionism is eventually shown to be incorrect, it cannot be argued that it has shown that behaviours that are characterisable by rules, need not have explicit rule-governed processes underlying them. Language seems to be more about extracting regularities and patterns, rather than learning rules. MacWhinney, B. and Leinbach, A.J. (1991) Implementations are not conceptualizations: Revising the verb learning model. Cognition, 40, 121-157 Plunkett, K., and Marchman, V. (1993) From rote learning to system building: acquiring verb morphology in children and connectionist nets. Cognition, 48, 1-49 Rumelhart, D.E., and McClelland, J.L. (1986) On learning the last tense of English verbs. In J.L. McClelland, D.E. Rumelhart, and P.R. Group (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the Microstructure of Cognition, Vol. 2: Psychological and Biological Models (pp. 216-271), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press

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2013-06-18T05:46:45Z

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Drugs for malaria: something old, something new, something borrowed NIH/NIAID, Laboratory of Malaria Immunology and Vaccinology, 12735 Twinbrook Parkway, 3W19E, Rockville, MD 20852, USA NIH/NIAID, Laboratory of Malaria Immunology and Vaccinology, Division of Intramural Research, 5640 Fishers Lane, Rm. 1111 Rockville, MD 20892, USA The electronic version of this article is the complete one and can be found at: http://f1000.com/reports/b/3/24 Malaria was estimated to cause 800,000 deaths and 225 million cases worldwide in 2010. Worryingly, the first-line treatment currently relies on a single drug class called artemisinins, and there are signs that the parasite is becoming resistant to these drugs. The good news is that new technology has given us new approaches to drug discovery. New drugs generated this way are probably 10-15 years away from the clinic. Other antimalarials that may offer hope include those rehabilitated after not being used for some time, those that act as inhibitors of resistance mechanisms, those that limit infection while allowing protective immunity to develop, and those which are drugs borrowed from other disease treatments. All of these offer new hope of turning the tables on malaria. In parallel with the effort to develop vaccines that interrupt malaria transmission, drugs that target the parasite during transmission to the mosquito or during its pre-erythrocytic development in the liver, may allow us to terminate the parasite’s spread. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated 800,000 malaria deaths and 225 million cases worldwide in 2010 , with severe disease concentrated among young children and pregnant women . Geographically, malaria overlaps with other infectious maladies including HIV, which often complicate the illness as well as treatment options. Worryingly, first-line treatment for malaria currently relies on a single drug class called artemisinins, and the existing drug armamentarium is insufficient to answer the call for malaria eradication. Under the circumstances, scientists are exploring many approaches, targeting different stages of the parasite life cycle, to find agents that will prevent, cure, or eliminate malaria. These approaches include new drug discovery, old drug rehabilitation, and drugs borrowed from other fields for use against malaria. Malaria parasites: many potential targets, few effective drugs Malaria life cycle Human malaria is transmitted by the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes that carry sporozoites (the motile infective stage of the parasite) in their salivary glands (Figure 1). Sporozoites inoculated into skin enter blood vessels and are carried to the liver, where they pass through Kupffer cells, invade hepatocytes, and multiply 10-thousand-fold over a week to form liver stage merozoites. Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium ovale parasites that invade the liver may develop into a dormant form called hypnozoite that can cause relapse after months or years. These stages of infection, called the pre-erythrocytic (pre-blood) stages, are clinically silent. Liver stage merozoites released into the blood stream infect individual host red blood cells to initiate the erythrocytic (blood) stages, when clinical symptoms of malaria occur. Untreated falciparum malaria can rapidly progress to death. Along with the disease-causing asexual blood stage parasites, sexual stages known as gametocytes also emerge during blood stage development . In Plasmodium falciparum, gametocytes appear several days after asexual parasites, whereas P. vivax gametocytes can appear at the same time or even before asexual forms in the blood . Malaria drug history Quinine and its derivatives The first pharmaceutical used to treat malaria, quinine, was derived from the tree bark of Cinchona calisaya . Quinine synthesis was first attempted in 1856 by William Henry Perkins, but synthesis was not successful until 1944. Although he failed with quinine, Perkins did succeed in synthesizing “mauve,” the first textile dye, thereby launching the synthetic textile dye industry in Germany. Microbiologists adopted these dyes to stain microorganisms, and methylene blue was first found to stain malaria parasites by Paul Erlich. Erlich hypothesized that methylene blue might therefore kill malaria parasites, and together with Paul Guttman successfully treated two malaria patients with this agent . Indeed, methylene blue was the predecessor to both the 4-aminoquinolones and the 8-aminoquinolones. Chloroquine is perhaps the most important of the 4-aminoquinolones, and other related compounds include the aminophenols amodiaquine and pyronaridine, and the dimeric 4-aminoquinoline, piperaquine. The 8-aminoquinolones including the prototype pamaquine (which was too toxic and so not used for long), primaquine (still in use today as the only licensed drug effective against the dormant liver form, the hypnozoite), and tafenoquine (a drug which is undergoing clinical trials applied as an anti-hypnozoite form treatment). Other derivatives of quinine include the arylamino alcohols mefloquine, halofantrine, and lumefantrine . Parenteral quinine remains an option for the treatment of severe malaria, although parenteral artesunate has shown superior efficacy in recent trials . Both chloroquine and primaquine are synthetic derivatives of quinine, and their development in the mid-20th century was largely driven by the need to treat soldiers during the world wars [9,10]. Each of these drugs, still in use today, probably act by interfering with the parasite’s ability to eliminate the toxic by-products of hemoglobin digestion. Other drugs have specific enzyme targets in the parasite, such as the antifolates (e.g. sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine), which inhibit the parasite’s essential ability to synthesize tetrahydrofolate used for methylation reactions . Antifolates were demonstrated to be effective against malaria as early as the 1930s, and sulfonamide components with better pharmacokinetic profiles and partner drugs were developed over the 1940s and 50s, but antifolates were not generally used for antimalarial treatment until much later owing to the availability of highly effective quinine derivatives . Sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine became available in 1971 as second-line therapy for malaria, with resistance developing not long thereafter . Indeed, resistance to antifolate drugs, for which there is a specific enzyme target, evolved more rapidly than resistance to chloroquine . Artemisinin combination therapy Unfortunately, the malaria parasite has developed resistance to all the above drugs in different parts of the world. In response to this, WHO recommended artemisinin combination therapy in recent years. Artemisinin, a derivative of sweet wormwood, Artemisia annua, is a potent drug that rapidly reduces blood stage parasites, allowing prompt resolution of illness, and was initially developed in 1972 by the Chinese during the Vietnam War. Ho Chi Minh personally asked Mao Zedong for assistance with antimalarials, as North Vietnamese soldiers were dying from malaria at a higher rate than from armed conflicts . Artemisinin combination therapy represented a shift away from monotherapy for malaria, which was common previously. Since artemisinin and its derivatives have very short half-lives, a second drug with longer half-life is used in combination to complete the clearance of parasitemia, and the combination of drugs has the additional benefit to forestall the development of resistance. In Cambodia, parasite sensitivity to artemisinin may already be decreasing . In response to this alarming pattern, WHO has formulated a Global Plan for Artemisinin Resistance Containment (GPARC) to address the need for specific and immediate actions to limit spread . Several candidate genes have been proposed to be important in the development of artemisinin resistance , but this remains a key ongoing area of research. Complexities of treatment: stages and species Five species of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium spp., infect humans, with P. falciparum causing the most mortality worldwide and P. vivax causing significant morbidity. P. vivax, a major contributor to malaria-related morbidity, is more common in areas of lower transmission intensity, and therefore relapses originating from P. vivax dormant form hypnozoites in the liver may be an important contributor to disease incidence . P. ovale and Plasmodium malariae are agents of the so-called “benign malarias,” and like P.vivax, P. ovale can cause relapsing infections. P. malariae can persist as a blood stage parasite at very low levels and flare up decades after initial infection. Morphologically, P. malariae has been confused on bloodsmear with the recently identified zoonosis, Plasmodium knowlesi, which has a shorter life-cycle of replication than any of the other human malarias, and can cause rapidly progressive and fatal disease if not treated promptly . Currently available antimalarials mainly target the symptomatic asexual blood stages, in order to be useful for treatment as earlier stages of infection are clinically silent. In keeping with this, the growth inhibition assay for asexual blood stage P. falciparum is the primary screening tool used for candidate antimalarials [4, 18-22]. Consequently, although drugs against the dormant hypnozoites and transmissible gametocytes are needed for elimination programs, such drugs are difficult to identify and test, and the drugs used against asexual stages are generally ineffective for these other stages . The only currently available drug which can kill the dormant form hypnozoite and the gametocyte is primaquine, but primaquine cannot be used in patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency or in pregnant women. Another problem is that lack of standardized assays which could be used to test drugs against dormant form hypnozoites limits drug development for this indication. Rodent models allow screening of blood stage drugs, but rodent parasites do not form hypnozoites . The relapsing Plasmodium cynomolgi model in non-human primates was used in the development of primaquine, but primate models are expensive, low throughput, and not available in many malaria research centers. In vitro models of liver stage infection also have many limitations, including difficulty obtaining sporozoites and low infection rates. Whether cultured hepatocytes retain their in vivo architecture, metabolism, or receptors is an additional concern . On top of this, dormant hypnozoite forms are difficult to distinguish from the early liver exoerythrocytic forms. Despite these obstacles, progress is being made in the development of liver stage hypnozoite assays, albeit none of these appear amenable to high throughput capability that would support clinical drug development [26-28]. Identification of drugs with anti-gametocyte and transmission-blocking effects would aid in eradication efforts. Although artemisinin and its derivatives have been shown to reduce carriage of gametocytes, they do not prevent transmission of mature gametocytes already present at the time of treatment [32-34]. Indeed, the only drug officially recommended by WHO to eliminate gametocytes is primaquine for P. falciparum , and encouragingly primaquine has been recently shown to reduce transmission when added to an artemisinin combination therapy in an open-label, randomized trial . There are specific assays to screen the effect of drugs on sexual stage parasites and parasite transmission to mosquitoes are available in select centers [29,31]. Drug resistant parasites typically develop when drugs are at subtherapeutic levels, and therefore the short half-life of artemisinins may protect this class of drugs [19,35]. In addition, pairing the artemisinin derivative with other antimalarial drugs with dissimilar mechanisms of action will delay the emergence of drug resistant parasites. However, because outpatient therapy now relies on this single class of antimalarials, the artemisinins, all of the artemisinin combination therapies will become vulnerable to failure once fully artemisinin-resistant parasites develop and spread. It is not clear whether the synthetic artemisinin analogues currently under early stage development will still be useful if and when this happens. Something new: new drug candidates The good news on the antimalarial development front is that scientific and technological advances will allow for more rapid identification of effective therapy and new targets. The sequencing of various Plasmodium genomes [36, 37] has accelerated target identification and expression analysis. Orthologues (genes that evolved from a common ancestral gene in different species that generally retain the same function) for targets of interest can be easily identified and small molecules against these targets tested in vivo (animal models) or in vitro. High throughput screening in vitro can identify active molecules that can be further optimized for preclinical testing . The molecular-based search for targets is referred to as the “rational design approach.” This approach has not yet delivered a product, in part because the time from molecular target identification to clinic testing is great. One problem with this approach is that it favors identification of drugs with one rather than multiple targets, making these more likely to induce parasite resistance. Others have advocated the “whole parasite screening” approach: molecules are selected from available chemical data, and hits (molecules) are identified through high throughput screening with whole parasites. Molecular targets are then established by generating mutant parasites that are resistant to the active or “hit” molecule. If a particular antimalarial has many targets, it has a lower chance of encountering resistant parasites. This method recently resulted in the identification of a new candidate antimalarial, the spiroindolone NITD609, by Rottman et al. , which has been shown to be safe for testing in humans . Mass screening of chemical libraries has yielded a wealth of potential antimalarial compounds, and many are active at sub-micromolar concentrations with minimal toxicity to human cell lines. Screening assays in 1536-well formats exist for asexual blood stage P. falciparum, and assays are under development for the dormant liver hypnozoite and transmission stages. In a screen of 2816 registered or approved compounds, 32 compounds were recently found to be active against 45 parasite lines sourced from around the world with IC50 values ≤ 1 µM, including 10 compounds not previously known to have anti-malarial activity. Genome-wide association and linkage analysis then identified compounds that had similar or distinct mechanisms of action, which might predict cross-resistance and therefore guide combination therapy . To manage such large quantities of data being generated by different groups, a centralized database of high throughput screening results to “facilitate assimilation, integration, and mining of data” has been started by the WHO, the United Nations, and the World Bank-sponsored Tropical Disease Research group. Also, public-private partnerships and non-profit organizations, such as Medicines for Malaria Venture, Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi), and African Network for Drugs and Diagnostics Innovation (ANDI), have been developed with the idea of maximizing collaborations and developing new therapies . The current pipeline Medicines for Malaria Venture, a non-profit group that supports scientists and companies to develop new antimalarials, highlights a number of compounds considered leads in optimization, as well as antimalarials in the pipeline (preclinical through Phase IV development) on their website, (http://www.mmv.org/research-development?gclid=CJPY--7e96oCFWUTNAod80I-Pg). Many of these compounds are newly identified or novel in their application to antimalarial therapy. The initial approach to tackling drug resistance was to develop drugs based on structures of existing antimalarials, and this has been a profitable endeavor. Antimalarials developed based on chloroquine include lumefantrine, piperaquine and pyronaridine developed in China, each of which are now components of artemisinin combination therapys in use or in advanced trial stages. In the United States, other chloroquine-like antimalarials include amodiaquine (also used in artemisinin combination therapy), mefloquine, and halofantrine, although the last of these is not widely used clinically today . Drugs with indirect or direct disruption of pyrimidine metabolism (e.g. pyrimethamine, sulfonamides, atovaquone) have inspired the development of new drugs targeting another aspect of the pyrimidine pathway: dihydroorotate dehydrogenase . Some of the lead candidates based on already successful antimalarials are highlighted below: Pyronaridine, a chloroquine relative, is being used in combination with artesunate as a promising new artemisinin-based combination therapy. Pyronaridine-artesunate has been studied in Phase II and Phase III clinical trials, and has been shown to be effective against uncomplicated P. falciparum and blood stage P. vivax . As increasingly chloroquine-resistant strains of P. vivax emerge, and as the need to treat P. falciparum and P. vivax co-infection expands in certain areas, such a regimen is welcome. Pyronaridine-artesunate is available as Pyramax® tablets and pediatric granule formulations, and manufacture of this compound is being undertaken by Shin Poong Pharmaceuticals . Tafenoquine is a lead candidate drug aimed at a radical cure of P. vivax (i.e. elimination of dormant stage hypnozoites), and is being studied in a Phase II/III tafenoquine/chloroquine combination study this year . A fixed dose artemisinin combination therapy, artesunate-amodiaquine (Coarsucam/ASAQ, Winthrop) has been approved by WHO and developed by Sanofi-Aventis and the DNDi, and is undergoing Phase IV field assessment . The endoperoxide feature of artemisinins, which confers antimalarial activity, is shared by ozonide OZ439, a synthetic endoperoxide. OZ439 carries the hope of providing a single dose oral cure in humans when used in combination. OZ439 is a rapidly acting agent against asexual stage parasites, and will likely be developed for use in combination with a partner drug with a longer half-life than its own. Studies are underway to identify such a partner. This drug is currently undergoing Phase IIa trials. For all of these drugs, the caveats regarding antimalarial resistance and ease of dosing and administration remain. Pharmacokinetic trials in adults, once done, must be followed by appropriate pharmacokinetic studies in children, as it is well known that certain antimalarials (such as piperaquine and sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine) have differing pharmacokinetics in children compared with adults, which will modify their efficacy . Drug efficacy is also influenced by the degree of pre-existing antimalarial immunity, acquired as children get older and are exposed to malaria over and over again . Thus, drug efficacy must be evaluated in children and must take into account these additional factors. Something old: novel approaches with existing antimalarials Re-introduction of drugs after a period of non-use has been considered as a strategy to combat malaria. In Malawi, which halted chloroquine use in 1993 due to resistance, chloroquine was demonstrated to have 99% clinical efficacy a decade later, presumably due to the re-expansion of susceptible parasites [47, 48]. However, in time it is likely that the re-introduction of drug pressure will likely result in re-emergence of chloroquine-resistant parasites. One way to delay this would be to pair the re-cycled drug with another drug. Combinations of quinine derivatives with antimicrobials have shown synergy, for example chloroquine/azithromycin (which has the advantage that it is safe for children and pregnant women). Clinical studies are underway to assess this combination for use as intermittent preventative treatment, (administration at defined intervals regardless of whether the patient has malaria parasites in the blood, is recommended for pregnant women and infants designed to provide prophylaxis against malaria [40, 49]). Getting round resistance Preventing resistance in the first place is the major focus of antimalarial drug development today. Artemisinin combination therapies represent a change in antimalarial therapy paradigms since most drugs had been given as a monotherapy in the past. Indeed the use of artesunate monotherapy might have contributed to the development of artemisinin-resistant parasites recently reported in Western Cambodia . In the present and future, combination therapy will enhance efficacy of individual antimalarials and reduce the likelihood of developing resistance. In addition, agents that reverse resistance to existing anti-malarials might extend the useful lifetime of old drugs. Many compounds, including various calcium channel blockers and chlorpheniramine, and even primaquine, as examples, have been shown to reverse chloroquine resistance. However, this approach is not completely straightforward. Drug metabolism, drug levels required to achieve the therapeutic effect, and the lack of clinical research in this area, all represent obstacles to translate this approach into practice . Interestingly, parasites that develop high-grade resistance mutations to antifolates, such as pyrimethamine, might actually be rendered more sensitive to certain novel inhibitors of antifolate metabolism, such as WR99210 . A novel area of malaria research involves examining the unforeseen benefits of treatment in the development of malaria-specific immunity. In experimental human infection models, complete protection against infection has been induced when patients are repeatedly exposed to infection while taking antimalarials . This form of immunity was found to endure for 2 years or more in some individuals , making this an exciting potential approach to malaria prevention. However, testing has thus far been limited to challenge with homologous parasites (the parasite used to vaccinate is the same as that used to challenge volunteers), and therefore future studies will need to examine the degree of immunity induced against heterologous or naturally transmitted parasites. Something borrowed: novel uses of other anti-infectives Drugs used in the management of HIV infection HIV protease inhibitors have been shown to have direct anti-parasite effects. Given the geographic overlap between HIV and malaria in sub-Saharan Africa, and evidence that malaria and HIV exert a co-pathogenic effect [2, 54-59], any coincident effect of HIV medications on the malaria parasite would have an obvious benefit. HIV protease inhibitors directly interfere with Plasmodium growth in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo [7, 60-64]. Clinical studies of this effect are urgently needed, especially since WHO, with few exceptions, does not recommend HIV protease inhibitors for first line antiretroviral regimens. In addition, HIV protease inhibitors may have chloroquine-resistance reversing properties, according to a patent filed in 2005 . Saquinavir and ritonavir behave synergistically with chloroquine and mefloquine, against chloroquine sensitive and resistant strains of P. falciparum . Various HIV protease inhibitors have also been shown to act synergistically against Plasmodium chabaudi in vivo. [66,67] Synergy might result from HIV protease inhibitors reducing levels of specific enzymes and products (GSH and glutathione) used by the parasite to detoxify by-products of hemoglobin digestion . The parasite’s ability to evolve and adapt to every drug introduced thus far mandates research to identify new targets for antimalarial therapy. New technologies and high throughput approaches are identifying a burgeoning number of drug candidates and novel drug classes with antimalarial activity, however the sobering reality is that only a limited number of antimalarial drugs have emerged from the development pipeline to enter clinical practice over the past century. The Medicines for Malaria Venture estimates 10-15 years between drug screening and ultimate registration, and thus many of the pre-clinical antimalarial candidates discussed in this article will not be seen in the clinic in the immediate future. In addition, the call for malaria elimination and eradication is spurring the development of anti-malarials that target the parasite in life cycle stages that were largely ignored by drug developers in the past. In parallel with the effort to develop vaccines that interrupt malaria transmission, the drugs needed to contribute to elimination or eradication will target the parasite during transmission to the mosquito or during its pre-erythrocytic development in the liver, in order to terminate the parasite’s spread. All this is a tall order for a drug pipeline that has been historically slow, and hence the need to consider all potential avenues—new, old, or borrowed— to revive the malaria armamentarium. The authors declare that they have no competing interests |1||World Malaria Report. World Health Organization (WHO); 2010.http://www.who.int/malaria/world_malaria_report_2010/worldmalariareport2010.pdf| |2||Slutsker L, Marston BJ: HIV and malaria: interactions and implications. 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Posted on March 22, 2012 by Image source: The Nature Conservancy Do you know how much water you use every day? I’m not just talking about the water you use to drink, take showers, wash dishes, and do laundry. I’m talking about the amount of water it takes to produce the things you buy. For example, did you know that it takes more than 30 gallons of water to produce just one cup of coffee? 49 gallons for one bag of chips? 400 gallons for a cotton T-shirt? 751,777 gallons. That’s how much water you, I, and every American goes through every year. That’s not a collective number — that’s how much water we each use. Is your mind boggling? Mine is. Just take a look at this infographic presented by The Nature Conservancy — many of these stats may surprise you! The Nature Conservancy is partnering with the Water Footprint Network to bring awareness to World Water Day, which is today. It’s no secret that there’s a shortage of fresh water for the people and animals that need it worldwide, and something needs to be done about it. The health and well-being of our planet is fundamentally rooted in the availability of fresh water. So what can you do to celebrate World Water Day? Take some tips from The Nature Conservancy and learn how you can curb your own water usage. It may seem like a drop in the bucket — pun intended — but collectively, it can make a real difference. Here are some tips I learned: - It takes more water to manufacture processed foods, so stick to fresh food whenever possible. There are so many reasons to do this, water conservation being just one of them. - Avoid plastic utensils. It takes 24 gallons of water to create 1 pound of plastic, not to mention the environmental cost of disposing of something after just one use. - Water your lawn or garden in the morning or evening. Water evaporates slower during these times of the day, which means it takes less water to keep your plants hydrated. - Even electricity uses water. Unplug your chargers and other electronics when not in use; a day of typical electronic use in an American household uses 4-5 gallons of water.

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Honduran People and Culture |Honduran food Celebrations Languages Religion Ethnic Groups Honduran photo album Demographics Back to main page|| Time to meet the Hondurans! In this page you'll learn about our food, languages, customs, celebrations, and our rich ethnic diversity. Let's get started with perhaps the most important topic... For some unknown reason, the first questions asked about Honduras are about food: "What's the food like?" or "Is it very hot and spicy?". If you have not been to Honduras, the easiest way of describing our food is to say that it is a regional variation of what is known around the world as "Mexican food". The fact is, that due to the common cultural heritage of all countries that used to be part of the Mesoamerican cultural area during Pre-Columbian times, food from Mexico, Central America, and parts of South America is not very different. For flavour, the Honduran chef will rely heavily on spices such as cumin, curry, allspice, and achiote; fresh herbs such as coriander and oregano; and lime juice to give food a very rich flavour. As far as "hotness", Honduran food usually is not as hot as many would imagine, using Mexican food as a reference. Honduran food does usually contain meat. Beef is preferred, but chicken and pork are also very popular. The predominant and traditional method for cooking meats is to marinate them and then grill them over a charcoal barbeque. Delicious seafood recipies are traditionally served in the coastal areas. Lamb, which is popular in many middle-eastern recipies, is virtually non-existant in the traditional Honduran cookbook. As in other countries in the area, Honduran food relies heavily on the use of corn (maize) as a basic ingredient. Nearly all traditional recipies contain corn or foods made from corn. The starting ingredient for all these is "masa" (literally "dough" or "mass") which is dough made by mixing water with dry corn flour made by grinding corn that's been subjected a nixtamalization process. Nixtamalization changes the corn kernel at the chemical level, makes the corn easy to digest, and increases its nutritional value. The most common (and perhaps the simplest) example of food made from corn in Latinamerica is the humble corn tortilla. Corn tortillas are made by mixing dry corn flour with tepid water to make "masa", rolling the "masa" into small balls (about the size of a golfball) and then flattening them into discs approximately 6-inches across and 2 to 3mm thick (the thickness and diameter vary slightly from region to region of the country). To cook, the discs are placed on a hot and slightly concave round metal plate (called "comal"). The tortillas are turned over at least once to ensure they're cooked through. Once cooked, the tortillas will be stacked and served wrapped in a cloth to keep the warm during the meal (there's nothing as sad and useless as cold tortilla!). Traditionally, Hondurans will eat tortillas with every meal and many regard a table setting without a tall stack of tortillas as unfinished work. For a recipe for corn tortillas, visit our page on Honduran recipies. Corn is eaten in many other forms: the picture below is of some "fritas" (literally, "fried things"). A batter is prepared from coarsely ground corn mixed with milk and sugar. A laddlefull of this batter is then cooked until golden brown in a deep comal, with with bit of oil. Along with corn, kidney beans are one of the pillars that sustain Honduran cuisine. The favourite presentation is "frijoles refritos" ("refried beans"). The term "refried" is probably a mistranslation of the Mexican slang adjetive meaning "over-fried", which actually describes the key part of the cooking process. Whole kidney beans that have already been cooked are mashed to form a lumpy broth which is reduced over a stove until thickened to the consistency of oatmeal. A generous amount of oil (or other type of fat) is added to the paste and heat is increased to start frying it, thickening the paste even further, until it is caramelized. Depending on personal preference, the bean paste can be fried even further, to change its flavour to slightly toasty, making it look darker, and thicken it more (hence, "over-fried"). The final effect is a very rich, flavoursome paste that can be spread over bread, tortillas (of course!), can be used to fill some types of tamales, and combines extremely well with cheese, sour cream, and other dairy products. A common presentation for refried beans is to serve then in a starter dish called "anafre", were the beans are teamed up with tortilla chips and (optionally) melted cheese and diced chorizo. This is usually served in a small clay pot. For our own recipe for refried beans, visit our page on Honduran recipies. Photo by ThisIsHonduras Fried plantain slices Given that Honduras is right in the middle of the tropics, it should be no surprise that plantains make appearances in several places in the national menu. A simple but popular presentation is to cut a ripe and sweet plantain into slices (about 3 - 5mm thick) and then shallow fry them in hot oil. Frying makes the plantain sweeter and softens it. They must be served while they're still warm. They form a great partnership with cheese or refried beans, but they're dynamite with sour cream - the acidity of the cream constrasts the sweetness of the caramelized plantain. For a recipe for fried plantain slices, visit our page on Honduran recipies. Photo by ThisIsHonduras The National Dish Now that you know a bit about tortillas, refried beans, and plantain slices, you are ready to be introduced to the Honduran national dish - "Plato típico" (literally, "typical dish"). Every restaurant serving local food will have "Plato típico" in their menu. It usually a large and filling serving, assembled from the following componenents: Photographed (and then eaten) by José Kevo. The Plato Típico is served with chimol (a dressing for meats, made from fresh, coriander, lime juice, and other vegetables) and a tomato-based salsa as dressings... and the mandatory stack of tortillas, of course. For a recipe for chimol, visit our page on Honduran recipies. You've probably already heard of tamales. They are one of the most authentic and well-known Latinamerican dishes. With some variations on the basic recipe, size, and name they are served daily from México to Brasil. The basic tamal is a brick-shaped lump of spiced corn masa, with a filling made of several foodstuffs, including meat (either beef, pork or chicken), potatoes, olives, capers, raisings, rice, chickpeas, and many others. Once shaped, the tamal is wrapped in several layers of fresh banana leaves and tied-up with thin strips cut also from banana leaves. Then, it is cooked in a pot of boiling water. The banana leaf wrapping forms a water-tight seal that cooks the tamal without letting any water in (or any of the aromas and flavours out). Before serving, the banana leaf wrapping is untied and removed (some of it can be left for presentation). A slice or two of lime and hot sauce are usually served with the tamal. Starting to get hungry? Want to try your hand at Honduran cooking? Good - we've got a few recipies for you! To learn how to prepare some of the most popular Honduran dishes, visit our Honduran recipies page. Christmas and New Year Christmas is perhaps the biggest celebration of the year for Hondurans. It is filled with religious meaning, as the commemoration of the birth of Jesus Christ is at heart of it. Christmas is celebrated at the stroke of midnight on the night of the 24th of December (as opposed to the 25th in other countries). For Hondurans, Christmas is a very special and emotional occasion and is important to spend it with the family. Just before midnight, the family will gather and pray together, which may include the reading of passages of the Bible that narrate the birth of Jesus Christ. Once the prayer is finished, the family members engage in a round of hearty hugs and wish each other "¡Feliz Navidad!" The Christmas meal is usually served after this. The Christmas meal itself is extremely important. Usually, it takes several days to prepare and several days to recover from it. The typical menu is a combination of the traditional Latinamerican menu of tamales, torrejas, sweet potato puree, eggnog, and roast pork ham; plus items extracted from the North American Christmas menu: roasted turkey, stuffing, and cranberry sauce. Inevitably, the influence of North-American and European cultures has filtered into the Honduran traditions, and now Christmas trees and exchanging of gifts are considered to be absolutely essential elements of Christmas. Although it has nothing to do with Latinamerican tradition, Santa Claus is ubiquitous during the season and most Honduran children learn to believe in him from an early age, just like children in many other countries. Several weeks before Christmas Eve, the streets of the cities become populated with vendors of firecrackers and other pyrotechnical articles. Hondurans, especially children, will spend considerable amounts on money purchasing pyrotecnics. The amount of pyrotechnics set off (and the noise level) grows exponentially thought the Christmas season, reaching a a spectacular climax at the stroke of midnight on Christmas Eve. Sadly, this tradition is now endangered: the Honduran government has recently passed laws prohibiting the sale of pyrotechnic devices The "Guest of Honor"... gets blown up! No, not really. A few days before 31st of December, the children and teenagers in the neighborhoods in the cities will fashion a life-size doll or mannequin of an old man, representing the year that is about to end: the "Año Viejo". The doll is fashioned from whatever materials the children can gather and dressed with old clothes collected from the neighbors and stuffed with as many pyrotechnical devices as possible. There are no guidelines, so each Año Viejo reflects the creativity of each "neighborhood team". Sometimes they are made to look like politicians or other famous (or rather infamous) public figures. At the stroke of midnight of 31st of December, the Año Viejo is set alight, with all the pyrotechnics setting off in a loud and bright display that the neighbors gather around to see. This is echoed to spectacular effect throught the cities and towns, as each neighborhood will have its own Año Viejo. The Año Viejo is meant symbolise of all the bad and forgettable events of the outgoing year. So, in a way, burning the Año Viejo is a symbolic "burning away" of bad memories. Also, it is simply great fun to watch! Photo by ThisIsHonduras Easter celebrations center around Semana Santa (literally, "Holy Week"). During this week, Christians commemorate the events of the last days in the life of Jesus Christ, as narrated in the Bible. It begins on Sunday of Palms. It is a period of reflection and good behaviour for all Christians. With Catholicism being the dominant religion, Easter is an important time of the year for Hondurans and it is celebrated accordingly, with religious parades, special masses, and other traditional events hailing from Colonial times. On the evening of Good Friday, people attend a special mass to commemorate the death of Jesus Christ. Since the Catholic tradition indicates that he resurrected three days later, a meal is arranged to commemorate celebrate this on the evening of the Easter Sunday. Most of the year, the figures depicting Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph, and other saints are kept safely inside the Catholic churches. But on Good Friday, they are dressed in elaborate and elegant costumes, brought out of their church or cathedral, and paraded on floats around the city or town. The floats are solemnly and slowy carried through the streets by volunteers, while band plays a funerary piece. The parade symbolizes Christ's funeral. Photos by Gina Villatoro Traditionally, the streets on the parade's route are covered with decorative "carpets" made from a thin pre- painted sawdust. The sawdust is painstakingly laid-out to create intricate patterns or images depicting religious scenes and characters from Catholic tradition. These "carpets" are true works of art, made entirely by volunteers and every year there is an undeclared competition between neighbouring cities, to see which can make the most elaborate and beautiful "carpets" for their Good Friday parade. Unfortunatley, the carpets do not last long: any gust of wind or rain will ruin them, and the parade itself destroys them. Photos by Gina Villatoro Photos by Gina Villatoro Birthdays, piñatas, and cake In most of Latinamerica, it is customary to celebrate a child's birthday with a gathering of friends, a meal and a "piñata" - a hollow figure made of papier-maché in different colours, filled with various types of candy, chocolates, and small toys. Traditionally, piñatas would be shaped like a star, but today they can be made to order to resemble anything you can imagine, with characters from the latest cartoons and animated films being the most popular. Photo by ThisIsHonduras The piñata is strung up from a tree branch or post so that it can swing about and children attending the party take turns to strike the piñata with a wooden stick. Usually the child at turn is blindfolded and the piñata is made to swing back and forth at random, whilst the rest of attendees help by shouting "Up!", "Down!", "Left!", "Right!", "Cold!", "Warm!", etc. This continues until the piñata has suffered enough damage to allow the contents to pour out for all the children to rush in and collect them. For some strange reason, at most birthday parties you will hear the song "Happy Birthday" in English (and sometimes also in Spanish). This is followed immediately by the traditional blowing of the candles on a cake that will be shared by the guests. Spanish is the official language of Honduras and is spoken by all Hondurans. Like other countries in Central America, we have our own accent and slang. Spanish people visiting Hondurans have often commented that the Honduran accest is very similar to that used in Spain's Canary Islands. English is spoken by many people of Afro-Caribbean ascent on the islands off the northern coast of Honduras (the Bay Islands). On the mainland, relatively few people are bililngual, with English being the most common second language, for those who have access to bi-lingual education. When you travel in Honduras, be aware that it will very useful for you to speak and understand at least enough Spanish to be able to ask for and get directions. This will be specially true away from the cities, were most people will only speak Spanish. Several native tongues are still spoken by the native groups living (mostly) in rural areas. For example, the Tolupán speak the "Tol" language and the Garífuna use language that is a unique mixture of at least five others, including some East-African languges. To find out more about this, visit our page on ethnic groups in Honduras. Most Hondurans are members of the Roman Catholic Church. Traditionally Catholicism has been the strongest religion in the country but, recently Evangelism has become popular and is gaining strength, specially amongst the younger Hondurans. You'll find that many customs and traditions in Honduras have a link to Catholic faith. Honduras is blessed with a population of great ethnic diversity. The predominant ethnic group in Honduras are the "mestizo" - people of mixed native and European (mostly Spanish) ascent. Mestizos account for over 93% of the population of Honduras. There are several other minority ethnic groups. Amongst them are people who descend from native tribes that were in our territory before the Spanish arrived: Lencas, Chortís, Tolupanes, Pech, Tawahkas, and Miskitos. There is also another important group, called the Garífunas, who descend from African slaves from the Caribbean islands and are a relatively recent addition to the Honduran family. And there are many people of Afro-Caribbean ascent living in The Bay Islands. The following mini-gallery will give you an idea of what Hondurans from the various ethnic groups look like. Click on the pictures below to see more and larger images and read more about each ethnic group in Honduras. The population of Honduras has grown steadily during most of the XX century. This growth has accelerated during the last 4 decades thanks to the success of government programs aimed at reducing infant mortality and increasing overall life expectancy. According to the 2005 census, Hondurans numbered 6,927,000 and with the current growth rates (2.5% per year), it is proyected that the population will reach 8,606,000 by 2015. It is worthwile to mention that families in the rural areas of the country tend to have more than twice the number of children than those in the urban areas. Honduras is a young country, with just over 50% of the population under 19 years old (only 3% of the population is 65 or over). The population is split approximately evenly between men and women. The latest population census has shown that, for the first time in Honduran history, more Hondurans now live in cities than in rural areas.

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Pond Dip Net One way to explore water life is to create a pond dip net and catch living organisms for observation. Don't forget to return the animals back to the pond when you're done. What You'll Need: - Stiff wire coat hanger - Heavy wood staples (the kind that are hammered in) - Tape measure - Waterproof tape - Safe scissors - Cheesecloth or wide-mesh nylon net - Needle and thread - Tall rubber boots - Large metal pan (such as an aluminum roasting pan) How to Make a Pond Dip Net: Step 1: To make a dip net, bend a stiff wire coat hanger in the shape of a D, leaving the hook in the middle of the straight part of the D. Straighten the hook and use heavy wood staples to fasten the straightened hook to the end of a broomstick. Step 2: Fold the wire back over the last staple. Wrap the end in waterproof tape. Step 3: Measure the distance around the wire frame. Cut some cheesecloth that width and 18 inches long. Step 4: Sew the ends together into a tube. Stitch one end of the tube shut. Sew the open end of the tube to the frame by turning the edge over the frame then stitching the fabric to itself. Step 5: To use your dip net, put on rubber boots and wade into a pond (with an adult along). Be careful not to wade in water deeper than your boots. Step 6: Hold the net in the water with the handle upright and the net resting on the pond bottom. Have a bucket with a little water in it ready in the other hand. Step 7: Move slowly through the water and gently move the net up and down. Stop now and then and dump the contents of your net into the bucket. After you've done several nettings, come ashore and dump the bucket into a wide pan. Add a little water so your animals can swim. Step 8: When you are done, return the animals to the pond. Some pond animals (such as native turtles) are endangered because of over-collection. Put on your thinking caps -- continue on the next page to learn all about the earth's oceans and rivers.

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There are several ways to present the answer to this question. I'll start with one suggested by your wording. Einstein does say that gravity and acceleration have the same effects. More precisely, he says that there are no differences between the effects of adding a uniform gravitational field or of switching to coordinates that uniformly accelerate with respect to your old coordinates. Those effects depend on the direction of the gravity or of the acceleration. For the right directions and magnitudes, the gravity effects and the acceleration effects exactly cancel. That's what happens in free fall. Another way to look at it is to ask how you feel forces. You (or some instrument) feel forces because they push and pull differently on different parts of a nerve, or a strain gauge, or something, squeezing them into slightly different states. As Galileo discovered, in a uniform gravitational field all objects fall in exactly the same way, assuming no other forces are present. Every little part falls along with every other part. That means that in free fall there are no symptoms of how fast you're falling, or whether there's any gravity present. When you think you feel gravity, what you are really feeling are other forces- say forces from the floor or a chair. These forces are almost always electromagnetic in origin. Notice that you feel them in particular parts of your body, even though gravity acts uniformly on all parts of your body. Actually, there are tiny tidal forces on objects with nonzero extent. Gravitational forces vary in strength and direction as you move around in space, and the difference between the gravitational force in one place and in another can be registered on strain gauges (the Earth's oceans, and the Earth itself act as a gigantic tidal strain gauge as the moon orbits above and as we orbit the sun). On a smaller scale, two small objects (like marbles) set adrift in the space shuttle may have a very small difference in the gravitational forces on them. Each is separately in orbit around the earth. If one is a tiny bit closer to the earth's center, it should make its orbit in a tiny bit less time than one that's farther away, and to an observer floating with them on the space shuttle, he should see one of them slowly creeping across the cabin relative to the other one. In practice, it's hard to get the initial momentum of a floating object so low that the tidal forces are visible for a small area like the interior of the space shuttle. But it is tidal forces like these which tear objects apart as they fall into black holes. (published on 10/22/2007)

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hua4 xue2 li4 cheng2 (ChemicalProcess) A ChemicalProcess occurs whenever chemical compounds (CompoundSubstances) are formed or decomposed. For example, reactants disappear as chemical change occurs, and products appear as chemical change occurs. In a chemical change a chemical reaction takes place. Catalysts in a ChemicalProcess may speed up the reaction, but aren't themselves produced or consumed. Examples: rusting of iron and the decomposition of water, induced by an electric current, to gaseous hydrogen and gaseous oxygen. SUMO / PROCESSES hua4 xue2 he2 cheng2 hua4 xue2 fen1 jie3 sheng1 wu4 li4 cheng2 zhuang4 tai4 gai3 bian4 biao3 mian4 gai3 bian4 Related WordNet synsets See more related synsets on a separate page. - chemical phenomenon - a natural phenomenon involving chemistry (as changes to atoms or molecules) - chemical process, chemical change, chemical action - any process determined by the atomic and molecular composition and structure of the substances involved If , then stuff shi4 chun2 wu4 zhi4 de5 shi2 li4. (instance ?PROC ChemicalProcess) (resource ?PROC ?STUFF) (result ?PROC ?STUFF))) (instance ?STUFF PureSubstance))

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The Grade 1 Alberta Curriculum states that “Students learn about materials by using them to construct a variety of objects, including model buildings, toys, boats and vehicles. Students select materials to use and gain experience as they cut and shape, fold, pile materials on top of one another, join parts, and try different techniques to achieve the result that they intend. In the process, they learn to look at objects that are similar to what they are trying to construct and, with guidance, begin to recognize the component parts that make up the whole.” The rationale for the Grade 1 Science curriculum is stated as: Children have a natural curiosity about their surroundings – a desire to explore and investigate, see inside things, find out how things work and find answers to their questions. Learning about science provides a framework for students to understand and interpret the world around them. An elementary science program engages students in a process of inquiry and problem solving in which they develop both knowledge and skills. The purpose of the program is to encourage and stimulate children’s learning by nurturing their sense of wonderment, by developing skill and confidence in investigating their surroundings, and by building a foundation of experience and understanding upon which later learning can be based. Elementary and secondary science programs help prepare students for life in a rapidly changing world – a world of expanding knowledge and technology in which new challenges and opportunities continually arise. Tomorrow’s citizens will live in a changing environment in which increasingly complex questions and issues will need to be addressed. The decisions and actions of future citizens need to be based on awareness and understanding of their world and on the ability to ask relevant questions, seek answers, define problems and find solutions. To address the curriculum objectives and rational the students are presented with the following activities in the Student Zone: Every building has some things that are alike. What things do they have that are the same? Does a building need? How many walls do buildings have?

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the 1930s the Khanty people of Siberia were persecuted by the Soviet regime. They were taken from their ancestral lands, the adults put to work in state farms and the children sent to boarding schools. The shamans were killed in an attempt to crush the people's spirituality and break their roots to their past. By the 1960s many of the tribe had managed to move back to the Siberian Taiga and re-establish their traditional semi-nomadic way of life, herding reindeer, hunting, fishing and gathering berries. then came a new threat. Oil, gas and mining companies, seeking to exploit the hidden riches of the land, have wreaked havoc in the delicate arctic environment, polluting water sources, degrading forests and killing or scaring away the animals. In places the land is so damaged that it would take a century to recover enough to support the Khanty's precious reindeer. The prospectors trick families into surrendering their land - moving in without their knowledge, promising compensation that never comes or making them believe they have no right to refuse. As a result the people are often driven from their land into 'native villages', where they are forced to depend on the state to survive. In desperation many seek solace in the vodka brought in by the oil men or even resort to In fact until recently, according to Russian federal law, the people had the right to live and hunt in their traditional lands, the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug. And in 1994 those who were still living in the traditional way received official land documents from the local administration, giving them the right to deny entry to prospectors. Now, however, a new Land Code has come into force that invalidates the previous laws, leaving the Khanty with no protection from those who want to exploit UK-based tribal support group Survival International is running a campaign to help the Khanty. They are inviting supporters to write to officials in the national and local governments to show their solidarity with the tribe and express their concerns over the new Land Code. can help by writing a letter in support of the Khanty to help them continue their traditional way of life, or at least receive adequate compensation for the losses Largely thanks to a previous Survival campaign in 2000, Russian oil company Lukoil improved the way it dealt with the Khanty and the tribe also reported that they were being treated with more respect by the About the Khanty The Khanty are one of Siberia's 30 tribal groups. In their traditional homelands of the Siberian Taiga temperatures drop to -50° Celsius in winter, making it inhospitable for most vegetation. However reindeer flourish in those conditions and the Khanty people have traditionally relied on them for their meat - the main staple of their diet - and used their skins to make tents, or chum, in which to live. The people migrate with the reindeer, fishing, hunting and foraging for sustenance on the way. Today there are around 22,500 Khanty living in Siberia. © Kathryn McCann 2005. Kathryn is a freelance writer with a particular interest in environmental issues. Her client list includes IT Power (renewable energy consultancy), Bill Dunster Architects (creators of zero fossil energy development, BedZED), and Manu Guides Association (campaigning against unsustainable tourism development in the Peruvian Amazon). She writes magazine articles and press releases as well as advertisements and marketing material for print, radio and the web. Tel: +44 1276 471998 Mobile: 07956 426821 Email: [email protected] 6 Charterhouse Buildings London EC1M 7ET Tel: +44 20 7687 8700 Fax: +44 20 7687 8701

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With the fall of Poland, thousands of POWs were taken by the German Army, and millions more before the war was over. The question of what to do with those POWs would lead to some of the worst atrocities of the war. Large numbers of Allied POWs were taken as the Nazis stormed across Europe. Hundreds of thousands of French soldiers were taken to Germany and put into forced labor camps. By 1945 the majority of forced laborers in Germany were French. Two hundred thousand British and Dominion troops were captured in France, Greece, Crete and North Africa. Thousands of Americans were shot down over Germany or taken in combat in Italy. They were all sent to camps in Germany. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union, the huge encirclements of 1941 swallowed whole Russian army groups. Some five million Soviets went into captivity, including large numbers of Russian women. Only one out five would come home again. Unlike the indigenous civilian populations that were sent to concentration camps, the POWs were held separately in different camps unless they were found guilty of some war crime and were sent to a death camp. For the Western POWs, that meant they had a better chance at survival then either the concentration camp prisoners or their comrades in Japanese hands. Around 17% of Western Allied soldiers died while in German detention; Allied soldiers in Japanese hands had less than a 50% chance of survival. Different branches of the German armed forces ran different camps. The RAF and USAAF fliers shot down over Germany were taken to camps run by the Luftwaffe after interrogation. Ground troops were taken to camps run by the Wehrmacht. As the war progressed against Germany, Hitler issued a series of orders that led to many massacres of western Allied troops. The Commando Order, issued after Dieppe on October 18, 1942, called Commandos “bandits” and that they should be shot on sight. This led to the execution of Americans dropped into Czechoslovakia by parachute, Canadians killed by the 2nd SS Panzer Division in Normandy in June 1944, and Norwegians attempting to land by boat. The total number of Allied soldiers killed by the Germans will never be known.

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Many stories have progressed enough to be the topic of conversation from time to time. The novel, Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus has different relationships to many other topics. The author of the story, Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley who was born almost 200 years ago bringing with her the age of horror (Edison 5), used biographical strategies to write Frankenstein . Also, as time progressed, Frankenstein became a well-known story. It was turned into many different films that depicted the time period that it happened to be from. One final relationship that Frankenstein has happens to be the way that everyone can draw morals from the story, no matter what the reader’s age, or how the reader’s life has evolved. Shelley used biographical strategies to write her well-known novel. Frankenstein has plenty of tragedy included to form the storyline. Many women passed away throughout the entire novel. Perhaps the reason for these mishaps was because Shelley watched many women and children die all through her life. For instance, her mother died after giving birth to Shelley. Also, only one of Mary’s children survived infancy. Mary herself almost died after a miscarriage. Percy Shelley’s wife, Harriet, committed suicide. (Percy married Mary after his wife took her own life.) Shelley also demonstrated a bond between specifics such as names, dates and events. For example, the letters that form the narration of the novel were written to Margaret Walton Saville (Whose initials M.W.S are those of Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley). These letters were written not only during the time that Mary was going through her third pregnancy, but also during the time when she was writing the novel itself. It appears that Mary tries to be a silent person in her story. Most of the important scenes revolve around her in some way. Certain dates had a large enough impact on Mary’s life that she integrated them into her novel. “Mellor discovered that the day and date on which Walton first sees the creature, Monday, 31 July, had coincided in 1797, the year in which Mary Shelley was born. This fact and other internal evidence led Mellor to conclude that the novel ends on 12 September 1797, two days after Mary Wollstonecraft’s death.” (Ty 19) Mary consequently merged the beginning and ending of her life with the book’s beginning and end, just as she combined many morals of her time period with the same morals that one may relate to today. Because Mary did such a terrific job thinking up the saga of the hideous creature and relating it somehow to life during this romantic time period, many readers find it easy to relate the morals of the story to their own personal lives. Everyday, readers learn the moral lesson that is it important to look within and see a person for who they are and not for what they look like. One major theme of Frankenstein is the thought that beauty lies within. Dr. Frankenstein believes that if he pieces together beautiful body parts from different corpses, he will end up with a beautiful body. “His limbs were in proportion, and I had selected his features as beautiful” (Shelley 60). This, however, is not the case. The monster ends up being a hideous creature that the doctor cannot even bear to look at. “I had desired it with an ardour that far exceeded moderation; but now that I had finished, the beauty of the dream vanished, and breathless horror and disgust filled my heart. Unable to endure the aspect of the being I had created, I rushed out of the room, and continued a long time traversing my bedchamber, unable to compose my mind to sleep” (61). Dr. Frankenstein does not give the monster a chance. He does not know what this beast is like on the inside. The monster could have a heart of gold, but that is not important to the doctor. What is important is that he escapes from this hideous looking individual. The example of the doctor’s unwillingness to learn about the monster just proves that beauty in fact does lie within and people need to look for this before “judging a book by its cover.” Another relation to one’s life in the novel is the importance of one’s family and friends. It is obvious that Dr. Frankenstein loses many friends and members of his family because of his unwillingness to listen. The monster only wants a mate, a partner. Frankenstein does not want to hear the monsters plea, and since he will not pay attention to this request, the creature kills off people that were important to the doctor. “ ‘Frankenstein! You belong then to my enemy- to him towards whom I have sworn eternal revenge; you shall be my first victim’” (127). By reading this tragic part of the story, readers are taught to live every day to its fullest and to not take anything for granted. Readers are taught to say, “I love you” to the people who mean everything to them whenever it is necessary. “I love you” can never be said too much. One final way that Frankenstein can relate to life is by realizing that work isn’t the most important thing in life. Throughout the story, Dr. Frankenstein puts his entire life on hold so that he can complete his work. “Every night I was oppressed by a slow fever, and I became nervous to a most painful degree; the fall of a leaf startled me, and I shunned my fellow-creatures as if I had been guilty of a crime” (60). His love life and family life all suffer as a result and Frankenstein seems to grow apart from his family and friends. Readers of Frankenstein hopefully see that it is important to always keep in mind the people that love them. Future generations reading Shelley’s work of art still realize the moral values. They still have resonance. Because Shelley does an excellent job in teaching morals related to everyday life many films have derived from the horror novel. Frankenstein has become a celebrated work of art that has been read and seen in the theatres by many. After Mary Shelley created her infamous tale, many different versions of it appeared. Adaptations of Frankenstein were created. Thomas Edison made the original Frankenstein movie in 1910 (Edison 5); about two decades before Boris Karloff created Frankenstein in 1931 and before James Whale produced his two films in 1931 and 1935. These revivals of Frankenstein brought about a general gothic revival of films derived from horror stories. Society responded to Mary Shelley’s novel by placing it in popular culture. Even now, it is certain that directors are thinking up yet another way to portray Frankenstein. From about 1826 to the present, many diverse films have been fashioned to resemble Shelley’s work of fiction. Each masterpiece has illustrated the time frame in which it was created. Other than assorted variations of Frankenstein, other films have been produced that resemble the gothic theme that Mary Shelley popularized by her novel. Bram Stoker’s Dracula, Robert Louis Stevenson’s Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, and Edgar Allen Poe’s Masque of the Red Death are just a few of the classics. A more recent representation includes Anne Rice’s Interview with the Vampire (Baron’s). Because of Mary Shelley’s persistence and dedication with her story (it took Mary almost two years to complete her novel), many people have enjoyed the suspense and thrill from the horror films and novels that have been take-offs of her original. In conclusion, by looking deeply into the novel and really thinking about its meanings, one can come up with many different ways that Frankenstein relates to various topics. Mary’s life was obviously influenced by many around her. Placing the more important things that affected her life into her novel makes the story more interesting. Many authors besides Mary Shelley also use these thoughts to write their novels, even in the present time. By doing this, stories are more enjoyable and will be more likely to be passed on and portrayed in different forms. The Original Thomas Edison’s Frankenstein. LRS Marketing Home Page. 24 Mar. 2002. Ty, Eleanor. “Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley”. Brandeis University. 24 Mar. 2002. The Baron’s Goth Film Picks. Geocities Home Page. 23 Mar. 2002. Shelley, Mary. “Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus ”. Frankenstein. 6th ed. Johanna M. Smith. Bedford/St. Martins: New York, 2000

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Science Fair Project Encyclopedia Ross River virus Ross River virus (RRV) is an arbovirus of the genus Alphavirus . In humans, it is the cause of an 'epidemic polyarthritis ' commonly known as Ross River fever, that in Australia infected an average of about 4,000 people annually in the decade 1995-2004 . Ross River fever is a notifiable disease in Australia (see List of notifiable diseases#Australia). Ross River virus is endemic to Australia and Papua New Guinea, and was observed in an outbreak in the South Pacific during 1979-1980. It was named following the isolation of an arbovirus from mosquitoes trapped beside Ross River , near Townsville, Queensland, in 1959, and the subsequent identification of this virus as the one responsible for cases of epidemic polyarthritis in Queensland and New South Wales. Outbreaks as long ago as 1928 are now attributed to Ross River virus. Ross River fever is also known as Ross River virus infection or Ross River virus disease, since not all patients experience symptoms of fever. A review of a number of studies concluded that between 20% and 60% of patients experience fever. Similarly, the name epidemic polyarthritis fell out of use because arthritic symptoms are not observed in all patients; the same review found that between 83% and 98% of patients experienced joint pain. Other symptoms include rash. Although there is some (mostly) anecdotal evidence of long-term chronic effects due to Ross River virus, particularly joint pain, patients can typically expect to recover within a month after the onset of symptoms. (See for more details.) In rural and regional areas of Australia, the continued prevalence of Ross River virus is thought to be supported by 'reservoir' hosts such as large marsupial mammals, but antibodies to Ross River virus have been found in a wide variety of placental and marsupial mammals, and also in a number of bird species. It is not presently known what reservoir hosts support Ross River virus in metropolitan areas such as Brisbane. - Communicable Diseases Australia, National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System. - Information on RRV from a company that produces test kits for RRV antibodies. - D. Harley, A. Sleigh, and S. Ritchie (2001). Ross River Virus Transmission, Infection, and Disease: a Cross-Disciplinary Review. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 14(4):909-932. The contents of this article is licensed from www.wikipedia.org under the GNU Free Documentation License. Click here to see the transparent copy and copyright details

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This pamphlet has been written to help people with cataracts and their families better understand the condition. It describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of cataracts. A cataract is a clouding of the eye's lens that can cause vision problems. The most common type is related to aging. More than half of all Americans age 65 and older have a cataract. In the early stages, stronger lighting and eyeglasses may lessen vision problems caused by cataracts. At a certain point, however, surgery may be needed to improve vision. Today, cataract surgery is safe and very effective. What is the lens The lens is the part of the eye that helps focus light on the retina. The retina is the eye's light-sensitive layer that sends visual signals to the brain. In a normal eye, light passes through the lens and gets focused on the retina. To help produce a sharp image, the lens must remain clear. What is a cataract The lens is made mostly of water and protein. The protein is arranged to let light pass through and focus on the retina. Sometimes some of the protein clumps together. This can start to cloud small areas of the lens, blocking some light from reaching the retina and interfering with vision. This is a cataract. In its early stages, a cataract may not cause a problem. The cloudiness may affect only a small part of the lens. However, over time, the cataract may grow larger and cloud more of the lens, making it harder to see. Because less light reaches the retina, your vision may become dull and blurry. A cataract won't spread from one eye to the other, although many people develop cataracts in both eyes. Although researchers are learning more about cataracts, no one knows for sure what causes them. Scientists think there may be several causes, including smoking, diabetes, and excessive exposure to sunlight. What are the symptoms The most common symptoms of a cataract are: |View of boys by person with normal vision.||View of boys by person with cataracts.| These symptoms can also be a sign of other eye problems. If you have any of these symptoms, check with your eye care professional. When a cataract is small, you may not notice any changes in your vision. Cataracts tend to grow slowly, so vision gets worse gradually. Some people with a cataract find that their close-up vision suddenly improves, but this is temporary. Vision is likely to get worse again as the cataract grows. What are the different types of cataract How is a cataract detected To detect a cataract, an eye care professional examines the lens. A comprehensive eye examination usually includes: Your eye care professional may also do other tests to learn more about the structure and health of your eye. How is it treated For an early cataract, vision may improve by using different eyeglasses, magnifying lenses, or stronger lighting. If these measures don't help, surgery is the only effective treatment. This treatment involves removing the cloudy lens and replacing it with a substitute lens. A cataract needs to be removed only when vision loss interferes with your everyday activities, such as driving, reading, or watching TV. You and your eye care professional can make that decision together. In most cases, waiting until you are ready to have cataract surgery will not harm your eye. If you decide on surgery, your eye care professional may refer you to a specialist to remove the cataract. If you have cataracts in both eyes, the doctor will not remove them both at the same time. You will need to have each done separately. Sometimes, a cataract should be removed even if it doesn't cause problems with your vision. For example, a cataract should be removed if it prevents examination or treatment of another eye problem, such as age-related macular degeneration or diabetic retinopathy. Is cataract surgery effective Cataract removal is one of the most common operations performed in the U.S. today. It is also one of the safest and most effective. In about 90 percent of cases, people who have cataract surgery have better vision afterward. How is a cataract removed There are two primary ways to remove a cataract. Your doctor can explain the differences and help determine which is best for you: In most cataract surgeries, the removed lens is replaced by an intraocular lens (Iol). An Iol is a clear, artificial lens that requires no care and becomes a permanent part of your eye. With an Iol, you'll have improved vision because light will be able to pass through it to the retina. Also, you won't feel or see the new lens. Some people cannot have an Iol. They may have problems during surgery, or maybe they have another eye disease. For these people, a soft contact lens may be suggested. For others, glasses that provide powerful magnification may be better. What happens before surgery A week or two before surgery, your eye care professional will do some tests. These may include tests to measure the curve of the cornea and the size and shape of the eye. For patients who will receive an Iol, this information helps your doctor choose the right type of Iol. Also, doctors may ask you not to eat or drink anything after midnight the morning of your surgery. What happens during surgery When you enter the hospital or clinic, you will be given eye drops to dilate the pupil. The area around your eye will be washed and cleansed. The operation usually lasts less than 1 hour and is almost painless. Many people choose to stay awake during surgery, while others may need to be put to sleep for a short time. If you are awake, you will have an anesthetic to numb the nerves in and around your eye. After the operation, a patch will be placed over your eye and you will rest for a while. You will be watched by your medical team to see if there are any problems, such as bleeding. Most people who have cataract surgery can go home the same day. Since you will not be able to drive, make sure you make arrangements for a ride. What happens after surgery It's normal to feel itching and mild discomfort for a while after cataract surgery. Some fluid discharge is also common, and your eye may be sensitive to light and touch. If you have discomfort, your eye care professional may suggest a pain reliever every 46 hours. After 12 days, even moderate discomfort should disappear. In most cases, healing will take about 6 weeks. After surgery, your doctor will schedule exams to check on your progress. For a few days after surgery, you may take eyedrops or pills to help healing and control the pressure inside your eye. Ask your doctor how to use your medications, when to take them, and what effects they can have. You will also need to wear an eye shield or eyeglasses to help protect the eye. Avoid rubbing or pressing on your eye. problems after surgery are rare, but they can occur. These can include infection, bleeding, inflammation (pain, redness, swelling), loss of vision, or light flashes. With prompt medical attention, these problems usually can be treated successfully. When you are home, try not to bend or lift heavy objects. Bending increases pressure in the eye. You can walk, climb stairs, and do light household chores. When will my vision be normal again You can quickly return to many everyday activities, but your vision may be blurry. The healing eye needs time to adjust so that it can focus properly with the other eye, especially if the other eye has a cataract. Ask your doctor when you can resume driving. If you just received an Iol, you may notice that colors are very bright or have a blue tinge. Also, if you've been in bright sunlight, everything may be reddish for a few hours. If you see these color tinges, it is because your lens is clear and no longer cloudy. Within a few months after receiving an Iol, these colors should go away. And when you have healed, you will probably need new glasses. What is an "after-cataract" Sometimes a part of the natural lens that is not removed during cataract surgery becomes cloudy and may blur your vision. This is called an after-cataract. An after-cataract can develop months or years later. Unlike a cataract, an after-cataract is treated with a laser. In a technique called YAG laser capsulotomy, your doctor uses a laser beam to make a tiny hole in the lens to let light pass through. This is a painless outpatient procedure. What research is being done The NEI is conducting and supporting a number of studies, such as the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS). In this nationwide clinical study, scientists are examining how cataracts develop and what factors put people at risk for developing them. Also, they are looking at whether certain vitamins prevent or delay cataract development. Other research is focusing on new ways to prevent, diagnose, and treat cataracts. In addition, scientists are studying the role of genetics in the development of cataracts. What can you do to protect your vision Although we don't know how to protect against cataracts, people over the age of 60 are at risk for many vision problems. If you are age 60 or older, you should have an eye examination through dilated pupils at least every 2 years. This kind of exam allows your eye care professional to check for signs of age-related macular degeneration, glaucoma, cataracts, and other vision disorders. For more information about cataracts, you may wish to contact: Agency for Health Care policy and Research publications Clearinghouse p.O. Box 8547 Silver Spring, MD 20907 American Academy of Ophthalmology 655 Beach Street San Francisco, CA 94109-7424 American Optometric Association 243 Lindbergh Boulevard St. Louis, MO 63141 National Eye Institute 2020 Vision place Bethesda, MD 208923655 prevent Blindness America 500 East Remington Road Schaumburg, IL 60173 For more information about Iols, contact: U.S. Food and Drug Administration Office of Consumer Affairs parklawn Building (HFE-88) 5600 Fishers Lane Rockville, MD 20857 We ship out to the UK, EU and all over the world. In the UK, we dont charge postage on all Solgar products and Lifemel Honey, and reduced shipping on all orders over £35. We have a special offer of 'Buy 5, get 1 free' (excludes Solgar products and Lifemel Honey) and some of our special offers are even better than this with 'Buy 3 get 1 free', 'Buy 2, get 1 free' and even 'BOGOF' (Buy 1, get 1 free) on selected products. View our special offers page for full details.

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Calculate Cereals, CREAM OF WHEAT, mix'n eat, plain, dry calories from carbohydrates, fats and proteins based on weight Gravels and Substrates Materials and Substances What is kilogram per square foot? Kilogram per square foot (kg/ft²) is a non-metric measurement unit of surface or areal density. The surface density is used to measure the thickness of paper, fabric and other thin materials. read more...» What is power measurement? Power is defined as energy transferred from or to an object by a force on the object per unit of time. The metric (SI) unit of power is the joule per second. The unit has a special name, the watt (W), after Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt. The unit of power in the British system is the foot-pound per second.read more...»

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Tuesday 18 June Grey-legged night monkey (Aotus griseimembra) Grey-legged night monkey fact file - Find out more - Print factsheet Grey-legged night monkey description The grey-legged night monkey belongs to the nocturnal primate genus Aotus, which is also one of the most widespread primate genera in the neotropics. This species is a relatively small monkey, and there are no differences in appearance between males and females. This monkey has a slightly astonished look due to its large eyes, but unlike many nocturnal species, the eyes do not shine in torch light. This is because they do not have a ‘tapetum lucidum’ – the reflective layer behind the retina of night-time animals that enhances the amount of light they can receive. The lack of this layer betrays the grey-legged night monkey’s relatively recent evolutionary split from diurnal monkeys. The coat is thick and two-tone; the tips of the fur are greyish-brown with much lighter bases on the back (3), and pale yellow or orange on the underside (4). The face has white patches above and below the eyes, the cheeks are grey and there is a thin grey stripe down the centre of the forehead. The thick tail is only a little shorter than the body and acts to balance the monkey when walking on all fours along branches. The fingers have true nails and obvious pads to aid grip (3). - Also known as - grey-handed night monkey, yellow-bellied night monkey. - Aotus lemurinus griseimembra. - Mico De Noche Caribeño. Top - Active during the day. - The state of being pregnant; the period from conception to birth. - Inbreeding depression - The decreased vigour in terms of growth, survival or fertility that follows one or more generations of interbreeding between closely related individuals. - Having only one mate during a breeding season, or throughout the breeding life of a pair. - Active at night. - Primary forest - Forest that has remained undisturbed for a long time and has reached a mature condition. - Secondary forest - Regenerating forest that has not yet reached the mature state of primary forest. - A population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species, but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species. - Area occupied and defended by an animal, a pair of animals or a colony. IUCN Red List (January, 2009) - Richardson, M. (2006) Pers. comm. MFOUs and Night Monkeys: Paternal care in Aotus sp. By Jonathan Greenberg (April, 2006) Primate Info Net (April, 2006) The Primata (April, 2006) - Herrera, S., Perlaza, B.L., Bonelo, A. and Arevalo-Herrera, M. (2002) Aotus monkeys: their great value for anti-malaria vaccines and drug testing. International Journal of Parasitology, 32(13): 1625 - 35. - Defler, T.R., Rodríguez-M, J.V. and Hernández-Camacho, J.I. (2003) Conservation Priorities for Colombian Primates. Primate Conservation, 19: 10 - 18. CITES (April, 2006) The Nature Conservancy (May, 2008) - view the contents of, and Material on, the website; - download and retain copies of the Material on their personal systems in digital form in low resolution for their own personal use; - teachers, lecturers and students may incorporate the Material in their educational material (including, but not limited to, their lesson plans, presentations, worksheets and projects) in hard copy and digital format for use within a registered educational establishment, provided that the integrity of the Material is maintained and that copyright ownership and authorship is appropriately acknowledged by the End User. Grey-legged night monkey biology With unusually small territories for their size, grey-legged night monkeys are relatively sedentary primates, but will defend their range with vigour. Males display and call to intruders, particularly during the breeding seasons, and mark their territory by rubbing a gland at the base of the tail to release a brown, oily and smelly substance. However, although this species is highly monogamous, and exists usually in pairs with up to three dependent young, aggregations of these family units have been seen together, both feeding and sleeping, numbering up to around 30 individuals (3). Each female will only give birth once a year after a gestation of about 130 days. A single infant is born and is lavished with parental care. However, the mother will only have contact with the infant to suckle it. The male is responsible for carrying, defending, playing with and instructing the young, and the mother will actively pull an infant off her and bite it should it try to clamber aboard. The young stay with their parents for two or three years, after which time they become temporarily nomadic as they search for a mate (3). Both males and females urinate on their hands and rub it on branches in order to track down a mate and two individuals will sniff each other for an extended period upon meeting (5). The grey-legged night monkey feeds most on moonlit nights, leaving the sleeping sites shortly after sunset and returning before sunrise (4). It takes fruits, insects and leaves for much of the year, but during July and August when most foods are scarce, it will mainly eat nectar (3). Night monkeys are extremely efficient at snatching insects from leaves, branches (3), and even out of the air with lightening speed (4). They may also feed occasionally on bats, small birds, eggs and lizards. They are rarely preyed upon, but potential predators include cats and large owls, who would likely only manage an infant (3).Top Grey-legged night monkey rangeTop Grey-legged night monkey habitat Preferring older, undisturbed forests with high species diversity, the grey-legged night monkey is found only in primary forest and very old secondary forest, but never in young secondary forest (4). Their nest sites are inconspicuous to reduce the threat of predation. They are commonly found in holes in hollow trees, sometimes in cohabitation with bats, as well as in dense vine tangles (3).Top Grey-legged night monkey status The grey-legged night monkey is classified as Vulnerable (VU) on the IUCN Red List (1).Top Grey-legged night monkey threats Being nocturnal not only reduces the threat of natural predation but also significantly protects the grey-legged night monkey from hunting by humans. Whilst many monkey species are killed and captured for sport, food, ‘traditional medicine’ and to become pets, night monkeys’ reclusiveness provides them with some sanctuary. Nonetheless, they are not entirely safe from human interference as they are the best primate model for medical research into malarial vaccines. Many humans are infected with, and die from, malaria each year. This species is particularly suited to malarial research due to its resistance, to both forms of malaria-causing Plasmodium parasites, and the similarity of its immune system with that of humans. It is also used to test anti-malarial drugs (6). There is much controversy as to whether it is justifiable to continue taking this threatened species from the wild for the protection of humans, and whilst it can be bred in captivity, individuals are occasionally taken from the wild to prevent inbreeding depression in captive populations (4). Habitat destruction and disturbance are also threats, but the relatively high level of isolation in Colombia’s forests affords it some protection (7).Top Grey-legged night monkey conservation The listing of the grey-legged night monkey on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora has placed limitations on the numbers allowed to be exported from Colombia to countries conducting medical research. Whilst this has implications on the efficiency and value of medical research into malaria vaccines, it may simply result in the development of malaria research facilities in Colombia, thereby preventing the need for export of grey-legged night monkeys, but continuing their removal from the wild (6) (8). Colombia was the subject of a debt-for-nature swap coordinated by the WWF and The Nature Conservancy, and using funds from the United States Government and the Global Conservation Fund. Millions of U.S. dollars will be released to five conservation sites in Colombia over a 12-year period, in return for the cancellation of a large amount of national debt. This scheme prevents the inevitable loss of funding for environmental projects that occurs as governments slip further into debt, and puts the funds back into environmental enhancement programs, such as the creation of protected areas (9).Top Find out more For further information on debt-for-nature swaps see:Top Authenticated (31/05/2006) by Matt Richardson, independent primatologist and writer.Top MyARKive offers the scrapbook feature to signed-up members, allowing you to organize your favourite ARKive images and videos and share them with friends. Terms and Conditions of Use of Materials Copyright in this website and materials contained on this website (Material) belongs to Wildscreen or its licensors. 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Snake-eyed lizard (Ophisops elegans) |Also known as:||Blanfords snake-eyed lizard, elegant snake-eyed lizard, Schlueter's snake-eyed lizard, snake-eyed lacertid| |Synonyms:||Amystes ehrenbergi, Gymnops meizolepis, Ohisops elegans, Ophiops elegans, Ophisops blanfordi| |Size||Total length: up to 15 cm (2)| Snout-vent length: up to 5.5 cm (3) (4) |Weight||1.7 - 3.6 g (3)| The snake-eyed lizard has yet to be classified by the IUCN. The snake-eyed lizard (Ophisops elegans) is a small, slender lizard with a slightly flattened head and a narrow, pointed snout (3) (5). Its tail is long, making up about two-thirds of the lizard’s total length (4), and the scales along the back have a rough ridge down the middle (3) (4) (5) (6). A characteristic feature of the snake-eyed lizard, as with other Ophisops species, is a lack of separate eyelids. Instead, the eye is covered by a transparent ‘spectacle’ like that of snakes, giving rise to this species’ common name (4) (6). The eye cannot be closed, but the spectacle may sometimes be pulled briefly downwards to clean off dust and dirt. A combination of large eyes with overhanging ridges gives the snake-eyed lizard something of a ‘staring’ expression (4). The body of the snake-eyed lizard is generally olive-brown with two lighter, greenish stripes running along its length. The stripes are bordered by dark brown or black spots or blotches, giving a marbled effect (3) (4) (5). The underparts of the snake-eyed lizard are usually pale whitish or yellowish, without dark marks (3) (4), and the tail is often reddish (4). The differences between the male and female snake-eyed lizard are minimal (3), but juveniles may be stripier than the adults (5). A number of subspecies of snake-eyed lizard are usually recognised (1) (6). The snake-eyed lizard has a widespread range, stretching from Bulgaria and northern Greece, through Turkey and the Middle East to countries such as Israel, Iraq and Iran, and into northern Africa, where it can be found in Egypt, Libya and Algeria (1) (4) (6). Its range extends as far east as Pakistan and northwest India (1) (6). A ground-dwelling species (2) (3) (4), the snake-eyed lizard is typically found in open and arid plains, cultivated fields and stony hillsides, in areas with sparse vegetation or low shrubs (4). It is also able to survive on almost bare ground (4), and uses rocks and bare ground to regulate its body temperature (3). This species appears to be well adapted to withstand hot environments (7). In addition to these open, arid habitats, the snake-eyed lizard has also been commonly found inhabiting areas of Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) and open evergreen and deciduous oak forest (3) (8). It has been recorded at elevations of up to 2,000 metres (9). The snake-eyed lizard is an opportunistic feeder which eats any prey in its environment which it has the physical ability to consume (10). This species actively searches for suitable prey (3), which generally includes insects and other arthropods (2) (3) (10). Spiders and insect larvae are particularly important food sources for the snake-eyed lizard (3) (10). This species is usually seen during the day (8). Although not especially quick, the snake-eyed lizard may dash from plant to plant when pursued, and often takes refuge in vegetation, crevices in the ground or under stones. At night, it may bury itself in soft soil or sand beneath cover (4). A fascinating feature of the snake-eyed lizard, as in many other similar species, is its ability to shed its tail in response to a predator attack. The tail is then able to regenerate (11). The average clutch size of the snake-eyed lizard is around three eggs (3), but clutches may vary from one to six (4). The young snake-eyed lizards measure about five centimetres in total length (4), and are thought to reach sexual maturity in their first year of life (3) (4). This species is believed to have a relatively short lifespan (4). There are no known major threats to the snake-eyed lizard, and in the Mediterranean region this species has been classified as Least Concern (LC) according to IUCN Red List criteria (12). However, the snake-eyed lizard may face localised threats in some areas. In the El-Quseima region of Egypt, habitat degradation may result in population declines if it continues. The snake-eyed lizard is relatively uncommon in Egypt, and is vulnerable due to its limited range in North Sinai (5). The snake-eyed lizard is protected in Europe under Appendix II of the Bern Convention, which aims to conserve wild species and their habitats (13). It may also occur in some protected areas, such as the Dibeen Nature Reserve in Jordan (8). There are not known to be any other specific conservation measures in place for this small reptile. Overall, its populations are believed to be stable and do not currently require special protection measures (6). Find out more about the snake-eyed lizard and other reptiles: The Reptile Database: More information on reptile conservation: International Reptile Conservation Foundation: This information is awaiting authentication by a species expert, and will be updated as soon as possible. If you are able to help please contact: - Arthropods: a major grouping of animals that includes crustaceans, insects and arachnids. All arthropods have paired jointed limbs and a hard external skeleton (exoskeleton). - Deciduous: a plant that sheds its leaves at the end of the growing season. - Evergreen: a plant which retains leaves all year round. This is in contrast to deciduous plants, which completely lose their leaves for part of the year. - Larvae: stage in an animal’s lifecycle after it hatches from the egg. Larvae are typically very different in appearance to adults; they are able to feed and move around but usually are unable to reproduce. - Subspecies: a population usually restricted to a geographical area that differs from other populations of the same species, but not to the extent of being classified as a separate species. The Reptile Database (February, 2011) Wild Lebanon - Snake-eyed lizard (February, 2011) - Pérez-Mellado, V., Valakos, E.D., Guerrero, F. and Gil-Costa, M.J. (1993) Ecological similarity of lacertid lizards in the Mediterranean region. The case of Ophisops elegans and Psammodromus hispanicus. In: Valakos, E.D., Bohme, W., Perez-Mellado, V. and Maragou, P. (Eds.) Lacertids of the Mediterranean Region. Hellenic Zoological Society, Athens. - Arnold, N. and Ovenden, D. (2002) Collins Field Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe. HarperCollins Publishers, London. - Baha El Din, S. (2006) A Guide to the Reptiles and Amphibians of Egypt. American University in Cairo Press, Cairo. - Ananjeva, N.B., Orlov, N.L., Khalikov, R.G., Darevsky, I.S., Ryabov, S.A. and Barabanov, A.V. (2006) The Reptiles of Northern Eurasia. Pensoft Publishers, Sofia, Bulgaria. - Foufopoulos, J. (1997) The reptile fauna of the Northern Dodecanese (Aegean Islands, Greece). Herpetozoa, 10(1/2): 3-12. - Damhoureyeh, S.A., Qarqaz, M.A., Baker, M.A., Himdan, N., Eid, E. and Amr, Z.S. (2009) Reptiles and amphibians in Dibbeen Nature Reserve, Jordan. Vertebrate Zoology, 59(2): 169-177. - Baran, I. and Atatür, M.K. (1998) Turkish Herpetofauna (Amphibians and Reptiles). Republic of Turkey Ministry of Environment, Ankara. - Akkaya, A. and Uğurtaş, I.H. (2006) The feeding biology of Ophisops elegans Menetries, 1832 (Reptilia: Lacertidae) populations of the Bursa Region. Turkish Journal of Zoology, 30: 357-360. - Pafilis, P., Foufopoulos, J., Poulakakis, N., Lymberakis, P. and Valakos, E.D. (2009) Tail shedding in island lizards [Lacertidae, Reptilia]: decline of antipredator defenses in relaxed predation environments. Evolution, 63(5): 1262-1278. Cox, N., Chanson, J. and Stuart, S. (2006) The Status and Distribution of Reptiles and Amphibians of the Mediterranean Basin. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Available at: Council of Europe: Bern Convention (February, 2011)

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http://www.arkive.org/snake-eyed-lizard/ophisops-elegans/factsheet

2013-06-19T21:52:14Z

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Why are fermented foods good for health? Fermented foods have recieved much attention in the last decade or so and traditionally fermented foods have been used by many cultures to improve health and the nutritional content of foods. The process of fermentation helps to increase the potency or nutritional content of foods, especially the enzymes. The body systems which benefit from fermented foods are the immune system and digestive systems as well as intestinal health. Make your own Yoghurt The most important ingredients required to make home made food is a good sense of humour, a willingness to make mistakes and to learn from them. Don't worry if things go wrong, the first few attempts are all about getting the feel for it. Home made foods are a part of a healthy wholesome lifestyle that is forever evolving, gathering knowledge and developing skills. The second most important ingredients for making your own yoghurt are: - 500ml organic whole milk - 3 tbsp live, plain whole-milk yoghurt - 25g dried milk powder (to help thicken but is optional) - Honey (to sweeten but is optional) The first step Pour the milk into a saucepan. If you would like it sweetened then drizzle in the honey first. Slowly heat the milk until it forms a skin on the top, alternatively you can stand a cooking thermometer in the milk and stir gently until the the temperature reaches 46 degrees. You can also whisk in the milk powder at this stage. 2. Take the saucepan off the heat and pour the milk into a clean container that has a lid and whisk in the live yoghurt. 3. Put the lid on the container and wrap in a towel to keep warm. Another good idea is to use a wide mouthed flask as the container.4. Leave overnight (6-8 hours to allow the bacteria from the live yoghurt to ferment) and it should be set and ready to eat. Homemade yoghurt is naturally runny but it may take a few times to get the consistency just right. Transfert the yoghurt into a clean container and store in the fridge for up to five days. Keeping a yoghurt starter culture 3 tbsp of this yoghurt can be used as the starter for the next batch and if you want it to last for longer than five days put a small amount in the fridge until needed. This culture chain can be repeated for a number of time but eventually you will need to buy a new batch when the yoghurt becomes to tangy. Other Fermented foods include: - Probiotic supplements - Tamari and Shoyu

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http://www.askanaturopath.com/faqs/fermented-foods/p/402

2013-06-19T20:49:16Z

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Top 10: Kick-Ass Native Americans © Wikimedia Commons The Apache were known as the fiercest warriors in the Southwestern United States and Geronimo became their most famous leader. He fought against both U.S. and Mexican government expansion for nearly 30 years, eluding capture or serious injury although greatly outnumbered. When the Mexican government put a bounty on Apache scalps, Geronimo’s raid became so numerous and brutal that no area felt safe. Though captured in 1886, he lived to be 79 years old and told his story to a biographer who published the famous book about his life.

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http://www.askmen.com/top_10/celebrity/top-10-legendary-native-americans_2.html

2013-06-19T21:52:11Z

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Many people have questions about Antarctica and how it is governed or managed. Below, we explain the basics of Antarctic governance and how our organization participates as an observer in the Antarctic governance system. Who owns Antarctica? No single country owns Antarctica. Instead, countries wishing to have a say in how the Antarctic (both the continent itself and the surrounding Southern Ocean) is governed must sign on to, and agree to abide by, the Antarctic Treaty. However, prior to the signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 several countries had made claims to parts of Antarctica, some of which overlapped. The Treaty does not recognize or annul these claims. Article IV of the Treaty states in part, “No acts or activities taking place while the present Treaty is in force shall constitute a basis for asserting, supporting or denying a claim to territorial sovereignty in Antarctica or create any rights of sovereignty in Antarctica.” By avoiding the claims issue in this way, it was possible to produce a treaty that many parties could sign. Unfortunately, this means that while many countries follow the spirit of cooperation of the Treaty, there are still disputes over territory that remain unresolved and come up from time to time. When was the Antarctic Treaty signed? Who signed it? The Treaty was originally signed in 1959. The original signatories were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the USSR, the United Kingdom, and the United States. These countries had been active participants in the International Geophysical Year (1957-1958), a project designed to stimulate geophysical research worldwide. The IGY resulted in the establishment of numerous research bases in Antarctica, and the Treaty grew out of a desire to ensure that the valuable research of the IGY could continue. Since then, many other countries have acceded to the Antarctic Treaty. There are now 28 Consultative Parties, which have the ability to vote on decisions, and 19 Non-Consultative Parties, which attend meetings but cannot vote. To become a Consultative Party, a country must demonstrate that it is conducting substantive scientific research in Antarctica. Non-consultative Parties may be conducting important research but not at the same level as Consultative Parties. What are the provisions of the Treaty? The original Antarctic Treaty contains fourteen articles, eleven of which relate directly to Antarctic governance. The rest concern other aspects of the Treaty, such as the nation that will be the repository for Treaty, the procedures for ratification and accession, and the process for amending the Treaty. The other articles establish Antarctica as an area free from military activity and encourage scientific research and the exchange of scientific information between parties, as well as cooperation and peaceful conflict resolution. Click here to read the original text of the Treaty or here to read a summary of the other articles. Antarctic Treaty Parties meet every year for Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCMs) to discuss how to carry out the requirements of the Treaty. How has the Treaty changed since then? The most important addition to the Treaty was the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which was agreed in 1991 and which came into force in 1998. The Protocol proclaims that protection of the Antarctic environment shall be considered paramount when planning and carrying out activities, thus expanding the purview of the Treaty. It enumerates the environmental principles to which Parties shall adhere and, importantly, prohibits mineral and gas development. It also details procedures for environmental impact and assessment. The Protocol was a major step forward and it prevents unwise practices such as the dumping of waste from research bases directly into the Southern Ocean. Read the Protocol here. What other legal agreements govern Antarctica? There are three other major agreements that are considered part of the Antarctic Treaty System:The Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Flora and Fauna (adopted 1964). These measures, which were more or less incorporated into Annex II of the Protocol for Protection of the Antarctic Environment, prohibit the taking of species without a permit and the introduction of non-native species, and designate specially protected species. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (CCAS) (adopted 1972) establishes measures designed to conserve Antarctic seal populations, including the issuing of permits for the killing of seals. Although the Convention allows for the commercial hunting of seals, no commercial hunting currently takes place in the Antarctic. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) (adopted 1980) adopts the ecosystem approach to managing the commercial exploitation of marine resources such as fish and crustaceans. Learn more about CCAMLR. Are there any other international agreements have a major impact on the Antarctic? Antarctica’s whales fall under the purview of the International Whaling Commission, an organization separate from the Antarctic Treaty System. All members of the Antarctic Treaty are part of the IWC except Ukraine. Learn more about the IWC here. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) makes international rules that govern shipping, many of which impact Antarctic ships, and it is currently considering adoption of a Polar Code that would impose special regulations on ships travelling in Antarctic or Arctic waters. Learn more about the IMO here. How do the provisions in these agreements get translated into day-to-day decisions? To fulfill their treaty obligations, treaty parties must undertake actions at the national and international level. Individual nations agree to require citizens of their countries to abide by certain rules and regulations, and must pass legislation or institute appropriate regulations. In the cases of CCAMLR and the Antarctic Treaty and Protocol, yearly meetings are held to make decisions on issues requiring the input of all parties to the agreements. Essentially, decisions that apply to the entire Antarctic or to Antarctic waters are made at yearly meetings, and then countries must go home and ensure that the decisions are upheld. For example, at an Antarctic Treaty meeting, consultative parties might decide to designate an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA). Individual nations would then be charged with making their citizens apply for permits to enter those areas for scientific study. What are the advantages and disadvantages of governing Antarctica by international treaties? The signing of the Antarctic Treaty in 1959 was an impressive achievement. Despite the existence of Cold War tensions and unresolved territorial disputes, the Parties to the Treaty agreed that the benefits of scientific cooperation outweighed individual national interests. While it certainly helped that Antarctica is a remote, inhospitable place from which resource extraction would be difficult, the decision to sign the Treaty was nevertheless a revolutionary step that enabled much important scientific research to occur without interference. The Antarctic Treaty has been in place for fifty years with no major problems. However, the consensus-based decisionmaking that takes place within the Antarctic Treaty System can be problematic. Consensus-based decisionmaking does not mean that everyone must agree, but that no one can voice disagreement. So one country, if it feels strongly about an issue, can stop a resolution from going forward. This is true for many similar international bodies. Additionally, without legal penalties for violating agreements most Parties are essentially on their honor to abide by their obligations under the Antarctic Treaty, CCAMLR, CCAS, and the Protocol. On the plus side, these Treaties have been existence for several decades and Parties seem committed to working within their frameworks. What role does the Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC) play in Antarctic governance? ASOC, as an NGO, plays much the same role in Antarctic governance as non-profit environmental organizations play in national governance – raising awareness of environmental issues and ensuring that agreed regulations are observed. ASOC has been fortunate to receive observer status in the Antarctic Treaty System, which means that we can attend and participate in meetings, particularly ATCMs and CCAMLR meetings, although we cannot vote on decisions. We attend meetings and monitor official decisions, submit informational papers on major issues, and meet with government officials to present the environmental community’s perspective. Since Antarctica doesn’t have a population, it is vital to have a group that can promote what is best for the Antarctic environment and its flora and fauna – penguins can make a lot of noise but they aren’t very articulate. Much as other NGOs raise awareness of national issues and press governments to act, ASOC works to ensure that the countries that make decisions about Antarctica have the best possible information so they can protect the fragile environment. Since the consensus-based decision process can often be slow to produce results, ASOC encourages governments to move forward on contentious issues and works to provide information that can convince them of the need to act. During annual Treaty meetings, Parties frequently express their appreciation for the papers that ASOC provides. We make timely and useful contributions to discussions at these meetings even though we cannot vote.

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Colossal Cave Mountain Park DescriptionMuch of Arizona’s history pivots on transformative events and people. Nestled in a picturesque valley east of Tucson, Colossal Cave Mountain Park's natural history and modern identity can be attributed to three such transformations - first by mother nature, then by the brawn of young men on a mission and finally by the marketing savvy of a man with a vision. TranscriptNarrator: Much of Arizona's history pivots on transformative events and people. Nestled in a picturesque valley east of Tucson, Colossal Cave Mountain Park's natural history and modern identity can be attributed to three such transformations: first, by mother nature...then by the brawn of young men on a mission...and finally by the marketing savvy of a man with a vision. Bill Peachey: This cave formed at least before 10 million years ago and maybe as early as 20 million years ago. The whole cave is a fossil. And as there's a life span to most things, there would be young caves, there would be mature caves, and old caves, this is an ancient cave. Today, the most startling thing that most people see is that the cave is totally dry. Narrator: Native Americans used the cave for centuries. Bats continue to inhabit it. But what nature created over millions of years, modern man transformed over a few short decades. Sharon E. Hunt: The cave was discovered in 1879 by a local rancher. His name was Solomon Lick, and he was out looking for some of his cattle, and he noticed this hole in the ground. The entrance to the cave was more like a slit. People would have to squeeze through it. Bill Peachey: Of course, at that time there were no lights and no trails. They only had candles. And so you can imagine trying to carry a candle into a cave and climbing with your other hand, one hand holding the candle. Sharon E. Hunt: There was no organized tourist activity until Frank Schmidt came in the early 1920s. He really wanted to develop the cave. He realized in its current state, he was not going to be able to run a lot of tourists, make a lot of money out of it, so he negotiated with the state to give up his grazing leases around the area and turn it over to the county. It became a government entity instead of a private entity. Narrator: The new legal status made the property eligible for improvement under Franklin Roosevelt's Civilian Conservation Corps program, which provided jobs and conservation on a national scale. From 1934 to 1937, CCCers transformed the park and themselves. Sharon E. Hunt: The CCC boys were boys. They were in their late teens to early 20s, they were unemployed, they were usually uneducated. They made $30 a month. Twenty-five dollars of that was sent back to their families. They enlarged the entrance, they dynamited out passageways, they widened passageways that were already there, they laid down the trails with stones, they put in the handrails, they put in the lighting; they made the cave accessible to tourists. The CCC wanted to have the buildings look as if they just blended in to the natural landscape, so they used rock from right here at the site. They did not have the machinery that they would've had today; they used wheelbarrows, they used pickaxes, and they had to literally drag -- bucketful by bucketful, they had to drag the rock and the dirt out of the cave using the access shaft that went into the center of the current trail. Narrator: When the workday ended, the Colossal Cave CCCers kept busy around camp in numerous ways. Sharon E. Hunt: They had a baseball team, they had a recreation hall where they had a radio, a library, they played checkers, they played dominoes. There was also an educational program, and they could take classes in reading and writing and English, radio operation, blacksmithing, all kinds of academic as well as practical job-skill classes. I think the most important legacy that the CCC left behind is the quality of the work that they did: the buildings that they built at Colossal Cave and the work that they did inside the cave endures today, 70 years later. Narrator: Thanks to the CCC, Colossal Cave became accessible to large numbers of tourists for the first time. They laid trails and installed over half a mile of lighting. Three hundred sixty-three steps take visitors down and back over six and a half stories. The physical changes in and around the cave allowed a visionary leader to transform its revenue-generating uses beyond just tours. Sharon E. Hunt: When Joe Maierhauser came to Colossal Cave in 1956, he set to work marketing the cave, and because he had Hollywood connections, he chose to have films filmed here as well as a photo contest in the late '50s and early '60s. The most notable film -- and they were all horrible films -- was The Night of the Lepus, where giant mutant rabbits ravaged the countryside and hid out in the cave. Narrator: Tourists enjoyed tales of 19th-century train-robbing bandits who supposedly occupied the cave and whose ill-gotten gains may still be cached within it. Joe actively promoted the legend. But land development rather than bandits posed the biggest threat to the park's existence in the latter half of the 20th century. Martie Maierhauser: We started getting concerned about losing what a wonderful place. We really started thinking about -- dreaming more about wouldn't it be wonderful, how much of this do you think we could protect? Narrator: Through a series of land acquisitions, the park property expanded to 2,400 acres with grazing leases on another 5,000 surrounding acres. Today, the park's diverse offerings surprise many visitors. Martie Maierhauser: When people come here, 90% of them probably come here to see the cave. A good percent of people have no idea what else we have to offer. La Posta Quemada Ranch is now part of the park. It's still a working ranch. It's been a working ranch since the late 1870s. We have installed two museums down here, one which deals with caving, and a regular historical museum about the history of the area here, and a CCC museum. It's really dedicated to the young men who really made all this possible. Narrator: Mother Nature, hard work, and vision at just the right moments by just the right people transformed Colossal Cave Mountain Park from a barely noticeable slit in the ground to an Arizona treasure.

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2013-06-19T20:56:51Z

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Skull points to a more complex human evolution in Africa Scientists have collected more evidence to suggest that ancient and modern humans interbred in Africa. Reanalysis of the 13,000-year-old skull from a cave in West Africa reveals a skull more primitive-looking than its age suggests. The result suggests that the ancestors of early humans did not die out quickly in Africa, but instead lived alongside their descendents and bred with them until comparatively recently. The results are published in PLoS ONE. The skull, found in the Iwo Eleru cave in Nigeria in 1965, does not look like a modern human. It is longer and flatter with a strong brow ridge; features closer to a much older skull from Tanzania, thought to be around 140,000 years old. Prof Katerina Harvati from the University of Tuebingen in Germany used new digitising techniques to capture the surface of the skull in detail. The new technique improved upon the original measurements done with callipers by letting researchers see subtler details about the skull's surface. "[The skull] has got a much more primitive appearance, even though it is only 13,000 years old," said Chris Stringer, from London's Natural History Museum, who was part of the team of researchers. "This suggests that human evolution in Africa was more complex... the transition to modern humans was not a straight transition and then a cut off." Prof Stringer thinks that ancient humans did not die away once they had given rise to modern humans. They may have continued to live alongside their descendants in Africa, perhaps exchanging genes with them, until more recently than had been thought. The researchers say their findings also underscore a real lack of knowledge of human evolution in the region. But palaeontologists are not all agreed on precisely what the new analysis is telling us - or, indeed, whether it is telling us anything definitive at all. "I do not think that these findings add anything new to our view," said Prof Clive Finlayson, director of the Gibraltar Museum, who was not connected to the study. "We have a few fossils, and no idea of natural variation within populations. That the situation is not simple and is deep and complex is what we would expect. "In my view, it is the field of genetics that will help us most in clarifying matters," he told BBC News. Separate research published earlier this month suggests that genetic mixing between hominin species happened in Africa up to 35,000 years ago.

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http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-14947363

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Focus on Nutrition This collection of selected resources offers high-quality information about nutrition and oral health. Use the tools below for further searching, or contact us for personalized assistance. Selected Materials in the OHRC Library American Academy of Pediatrics, Bright Futures, National Interprofessional Initiative on Oral Health. 2011. Oral Health Self-Management Goals for Parents / Caregivers: Objetivos de Autocontrol de la Salud Bucal Para Padres/Cuidadores. Chicago, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics. 1 p. This document is designed to help parents and other caregivers establish goals related to oral hygiene, oral health care, and feeding and eating practices to improve their child's oral health. The document is available in English and Spanish. Center for Oral Health. 2011. WIC: Early Entry into Dental Care Guidebook. Oakland, CA: Center for Oral Health. 71 pp. This guidebook provides guidance on implementing a program that uses the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) as the entry point for oral health assessment, preventive services, and referral for regular follow-up care. Topics include collaborative planning; information for health professionals, oral health professionals, and WIC personnel; and program models in California. [Funded by the Maternal and Child Health Bureau] Kids' Safe and Healthful Foods Project and Health Impact Project. 2012. Health Impact Assessment: National Nutrition Standards for Snack and a la carte Foods and Beverages Sold in Schools. Washington, DC: Pew Charitable Trusts. 171 pp. This report provides the results of a study conducted to determine the impact on children's diet of nutrition standards for snack foods and beverages sold in schools. The study reviewed total calorie intake of calories from items sold in schools and children's consumption of high-calorie, low-nutrient snack foods and beverages vs. healthier options. North Carolina Division of Public Health, Oral Health Section. 2012. Early Dental Health: Choosing the Right Foods. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina Division of Public Health, Oral Health Section. 2 pp. This brochure for parents addresses diet, nutrition, and oral health in infants and young children. Topics include the importance of healthy foods for oral health and how consuming sugar causes tooth decay. The brochure also provides tips on the types of foods children should eat and those they should avoid, as well as on the drinks that parents should give children during the day. South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, Division of Oral Health. 2011. Oral Health Parent Information: Infants, Toddlers, Preschoolers. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, Division of Oral Health. 31 pp. This booklet encourages parents to take an active role in establishing and maintaining behaviors that support infant and child oral health. Tips on breastfeeding, bottles, pacifiers, sippy cups, and snacks are included. Information on nutrition and oral health during pregnancy is also provided. Find more materials in the OHRC Library using advanced search. Suggest materials to OHRC for the library. Academy of General Dentistry Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry American Dental Association Columbia University College of Dental Medicine Find more organizations in OHRC's Organizations Database. Resource Highlights: Focus on Nutrition. March 2013. Reviewers: Lisa Harper Mallonee, Texas A&M University, Baylor College of Dentistry, Caruth School of Dental Hygiene; Lori Rainchuso, MCPHS University, Forsyth School of Dental Hygiene; Cyndee Stegeman, University of Cincinnati

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http://www.mchoralhealth.org/highlights/nutrition.html

2013-06-20T11:12:43Z

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en

Heartburn is a discomfort or pain caused by the stomach contents regurgitating from the stomach up into the gullet (oesophagus). The oesophagus is not made to withstand acid and is thus irritated and inflamed when acid from the stomach refluxes into it. This is known as reflux oesophagitis. The pain caused by the irritation of the oesophagus is a burning pain which you feel in the centre of the chest. There is often an associated awareness of acid and stomach contents in the back of the throat or mouth. Lying down or bending forwards tends to increase the symptoms. The whole of the intestinal tract is in the form of a tube with muscles in the wall which move the food along (peristalsis). At the bottom of the oesophagus the muscles encircling the tube work rather like a valve to stop food going backwards. This is not a perfect valve, but in some people works less well than others: - Obesity leads to a higher pressure in the abdomen. - Pregnancy causes a higher pressure in the abdomen and there is also evidence that the changing hormone levels cause relaxation of the muscle valve. - Large amounts to eat or drink cause back pressure. - In hiatus hernia, which is quite a common condition, the top part of the stomach pokes through the muscle which separates the chest from the abdomen (the diaphragm), and results in disruption of the valve mechanism. - Smoking causes the valve to relax and also increases acid production. Your doctor may well make the diagnosis from the symptoms you describe, but may wish to investigate further. Endoscopy is the most commonly used test and involves a fibre-optic tube which is passed down your throat, enabling your doctor to examine the oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum. If any abnormal areas are seen a sample may be taken and sent to a laboratory for analysis. Usually you are given an injection which makes you sleepy during the procedure and also tends to make you forget what went on. Sometimes an X-Ray is used, in the form of a barium meal, which monitors the passage of a drink containing a heavy element which shows up the oesophagus and stomach in silhouette. - If you smoke, stop. - If you are overweight, lose weight. - Avoid eating just before bed and if taking any tablets wash them down with a glass of water to avoid them sticking in your oesophagus and slowly dissolving there. - Consider raising the head of your bed (one tends to slip down off extra pillows and so blocks or bricks under the head end of the bed may be better). - Small meals regularly are better than large meals infrequently. - Avoid tight clothing around the waist. - Avoid aspirin and other anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, except after consultation with your doctor. - Antacids neutralise the acid in the stomach, and often one containing a seaweed product (alginate, for example Gaviscon) is used, as this floats on the stomach contents tending to keep them down. - Various medications cause reduced acid secretion. Some of these are available over the counter and others only on prescription. Examples include H2 antagonists (for example cimetidine, ranitidine) and proton pump inhibitors (for example omeprazole, lansoprazole). - There are medications which encourage the movement of food in the right direction (better peristalsis) and better valve action at the upper end of the stomach (for example domperidone). - Very occasionally surgery is offered but is not undertaken lightly.

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.medinfo.co.uk/conditions/heartburn.html

2013-06-20T11:05:10Z

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en

Hydrocarbon poisoning may result from ingestion or inhalation. Ingestion, most common among children < 5 yr, can result in aspiration pneumonitis. Inhalation, most common among adolescents, can result in ventricular fibrillation, usually without warning symptoms. Diagnosis of pneumonitis is by clinical evaluation, chest x-ray, and oximetry. Gastric emptying is contraindicated because aspiration is a risk. Treatment is supportive. Ingestion of hydrocarbons, such as petroleum distillates (eg, gasoline, kerosene, mineral oil, lamp oil, paint thinners), results in minimal systemic effects but can cause severe aspiration pneumonitis. Toxic potential mainly depends on viscosity, measured in Saybolt seconds universal (SSU). Hydrocarbon liquids with low viscosity (SSU < 60), such as gasoline and mineral oil, can spread rapidly over large surface areas and are more likely to cause aspiration pneumonitis than are hydrocarbons with SSU > 60, such as tar. Hydrocarbons, if ingested in large amounts, may be absorbed systemically and cause CNS or hepatic toxicity, which is more likely with halogenated hydrocarbons (eg, carbon tetrachloride, trichloroethylene). Recreational inhalation of halogenated hydrocarbons (eg, glues, paint, solvents, cleaning sprays, gasoline, fluorocarbons used as refrigerants or propellants in aerosols—see Drug Use and Dependence: Volatile Solvents), called huffing or bagging, is common among adolescents. It can cause euphoria and mental status changes and can sensitize the heart to endogenous catecholamines. Fatal ventricular arrhythmias may result; they usually occur without premonitory palpitations or other warning, often when patients are startled or chased. Chronic toluene ingestion can cause long-term CNS toxicity, characterized by periventricular, occipital, and thalamic destruction. Symptoms and Signs After ingestion of even a very small amount of liquid hydrocarbon, patients initially cough, choke, and may vomit. Young children may have cyanosis, hold their breath, and cough persistently. Older children and adults may report burning in the stomach. Aspiration pneumonitis causes hypoxia and respiratory distress. Symptoms and signs of pneumonitis may develop a few hours before infiltrates are visible on x-ray. Substantial systemic absorption, particularly of a halogenated hydrocarbon, may cause lethargy, coma, and seizures. Nonfatal pneumonitis usually resolves in about 1 wk; mineral or lamp oil ingestion usually resolves in 5 to 6 wk. Arrhythmias usually occur before presentation and are unlikely to recur after presentation unless patients have excessive agitation. If patients are too obtunded to provide a history, hydrocarbon exposure may be suspected if their breath or clothing has an odor or if a container is found near them. Paint residue on the hands or around the mouth may suggest recent paint sniffing. Diagnosis of aspiration pneumonitis is by symptoms and signs as well as by chest x-ray and oximetry, which are done about 6 h after ingestion or sooner if symptoms are severe. If respiratory failure is suspected, ABGs are measured. CNS toxicity is diagnosed by neurologic examination and MRI. Any contaminated clothing is removed, and the skin is washed. (Caution: Gastric emptying, which increases risk of aspiration, is contraindicated.) Charcoal is not recommended. Patients who do not have aspiration pneumonitis or other symptoms after 4 to 6 h are discharged. Patients who have symptoms are admitted and treated supportively; antibiotics and corticosteroids are not indicated. Last full review/revision February 2013 by Gerald F. O'Malley, DO; Rika O'Malley, MD

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/print/injuries_poisoning/poisoning/hydrocarbon_poisoning.html

2013-06-20T11:21:37Z

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en

Hospitals Look to Nuclear Tool to Fight Cancer Source: New York Times The New York Times is running an article on one of the most cutting-edge—and most expensive—cancer treatments: proton beam therapy. Hospitals are using particle accelerators, which are machines that accelerate subatomic particles to speeds nearly that of the speed of light, to shoot protons directly into tumors. Proponents of this therapy, such as Dr. Jerry D. Slater, the head of radiation medicine at Loma Linda University Medical Center in Southern California, feel it’s much more accurate than traditional radiation therapy using X-rays. Dr. Slater says that “every X-ray beam I use puts most of the dose where I don’t want it,” while proton therapy more directly targets the actual tumor. In 1990, Dr. Slater’s hospital, Loma Linda University Medical Center, was the first hospital to install a particle accelerator and has since treated over 13,000 patients. There are currently five other hospitals around the country using proton beam therapy and more than a dozen others have announced plans to build their own particular accelerators. The technology, however, is not without controversy. Installing a particle accelerator is an exceptionally expensive proposition. A large accelerator can weigh over 200 tons, demand 18 feet of reinforced walls to house it and cost over $100 million. While most doctors accept the theoretical model the techniques are based on, many doctors are still concerned with the great costs associated with its use. Studies have yet to definitely establish that it is any more effective than other treatments and the concern is that patients who could be treated equally well with traditional—and less expensive—technology will be directed towards proton beam therapy simply because hospitals needs to recoup the costs of their investment. For example, many centers are using proton beam therapy to treat localized prostate cancer where Medicaid will $50,000 for the therapy, which is double what would be paid for traditional x-ray therapy with similar efficacy. The great hope for the technology revolves around its ability to more effectively target a tumor, as well as induce less significant side effects due to its greater accuracy. Until more and better data becomes available, the controversy will likely continue unabated, just as construction of more facilities will continue as well. If, however, the therapy does prove to be more effective and exhibit less side effects, patients and their families will have one more modality in their fight against cancer.

<urn:uuid:11bed83b-c3e2-4615-acc5-98602e3aa605>

CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.mesotheliomahelp.net/blog/2007/12/hospitals-look-to-nuclear-tool-to-fight-cancer

2013-06-20T10:59:31Z

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en

Jersey Core Curriculum Content Standards for Science has detailed information for each standard: 5.1 Science Practices Science is both a body of knowledge and an evidence-based, model-building enterprise that continually extends, refines, and revises knowledge. The four Science Practices strands encompass the knowledge and reasoning skills that students must acquire to be proficient in science. 5.2 Physical Science Physical science principles, including fundamental ideas about matter, energy, and motion, are powerful conceptual tools for making sense of phenomena in physical, living, and Earth systems science. 5.3 Life Science Life science principles are powerful conceptual tools for making sense of the complexity, diversity, and interconnectedness of life on Earth. Order in natural systems arises in accordance with rules that govern the physical world, and the order of natural systems can be modeled and predicted through the use of mathematics. 5.4 Earth Systems

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CC-MAIN-2013-20

http://www.middleschoolscience.com/njcccs.htm

2013-06-20T11:11:39Z

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en

by Fred P Miller The Bible is the inspired word of God. And we are reading in the first chapter of Genesis an outline of the order in which the universe was created by God and then how He made the earth to became a planet for habitation. Other beginnings follow. If I were to surmise how this book came to be written, where it was written, and under what circumstances and what its original purpose was I would begin with Moses and the Children of Israel wandering in the Wilderness of Sinai for forty years. The question that is being answered is directed to the Children of Israel. They asked Moses, "What are we doing here in this wilderness wandering about for forty years." "How did we get here?" "Where have we come from?" and "Where are we going?" And "Why?" The rest of the book is Moses answer to these questions. Moses answer starts with, 'I will tell you how we got here,' "In the beginning." Genesis speaks of beginnings, many beginnings. The initial beginning is in verse one. Ask your self, when did this beginning take place? The answer, the beginning is timeless. Time is difficult to define without mentioning the duration of some kind of motion or change. It is really a philosophical subject. Time does not exist outside of the physical universe and inside, only as it is relative to some motion. Genesis 1:1 does not contain the beginning of time for the earth. The first that "time" begins for the earth can not be before the earth had morning and evening as described in verse four below. There was no morning and evening in the original creation because the earth was in a chaotic condition and light did not penetrate to the surface of the planet far below the roiling clouds. Therefore the original creation as far as the earth is concerned was timeless. There were no days and nights in the period of the chaotic condition. In describing the following texts we just want to see what the text says. The concept, held by many, that the whole creation took place in six creative days, does not hold up in examining the text. Our first proposition is that verse one is not in the six creative days. The first creative day begins with the words "let there be light." There is no earth-time before that moment. When the text says, "There was evening, there was morning, day one." time begins for the earth. Was there anything before there was evening and morning when light penetrated to the surface of the earth? Yes. There were the heavens and a chaotic earth. After verse two, as is seen below, the text concentrates on the six creative days of bringing order out of the chaos in the earth and making the earth a habitable planet with life. The text looks at this six day period of change from the stand point of one standing on the earth and looking out even though there is no one there at the inception of the commands to change, and not from the point of looking in or down from outside.. This is an important point and will clear many misconceptions of what the Bible actually says about the initial creation and the ensuing six "creative" days. In reading for understanding attention should also be given to the different verbs that are used to describe the changes that God is said to have brought about in the physical creation. These words are Create, Make or Made, and Form or Formed or Fashioned,. and to some extent "Let there be." Only the first word "create" carries with it the idea of bringing something into existence that had no previous existence. Although this is not exclusive it is the main meaning of the word. Make or Made, and Form or Formed. and to some extent "Let there be " are all expressions that denote changes in that which has already been created. For instance "let there be." is used when the open space that we call the atmosphere in which birds are to fly is brought into existence. "Let there be" is also used when the waters covering the earth are formed into oceans by the appearance of dry land, thus the change is wrought in something that already existed. And "let there be light" does not mean that light was created at that moment but that it was to be allowed where it had not been before, i.e. the surface of the earth. There is simply a change of state in that light then penetrated to the surface of the earth where it had not been before and the change in the waters is not bringing into existence a new thing but changing the condition of what had already been "created.". The change is not a creation but a Making or Forming. When the text says "and God made" this will introduce changes in things that are already created and "God formed" is used in the same way. As to mankind he "created" them male and female after his own image, "in the image of God created he them" but he "formed" their bodies out of pre-existing material. Pay close attention to these words and the text will make more sense and you will not make claims about the creation that the text does not support. It is the opinion of the writer that false claims about what Genesis chapter one says, are similar to the mediaeval church insisting that the Bible taught earth centric universe. I believe that the Genesis one says that the beginning of God bringing order out of chaos and the creation of life took place a matter of thousands of years ago. But that the original creation was before day one of the earth and that chaos prevailed in a timeless period. People of faith say, God could have done immediately in six days all of it if He wanted to." I believe that too, that God could do anything. But did He? And does Genesis say all the Galaxies, and manifold cosmic phenomena were created during the six days? Or does it say that all the universe was brought into existence in one primordial moment and existed in a timeless period during which the earth was in a chaotic state. After which God turned his attention to the earth. What does the Genesis record say? That's the question. 1 In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. What beginning? What was not begun in this beginning? Was God before the beginning? Yes. Were angels in existence before this beginning? Yes. Was Satan in existence before this beginning? Yes. It seems obvious that the "beginning" spoken of here is not a beginning of any heavenly powers or dominions. But that this verse speaks of the creation or beginning of the physical universe only. It should be understood that the word translated heaven here is a Hebrew plural form. It should read: "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth." Many translations including the RSV, ASV, NKJV, Rotherham, etc. etc. render the word as plural. What then is included in this beginning? What "heavens" are spoken of? If the heaven was created in the beginning does it include the third heaven spoken of by Paul where conditions are not governed by the laws of the physical universe. (See 2 Cor 12:4) That seems to be answered rhetorically above already as a no. God's and angelic abodes are not being described here. The cosmos is being described here. But not the sky which is called "heaven" in verse six and was not formed until the second day. It was not "created in the beginning" when the earth was a chaos. If God created the heavens in the beginning does that include stars? The planets? The sun? The moon? Are the galaxies and quasars, novae, nebulae, comets, and all cosmic phenomena included in "In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth?" If the heavens mean the physical universe then the sun, moon, planets and stars came into existence in the beginning when the earth also was a part of the initial creation. The earth was created in the beginning when all the other cosmic elements were created according to this verse. But it was not habitable. 2And the earth was without form, and void; This verse introduces a literary form that will be continued throughout the book of Genesis. That is the explanation of the total picture and then moving on to the something specific in the whole just described. The heavens and the earth are spoken of in verse one and verse two begins with "and the earth" From this point on in this chapter the earth will be the central subject and all other heavenly bodies will be mentioned only they relate to the changes taking place during the six days on the earth. In verse 2 we have left the rest of the cosmos that exists and now we see only the earth as it existed from the beginning. The condition described is of a chaotic shapeless and formless and lifeless mass. How long did this condition last? As mentioned above this condition lasted until God began to bring order out of chaos in six "creative" days. The chaotic condition is in a timeless period. It is not included in the first day. There is no way to know "how long" this condition lasted. There is no measurement of time in the description "The earth was shapeless and formless." It could be any amount of time but there was no clock to measure the time. The so called "gap theory" allowing for a period of time between verses one and two often makes an argument based on the Hebrew verb "to be" and suggests that the earth "became" void and the theory speaks of a pre- adamic race. There is no evidence in the language itself that this kind of a theory is valid. Never the less there was a "time"? When the earth was chaotic after which God, through the Word, turned his attention to the earth. "And the earth.............................. was without form, and void" and darkness was on the face of the deep. We are now describing the earth, not the cosmos. The text does not say the cosmos was dark. It says that the earth was shapeless and formless and darkness was on the face of the abyss. The majority of places the Hebrew word Tehom, or abyss, appears in the Bible it refers to the ocean depths. Thus the darkness is described as a condition of the earth covered by roiling seas, mists and gaseous clouds. Somewhere in the depths of the waters that covered the whole of the earth there was solid ground but only darkness covered the face of the waters and the abyss all the way to the ground. The darkness here is limited to the earth, other places are not being described, only face of the deep on the earth. The text does not say the universe was dark, it says the earth was dark. Let's take time to look at this again. In verse two the narration turns exclusively to the earth which is described as dark to the bottom of the abyss. No light penetrates to the surface of the earth. From the rest of this verse through verse four the darkened condition is pictured as being changed. When God said, "let there be light" where was the darkness that was to be removed? What is described in this text, is that the surface of the earth received light to the bottom of the abyss,-- the chaotic mists, dense clouds, and occluded waters were settled and partially cleared so that light now penetrated to the surface of the planet as through thick but opaque clouds.. Look again and see if this is not what the text says. And the Spirit of God moved on the face of the waters. 3And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. When God said let there be light, what did He "light up?" Look again at the text and decide where the darkness was. Was it not from the outer surface of the roiling waters to the bottom of the abyss and the surface of the earth? And when the darkness was dispelled by the light what did God call the light? Look at the next verses. 4And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness. 5And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the first day. "God saw the light;" what light? The light that He had just brought into existence on the face of the earth dispelling the darkness that had been the condition of the earth previous to this point. And now he calls that light "day." Is there any light called day in any other part of the universe? The text is not speaking of light anywhere else in the universe. It is day-light on the earth that is spoken of here. The text does not say that God created light in the universe on the first day, but that light was "allowed" (let there be) to cause day and night to begin on a chaotic earth which also implies rotation under a source of light that produced morning and evening.. It is from this point, and not before, that "time" begins for the earth. Let us look at it again; day one begins with the words "let there be light." Since a chaotic earth existed before the beginning of day one, the chaos is not a part of day one so therefore neither is the original creation a part of day one. 6And God said, Let there be an expanse in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters. 7And God made the expanse, and divided the waters which were under the expanse from the waters which were above the expanse and it was so. 8And God called the expanse Heaven. And the evening and the morning were the second day. It is said that before God made anything he made a place to put it. This is the beginning of making a world fit to live in. The description of the earth given above sees all the liquids and gases associated with the primordial earth as mixed together. At first it was in one chaotic shapeless mass and so roiled up that no light was able to penetrate to the surface of the solid part beneath the waters. The first day was given to just one change and that was making the surface of the earth receive light and the rotation making night and day made the first day. The second day, this one, also deals with one great change. The atmosphere in which birds will fly is not created, but is brought into existence by the fiat of the Almighty, "Let there be an expanse." The waters covering the planet are divided into two parts according to the description given to us. On this day, one part still covers the land but the second part is now suspended over the atmosphere. This cosmology is given extensive description by many authors. What ever the make up of the water over the atmosphere, either liquid, gaseous vapor or ice crystals or more probably a combination of all,- there is described here a water barrier between the outer space and the atmosphere. The benefits to the first world's ecology (which without doubt disappeared at the time of the flood in the time of Noah) are described by more than a few scholars with scientific credentials. Some of the most beneficial conditions that would have been produced by the vapor layer are: the conditions which no doubt contributed to the lush vegetation, larger and denser, that fossils especially in coal deposits attest to. More importantly the water barrier would have filtered out radiation and cosmic rays and ultra violet light which contribute to the aging process. This may account for the longevity of man seen before the barrier disappeared at the time of Noah's flood. A third benefit of such a water barrier around the whole of the globe would be a green house effect. In a green house there is highly ionized air because the sun light continues to bounce around and so in the earth the light would be reflected from the surface to the cloud barrier and back. In such an atmosphere plant life flourishes. A fourth benefit would be that the mild climate caused by such an effect would be global. This may account for the fossil life, coal deposits, and large elephants called mammoths found in polar regions, including Antarctica What ever else one may want to add or detract from this explanation the Bible text describes the second "creative" day as producing an atmosphere over an earth covered with water and water in what ever form over the atmosphere. The atmosphere is called heaven in this description. Why, will be made clear on the fourth day. As we go along we will be able to see that the water barrier at the time of the second day was still opaque. It allowed light to enter but if one were on such a sea below he would not have been able to see out any more than one can see the sun moon or stars when the sky is overcast with very dense clouds. Just so the world would have looked at the end of the second "erev boker," Hebrew for evening morning. Thus one standing on the earth would experience evening and morning but not see the source of light. 9And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together into one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so. 10And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters he called Seas: and God saw that it was good. 11And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after its kind, whose seed is in itself, on the earth: and it was so. 12And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after its kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after its kind: and God saw that it was good. 13And the evening and the morning were the third day. Again "let there be" is a phrase in which God brings into existence new conditions in that which already exists. This includes even the vegetable matter which is made from minerals from the original creation. Nothing new had been added to the original creation but the state of some elements have been changed. The fact that the continents rose out of the depths and basins were formed to be called seas or oceans is a contradiction of the theory that all the continents were connected at one time and broke away and floated around drifting to their current positions. Even though this position is called science and the ridiculousness of the idea should be easily seen with a lopsided earth with all the land mass including Antarctica on one limited side of the planet and the rest, well, please, you visualize what they propose. It is obvious from real science, (that is, observation of and presentation the facts,) - that changes in the continents have taken place, For instance they are smaller than they were originally, which can be seen in the river valleys carved out through ordinary erosion in the continental shelves. The shelves were above water at some time in the past and the coast line of the continents is now further "in land.." Other facts like the Bering Strait land bridge attest to this fact too. Forget Continental Drift, it is a poorly thought out Theory. 14And God said, Let there be lights in the expanse of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years: 15And let them be for lights in the expanse of the heaven to give light on the earth: and it was so. 16And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light and the stars also to rule the night. 17And God set them in the expanse of the heaven to give light on the earth, 18And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good. 19And the evening and the morning were the fourth day. To understand what the text says here let us give a literal interpretation to the description and then see that it will require further interpretation. The most important second look will use what I have said above about the point of view of the description. It is of one looking out and not of one looking in or down upon the earth. The literal interpretation says that the author of Genesis believed that on the fourth day the sun, moon and stars existed in the atmosphere because that is what the text says. They are described as lights in the firmament . Now we know that is not so, don't we? The sun is not in the atmosphere, but to one standing on the earth it appears to be in the atmosphere or sky on a cloudless day. Just as the "let there be" referred to things that have previously been changed, then changes in the conditions of the sources of light that already exist are "made" here. That is two great lights and the stars are "made" for the earth, for times signs and seasons. "Let there be lights in the expanse or atmosphere" speaks also of things that already exist but previously did not appear to one standing on the surface of the earth. So with the appearance of the sun, moon and stars. They were not created on the fourth day. They were created in the beginning. Relative to the earth they were "made" on the forth day. If the sun, moon and stars were created, as some erroneously think the text says, on the fourth day, then what did the heavens consist of which were created "in the beginning" with a chaotic earth? No, the meaning is that if a man were on the earth on the fourth day, the roiling nature of the water barrier changed. The dense opaque cloud barrier cleared.. Water vapor is transparent. The cloud barrier was made clear by the voice of the Almighty who said "Let there be." The sun and the moon and the stars appeared in the expanse of the heavens on the fourth day and from then on. From then on, other times could be recorded beside day one and day two and day three, like months and years. Also Times and seasons from the moon and the zodiac were possible from then on. (However there is no astronomical reason for what is the ubiquitous seven day week that makes up an important unit of time. more on this later.) The KJV says "And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. The Hebrew text does not support the translation "and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also." The way the KJV text reads it is like the stars are an after thought. Like: "Oh yes, He made the starts too." It is not at all like the original text. The word "also" is not in the text even though not italicized in the KJV. It simply is not there. What is there is a Hebrew form not used in English, a sign indicating that both "moon" and "stars" are the direct object of the verb "made" and infinitive "to rule." It reads properly "And He made the lesser light and the stars to rule the night. These changes took place on the fourth day as they would appear to an observer on the earth. The text does not say God created the sun, moon and stars on the fourth day. The text says God "made" the sun, moon, and stars, as lights for time, and seasons like months, years, equinox, and solstice. etc. on the forth day. And He set them in the atmosphere. One further observation may be made from the text here and derived from the changes that took place at the time of Noah when the water barrier disappeared some thousands of years later. That is: that in the original creation there were no clouds in the sky. Genesis two gives a description of the water cycle that existed then. It did not include cloudy skies as we now experience them. There was no rain falling in the first world. 20And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that has life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open expanse of heaven. 21And God created great fish, and every living creature that moves, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. 22And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth. 23And the evening and the morning were the fifth day. Sea creatures and fowl of all kinds were created on the fifth day. All these are living creatures with a brain and self locomotion. That all animals share "spirit" and "soul" with mankind will be noted later in the text. Perhaps this is why the word "create" is used here. That is, they contain some kind of "spirit." And they are able to reproduce after their own kind. This can not be said of created beings that existed before the creation of the physical universe. Angels, Satan, other spirit dominions and beings that are a part of God's creation can not reproduce themselves. This may be the reason for the use of the word "create" rather than "made" as was implied for vegetable life. 24And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after its kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and the animal of the earth after its kind: and it was so. 25And God made the animal of the earth after its kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creeps on the earth after its kind: and God saw that it was good. The land animals were now brought forth from the earth and made and perhaps the word create is not used because there is now an order of animals in the sea and air who exist previously by one day who also share soul and spirit life. Thus large land animals come into existence. They are made after their own kind. 26And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth. 27So God created man in his own image, in the image of God he created him; male and female he created them The word "create" (Hebrew arb barah) means to bring into existence that which had no previous existence is used three times in the chapter. One of these times is more difficult to fit into the definition just given but those two times in verse 27 relating to mankind are not. God did not "make them" after his image, He created them in his own image. No other creature in heaven or earth before or after has that distinction. Also He created them Male and Female which is a distinction that makes it clear that men and women are equal,-- bearing the image of God. This verse speaks of the spiritual nature of mankind not the physical. . 28And God blessed them, and God said to them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth. There is no evidence that man has lost the dominion over the physical creation. With dominion comes responsibility. There is also no evidence in the word "replenish" that there was a pre adamic race or that the earth had previously been habitable and now was being resettled. The Hebrew word translated replenish does not carry with it a concept of doing it over again as is in the English translation. It simply means to fill up. 29And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree, in which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat. 30And to every animal of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creeps on the earth, in which there is life, I have given every green herb for meat: and it was so. 31And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day. These verses say that all animal and human life was vegetarian in the original world and paradise into which they were initially brought into existence. The world was made with no provision for death for either man or beast. In the next chapter we will see that death did not enter the world until sin entered first. 1Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them. 2And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made; and he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made. 3And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made. In Moses' plan of this total narrative this should be the end of Chapter one here. Chapter two should begin with the next verse. Since this is the seventh of the seven creative days. Most to the six creative days were not a creation per se since most of the six days were spent in bringing order out of the chaotic condition of the earth. God made and formed and fashioned his original creation in the six "creative" days.

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Mattie Hayes was close to 60 years old in 1909, when she decided to leave Oklahoma and go north to Canada with her husband, children and grandchildren. The frontier territory of Oklahoma had attracted a lot of former slaves after the Civil War. Mattie Hayes, born on a Georgia plantation, was one of them. In 1907, however, when Oklahoma gained statehood, the government brought in new laws to segregate stores and restaurants (meaning that Blacks had to keep to areas of their own). It also took the vote away from Blacks and turned a blind eye to lynchings. Mattie Hayes decided to travel on. As Black immigrants filtered north across the Canadian border in 1909, they turned in various directions. Some headed east to Manitoba and Ontario. Others split away westward to Alberta. Twelve families chose to settle near Eldon in Saskatchewan, the Hayes among them. For $10, the government gave 160 acres to every settler, but there were conditions. Each farmer had to live on the land, build a house, clear at least 30 acres in the first three years and fence it. In fact, the Black settlers did better than that, and they also built a church and sent their children to local schools. In winter, the men worked as teamsters. In spring, they returned to the land. It was a good enough life. Mattie Hayes was content to live the rest of her life in the little community at Maidstone and, when she died at a ripe old age in 1953, she was buried there. Her travelling days were over.

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Appliance Service Technician Competencies, 2004h HOME Appliances Professional (C.A.P.) Service Technician Specialty Project Manager 2003 for this Competency: Ron Sawyer, CAP, PSA Approved by NCEE August 12th, 2004 the differences and relationships between matter and energy Demonstrate the effects of positive and negative charges. Describe atoms, electrons, and electron flow. 1.4 List examples of magnetism and magnetic forces and discuss the effects on electrons 1.5 Solve math problems involving voltage, current and resistance. Identify resistors by their color code. List various methods by which voltage is generated List battery types and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each Compare direct and alternating current. Calculate circuit values using Ohm's Law and Kirchoff's Describe the difference between series, parallel, and Compare fuses, fuse types, and circuit breakers. Describe voltage and power transmission and how the average home is wired. Compare wire sizes and their relationship to current Discuss the effects of capacitance and induction. Sketch a circuit of a basic AC to DC power supply. Describe voltage rectification and current filtration List the various electronic components which are used as switches and explain how each are used Discuss electronic components and how they are used to replace switches and other circuit control devices (triacs/diacs/transistors/diodes) Compare electromagnetic devices, including transformers, motors, and solenoids. Identify the various types of motors, motor starting, and motor protection devices. Describe "black box" electronic devices. Explain how the inputs and output principle can be used to diagnose most electronic Interpret electrical diagrams and schematics Demonstrate the use of, schematic and ladder diagrams to diagnosis circuit problems. Describe the use of bearings, seals and drive couplings Explain the differences between universal joints, linkages and levers mechanisms, and cam assemblies Recognize various hinges/latches/fastening devices. Describe the functions of each Describe the use of a counter balance Compare various drive systems including belt, direct, gear, and variable speed. Describe the use of a flywheel application Explain the use of clutches/brakes/transmissions Describe the effects of torque. Describe the use of drums bearings, drum rollers and Describe the effects of heat and heat transfer. Discuss how heat is measured Describe calories, sensible and latent heat using British Appliance Tools and Equipment required hand tools used in appliance servicing 3.2 Demonstrate the use a multimeter, amprobe, and other test equipment in the diagnosis of electrical circuit problems. Differentiate between, shorted, open and non-functioning circuits Demonstrate the use of soldering techniques Demonstrate the use of basic diagnostic principles. Localize circuit faults to individual component(s). Replace the faulty component(s). Retest circuits Describe various types of thermometers (Laser, Digital and Mercury) used in the servicing of appliances. Describe the purpose of a Wattmeter. Explain the use of leak detection devices for CO2 and Describe the use of a manometer 3.10 Name the tools and equipment used in refrigeration servicing (including gauges, leak detectors, vacuum pump, psychrometer, recovery pump, and recovery storage) Discuss the safety procedures associated with transporting, storage and use of a torch in the repair of appliances. Bend copper and aluminum tubing. Cut tubing and pipes with hacksaws or tubing cutter Braze copper tubing Cut PVC pipes to correct length. Join PVC pipes 4.0 Appliance Handling and Servicing Practices 4.1 Demonstrate proper lifting techniques. Describe floor protection when moving an appliance for Explain the proper procedures to be followed in removing built-in appliances for service. Describe the safe and proper use of an appliance hand truck when moving an appliance up and down stairs List the precautions that must be taken to protect appliances before moving occurs. Describe various laws governing appliance disposal. (Freon removal, door removal, etc.) Describe proper disposal procedures for mercury, refrigerants, batteries, chemicals and oils. Explain the purpose of using safety belts Describe different types of ladders and safety procedures in the use of each type. Explain the need for grounding (human) Describe the use of different types of fire extinguishers Explain spontaneous combustion Describe current leakage Describe vehicle/work area safety procedures. Describe DOT and EPA regulations that impact transportation and proper handling of chemicals such as refrigerants, acetylene, nitrogen, etc. 5.9 Describe personal safety and work practices (Using insulated tools, protective clothing.) 5.10 Describe safety procedures to be utilized when using pressurized fluids 5.11 Describe proper cylinder handling/transportation in service vehicle Describe the need for pressure regulators. Explain the use of cleaning chemicals/MSDS Recognize safety markings (i.e. tag outs, warning signs, MSDS, OSHA Describe the use of available safety equipment such as ventilators, fire extinguishers, gloves, etc. Describe the use of shut-off devices (circuit breakers, gas and water valves, etc.) Discuss protective measures against high voltage. Basics of house wiring Discuss how electric power is transmitted Sketch a basic house wiring diagram including distribution panels and circuit breakers sizes Explain the use of wire sizes, circuit design, switching devices, receptacles and lighting circuits Describe grounding requirements and personal electrical safety Describe a ground fault circuit interrupter, GFCI’s Explain the purposes of the National Electric Code Recognize when the assistance of an electrician is called for Demonstrate the use of approved devices to splice, connect and join wires 7.0 Basic Principles of Plumbing & Water Supply Describe a domestic water supply. Name the different pipe sizes used in Describe a domestic drain system including proper venting. Demonstrate the proper procedure to cut and thread iron pipe. Solder copper tubing. Describe back flow preventors Use a compression fitting on Aluminum pipe. Make proper connections on PVC pipe. Describe different drains and traps. Explain National Plumbing Codes and existence of licensing and permit requirements in all communities served Explain safety procedures to be used when working with water Explain the need for water testing procedures especially for dishwashers Explain water filter systems used in appliances. Discuss reverse osmosis Explain the cause of noisy pipes. Discuss the use of Water Hammer Arresters Describe basic safety procedures used when servicing refrigeration Identify refrigeration terminology and definitions Identify refrigeration components. Describe the functions of refrigeration components Describe the relationship between temperature and pressure. Demonstrate the use PT chart Explain the difference between heat loads and cooling loads Describe the theory of electronic cooling Explain atmospheric pressure. Demonstrate the use of gauges. Sketch a basic refrigeration system Demonstrate the use of metering devices Describe the use and sizing of compressors/cross-referencing/types/high pressure dome/low pressure dome Describe the different styles of refrigerators Describe condenser types Explain the reason for evaporator locations Describe the purpose of a heat exchanger Explain the function of a filter drier Explain the theory of gas-fired refrigeration (ammonia etc.) Especially if servicing RVs/trailers/motor homes Refrigerant handling and recovery Describe federal EPA Laws and Regulations associated with these laws. Describe the difference between passive and active recovery Describe the difference between recovery, recycling and reclaiming. Describe a retrofit Explain the purpose of refrigerant oils Explain the differences between CFC/HCFC/HFC. Discuss the uses of Refrigerator/Sealed system Repair Describe the theory of operation of a domestic refrigerator. Demonstrate sealed system diagnostic procedures for Explain the different leak detection Access a sealed system. Remove access port upon completion, Explain triple evacuation Describe different methods of charging/procedures associated with each. Describe different methods of defrost and the components associated with each. temperature sensing methods Explain different air distribution methods (inside and outside of Interpret wiring, schematic and ladder diagrams to diagnose Describe different oil-cooling methods Explain the purpose of perimeter or yoder loops Air conditioning and Dehumidifier Principles Describe the theory of operation of a domestic window air conditioner’ Describe the differences between air conditioning and dehumidifying. Ice Machines, Freestanding and Under-counter Explain the theory of operation used in most domestic icemakers. Explain how water is distributed into the icemaker Describe proper procedures for cleaning and sanitizing icemakers. Identify the components and control circuits of a domestic icemaker. Discuss the purpose of wine coolers Explain the theory of operation of wine coolers Top Loading Washers Explain theory of operation for top loading washers a top-loading washer. Explain how incoming water is distributed from inlet to tub. the operation of a water level control the function of a water temperature control direct/neutral drain systems different brake systems used in top loading washers. Describe the methods of counter balance Outline the different water filtration methods Describe the use of clutch systems Explain the operation of electric water valves Explain operating principles associated with the transmission Describe the different drive methods. Demonstrate ability to use a cam chart. Interpret schematic diagrams List clean-ability problems. Describe corrective actions Front Loading Washers State the requirements for the installation of front-loading washers Explain differences between vertical and horizontal washing systems Describe the operation of water fill and level control Outline the operation of the temperature control Describe the methods of drain systems Explain braking system methods. Describe methods of counter balance Describe water filtration methods Describe Drive systems Explain the operation of electronic controls Explain the use of DC motors Discuss how cycle sequence, wiring, schematic and ladder diagrams can be used in troubleshooting electrical failures Explain the need for door seals Dryers (Gas & Electric) Installation procedures. State the venting requirements in the installation of Explain theory of operation of gas/electric dryers. Explain the principles of combustion. Discuss the operation of gas valves and burner assemblies. Describe the operation of electric heating elements Describe drum drive systems Discuss the relationships between electrical power and heating elements procedures used in gas burner systems Describe air handling, distribution and venting (blowers, fans, seals) Outline the purpose of electrical and thermal safety devices Describe Glow Bar ignition systems 16.11 Discuss how cycle sequence, wiring, schematic and ladder diagrams can be used in troubleshooting electrical failures Explain the theory of operation of combination washer/dryers Discuss the purposes of combination washer/dryers Explain dishwasher theory of operation Describe Installation requirements Explain water distribution from inlet to tub including wash cycle 18.4 Explain water hardness/temperature/detergent and wetting agents. Explain how detergents affect washing performance 18.5 Describe the operation of timers, mechanical and electronic types. Identify Option, float and selector switches. Discuss the operation 18.7 Identify water system components and controls such as fill valves, drain hoses, check valves, siphon breaks, etc. Discuss the operation and purposes of each Explain the purpose of Pumps, spray arms, food choppers, motors, filtering systems and sumps Describe the Dispensing systems Describe Drying systems used in dishwashers. Explain the use of Door seals and latching mechanisms 18.12 Use schematic, wiring, timer sequence, cycle option and other diagrams and charts to diagnose dishwasher failures Water Heaters & Dispensers Describe the theory of operation of domestic hot water heaters. Describe plumbing and installation requirements of hot water dispensers. Describe the safety devices used in water heaters. Discuss water hardness and Explain the combustion process in gas hot water heaters. Explain requirements for venting, (direct and chimney). Describe the operation of gas Explain the operation of electric heating elements and thermostats. Explain the filtering systems methods (i.e. reverse osmosis, carbon, rust and chemical removal). Describe the operation of isolation and check valves Describe the operation of pressure relief valves the operation of a food waste disposer 20.2 Describe the differences between continuous-feed and batch type units 20.3 Explain the operation of motor-reversing switches 20.4 Describe the operation of motor and grinding mechanisms Exhaust Hoods, Venting & Air Movement Explain the basic operation of range top venting systems Describe the basic Installation requirements and limitations of range top venting system. Describe the operation of re-circulating, direct vent and down flow type venting. Describe the purpose of filters used in venting systems. Describe the operation the motors and blowers used in venting Explain the purpose of the various switches and controls used with venting systems. the basic operation of a central vacuum system including bag and bagless types. Demonstrate an understanding of system design & installation Describe the operation of motors & controls used in central vacuum systems. Describe the operation of motorized and powered accessories for vacuum systems. the basic operation of a trash compactor. Describe the operation of ram drive systems. Describe the operation of electrical and mechanical controls (cycle selector and option switches). Explain the operation of reversing and interlock 24.1 State the functions of ironers Describe the operation of ironing systems (including dry press and steam press) (including dry press and steam press) Describe the safe and proper methods used in the servicing of gas appliances Explain the properties of natural gas and liquefied petroleum (LP) including their chemical heating value, specific gravity, limits of flammability, and their burning 25.3 Explain how gas pressure is measured (including normal and high altitude applications) 25.4 Explain how supply gas flow is regulated Demonstrate how to correct lifting burner flames, flashback, extinction pop, floating flames, port loading, an yellow tipping of flames. Primary and secondary air supplies Differentiate between complete and incomplete combustion. (including how primary, secondary, and excess air affects combustion) Describe the operation of burners (atmospheric and power), burner components (including fixed and adjustable orifices), input and output ratings and gas flow rates. the operation of gas ignition systems and controls (standing pilot, glow bar, electronic spark for both oven and surface burner systems. leak detection and the proper use of leak detection equipment how State and Local regulations may affect product installations 25.11 Describe gas conversion (LP to natural gas, natural gas to LP). 25.12 Describe the operation of timers, electronic range controls, and range clocks that are used in gas ranges, ovens, and cook tops Describe the operation of electrical controls for gas ranges (thermostats, flame proving sensors, devices, selector switches). Describe the operation of oven cleaning, including types of oven and range top surfaces, locking mechanisms and their associated controls. Describe convection gas ranges and oven cooking principles and their components (fans, controls). down-draft gas ranges and cook tops, including installation and venting 25.17 Discuss how the effects of Carbon Monoxide are measured. (Describe venting and ventilation, including natural draft action, power vents, and 25.18 Explain temperature limitation and proper test procedure for product surface temperatures and associated cabinet temperatures as regulated by Underwriters Laboratories & AGA (American Gas Assn.) 25.19 Describe how electrical schematics, technical drawings, switch position charts and wiring diagrams are used to troubleshoot gas ranges, ovens and cook tops Electric Cooking Principles Describe the safe and proper procedures used in the servicing of electric appliances 26.2 Name the electrical controls used in electric cookers. (thermostats, selector switches, infinite switches, heat relays, heat sensors, oven temperature protection, electronic range and oven controls). Describe the operation of each Describe the operation of heating elements of electric ranges, ovens, and cook tops. (oven and surface Describe the operation of systems associated with self-clean cycle 26.5 Describe oven cleaning, including types of oven and range top surfaces, locking mechanisms and oven temperature controls. 26.7 Describe the operation of overheat protection systems as used in smooth-top ranges. 26.8 Describe the purpose of seals, heat shields, insulation and gaskets in gas and electric ranges and ovens their impact on performance and surface temperatures and cook tops Microwave Cooking Principles Describe the safe and proper servicing of microwave Describe the operation of safety interlock systems used Explain high voltage power supplies and safety precautions necessary to properly service high voltage and current supplies. Describe the operation of microwave oven controls (electro-mechanical and electronic timers, and humidity, weight and temperature 27.5 Describe the operation of microwave generation systems, microwave propagation, and microwave distributions systems (magnetrons, wave-guides, stirrer blades and carrosels) 27.6 Describe how electrical schematics, technical drawings, wiring diagrams and switch position charts of microwave ovens are used in Describe survey meters, leakage, emission standards and Describe the operation of combination conventional, convection and microwave ovens. venting and exhaust provisions and filter panels Describe the safe and proper servicing of induction ranges. Describe the operation of basic induction range principles, including installation requirements. Describe the operation of electrical controls used with induction range systems. Explain Cookware selection for use with an induction range. 28.5 Describe how electrical schematics, technical drawings, switch position charts and wiring diagrams of induction ranges are used in 29.1 Describe operating principles of electric ranges and ovens. State the functions of the fans and controls in the operation of electric ranges and ovens Explain the principles of High Velocity convection cooking (End of Appliance Service Technician Competencies 2004)

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Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism Spectrum Disorder June 10, 2013 Key to Autism Access Answer Lives in Community Physicians April 16, 2013 New Models of Care for Autism April 16, 2013 Putting Insomnia to Bed for Children with Autism Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder, the origins of which are still unclear. Individuals with autism are commonly characterized by: - Impaired social interaction - Delayed and disordered language - Repetitive behavior - A restricted range of interest Physical symptoms are also common in children with autism, though they are less well-known. These include gastrointestinal (GI) disorders and insomnia. While the causes of these physical symptoms are not entirely known, they are important to treat. Aside from interfering with general health, GI discomfort and sleep deprivation can also adversely affect a child’s behavior and ability to learn. A study released by the CDC in 2012 indicated that that one out of every 88 children in the U.S. is diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder. It tends to affect boys more than girls. Click here or on the image at right to view a full version of NICHQ's infographic about the lesser-known aspects of ASD. Children with autism face many barriers in accessing healthcare. One barrier is long wait times to get a diagnosis or treatment. The earlier children are treated for autism, the more likely they are able to progress like typically developing children. This means that early intervention is crucial. What NICHQ Is Doing NICHQ, in partnership with Autism Speaks’ Autism Treatment Network (ATN), is assisting 14 autism clinics across North America make changes that improve care in their systems. The Collaborative to Improve Care for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder is targeting three specific areas that affect children with autism: long wait times for treatment, constipation, and insomnia. The quality improvement teams are working directly with families to test and find successful treatment tactics to share on a wider scale. ATN Director Dan Coury on Improving Autism Care Video Summary: The Autism Treatment Network (ATN) Director Dan Coury, MD, speaks about how NICHQ's quality improvement program is helping centers around the continent improve care for children with autism spectrum disorders.

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Good citizenship? Talkback Classroom Curriculum areas: Media, English, historical skills Key curriculum links: Natural and Social Systems, Informed and Active Citizenship; Discovering Democracy; Investigation, Participation and Communication. This unit of work introduces the National Museum of Australia's senior secondary program Talkback Classroom. It provides a way of helping students explore issues in a way that involves active and informed citizenship processes, and is an excellent vehicle for helping students improve their communication skills and confidence, develop informed opinions, and actively engage with decision-makers in their own and the broader community. - identifying issues - researching your interview - planning your interview - carrying out your interview What is Talkback Classroom? Talkback Classroom at the National Museum of Australia was a regular forum for senior secondary school students which ran from 2003 until its conclusion in mid-2008. Past forums can be accessed from the links below. A unit of work is available to explore the themes of Talkback Classroom in your own class. Talkback Classroom is still running in its own right - visit Talkback Classroom: a voice for the voteless www.talkbackclassroom.com.au

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Historic Sites and Buildings Two small advance parties that set out from the Point Ellice campsite on November 13 and 14 may possibly have seen the Pacific, but it is certain that Clark and the main body of the expedition first viewed it from this site along the north bank of the Columbia on November 15. Of course, 8 days earlier, from Pillar Rock, a landmark in the river some 25 miles from its mouth near present Altoona, Wash., Clark had erroneously believed he had sighted the ocean, when he was actually viewing the open-horizoned estuary of the Columbia. The Chinook Point campsite, established by Clark and the bulk of the complement about 4 miles west of the Point Ellice site, was the main base during the period November 15-25. Just southeast of Chinook Point, the site was located near an abandoned Chinook Indian village, whose boards were utilized for the construction of shelters. Lewis and his small group, which had set out from Point Ellice on November 14 and probed overland as far west as Cape Disappointment, returned to the Chinook Point camp on November 17. The next day, Clark and 11 men set out. Between then and the 20th, they proceeded to the cape and explored about 9 miles to its north before returning to their base. During all this reconnaissance, no favorable site was found for a winter camp and game was discovered to be scarce. Indians told the explorers that hunting was better on the south side of the river. On November 24 the complement voted to search there for a permanent base. The following day, in clear but windy weather, the boats cast off from Chinook Point. Because the swells were too high to permit a crossing near the mouth of the river, the craft followed the north bank upstream. Camp that night was made near Pillar Rock. The next day, November 26, at a point some 17 miles above Tongue Point, the boats crossed to the south side of the river. There, they renewed their search for a winter encampment that ended with the establishment on December 7 of a base at the Fort Clatsop site, in Oregon. The Chinook Point campsite, designated by a State marker, is little changed from the days of Lewis and Clark. A small museum in a barracks building at nearby Fort Columbia State Park contains exhibits relating to the early exploration of the coast and to regional history. Chinook Point, the overall geographical feature as distinct from the Lewis and Clark campsite, has been accorded National Historic Landmark status because of its associations with the era of discovery in the Pacific Northwest. Last Updated: 22-Feb-2004

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PDI-5: STEM Programming 101: Creating Integrated STEM Programs Wednesday, April 10, 2013 9:00 a.m.–4:00 p.m. Conference Room 3 and 4, Marriott Rivercenter Hotel Recommended Pathway Sessions Provider: International Technology Engineering and Education Association (ITEEA), Gaithersburg, Maryland Framing Questions / Outcomes - What is the difference between STEM, STEM education, and integrative STEM education? - What is STEM literacy and why is it important for all students? - Why should STEM education be included at all grade levels, and what should it look like? - How do I use the Grand Challenges for Engineering to provide a meaningful context for learning? - Why should I and how do I integrate inquiry, design, problem-solving, and literacy strategies in one unit? - With so many definitions of STEM, how do I create an action plan for my school or district? What does it take to create a STEM Program? Using the Common Core State Standards, the Standards for Technological Literacy, and the Grand Challenges for Engineering, participants will understand the integrative nature of K–12 STEM and how Engineering by Design can be the basis for developing the practices of engineering and concepts outlined the NGSS framework. This PDI will focus primarily on helping educators, schools, districts, and states to understand that all four components of STEM build a framework for students to understand how the natural world and the designed world coexist and how human wants and needs drive invention, innovation, and thus engineering. Examples of successful programs will be used as jumping off points that point to the integrative nature of STEM rather than the "SILO" approach to STEM. Participants will be experience interactive activities that draw upon their prior experience and stretch their STEM thinking. Ultimately, participants will leave with new knowledge and skills to plan a true STEM program in their classroom, school, or district. Joey Rider-Bertrand describes this session: The player will show in this paragraph

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Brief History of Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow First inhabited by the Weckquaesgeek Indians. 1609 the Hudson River Valley claimed for Holland by Henry Hudson. 1620s Hudson River Valley settled by the Dutch. 1656 Wolfert Acker builds a Dutch farmhouse, known as Wolferts Roost. (It is later purchased by author Washington Irving.) 1664 England gained control of the region. A Dutchman who had Anglicized his name to Frederick Philipse, was awarded 100,000 acres of land by royal charter, becoming New York's greatest "Lord of the Manor." His property extended from Spuyten Duyvil north to the Croton River, and from the Hudson River east to the Bronx River. In what would become Sleepy Hollow he build his Upper Mills. (His other residence was at Philipse Manor in Yonkers.) 1646 William Beekman arrived in New York with Peter Stuyvesant. He later married Catharine DeBough. It was their family that would come to own more than half of what later became North Tarrytown (Sleepy Hollow). 1697 following the destruction of the dam on the Pocantico River amid a flood, a slave of Frederick Philipse told of a dream he had that the dam would never hold until a church was built. The Old Dutch Church built by Philipse still stands on Route 9 in Sleepy Hollow. (It is the oldest extant church in New York.) 1702 the death of Frederick Philipse. He left the Upper Mills to his son Adolph. c. 1712 the house and tavern owned by John and Eliza Van Tassel built. Washington Irving used the house and tavern as a model for the home of one of his characters in The Legend of Sleepy Hollow, Katrina Van Tassel. the Revolutionary War Tarrytown was part of the "Neutral Ground," an area of Westchester County lying between the British lines to the south and the American lines to the north. Without the protection of either army, the people were subjected to fierce raids by both sides. British warships cruised up and down the Hudson, often peppered by shots from the shore, while American sloops carrying troops and supplies dodged the men-of-war. Such was the state of affairs when a momentous incident took place in the little village prior to 1780 construction of the house of James See; his granddaughter Alice Ackerman, was the wife of the first Tarrytown lighthouse keeper. 1780 (September 23) Major John Andre was captured by three local militiamen. In his boot were the stolen plans of West Point Andre was carrying to the British for traitor Benedict Arnold. Many historians consider this capture to be a major turning point of the Revolution. (The Historical Society Museum at 1 Grove Street, Tarrytown, Open Tues, Wed, Thurs, Sat 2-4pm, has a wealth of materials related to the capture of Major Andre.) 1780 (October 2) Major Andre was hanged. Post-Revolutionary War the Philipse land was confiscated because of the familys British sympathies during the Revolutionary War. Sleepy Hollow was then called Beekmantown after the new owners of Philipsburg, the Beekmans. Farming and milling continued for many years on the Manor land. Tarrytown flourished as an active river port in the post-war period. 1826 Tarrytown was an idyllic pastoral area. 1835 author Washington Irving buys the 1656 home of Wolfert Acker, renames it Sunnyside, and spends two years remodeling. 1838 William Paulding builds a large Gothic Revival residence (now known as Lyndhurst) overlooking the Hudson River. 1839 ferry service begins on the Hudson River at five cents a ride. 1847 Pokahoe, the home of James Watson Webb, built. (It later became home of the pathfinder, John C. Fremont.) 1849 the Hudson River Railroad opened, slowing river traffic. Manufacturing enterprises sprang up. 1853 a monument to the captors of the British spy John Andre dedicated. It is located at the park along Route 9. William and Mary Taylor donated the land. The actual capture site was about 200 yards east of the monument near the boundary of what later became the two villages. 1859 the funeral of Washington Irving held at the Christ Episcopal Church where Irving was a church warden and vestryman. 1863 - the draft riot in New York City; rioters head to Tarrytown to burn the storage place for Westchester draft records; Reverend Abel T. Stewart of the Old Dutch Church, Captain Oscar Jones and several local citizens persuaded the rioters to give up their plans. 1864 Ambrose Kingsland bought Pokahoe, the old home of James Watson Webb. 1865 Jessie and John C. Fremont buy Pokahoe and live there until 1875. (The home is now on the National Register of Historic Places.) 1870 the village was incorporated. Jacob Odell was the first mayor. His house on Grove Street later became the headquarters of the Historical Society. 1874 Sleepy Hollow (then known as North Tarrytown) was incorporated as an entity separate from Tarrytown. 1879 the statue of John Paulding (one of Andres capture) was added to the top of the monument on Route 9. 1880-1960s railroad tycoon and financier Jay Gould buys Lyndhurst. 1883 building of the Tarrytown Lighthouse (located off Kingsland Point). Jacob Ackerman was lighthouse keeper from 1883 to 1904. 1886 William Rockefeller buys the Aspinwal estate and builds Rockwood Hall. 1888 the famous blizzard of 1888 left 21 inches of snow on the ground. 1893 a monument to area Revolutionary War Soldiers erected on Battle Hill. 1893 John D. Rockefeller Sr., president of Standard Oil, came to Tarrytown/Sleepy Hollow. His grandsons via John D. Rockefeller Jr. Were David, Nelson, Winthrop, Laurance and John D. Rockefeller III. 1896 the John and Eliza Van Tassel property became the site for the first Washington Irving High School and their old house was demolished. 1897 the first run of the White Plains/Tarrytown Trolley. 1899 construction of the automobile factory (designed by Stanford White) on the Kingsland property. turn of the century palatial mansions dotted the hills overlooking the Hudson. 1900 Carrollcliffe, the Castle at Tarrytown, built for General Howard Carroll, son of a Civil War General. It was designed by noted New York Architect Henry Killburn and place on top of a ridge overlooking the area (and easily seen from US 287). The Castle was built in a style reminiscent of Norman fortification in Wales, Scotland and Ireland. Later it was known as the Axe Castle when it was owned by E.W. Axe & Co. Now it is a luxury inn and restaurant. . 1902 John D. Rockefeller Sr.s country retreat, the Parsons-Wentworthhouse in Pocantico Hills, burns down and plans were made to build the Kykuit mansion. 1906 a photo taken this year shows Ambrose Kingslands gazebo on Kidds Rock (named for Captain Kidd who supposedly traded with Frederick Philipse.) 1913 construction of Kykuit completed. 1914 Orchard Street was a growing hub of business in Tarrytown. 1916 Singer/entertainer Elsie Janis (Elsie Bierbower originally) bought the Philipse Manor Upper Mills. During the war she was known as the "Sweetheart of the AEF" (the American Expeditionary Force) because of her entertainment of the troops abroad. After WWI she and her mother restored the Manor house. Sleepy Hollow was home to the famous "Stanley Steamer" automobile factory. General Motors built a huge assembly plant in Sleepy Hollow. At the peak of its operations the plant employed over 4,000 workers. 1923 death of William Rockefeller. His property eventually becomes a public park. 1928 John D. Rockefeller Jr. backed the building of the five-story Van Tassel apartment building to overcome the shortage of apartments for the families of Chevrolet workers. 1929 the last run of the White Plains/Tarrytown Trolley. WWII the Axe Castle in Tarrytown was used by Civil Defense plane spotters. WWII the General Motors plant in North Tarrytown was converted to the manufacture of airplane parts. following WW II clusters of single-family homes replaced large estates. 1950s building of the Tappan Zee Bridge, ending ferry service. Construction of the New York State Thruway and Tappan Zee Bridge accelerated the growth of Tarrytown/Sleepy Hollow. 1960s Anna Gould, Jay Goulds daughter, left Lyndhurst to the National Trust for Historic Preservation. 1960s F. W. Woolworth Company store razed. 1965 the Tarrytown Lighthouse was decommissioned. It is now on the National Register of Historic Places. 1996 the village of North Tarrytown officially changed its name from North Tarrytown to Sleepy Hollow. 1996 the General Motors plant closed. The village plans to limit construction on this prime river front area to residential and light commercial buildings and water-related enterprises such as marinas. Sleepy Hollow Chamber of Commerce. "History of the Tarrytown/Sleepy Hollow Area.." http://www.sleepyhollowchamber.com/history.html) Historical Society, Inc, Serving Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow. 1997. Images of America: Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Press.

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"THE MAMMALS AND THEIR CHILDREN, PART 1" By Margaret H. Sanger [December 10, 1911] The first question one of the boys asked was, "What is a mammal?" and it was explained to the children that a mammal is an animal with a hairy covering, who breathes with lungs, and has warm or quick circulating blood. They have little ones, which when born are not in the form of eggs, like the frogs or birds, and have the same shape as their parents, though smaller and weaker. The mother mammal nurses these little ones with milk secreted from glands, called mammary glands. And that is why they are called "mammals." Their instincts are highly developed, and they are considered the highest animals. Many instances were shown them of the meaning of instinct, as that of the mother bird turning over her eggs every day. In fact, from the first word was explained in every stage to enable them to know the difference between instinct and reason later on. There was no one creature taken up this time, but all together, and some pictures were shown them of lower tribes of man, and it was decided that man must be classed with the mammals, for he is partly covered with hair, gives birth to young in his own shape, and feeds the young from mammary glands. So with this highest development in mind they were told that: There is a mammal, the spiny ant eater, covered with hair, which, however, lays eggs like the birds in nests. They were told about the kangaroo and opossum, who give birth to their little ones very early, and carry them in a pouch until they are able to help themselves. As soon as the little opossum is born, Mother Opossum picks him up in her mouth and places him in her pouch, where he sucks away at the milk which is secreted there, until he is strong and able to get food for himself -- which is about the same length of time that other mammals carry their young before giving birth to them. They were told of the bats and the flying squirrels, and well taught to think for themselves and learn of the process of transition or evolution. They were told that Bobby's cat must be given a new clean box, or bed; that she must not be handled roughly or chased, because she was going to have little kittens. To the utter astonishment of Bobby's mother there was a chorus of, "How do you know?" and she realized that she might have omitted a most important piece of information. They were again reminded of the birds and the undeveloped eggs coming from the ovary of mother bird, which at a certain time become ripe for fertilization; of how the father bird at a certain time feels he has developed (since the fertilizing principle within him has developed) so that in coming in contact with the undeveloped egg within the mother's body, these are quickened into life. The same process goes on with the mammals, but as the instinct becomes more developed as they go higher in the scale of life breeding becomes more complex. They were told that where in birds the whole egg, shell and all passes out of the mother's body into the nest, with the mammal the shell becomes a thin skin, which envelops the little one, but remains within the mother's body until it is grown enough and strong enough to live on the milk from the mother. While it is within the mother's body it is fed from the blood of the mother, and all the food she eats helps to make the little ones within her strong. It is of great assistance for a mother to have some knowledge of the processes of assimilation so that the children will learn how the food products in the blood, instead of supplying the mother, go to the child to build up bone, muscle, nerves and tissues. They were told that as the mammal grows and develops within the body of the mother her shape becomes changed -- becomes larger in the region where the new life lies, and that is how one could tell that Mrs. Pussy Cat was going to have a family. It was dwelt upon at great length that it was necessary to know this, because every mother needs protection from worry, excitement, cruelty, overwork, starvation at such a period; that she needed kindness, rest, good food, sunshine, in order that she give the little ones strength and health. They were told that in smaller animals many more eggs develop at a time and are fertilized but in the larger animals such as cows, horses, elephants, etc., only one egg develops and one animal is born. In man, too, this is true. One egg develops at a time, and if it is fertilized it remains in its little nest (or uterus), and grows until it is ready to stand the changed conditions into which it must come after is born. It is not fertilized it passes on out of the body and is lost[,] but when it is fertilized by the father, it remains in the uterus and grows until it is grown enough to withstand a different life and different surroundings. At first the new being is only the size of a pea (that is, in a week after it is fertilized). In a few weeks (eight) it is the size of a lemon, and its shape is complete. In four months it begins to move about, to kick, to move its little hands, and in nine months Mother Nature can develop it no more. It is time to change, if it is to live, so she sends it along the passage, enlarging the passage and stretching it as it goes -- which causes much pain and suffering to the mother, until it reaches the outside world, where it is taken and cared for and loved, and all the mother's pain is forgotten in the joy of having her little one alive and strong and well. One of the mothers was expecting the arrival of a little one, and great care and tenderness was shown her after the children knew of this event. She was assisted up the hills, brought flowers and all the tenderness of which children are capable was bestowed upon her. They anxiously watched and waited for its arrival, looked over the small clothing which was being prepared for it, and seemed as interested as any grown-up could ever be. They were taken to a farm some miles away to see a calf a few days old. Stories were read to them at this time about the habits of these animals and the care of their young. They were taken to the Museum of Natural History in New York and to Bronx Park, and such excursions were red letter days in their book of childhood. They were told of the freedom of the animals in choosing their mates -- that beauty and strength seemed the greatest qualifications. The story of the bees was briefly told. How the queen bee leaves her home amidst the hundreds of male bees who are all anxious to be the father of the future hive. How she rambles about for a little while, then up she flies -- up, up, straight into the clouds with hundreds of male bees following. Gradually the weakest bees drop off and return, but the stronger ones still follow until there are often only two male bees left in the race. The weaker of the two returns and the strongest bee of the whole hive wins the queen bee, and fertilizes the eggs within her body. After this act of reproduction he dies, and Mrs. Bee returns to her hive and lays thousands of bee eggs. The strongest gave his life that the future bees should be given his great strength. The children were sad about this. They wanted the strongest to live, and it was now the place to teach them of their own bodies, what cleanliness and strength means to the future race of man. But this we will learn of in our next lesson. Source of document: The Sunday New York Call, December 10, 1911, p.15. Republished as Chapter VI of What Every Mother Should Know: Or How Six Little Children Were Taught the Truth, (New York: Maisel, 1911). Transcribed by the Margaret Sanger Papers Project, 1999. Last update: 10/15/1999 Please note: These transcriptions have been mounted for research purposes only and the Sanger Project requests that Sanger Project URL be used when referring to any of these materials. Links may be made to our site (though we wish to be notified), but under no conditions are the transcriptions to be copied and mounted onto another server.

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Adapted and translated from Manuel de comptabilité nationale published by Economica, France - 49 rue Héricart, 75015 Paris - http://www.economica.fr/ This manual explains what GDP and GNI and their components are and what they mean. It shows how they are used and what they are used for. And it does this in an easily understood way. Opening with a chapter showing how national accounts concepts relate to macroeconomics, the book goes on to systematically deal with volume and prices, international comparability, production, final uses, household accounts, business accounts, government accounts, and financial accounts. It also has a chapter on how national accounts data are gathered and the history of the national accounts system. Three special chapters examine national accounts in China, India, and the United States. Previously published only in French, this manual has been revised and expanded to have a truly global perspective. Table of contents: Chapter 1. The Essential Macroeconomic Aggregates -Defining GDP -Deriving GDP in Volume -Defining Demand: The Role of Investment and Consumption -Reconciling Output and Demand -Reconciling Output and Income -How Are These Figures Obtained? -Accuracy of National Accounts -Limitations and Pitfall to be Avoided -Exercises Chapter 2. Distinguishing between Volume and Price Increases -A Word of Caution: Compare Volumes -The Volume/Price Breakdown Applied to Changes over Time -The Difficulties of Aggregation -Volume Indices and Price Indices -Constant Prices -"Chained" Accounts and the Loss of Additivity -Unpleasant Practical Consequences of Chain Linking -Special Cases -Exercises Chapter 3. International Comparisons -Comparison of Growth Rates -Comparison of Ratios: The Example of the Saving Ratio -Comparison of Levels of Variables: GDP per Head in Volume -The Spatial Volume/Price Breakdown: Purchasing Power Parities -Comparison of Variables in Absolute Terms: Household Consumption -Exercises Chapter 4. Production: What it Includes and Excludes -The Production Frontier -The Illegal Economy and the Underground Economy -Measurement of Output and of Value Added -Nomenclatures and Classifications -Exercises Chapter 5. Defining Final Uses of GDP -Final Uses in the National Accounts -Households' Final Consumption Expenditure -Fiunal Consumption Expenditure by Governments -Final Consumption Expenditure of the NPISHs -Moving from Consumption Expenditure to Actual Consumption -Gross Fixed Capital Formation -Changes in Inventories -Net Acquisitions of Valuables -Exports and Imports of Goods and Services -Exercises Chapter 6. The Household Account -The Three Indicators in the Household Account -The Household Sector Accounts -An Alternative Way to Measure Household Disposable Income and Consumption -Exercises Chapter 7. Business Accounts -The Relationship between the Firm and the Corporation -The Structure of Corporate-Sector Accounts -From Corporations to Firms -Consumption of Fixed Capital and Amortisation -Profits and Gross Operating Surplus: Not to be Confused -Exercises Chapter 8. The Financial and Balance Sheet Accounts -The Importance of Household Wealth for the Analysis of the Current Economic Situation -The Principle of Quadruple-Entry Bookkeeping -Financial Assets and Liabilities -The Link between Financial Flows and Stocks -Non-Financial Assets -The Complete Sequence of Accounts of an Institutional Sector -Exercises Chapter 9. The General Government Account -A Simplified Diagram for General Government -Detailed Structure of the General Government Account -What Does General Government Include? -The Principal Public-Finance Indicators -Exercises Chapter 10. The Input-Output Table and Integrated Economic Accounts -The Supply-and-Use Tables -The Aggregated Supply and Final Uses Tables -Intermediate Use Table -The Input-Output Table -The Use of the Input-Output Table for Economic Analysis -From the Sum of the Values Added to GDP -The Integrated Economic Account -The Transition from GDP to National Income Exercises Chapter 11. The National Accounts Machinery -The Quarterly National Accounts -The Annual National Accounts -The Revisions to the National Accounts and their Precision -Comprehensive Revisions -Other Data Sets Related to the National Accounts Exercises Chapter 12. The National Income and Product Accounts of the United States -Background -NIPA Tables -Dissemination of NIPAs -Other NIPA-Related Programmes -Compilation of Quarterly Gross National Product -Methodologies for Preparing Selected Components of GDP -Differences between the NIPA and the SNA Chapter 13. China's National Accounts -Introduction -Background -Published National Accounts -Publication Schedule -Classification -Ownership -Data Sources -How is GDP Estimated? -GDP by Type of Economic Activity -Final Expenditure Share of GDP -Estimates at Constant Prices Chapter 14. India's National Accounts -Introduction -Background -Some Special Features of India's National Accounts -How Does the CSO Estimate the National Accounts? -Publication of National Accounts -Where to Find Data on India's National Accounts Chapter 15. International Systems of National Accounts: Past and Future -From the Very Beginnings -To the First Modern Accounts -The 1953 SNA -The 1968 SNA -The 1993 SNA -The 1996 ESA -And the Upcoming 2008 SNA Index Glossary

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COMPARATIVE AND FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY OF SELECTED GENERA OF NON-GLIDING AND GLIDING MAMMALS (PHALANGERIDAE, SCIURIDAE, ANOMALURIDAE, AND CYNOCEPHALIDAE) Abstract (Summary)The convergent gliding adaptations in four mammalian families (Sciuridae, Anomaluridae, Cynocephalidae, and Phalangeridae) are compared. These adaptations are contrasted with the non-gliding arboreal genera Sciurus, Pseudocheirus, and Hemibelideus. Both functional and evolutionary aspects of the problem are presented. The gliding membranes with their associated musculature and cartilages and the musculature and bones of the pectoral appendages were dissected in the following fluid-preserved genera: Glaucomys, Pteryomys, Iomys, Petinomys, Petaurista, Anomalurus, Cynocephalus, Schoinobates, Petaurus, and Acrobates. Descriptions and figures of these anatomical structures are presented. Measurements of the forelimb and its parts were taken and are presented primarily as ratios. Despite the tendency in recent years to split the Petauristinae into a number of groups on the basis of evidence from teeth, bacula, ear region, and immunology, evidence from the musculature of the patagia and pectoral limb, the osteology of the pectoral limb and the presence in all genera of a styliform cartilage with nearly the same structure suggests that this group may be monophyletic. The petauristines share 72(67%) osteological characters out of 109 studied that are different from Sciurus. All gliders share only 23% of the same characters. Within the petauristines studied, various stages of primitive (Glaucomys) versus derived (Petaurista) characters are elucidated. Osteological characters which may prove useful in determining whether or not a fossil sciurid is a glider are listed. The anatomy of the gliding phalangers and that of Pseudocheirus shows that all of the gliders could have evolved from a Pseudocheirus-type ancestor. The anatomy of Hemibelideus suggests that it should be considered as a separate genus rather than as a subgenus of Pseudocheirus. Schoinobates is convergent with the rodent genus Anomalurus in the presence of a styliform cartilage which articulates with the olecranon process. Osteological characters which may prove useful in determining whether or not a fossil phalanger is a glider are listed. Special functional adaptations found in the pectoral limb of the gliding genera are: increased size of the M. supraspinatus providing increased force of outward rotation of the humerus at the shoulder joint, increased length of insertion of the pectoralis major providing a brace for the forelimb against the force of air hitting the ventral surface of the patagia, the metacromion of the scapula and the greater tubercle of the humerus act as a locking mechanism in the shoulder joint, and the coracoid process of the scapula and the muscles of the rotator cuff brace the shoulder joint. The patagia of the gliders are edged with rope-like muscles which help maintain the shape of the membranes by isometric contraction. While not gliding, relaxation of these muscles and contraction of the humerodorsales I and III and of the flexor carpi ulnaris (Petauristinae) helps to pull the membranes and styliform cartilage toward the body. No mechanism for pulling the styliform cartilage of Anomalurus toward the body could be elucidated. During the glide, the humeroventralis, humerodorsales, and the transverse muscles are probably used to control the amount of upward billowing in the membrane caused by the force of the air and allow the animal to change its angle of attack during the glide. The bones and muscles of the pectoral limb are more robust in the non-gliders indicating they climb up and down trees more frequently than do the gliders. The osteological and myological characters of Hemibelideus indicate that the members of this genus are probably capable of limited gliding. School Location:USA - Massachusetts Source Type:Master's Thesis Date of Publication:01/01/1980

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LIBS – A new beryllium testing method by Richard W. Hughes April 29, 2004 – Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) is a technique being touted as a means of bringing the cost of beryllium testing in corundum down to reasonable levels. Also known as Laser Spark Spectroscopy (LASS) or Laser-Induced Plasma Spectroscopy (LIPS), this technique was first developed at Los Alamos National Laboratories and involves focusing a laser pulse onto a surface. The energy from the pulse heats, vaporizes, atomizes and then ionizes the material on the surface, resulting in a small, hot plasma. The atoms and ions in the plasma emit light which is then detected. The unique spectral signatures allow elements in the plasma to be identified. This technique can be applied to the rapid analysis of metals for the purpose of sorting and/or monitoring composition during processing. |Why LIBS matters| mid-2001, unusual orange sapphires began appearing in Thai gem markets. It was later proven that these stones were actually pink sapphires with an artificially colored rim created by diffusing beryllium into the stone. By itself, the beryllium creates a yellow color through a trapped-hole color center. Just a few parts per million of beryllium are enough to produce a significant alteration of color in many specimens. Put this yellow on a pink stone and you get orange. In the case of some orange sapphires, such as the stone pictured below, immersion is enough to unmask the fraud. But in others, the beryllium penetrates entirely through the gem, making them impossible for even sophisticated gem labs to positively identify. Such stones previously had to be sent out for expensive SIMS or LA-ICP-MS analyses, tests costing hundreds of dollars per stone. Enter LIBS. LIBS equipment costs approximately $50,000–80,000 per unit, as opposed to the $300,000+ of LA-ICP-MS or $750,000+ for SIMS. This puts LIBS within reach of most major gem labs, and will translate into more affordable gem testing. This breakthrough should keep the gemologists at least temporarily ahead of those seeking to pass off beryllium-treated rubies and sapphires as something else. According to published reports, LIBS sensitivity for light elements such as beryllium and lithium can be accurate down to the 1–10 ppm level. The caveat, though, is that calibration standards for each substance being tested must be created. Thus for accurate testing of beryllium levels in corundum, calibration standards of known levels of beryllium in corundum would need to be prepared. According to one online source: Both portable and permanent prototype LIBS units can be developed. Each unit would be tailored to the particular application and conditions under which the unit would be operated and cost varies accordingly. Within the past three years, applications for LIBS have exploded. Indeed, prototype LIBS units are even being fit into backpacks for landmine detection, helping soldiers distinguish mines from ordinary metal. Henry Hänni’s Swiss Gemmological Institute (SSEF) was the first gemological lab to announce LIBS testing for beryllium in corundum. In the summer of 2003, the SSEF’s Dr. Michael Krzemnicki came across a reference to the LIBS technique on the internet. Hänni had previously been involved in making spectrographs of rocks using light arcs, a similar but more primitive technique. Following Krzemnicki’s discover of LIBS on the internet, he and Hänni began investigating it as a possible solution to the beryllium problem. By January 2004, they were convinced of the technique’s viability, but it took some hunting to find a unit suitable for gem testing. In the case of gem testing, important considerations are: SSEF now has a suitable unit on order and will offer low-cost beryllium testing as soon as it is installed. They will also offer to the trade and to gemological laboratories: Interested parties should contact them directly at: [email protected] |Schematic diagram of a Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) system. Graphic courtesy of Applied Photonics Ltd, www.appliedphotonics.co.uk; used with permission. Applied Photonics specializes in LIBS applications.| |Laser-Induced Breakdown spectra (LIBS) of both beryllium treated and untreated sapphires. Graphics courtesy of Applied Photonics Ltd, www.appliedphotonics.co.uk; used with permission. Applied Photonics specializes in LIBS applications.| A number of other gemological labs and related facilities around the world are also currently exploring the feasibility of incorporating such testing into their operations. An excellent description of the LIBS technique can be found in this PDF file.

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Pilot Tests and Focus Groups Similar to pretests, pilot tests are used to evaluate how a sample of people from the survey population respond to the questionnaire. For a pilot test, surveyors typically contact a large number of people so that potential differences within and across groups in the population can be analyzed. In addition, pilot tests for many surveys test the full implementation procedures (e.g., contact letters, incentives, callbacks, etc.). Pilot tests are usually conducted well in advance of when the survey will be fielded so that more substantial changes to the questionnaire or procedures can be made. Pilot tests are particularly helpful when surveyors are testing new questions or making substantial changes to a questionnaire, testing new procedures or different ways of implementing the survey and for large-scale surveys, such as the U.S. Census. Focus groups are very different from pilot tests because people discuss the survey topic or respond to specific questions in a group setting, often face to face (though online focus groups are sometimes used). When conducting focus groups, the surveyor typically gathers a group of people and asks them questions, both as a group and individually. Focus group moderators may ask specific survey questions, but often focus group questions are less specific and allow participants to provide longer answers and discuss a topic with others. Focus groups can be particularly helpful in gathering information before developing a survey questionnaire to see what topics are salient to members of the population, how people understand a topic area and how people interpret questions (in particular, how framing a topic or question in different ways might affect responses). For these types of focus groups, the moderator typically asks broad questions to help elicit unedited reactions from the group members, and then may ask more specific follow-up questions. For some projects, focus groups may be used in combination with a survey questionnaire to provide an opportunity for people to discuss topics in more detail or depth than is possible in the interview. An important aspect of focus groups is the interaction among participants. While focus groups can be a valuable component of the research process, providing a qualitative understanding of the topics that are quantified in survey research, the results of focus groups must be interpreted with caution. Because people respond in a group setting their answers can be influenced by the opinions expressed by others in the group, and because the total number of participants is often small (and not a randomly selected subset of the population), the results from focus groups should not be used to generalize to a broader population.

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http://www.people-press.org/methodology/questionnaire-design/pilot-tests-and-focus-groups/

2013-06-20T11:21:12Z

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Smart labels contain electronic devices that have read/write memory used to store and access information. The electronic device is a radio (RFID) transponder or tag. The RFID technology, like bar codes, is used to automatically capture data. It is different from a bar code in that it can hold much more data, it can be reprogrammed, and its data is accessed by a reader but it does not need optical contact with the reader to be read. The standard construction of a smart label consists of a pressure sensitive facestock, an inlay, which contains the radio frequency identification transponder, and a liner. The inlay is laminated between the facestock and the liner. The transponder contains an antenna and microchip. The data from the smart label is accessed when the transponder passes by the reader. Radio wave lengths are picked up from the antenna and the data on the microchip is transferred to the reader and then passed on to a computer or printer. As the product moves from one stage to the next its movements can be monitored and data can be updated when necessary. The smart label can identify, track in real-time and authenticate a product. Some common applications where smart labels would be used are supply chain management, production control, work-in-process, baggage identification and tracking, express delivery services, reusable container tracking and security systems (see Label-Types-Security Labels). The industry acceptance of smart labels has been slow. The RFID technology can improve performance and efficiency but is expensive to startup. As more companies commit to the use of this new technology it will become more widely accepted and many will benefit from its capabilities. Back to Top

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http://www.printingtips.com/printing-tips/t-46-343/smart-labels.asp

2013-06-20T11:21:38Z

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A child's sexual behaviour could be influenced by their genes just like environmental factors, says a new study. The research, led by Jane Mendle, assistant professor of psychology at the University of Oregon, looked at the age that more than 1,000 cousins first had sexual intercourse. It found that there was more of a pattern with genetically similar children, than with those whose living situation was alike. Ms Mendle pointed out that there is no specific gene to look out for, but that personality traits such as impulsivity and argumentativeness can be passed down to children and will probably lead to them having sex earlier. She said: "Our study found that the association between fathers' absence and children's sexuality is best explained by genetic influences, rather than by environmental theories alone." A recent study at the University of Michigan indicated that working long hours in adult environments can lead to young people having older sexual partners.

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http://www.privatehealth.co.uk/news/september-2009/childrens-sexual-behaviour-30929/

2013-06-20T10:45:17Z

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ReadWriteThink couldn't publish all of this great content without literacy experts to write and review for us. If you've got lessons plans, activities, or other ideas you'd like to contribute, we'd love to hear from you. Find the latest in professional publications, learn new techniques and strategies, and find out how you can connect with other literacy professionals. Teacher Resources by Grade |1st - 2nd||3rd - 4th| |5th - 6th||7th - 8th| |9th - 10th||11th - 12th| Safety Tips With Officer Buckle and Gloria |Grades||K – 2| |Lesson Plan Type||Standard Lesson| |Estimated Time||Four 45- to 60-minute sessions| Recognizing problems and identifying solutions are skills that help students develop awareness of themselves and their surroundings. After reading the book Officer Buckle and Gloria by Peggy Rathmann, students explore potential safety problems and then devise possible solutions. Each student creates a safety tip poster similar to the ones in the book to present a solution to one of the identified safety problems. Students communicate their safety messages to others by displaying the posters around the school or in the community. This lesson could easily be adapted for use with older students. Book Cover Creator: Designing book covers is a snap with this handy tool that provides students with an easy-to-follow template. Vacca, R.T., & Vacca, J.L. (2000). Writing across the curriculum. In R. Indrisano & J.R. Squire (Eds.), Perspectives on writing: Research, theory, and practice (pp. 214–232). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. - Various types of learning can be promoted through writing, and students need opportunities to write in all curricular areas. - Effective classroom practice includes various types of writing tasks. - Building upon content objectives, students can engage in informative, personal, and imaginative uses of writing to consider and connect the ideas and information from a lesson. - When teachers move beyond simple recall and scaffold writing tasks that support thinking and learning, informational writing can be important in students' learning.

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http://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/safety-tips-with-officer-1019.html

2013-06-20T10:51:27Z

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Hector's Beaked Whale , is a small Mesoplodont living in the Southern Hemisphere. This whale is named after Sir , a founder of the colonial museum in Wellington, New Zealand. Some specimens that have washed up and been sighted in California that were once thought to belong to this species have subsequently been shown through analysis of mtDNA and detailed morhological examination to be a new species,Perrin's Beaked Whale (Dalebout et al. 2002). As of 2007, they have yet to be seen alive in the wild. Note that some data supposedly referring to this species, especially juveniles and males, turned out to be based on the misidentified specimens of Perrin's Beaked Whale - especially since the adult male of Hector's Beaked Whale was only more recently described. See Perrin's Beaked for specimen data. Dalebout et al. specifically list Mead (1981), Mead (1984), Mead & Baker (1987), Mead (1989), Baker (1990), Jefferson et al. (1993), Mead (1993), Carwardine (1995), Reeves & Leatherwood (1994), Henshaw et al. (1997) and Messenger & McQuire (1998) as erroneously attributing data from the new species to Hector's Beaked Whale. Reaching a maximum length of about 4.2 meters (1.9 m when born), and with an estimated weight of about 1 tonne (1.032 tons), Hector's is one the smallest of the beaked whales. It is known from only a few stranded animals. Hector's Beaked Whales are dark greyish-brown dorsally, paler ventrally and may have white or pale lower jaws. The melon, which is not very prominent, slopes quite steeply to the short beak. Adult males have a pair of flattened, triangular teeth near the tip of the lower jaw. As with most other beaked whales, the teeth do not erupt in females. The dorsal fin is triangular to slightly hooked, small, and rounded at the tip. The leading edge of the dorsal fin joins the body at a sharp Nothing is known about the diet of this species, although it is assumed to feed on deepwater squid . Because they lack functional teeth, they presumably capture most of their prey by suction. With only two probable sightings, there is little information on the behavior of this whale. This species may be unusual for a Mesoplodon because, in both sightings, one of the animals seemed inquisitive and actually approached the boat. Body scarring suggests there may be extensive fighting between males, which is common in beaked whales. Nothing is known about breeding in this species. Sightings are rare due to their deep-ocean distribution, elusive behaviour and possible low numbers. Population and Distribution Hector's Beaked Whale has a circumpolar distribution in cool temperate Southern Hemisphere waters between approximately 35° and records are from New Zealand, but there are also reports from Islands, Lottering River, South Bay, Tasmania, and Fuego, in southern South This species has never been hunted at all, and has not entangled itself in fishing gear. Most sightings of the whale have been stranded specimens on beaches, particularly in New Zealand. - (1990): Whales and dolphins of New Zealand and Australia: An identification guide. Victoria University Press, - (1995): Whales, dolphins and porpoises. HarperCollins, - (2002): A New Species of Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon perrini sp. n. (Cetacea: Ziphiidae), Discovered Through Phylogenic Analysis of Mitochondrial DNA Sequences. Marine Mammal Science 18(3): 577-608. PDF fulltext - (1997): Identification of beaked whales (family Ziphiidae) using mtDNA sequences. Marine Mammal Science 13(3): 487-495. (HTML abstract) - (1993): FAO species identification guide: Marine mammals of the world. United States Environment Programme & Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Rome. - (1981): First records of Mesoplodon hectori (Ziphiidae) from the northern hemisphere and a description of the adult male. Journal of Mammalogy 62(2): 430-432. (First page image) - (1984): Survey of reproductive data for the beaked whales (Ziphiidae). Report of the International Whaling Commission Special Issue 6: 91-96. - (1989): Beaked whales of the genus Mesoplodon. In: : Handbook of marine mammals Vol.4: 349-430. Academic - (1993): The systematic importance of stomach anatomy in beaked whales. IBI Reports 4: 75-86. - (1987): Notes on the rare beaked whale, Mesoplodon hectori (Gray). Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 17: 303-312. - (1998): Morphology, molecules and the phylogenetics of cetaceans. Systematic Biology 47(1): 90-124. (HTML abstract) - (2002): Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-551340-2 - (1994): Dolphins, porpoises and whales: 1994-98 Action plan for the conservation of cetaceans. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. ISBN 2-8317-0189-9 - (2002): Sea Mammals of the World. A & C Black, London. ISBN 0-7136-6334-0

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http://maps.thefullwiki.org/Hector's_Beaked_Whale

2013-05-22T22:34:03Z

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The first drive phase is defined as the period of time after landing during which engineers first conduct tests to ensure the rover is in a "safe state" and then move it for the first time beyond its original landing zone. After entry, descent, and landing, the Mars Science Laboratory rover ventured forth on its first drive on Aug. 22, 2012, going forward about 15 feet (4.5 meters), rotating 120 degrees and then reversing about 8 feet (2.5 meters). Before making that first drive, mission controllers on Earth needed to make sure the surface directly beneath the rover's wheels did not present an immediate hazard. They also needed to complete deployment of the mast, the High Gain Antenna, the sampling system, test communications links, and make a few other checks before putting the proverbial "pedal to the metal." (Unlike prior rover missions, however, the Mars Science Laboratory rover did not have a lander from which to egress. Instead, its mobility system--that is, its wheels and related parts--was fully deployed prior to landing.) One of the greatest concerns post-landing is rover stability. Even though the rover can handle steep cliffs of up to 50 degrees and has a ground clearance of 60 centimeters (almost 2 feet), it's not possible to predict down to the last inch where the spacecraft will land. If the rover had ended up, say, with one wheel on top of a rock and the others on a slope, engineers would want to know about it and make sure the rover could maneuver successfully to a safer position. Upon landing, the Mars Science Laboratory rover completed a series of automated computer sequences to make sure all systems were operating as expected and to check the immediate environment. Such activities include, for example: After all of these tasks were completed, the rover made its first drive from the landing zone onto uncharted Martian terrain. The rover tests the many science instruments on board as exploration gets under way.

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2013-05-22T22:27:22Z

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This THEMIS visible image shows a close-up view of the ridged plains in Hesperia Planum. This region is the classic locality for martian surfaces that formed in the "middle ages" of martian history. The absolute age of these surfaces is not well known. However, using the abundance of impact craters, it is possible to determine that the Hesperian plains are younger than the ancient cratered terrains that dominate the southern hemisphere, and are older than low-lying plains of the northern hemisphere. In this image it is possible to see that this surface has a large number of 1-3 km diameter craters, indicating that this region is indeed very old and has subjected to a long period of bombardment. A large (80 km diameter) crater occurs just to the north (above) this image. The material that was thrown out onto the surface when the crater was formed ("crater ejecta") can be seen at the top of the THEMIS image. This ejecta material has been heavily eroded and modified since its formation, but there are hints of lobate flow features within the ejecta. Lobate ejecta deposits are thought to indicate that ice was present beneath the surface when the crater was formed, leading to these unusual lobate features. Many of the Hesperian plains are characterized by ridged surfaces. These ridges can be easily seen in the MOLA context image, and several can be seen cutting across the lower portion of the THEMIS image. These "wrinkle" ridges are thought to be the result of compression (squeezing) of the lavas that form these plains. Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/ASU Browse Image | Medium Image | Full Res Image (NASA's Planetary Photojournal)

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2013-05-22T22:34:02Z

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A collection of self-adjoint linear maps from $H$ to itself, called observables. An observable is somewhat analogous to a random variable; it represents a property of the system that can be measured and found to have a certain value. The values that an observable can take are given by its eigenvalues (or, in the infinite-dimensional case, its spectrum). Say $A$ is an observable, and $v$ a$ is the unique eigenvector an eigenvalue of $A$ with eigenvalue A$, and $v_1, \ldots, v_n \in H$ form an orthonormal basis for the eigenspace of $a$. If the state of the system is the ray generated by the unit vector $\psi \in H$, the probability that the observable $A$ will be found to have the value $a$ is $\langle v_1, \psi, A\psi psi \rangle + \ldots + \langle v_n, \psi \rangle$, where $\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle$ is the inner product. You can then easily show that the expectation value of the observable $A$ is $\langle \psi A \psi \rangle$. Observables whose only eigenvalues are $1$ and $0$—that is, projection operators on $H$—play a special role, because they correspond to logical propositions about the system. The expectation value of a projection operator is just the probability of the proposition. |2||Fixed mistakes in observable section, added stuff about projections| |1||[made Community Wiki]| I don't know what it means for a mathematician to quantize something, but I can give you a rough description, and a few specific examples, from a physicist's point of view. When quantum mechanics was first discovered, people tended to think of it as a modified version of classical mechanics . In those days, very few quantum systems were known, so people would create quantum systems by "quantizing" classical ones. To quantize a classical system is to come up with a quantum system that "behaves similarly" in some sense. For example, you generally want there to be an intuitive correspondence between the observables of a classical system and the observables of its quantization, and you generally want the expectation values of the quantized observables to obey the same equations of motion as their classical counterparts. Because the goal of quantization is to find a quantum system that's "analogous" in some way to a given classical system, it's not a mathematically well-defined procedure, and there's no unique way of doing it. How you attempt to quantize a system, and how you decide whether or not you've succeeded, depends entirely on your motivation and goals. The harder stuff I've been using the phrase "quantum system" a lot---what do I really mean? In my opinion, one of the best ways to find out is to read Section 16.5 of Probability via Expectation, by Peter Whittle. Roughly speaking, a quantum system has two basic parts: Most interesting quantum systems have another part, which is often very important: A few examples I hope this helps! Today, in contrast, most physicists think of classical mechanics as an approximation to quantum mechanics. If $H$ is infinite-dimensional, it's typically a separable Hilbert space. You may even need $H$ to be something fancier, like a rigged Hilbert space.

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http://mathoverflow.net/revisions/6208/list

2013-05-22T22:21:34Z

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close print view Proventricular or Stomach Worm(Dispharynx nasuta) The proventricular or stomach worm (Dispharynx nasuta) is a parasite found in the lining of the proventriculus and gizzard. Adult worms are short, thick, white, coiled nematode parasites found in the glandular and muscular stomachs of numerous passerine and gallinaceous birds. Some authors believe this parasite is the most important helminth parasite of the ruffed grouse and at one time it was thought to cause "grouse disease" in the northeastern United States. D. nasuta has a cosmopolitan distribution and is found in numerous species of birds. The common crow, blue jay, catbird, American robin, numerous other songbirds, and all upland game birds can be infected with the proventricular worm. Ruffed grouse and American woodcock have been reported to be pathologically affected by infections with the parasite. Ruffed grouse parasitized by D. nasuta have been reported from New York, Maine, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, New Hampshire, Nova Scotia, and Michigan. The infections appear to be scattered through North America with ruffed grouse in some isolated areas being heavily parasitized. The highest prevalence and intensities of infection are in the young of the year. D. nasuta is the first nematode acquired by turkeys in areas of high incidence and young birds are infected by 3 to 4 days of age. Large numbers of worms (200+) may be present in grouse by fall. Water levels in the bird's habitat are significant, as there is an inverse relationship between water levels and infectivity. Therefore, grouse may be more likely to acquire a D. nasuta infection in dry areas where the availability of sowbugs is greater. Transmission and Development Adult female D. nasuta lay their eggs in the proventriculus and embryonated eggs are passed in the feces. The eggs are eaten by suitable hosts. The wood lice or sowbugs (Armadillidum vulgare) and (Porcellio scaber) are known intermediate hosts and there are probably others. Shortly after ingestion of the eggs, larvae are found in the tissues of the wood lice. The first-stage larvae develop to the infective third-stage larvae in 26 days. The third-stage larvae are capable of surviving in the intermediate host for 6 months, thereby ensuring their availability to birds in the spring and summer. There is no further development by the D. nasuta larvae until they are ingested by a susceptible definitive host. Twenty-seven days after ingestion, the third-stage larvae attain sexual maturity. The adult worms reside in the proventriculus and in the later stages of the infection may spread to the muscular walls of the gizzard. Diagnosis of a D. nasuta infection can be made by egg or adult worm identification. The eggs passed in the feces are embryonated, thick shelled, and small, measuring 40 by 20 microns. The adult worms can by found in the proventriculus or gizzard during postmortem examination. The adult worms are white, thick, coiled, and measure from 5 to 7mm (male) to 10mm (female) in length. Both sexes have 4 wavy cuticular bands originating at the base of the lips and extending for a short distance posteriorly. There is no known treatment for this parasite. Birds infected with D. nasuta may be emaciated, sluggish in flight, or easily caught by predators. It is believed that the birds are weakened by the worm infection and their disease resistance is lowered lending themselves susceptible to other diseases. Pathological changes caused by the proventricular worm have been reported in pigeons, American woodcock, and ruffed grouse. In grouse, lesions severe enough to warrant consideration as a primary pathogen have been found in 33% of the birds examined from certain areas. Adult D. nasuta attach by the anterior end to the mucous and epithelial cells of the proventriculus. Initially, ulcerations are formed in the proventriculus at the site of attachment. Usually if 10 or more adult worms are present, a proliferative proventriculitis with necrosis and sloughing of mucosal surfaces is seen. The lumen of the proventriculus becomes filled with thick, white, slimy mucous and sloughed stomach epithelial tissue while the tissues below the lining of the proventriculus undergo hyperplasia. These factors may combine to entirely occlude the lumen of the proventriculus thereby preventing the passage of food, resulting in death due to starvation. The adult worms are usually found lying beneath and in the proliferating tissue. The extensive destruction of the glandular tissue and muscular layers of the proventriculus may lead to a flaccid condition and a great (3-4 times normal size) enlargement of this organ. If the destruction is severe enough, a perforation of the proventriculus may occur, resulting in the peritonitis. In the past this parasite has been said to be the most important factor concerning ruffed grouse scarcity in some places. D. nasuta may cause high mortality in areas where the parasite occurs in high numbers. In most instances a light to moderate infection is seen and the birds do not suffer from a blockage of the proventriculus by the inflammatory products. The worm is of no public health significance as it is removed from the carcass when the infected bird is eviscerated. For questions about wildlife diseases, please contact the Michigan DNR Wildlife Disease Laboratory. Michigan.gov Home Report All Poaching 1-800-292-7800 Contact DNR DNR Home State Web Sites Spending & Accountability Office of Regulatory Reinvention Copyright © 2001-2013 State of Michigan

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2013-05-22T22:26:48Z

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Neurology journal Brain has just published an elegant open-access study on how just six weeks of mental imagery training can help reduce phantom limb pain as well as reorganising the sensory and motor maps in the brain. Phantom limbs are when amputees feel sensations that seem to be coming from the missing limb. Sometimes this can include pain which can either be constant or transitory. Sensations from the nonexistent limb are thought to be due to the brain reorganising the areas which represent the body. In the case of a phantom arm, for example, the area is no longer receiving sensations from the limb and so stops being so carefully defined. Areas serving other body areas (like the face) start to creep in and facial stimulation can be felt in the missing arm due to the fuzzy neurological boundaries. This new study, led by neuroscientist Kate McIver, decided to test whether mental imagery can help keep these areas active and prevent the fuzziness creeping in, potentially reducing the phantom pain. This is based on extensive research to show that imagining something activates similar brain areas to actually perceiving the sensation or executing the action. For example, imagining the sensation of a cool breeze across your arm actually increases activity in the brain areas responsible for arm sensations, while imaging picking something up activates arm-related motor areas. The research team asked participants to rate their phantom limb pain and used fMRI to look at which brain areas were most active during some movement-related tasks. While in the scanner, the participants were asked to imagine actions with either the existing or phantom hand, to move the existing hand or were asked to purse (push together) their lips. This last action tends to activate what was previously the hand area in the brain in people with phantom limbs, but doesn’t in people with intact limbs. Indeed, this is exactly what the initial brain scans reported, indicating that their brains had reorganised sensory boundaries. The researchers then invited each participant for six weekly sessions that involved a mental ‘body scan’ technique that involved imagining free and comfortable movement in their phantom limb such as they could “stretch away the pain” and “allow the fingers, hand and arm to rest in a comfortable position”. Participants also practised in their own time. After six weeks, pain ratings were taken again and the brain scanning was re-run. The painful sensations had significantly reduced and lip pursing no longer activated the hand area. The mental imagery seemed to have ‘simulated’ arm actions and sensations well enough so that the neurological boundaries remained sharp and cross-area fuzziness didn’t encourage phantom pain.

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2013-05-22T22:19:02Z

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In addition, the research identifies the enzyme in plants that triggers the production of an important molecule, S1P, in this signaling system. The enzyme in mammals is known to play a critical role in regulating the proliferation and death of cells. "Our research also indicates that the S1P-G-protein signaling pathway is the previously unknown genetic basis of characteristics that regulate a plant's ability to withstand drought," says Sarah M. Assmann, the Waller Professor of Plant Biology at Penn State University and leader of the group of researchers from Penn State and Virginia Commonwealth University. Its discovery in plants could be used to develop crop varieties with higher yields and greater drought resistance, in addition to helping to identify plant sources for new pharmaceuticals. Like team members in a relay race, molecules in the G-protein signaling pathway, well known in human cells, swing into action one after another when activated by a hormone. However, the identities and roles of the signal relayers in the G-protein pathway in plants were essentially unknown before the current findings. Assmann and her fellow researchers did know that a molecule important in the G-protein-signaling pathway in human cells, the molecule S1P (sphingosine-1-phosphate), also exists in plants, but they did not know much about its origin and function in plant cells. Contact: Barbara K. Kennedy

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http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-2/Plants-and-people-share-a-molecular-signaling-system--researchers-discover-4612-1/

2013-05-22T22:18:55Z

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A Turing machine is a very simple computer that manipulates symbols on a strip of tape to perform feats of logic. There isn't really much of a purpose to them these days; they exist as a novelty based on early computational theory by the great mathematician and computer scientist Alan Turing. They're made as a type of thought experiment to show the advantages and limits of mechanical computing. To really understand what a Turing machine demonstrates, you probably have to be the type who can speak binary. Many have been made over the years, but one caught our eye on YouTube this week (video below). We didn't notice it because it's elegant or attractive--indeed, it's rather harsh-looking--but because it's entirely mechanical. It uses magnets and springs, but no electronics or even electricity. It was made by British hobbyist Jim MacArthur as a demonstration for a Maker Faire in the U.K. Most Turing devices use a type of tape on which symbols are punched, but this one moves along a metal grid. Ball bearings are dropped into grid squares based on the data input via a series of small levers. The positions of the balls on the grid act as symbols. When one knows what they're doing, the pattern of ball bearings on the grid can be translated into a rough program. For a logic unit, it uses a left-or-right switch mechanism to create binary input. It has up to 5 input symbols that allow for 10 "states." If that doesn't make sense to you, that's OK, it's not really supposed to. It's a technical way of saying that while this DIY machine won't catch up to a pocket calculator anytime soon, it's still an impressive feat of engineering for not having any batteries. … Read more

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Acting on the idea that millions of heads are better than one, a British research firm is crowdsourcing cancer, and has just invited everyone on the Internet who has perhaps five extra minutes to spare to help it cure the potentially deadly disease. Cancer Research UK has asked web surfers to comb through tens of thousands of pictures of breast cancer cells pulled from studies to help identify tumor cells. When volunteers spot cells that are stained yellow, they send them on to researchers who then use them to analyze trends between the cells and patient treatment. Anyone who signs on must first complete a short tutorial, and scientists do check the work to minimize mistakes. This is not a complete first. Citizen scientists have already helped accelerate discoveries in disciplines such as biology, astronomy and archaeology. And business and marketing companies have used Internet crowdsourcing for years to promote products and services. So, too, have a number of other health care websites. One celebrated instance of medical crowdsourcing was initiated by Patientslikeme.com, a health data-sharing website based in Cambridge, Mass., that aggregates patient information for research. The site has more than 100,000 people representing more than 500 conditions. Upon the publication of an Italian study in 2008 that found the drug lithium could delay the progression of ALS - also known as Lou Gehrig's disease - about 450 members of Patients Like Me's ALS community decided to test the theory out. Within nine months, they showed the treatment was a bust. The results were published in Nature Biotechnology in 2011, and may have been the first time a social network was used to monitor patient treatment in real time. "Medical crowdsourcing can really move along a disease by engaging patients and getting them to share their experience and data," said Ben Heywood, founder and president of Patients Like Me. "In this sense, it's helpful for both the collective and the individual." But the community approach to medical research is not without potential downsides. "Crowdsourcing sites provide a novel way for those with less common conditions and researchers to find each other, and that's a great thing" said Kathryn Schmitz, an associate professor of epidemiology at the University of Pennsylvania's Perelman School of Medicine. "However, a question that must be addressed is the bias of those who sign up to be connected to these websites versus those who don't. We know these groups are different." But problems of bias are not insurmountable, said Schmitz, noting that bias exists in trials run by scientific experts too. Self-reported data, she said, has been increasingly embraced by the scientific community as more scientists turn to health social networking sites to further their research. Schmitz said she herself has used Patients Like Me to connect with people who have lymphedema, a condition in which the lymph nodes swell as a result of cancer treatment. But she urged caution in interpreting crowdsourced results and said she wouldn't trust the job of a trained pathologist to anyone with a laptop. "That's really specialty training," she said. "I certainly wouldn't want my mother treated based on a crowdsourced diagnosis."

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On Oct. 22, 1982, President Ronald Reagan invited representatives from the newly formed Alzheimers Association to the White House to attend his signing of a proclamation designating Nov. 21-27 as National Alzheimers Disease Week. A year later, he would proclaim November National Alzheimers Disease Month. In doing so, President Reagan became the first political figure to draw the attention of the American people and the scientific community to a puzzling and little-known disease that ravages the brain. The anniversary of the signing of this first presidential proclamation is a reminder of how much progress we have made in understanding Alzheimers, and supporting people with the disease and their families. Indeed, we have come a long way in 20 years. In 1982, fewer than 250 scientific articles of Alzheimers disease and dementia were published worldwide. Only a handful of scientists were studying the disease. This year, more than 3,000 articles on Alzheimers appeared in scientific journals around the world. In July, nearly 4,000 scientists traveled to Stockholm to present, discuss and debate research findings at the Alzheimers Associations Eighth International Conference on Alzheimers Disease and Related Disorders. Thanks in part to the work of these dedicated scientists, we know more about Alzheimers today than in the past. Research suggests that diet, nutrition, body weight, cholesterol levels and blood pressure may play a role in preventing or delaying the onset of Alzheimers. Using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans, researchers can now highlight amyloid plaques in the brains of individuals in the early stages of the disease. These plaques are the pathological hallmarks of Alzheimers. This imaging technology will help scientists monitor the progression of the disease and determine the effectiveness of treatments. Before this discovery, these plaques could be identified only through autopsy. Four drugs have been approved to treat Alzheimers, and several more are being tested. Currently, 4 million Americans live with Alzheimers, of which approximately 9,300 are from our region. By 2050, that number is expected to exceed 14 million. To quote President Reagan, research holds the promise of hope. That is why the Alzheimers Associa-tion has asked Congress and the Bush administration to increase federal funding of research from $600 million to $1 billion a year. The fight against Alzheimers disease needs many allies, President Reagan said in 1982. Today, another generation of Americans is waging their own daily fight with Alzheimers still needs allies. In 1979, only five family support groups existed nationwide to help people cope with the diagnosis of Alzheimers. Those support groups grew into todays Alzheimers Asso-ciation and its national network of chapters. Currently, there are 13 support groups locally. In addition, our office provides telephone care consultation and caregiver education and training. We have a lending library of books and videos, as well as informational material or speakers to provide for community affairs. Our other services include a Safe Return program to assist in providing a safe return for those who may have wandered away, and a Voucher Program to assist families in paying for the services and supplies incurred with caregiving. We will continue to be an ally to anyone battling Azheimers and to all those caring for them. (Stacie Adkins is director of development for the Augusta office of the Georgia Alzheimers Association. The office may be contacted at 731-9060; the Alzheimers Associations 24-hour helpline is available at (800) 236-0688.) The Columbia County News-Times ©2013. All Rights Reserved.

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Note: This post first appeared on this blog on May 5, 2010. Today is Cinco de Mayo, an occasion to primarily celebrate Mexican heritage though some take advantage of the day for less historical means. Nonetheless, it's vital to note that today is not Mexican Independence Day but is instead the anniversary of the Battle of Puebla in 1862. The following video from Rocketboom explains why the battle was such an important military victory not only for Mexicans but for their neighbors north of the border: As we mentioned in 2009, the Battle of Puebla was one of Latin America's most important military confrontations. Online Sources - Time, The Latin Americanist Video Source - YouTube via Rocketboom

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WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CHARTER SCHOOLS AND TRADITIONAL PUBLIC SCHOOLS? Charter schools are public schools of choice, meaning teachers and students choose them. They operate with freedom from many regulations that apply to traditional public schools. They generally offer teachers and students more authority to make decisions than most traditional public schools. Instead of being accountable for compliance with rules and regulations, they are accountable for academic results and for upholding their charter. ARE CHARTER SCHOOLS REALLY PUBLIC SCHOOLS? Yes. Charter schools are prohibited from charging tuition or discriminating in enrollment. The school must meet all applicable health, safety, and civil rights requirements. They are subject to financial audits in the same manner as a school district. They are subject to the same guidelines on teaching religious doctrine as other public schools. They must answer to either the local or state school board for their performance, and they must issue annual reports, available to the public, that will include a financial statement, the progress in reaching academic goals, and a measure of parental satisfaction. Furthermore, if the school violates its charter, it will not be allowed to continue to operate. If the school does not perform to the satisfaction of parents, it will lose students (and the money that follows the child) and will either have to improve its performance (to attract more students) or close. This is more accountability to the public – and to parents – than most other public schools. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE BENEFITS OF CHARTER SCHOOLS? What sets charter schools apart from traditional public schools is their ability to: (1) increase opportunities for learning and access to quality education for all students, (2) create choice for parents and students within the public school system, (3) provide a system of accountability for results in public education, (4) encourage innovative teaching practices, (5) create new professional opportunities for teachers, (6) encourage community and parent involvement in public education, and (7) leverage improved public education broadly. WHO TEACHES AT CHARTER SCHOOLS? Teachers choose to teach at charter schools (and charter schools choose their teachers); the district does not assign teachers to work there. Schools must inform parents concerning the qualifications of the teachers. Teachers will be eligible for the same health insurance and retirement benefits as teachers at regular schools. WHY WOULD I WANT TO TEACH AT A CHARTER SCHOOL? Many teachers, including those who may otherwise retire, are attracted to the smaller setting, the reduced paperwork, and the increased influence over school policy that charter schools can offer. Especially with impending teacher shortages, this will offer a way to encourage teachers to continue teaching WHO OPERATES CHARTER SCHOOLS? Any person or business or organization or college or anyone else may apply to the local school board or the state school board to be granted a charter. However, the exhaustive application process ensures that no one who is granted a charter will be a “fly-by-night” operation. First of all, the person or group must form a non-profit corporation specifically organized to operate a charter school, and they must begin the application process for a tax-exempt designation from the Internal Revenue Service. This process in itself will weed out those who illegally discriminate and others who are not willing to do the “due diligence” necessary to ensure a well-conceived operating plan. Other aspects of the application process require enough work and research to provide reasonable assurance that no inappropriate person or group will be granted a charter. However, if the application is complete and the applicants are deemed competent, a school board will not be allowed to reject the application simply because it disagrees with the approach the school will be using. Usually the organizers comprise the original board of directors of the school, but an election is required in the first year of operation, where school staff and the parents of the students elect a more permanent board, the term of which is specified in the charter. Measures will be required to ensure fair and open elections.

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Many others think that much more needs to be done and that the guidelines may not go far enough though. For example, although the guidelines ban no sugar added juice, these drinks still have a lot of calories in them and diet soda, which also isn't included in the ban, will likely become the new favorite drink among high school students. Although they won't be getting a lot of calories from diet soda, high schoolers still won't be getting any nutrition from these drinks either, which they might if these drinks were banned altogether and kids were just encouraged to drink low fat milk. If you don't think that these guidelines go far enough or don't want to wait until they go into effect in a few years, why not consider choosing your own healthy soda and drink guidelines for your family? Educating your kids about what they should be drinking is especially important because many kids can bypass guidelines about what is sold at schools by making unhealthy choices in other places, such as when they go to the store, are out to eat, or at a friends house, etc. Healthy drink choices for your family, which you can also start at home to set a good example, might include: 1) Drink milk. How much milk should your kids be drinking? Keep in mind that the American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children: - 1-3 years old get about 2 servings of milk (low fat milk after age 2 years) - 4-8 years old get about 3 servings of low fat milk - 9-18 years old get about 4 servings of low fat milk - when you give your child juice, it should be 100% pasteurized fruit juice and not fruit drinks - infants under 6 months of age should not be given juice - younger children aged 1 to 6 years should have only 4-6 ounces of juice a day - older children should be limited to 8-12 ounces of juice a day - instead of juice, children should be encouraged to eat whole fruits 4) Avoid soda, fruit drinks, sports drinks (unless your child is actively involved in a sporting activity at the time) and other sugary, high calorie drinks. 5) Teach your kids about serving sizes. For example, while a bottle of Gatorade might say it has 50 calories per serving, it is important to keep in mind that a single serving is supposed to be just 8 ounces. Since these and many other drinks, such as fountain drinks you can by at convenience stores, can often be bought in much larger 32 ounce or even 64 ounce servings, you can get a lot more calories than you think if you drink the whole thing. 6) Limit the amount of money that you provide for your kids and which they could use in school vending machines or after-school to buy soda, diet soda, and juice. 7) Remember that when you are choosing what to drink, you aren't simply looking at calories and sugar. Getting other vitamins and minerals from your drinks is important too, such as the calcium, vitamin D, and Vitamin A you get from milk and fortified orange juice. Or the Vitamin C you can get from 100% fruit juice. 8) Avoid caffeine. 9) Talk to your kids about what they are drinking at school. Many parents are surprised that their kids are buying soda or juice in between classes from vending machines or coffee on the way to school. Talking to your kids about how to make healthier choices and your expectations for what they should be drinking can help make sure they choose healthier things to drink, like low fat milk and water. Our list of Common Drink Choices for Kids can help you compare some common drinks that kids like to drink and good choices. Obviously, with the extra sugar and calories, the chocolate milk would not be a good choice. And even though they don't have any fat, the Coca Cola Classic and Minute Maid Coolers have a lot of sugar in them. Comparing the drinks, you can see that the low fat milks, 100% fruit juice, and water would be the best choices. 10) Keep a drink diary to get a good idea of what your kids are actually drinking each day. Many kids get way too many calories from things they drink, including fruit drinks, tea, and soda. A drink diary can help you figure out how many calories your child is getting each day from milk, juice, etc., and why they are overweight. Calories in Drinks |Common Drink Choices for Kids| |Hershey's Choc Milk||8oz||4.5g||30g||200| |Gatorade Thirst Quencher||8oz||0g||14||50| |Coca Cola Classic||8oz||0g||27g||97| |Crystal Light Lemonade||8oz||0g||0g||5| |Tropicana Healthy Kids Orange Juice||8oz||0g||22g||110| |Minute Maid Coolers||6.7oz||0g||27g||100| |Minute Maid 100% Apple Juice||6.7oz||0g||21g||100|

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(PhysOrg.com) -- Biologists have long wondered why the embryonic heart begins beating so early, before the tissues actually need to be infused with blood. Two groups of researchers from Children's Hospital Boston, Brigham and Women's Hospital, and the Harvard Stem Cell Institute (HSCI) -- presenting multiple lines of evidence from zebrafish, mice and mouse embryonic stem cells -- provide an intriguing answer: A beating heart and blood flow are necessary for development of the blood system, which relies on mechanical stresses to cue its formation. Their studies, published online by the journals Cell and Nature, respectively, on May 13, together offer clues that may help in treating blood diseases such as leukemia, immune deficiency and sickle cell anemia, suggesting new ways scientists can make the types of blood cells a patient needs. This would help patients who require marrow or cord blood transplants, who do not have a perfect donor match. One team, led by Leonard Zon, MD, of the Division of Hematology/Oncology at Children's and Director of its Stem Cell research program, used zebrafish, whose transparent embryos allow direct observation of embryonic development. Publishing in Cell, Zon and colleagues discovered that compounds that modulate blood flow had a potent impact on the expression of a master regulator of blood formation, known as Runx1, which is also a recognized marker for the blood stem cells that give rise to all the cell types in the blood system. Confirming this observation, a strain of mutant embryos that lacked a heartbeat and blood circulation exhibited severely reduced numbers of blood stem cells. Further work showed that nitric oxide, whose production is increased in the presence of blood flow, is the key biochemical regulator: Increasing nitric oxide production restored blood stem cell production in the mutant fish embryos, while inhibiting nitric oxide production led to reduced stem cell number. Zon and colleagues went on to demonstrate that nitric oxide production was coupled to the initiation of blood stem cell formation across vertebrate species. Suppression of nitric oxide production in mice, by either genetic or chemical means, similarly reduced the number of functional Runx1-expressing blood stem cells. "Nitric oxide appears to be a critical signal to start the process of blood stem cell production," says Zon, who is also affiliated with the HSCI. "This finding connects the change in blood flow with the production of new blood cells." The second team, publishing in Nature, was led by George Q. Daley, MD, PhD, director of the Stem Cell Transplantation Program at Children's Hospital Boston, and Guillermo García-Cardeña, director of the Laboratory for Systems Biology of the Center for Excellence in Vascular Biology at Brigham and Women's Hospital, along with scientists from the Indiana University School of Medicine. Intrigued by the appearance of blood progenitors in the wall of the developing aorta soon after the heart starts beating, they investigated the effects of mechanical stimulation on blood formation in cultured mouse embryonic stem cells. They showed that shear stress -- the frictional force of fluid flow on the surface of cells lining the embryonic aorta -- increases the expression of master regulators of blood formation, including Runx1, and of genetic markers found in blood stem cells. Shear stress also increased formation of colonies of progenitor cells that give rise to specific lineages of blood cells (red cells, lymphocytes, etc.). These findings demonstrate that biomechanical forces promote blood formation. Daley, García-Cardeña and colleagues also studied mouse embryos with a mutation that prevented initiation of the heartbeat. These embryos had a sharp reduction in progenitor blood cell colonies, along with reduced expression of genetic markers of blood stem cells. When specific cells from the mutant embryos were exposed in vitro to shear stress, markers of blood stem cells and numbers of blood cell colonies were restored. Finally, the team showed that when nitric oxide production was inhibited, in both cell cultures and live mouse embryos, the effects of shear stress on blood progenitor colony formation were reduced. "In learning how the heartbeat stimulates blood formation in embryos, we've taken a leap forward in understanding how to direct blood formation from embryonic stem cells in the petri dish," says Daley, who is also affiliated with the HSCI. "These observations reveal an unexpected role for biomechanical forces in embryonic development," adds García-Cardeña. "Our work highlights a critical link between the formation of the cardiovascular and hematopoietic systems." The authors of the two papers speculate that drugs that mimic the effects of embryonic blood flow on blood precursor cells, or molecules involved in nitric oxide signaling, might be therapeutically beneficial for patients with blood diseases. For example, nitric oxide could be used to grow and expand blood stem cells either in the culture dish or in patients after transplantation. Source: Children's Hospital Boston (news : web) Explore further: H. pylori, smoking trends, and gastric cancer in US men

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Twelve years ago, then 28-year-old graduate student Brian Zikmund-Fisher was forced into the toughest choice of his life: Die from a blood disorder within a few years or endure a bone marrow transplant that could cure him or kill him in weeks. Zikmund-Fisher, now an assistant professor at the University of Michigan School of Public Health specializing in health communication, chose to gamble. After nine months of blood transfusions, a bone marrow match was found in Australia. Zikmund-Fisher spent another month in isolation until his new immune system began working. "That experience taught me how to be a well-informed patient," said Zikmund-Fisher, who studies medical decision making because of his own experience. "Unfortunately, today many patients don't learn what they need to in order to make informed medical decisions." To document the challenges patients face in deciding their own medical care, Zikmund-Fisher and Mick Couper, a research professor in survey methodology at the U-M Institute for Social Research (ISR), led a national survey of medical decisions featured this month in a themed issue of the journal Medical Decision Making. The study, which was carried out by ISR's Survey Research Center, surveyed more than 3,000 U.S. adults about nine common medical decisions and concluded that the majority of patients don't have sufficient information to make the best decisions. "I want to raise the awareness of how important medical decision making is in the lives of all Americans and how unprepared most people are to make these decisions," said Zikmund-Fisher, also an assistant professor in Internal Medicine at the U-M Health System. "I see this as a public health issue." Some of the key findings: - Patients don't always learn about why not to have a procedure or medication. For example, only 20 percent of patients considering breast cancer screening and 49 percent of patients considering blood pressure medications reported hearing about the cons of those actions. - Healthcare providers don't always ask patients what they want to do. For instance only 50 percent of patients deciding about cholesterol medications reported being asked whether they wanted them. - Most patients don't use the Internet to help them make common medical decisions, and healthcare professionals remain the most important information source. - Patients often don't know as much as they think they do. Many patients feel well informed even when they don't know key facts that could help them make a better decision. - African-Americans and Hispanics were less knowledgeable than other patients about medications to treat high cholesterol and more likely to say that their doctor made decisions about cholesterol medications for them. - Most patients think they are more likely to get cancer than they are, and tend to think cancer screening tests are more accurate than they are. - The study's findings suggest that men and women think about cancer risks differently. Women are more active participants in cancer screening decisions regardless of how at risk they feel, whereas men tended to get involved only if they felt at high risk. In fact, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act, signed by President Obama earlier this year, has many provisions aimed to ensure patients are partners in medical decision making. These provisions include making patient decision aids for common health care decisions more widely available and promoting their adoption in U.S. health care. Decision aids help clinicians inform patients about their options and help patients ensure that their preferences are respected. The decision study focused on describing how Americans make everyday medical decisions and didn't try to determine what patients should do to get more information from doctors or other sources, Zikmund-Fisher said. However, some obvious themes emerged. "Recognize that you have a right to be involved in your own medical care. If your doctor only tells you why you should do something and doesn't discuss reasons why you might not do it, ask for that information anyway," Zikmund-Fisher said. "Don't think of it as medical care. Think of it as your care." Explore further: Systematic screening of med adherence will ID barriers

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Extension Review by Virginia Delvaux Snacking, once thought to be bad for you can be a positive source of nutrition, if the snacks consumed provide nutrients and are low in calories. Nutritious after-school snacks can be a problem for working parents if planning is not part of the family meal planning process. Older children are often left unsupervised for short periods of time until a parent returns home from work. To help insure that your child is eating healthy snacks and not ones low in nutritional value or high in calories, keep theses food items stocked in your food pantry or refrigerator for the children to snack on when they get home after school. Unsweetened fruit juices, apples, pears and melons are good choices, as are other seasonal fruits such as cherries, bananas, berries and prunes. Most fruits are an excellent source of vitamins and are low in calories. Carrots, cucumbers, broccoli, cauliflower and celery are great snack foods from the vegetable group. Offer these raw with or without dip. All of these vegetables can be cleaned ahead of time and stored in the refrigerator until snack time. Crackers vary a lot, so be sure you read the label and select ones that are low in sugar and salt. Try plain popcorn or nuts for older children who will not choke on them. Whole grain or enriched breads are also an excellent choice from the bread group. Food choices from the milk group might include milk, cottage cheese, or yogurt. Foods high in protein also make for a good choice; so try hard-boiled eggs or peanut butter.

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After sixty years of unprecedented growth and development, nearly every meaningful social and economic indicator in the United States is shifting. Over the last decade, economic globalization has redistributed power worldwide. As a result, the social, cultural, and economic fabric of nations is rapidly changing in the developed, underdeveloped, and developing world. While previous global economic shifts occurred over decades, if not centuries, modern communications, computation technologies, and logistics capabilities are serving as accelerators that allow for these changes to take place in years. For the past 500 years, Western civilizations have dominated economically. Half-way through the last century, the United States assumed economic and political hegemony. Over the past decade, the erosion of the international economic role of the United States began to accelerate and was made evident by the decline in economic opportunities for its citizens and its business sectors, which are now competing worldwide. This underscores a deeper issue for the United States; there is a global transfer of dominance in production and consumption away from Europe and the United States. A new economic environment is emerging in the United States—an environment that is defined by an under-developing economy and fewer, lower-valued economic opportunities for the majority of the population. Evidence of this economic decline can be seen in the Great Lakes states and inner cities of the US. For example, 43% of all public school students in Ohio are disadvantaged as measured by free and reduced lunches. The United States must acknowledge its own declining standard of living, as well as the Asian and developing world economic juggernaut. Statistics alone do not tell the whole story of an empire in decline, but unemployment, underemployment, lack of job creation, outsourcing, education shortfalls, manufacturing reductions, major demographic changes, and overreliance on financial services and sectors are symptomatic of the state of the US economy. Compounding these developmental indicators are increased levels of income disparity, increased poverty rates, record high home foreclosures, soaring debt levels, stagnate wages unprecedented spending on the military and high incarceration rates. As a result, a two-tier society is rapidly emerging in the United States with a small wealthy elite and a large marginalized majority. With unshaken faith in the concept of American exceptionalism, many argue that the current economic decline is temporary and that unemployment is cyclical. However, there are permanent structural changes on many fronts of the US economy. For example, numerous Fortune 500 companies (e.g. General Electric, Coca-Cola, and 3M) receive over half of their revenue overseas and many of these companies have been able to tap into lower cost workers in China, Brazil, and India. Iconic American businesses such as Caterpillar, IBM, and Honeywell now have more employees outside the US than domestically. Manufacturing jobs in the country are rapidly dwindling and not being replaced as technology increases efficiency and globalization drives down wages. Almost every profession—accounting, law, medicine, architecture, engineering, computer software, service call centers, and research—has witnessed an exodus of jobs overseas. Under a capitalist system, corporations are obligated and mandated to look for ways to save on costs; digital technology allows companies to do this like never before. These job losses are creating core structural changes to the US economy, and they are not being replenished with new professions or industries of any significance. This assessment is not welcome news to citizens who have experienced unparalleled prosperity during their lifetime. Whether the Romans, Mayans, or Ottomans, declining powers never admit or understand they are declining. Today’s decline is rarely mentioned in the mainstream press, professional journals, or religious circles. However, recognizing a new economic reality allows one to make adaptive actions. This new world economy will place demands on the social, economic, and spiritual resources of states, cities, and towns across the country. A decrease in government revenue and a decline in the number of non-profits will further tax the country’s ability to meet basic needs. The US middle class will begin to experience significant erosion of its way of life. The days ahead will require a rethinking of the roles of the public, private, and civil society sectors. Each sector will have many challenges and opportunities. How will these lasting changes in the economy affect the church? The church has been resilient over the last two thousand years, weathering empires, monarchies, revolutions, and governments. Like previous generations, churches, denominations, and seminaries throughout America will have to rethink how they define themselves as faith communities under a new landscape. Given the downward economic trends, the church will likely see an increase in the number of people looking for answers, now that the economic ladder of opportunity is contracting. People might feel betrayed and angry at the government, as witnessed in Tea Party rhetoric. Others might blame God for what happened to them. Fear and insecurity has begun to permeate the culture. Accordingly, churches may experience an increase of membership while church revenue becomes harder to obtain. Furthermore, there will be an increase in the number of people seeking immediate aid of food, shelter, and other resources. Unless there is a rapid turnaround among denominational leaders in their thinking and leadership, denominations will quickly lose their relevance as local churches will be swamped with competing needs and decreased funding. In the midst of adversity, there is always hope, grace, and vision. Listed below are a set of tools or directions in a new environment. Besides providing regular faith development, churches will need to find ways to increase social, moral, and spiritual capital. First, churches would benefit by developing centers or places of learning that focus on psycho-social needs, the arts, and healthful living. Faith communities will need a wide range of low-cost tools (yoga, support groups, and self-care skill building) to help people deal with anxiety, depression, and insecurity. Second, in order to avoid losing priceless wisdom about the Great Depression and World War II, churches and society would benefit by creating a ‘Wisdom Library’ from individuals born between 1920 and 1935. These individuals can contribute significant insights to new generations about community, resourcefulness and faith. Additionally, capturing stories from those who have immigrated from the Global South would be valuable because many of these people have experienced economic hardship, personal struggle, and continually starting over. Third, faith communities will need to learn from and create meaningful dialogue with the Global South, as well as with the rapidly growing immigrant populations since they represent the new face and future of Christianity. Fourth, churches will need to provide vision and moral leadership and create broad-based partnerships in the delivery of social services as the United States enters an age of underdevelopment. In the new era, philanthropy and governments will likely shrink; churches can and should step forward and lead—building and modeling constructive coalitions left void by institutions in retreat. Lastly, the faith community will need to rapidly develop and train capable leaders as the church takes on an increasing role within society. Faith communities are uniquely positioned to meet the needs of society in the years ahead if they are willing to recognize and plan for the new world economy. For a footnoted version of this essay or more information contact us at [email protected]

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An internet resource developed by Christopher D. Green York University, Toronto, Ontario (Return to index) By Ivan P. Pavlov(1927) Translated by G. V. Anrep (1927) The development of the objective method in investigating the physiological activities of the cerebral hemispheres. -- Concept of Reflex. -- Variety of Reflexes. -- Signal reflexes, the most fundamental physiological characteristic of the hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres stand out as the crowning achievement in the nervous development of the animal kingdom. These structures in the higher animals are of considerable dimensions and exceedingly complex, being made up in man of millions upon millions of cells -- centres or foci of nervous activity -- varying in size, shape and arrangement, and connected with each other by countless branchings from their individual processes. Such complexity of structure naturally suggests a like complexity of function, which in fact is obvious in the higher animal and in man. Consider the dog, which has been for so many countless ages the servant of man. Think how he may be trained to perform various duties, watching, hunting, etc. We know that this complex behaviour of the animal, undoubtedly involving the highest nervous activity, is mainly associated with the cerebral hemispheres. If we remove the hemispheres in the dog [Goltz [l] and others], the animal becomes not only incapable of performing these duties hut also incapable even of looking after itself. It becomes in fact a helpless invalid, and cannot long survive unless it be carefully tended. In man also the highest nervous activity is dependent upon the structural and functional integrity of the cerebral hemispheres. As soon as these structures become damaged and their functions impaired in any way, so man also becomes an invalid. He can no longer proceed with his normal duties, but has to be kept out of the working world of his fellow men. In astounding contrast with the unbounded activity of the cerebral hemispheres stands the meagre content of present-day physiological knowledge concerning them. Up to the year 1870,[p. 2] in fact, there was no physiology of the hemispheres; they seemed to be out of reach of the physiologist. In that year the common physiological methods of stimulation and extirpation were first applied to them [Fritsch and Hitzig (3)]. It was found by these workers that stimulation of certain parts of the cortex of the hemispheres (motor cortex) regularly evoked contractions in definite groups of skeletal muscles: extirpation of these parts of the cortex led to disturbances in the normal functioning of the same groups of muscles. Shortly afterwards it was demonstrated [Ferrier , H. Munk ] that other areas of the cortex which do not evoke any motor activity in response to stimulation are also functionally differentiated. Extirpation of these areas leads to definite defects in the nervous activity associated with certain receptor organs, such as the retina of the eye, the organ of Corti, and the sensory nerve-endings in the skin. Searching investigations have been made, and still are being made, by numerous workers on this question of localization of function in the cortex. Our knowledge has been increased in precision and filled out in detail, especially as regards the motor area, and has even found useful application in medicine. These investigations, however, did not proceed fundamentally beyond the position established by Fritsch and Hitzig. The important question of the physiological mechanism of the whole higher and complex behaviour of the animal which is -- as Goltz showed -- dependent upon the cerebral hemispheres, was not touched in any of these investigations and formed no part of the current physiological knowledge. When therefore we ask the questions: What do those facts which have up to the present been at the disposal of the physiologist explain with regard to the behaviour of the higher animals? What general scheme of the highest nervous activity can they give? Or what general rules governing this activity can they help us to formulate? -- the modern physiologist finds himself at a loss and can give no satisfactory reply. The problem of the mechanism of this complex structure which is so rich in function has got hidden away in a corner, and this unlimited field, so fertile in possibilities for research, has never been adequately explored.[p.3] The reason for this is quite simple and clear. These nervous activities have never been regarded from the same point of view as those of other organs, or even other parts of the central nervous system. The activities of the hemispheres have been talked about as some kind of special psychical activity, whose working we feel and apprehend in ourselves, and by analogy suppose to exist in animals. This is an anomaly which has placed the physiologist in an extremely difficult position. On the one hand it would seem that the study of the activities of the cerebral hemispheres, as of the activities of any other part of the organism, should be within the compass of physiology, but on the other hand it happens to have been annexed to the special field of another science-psychology. What attitude then should the physiologist adopt? Perhaps he should first of all study the methods of this science of psychology, and only afterwards hope to study the physiological mechanism of the hemispheres? This involves a serious difficulty. It is logical that in its analysis of the various activities of living matter physiology should base itself on the more advanced and more exact sciences -- physics and chemistry. But if we attempt an approach from this science of psychology to the problem confronting us we shall be building our superstructure on a science which has no claim to exactness as compared even with physiology. In fact it is still open to discussion whether psychology is a natural science, or whether it can be regarded as a science at all. It is not possible here for me to enter deeply into this question, but I will stay to give one fact which strikes me very forcibly, viz. that even the advocates of psychology do not look upon their science as being in any sense exact. The eminent American psychologist, William James, has in recent years referred to psychology not as a science but as a hope of science. Another striking illustration is provided by Wundt, the celebrated philosopher and psychologist, founder of the so-called experimental method in psychology and himself formerly a physiologist. Just before the War (1913), on the occasion of a discussion in Germany as to the advisability of making separate Chairs of Philosophy and Psychology, Wundt opposed the separation, one of his arguments being the impossibility of fixing a common examination schedule in psychology, since every professor had his own special ideas as to what psychology really was. Such testimony seems to show clearly that psychology cannot yet claim the status of an exact science. [p. 4] If this be the case there is no need for the physiologist to have recourse to psychology. It would be more natural that experimental investigation of the physiological activities of the hemispheres should lay a solid foundation for a future true science of psychology; such a course is more likely to lead to the advancement of this branch of natural science. The physiologist must thus take his own path, where a trail has already been blazed for him. Three hundred years ago Descartes evolved the idea of the reflex. Starting from the assumption that animals behaved simply as machines, he regarded every activity of the organism as a necessary reaction to some external stimulus, the connection between the stimulus and the response being made through a definite nervous path: and this connection, he stated, was the fundamental purpose of the nervous structures in the animal body. This was the basis on which the study of the nervous system was firmly established. In the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries the conception of the reflex was used to the full by physiologists. Working at first only on the lower parts of the central nervous system, they came gradually to study more highly developed parts, until quite recently Magnus, continuing the classical investigations of Sherrington upon the spinal reflexes, has succeeded in demonstrating the reflex nature of all the elementary motor activities of the animal organism. Descartes' conception of the reflex was constantly and fruitfully applied in these studies, but its application has stopped short of the cerebral cortex. It may be hoped that some of the more complex activities of the body, which are made up by a grouping together of the elementary locomotor activities and which enter into the states referred to in psychological phraseology as "playfulness," "fear," "anger," and so forth, will soon be demonstrated as reflex activities of the subcortical parts of the brain. A bold attempt to apply the idea of the reflex to the activities of the hemispheres was made by the Russian physiologist, I. M. Sechenov, on the basis of the knowledge available in his day of the physiology of the central nervous system. In a pamphlet entitled "Reflexes of the Brain," published in Russian in 1863, he attempted to represent the activities of the cerebral hemispheres as reflex -- that is to say, as determined. [p. 5] Thoughts he regarded as reflexes in which the effector path was inhibited, while great outbursts of passion he regarded as exaggerated reflexes with a wide irradiation of excitation. A similar attempt was made more recently by Ch. Richet, who introduced the conception of the psychic reflex, in which the response following on a given stimulus is supposed to be determined by the association of this stimulus with the traces left in the hemispheres by past stimuli. And generally speaking, recent physiology shows a, tendency to regard the highest activities of the hemispheres as an association of the new excitations at any given time with traces left by old ones (associative memory, training, education by experience). All this, however, was mere conjecture. The time was ripe for a transition to the experimental analysis of the subject -- an analysis which must be as objective as the analysis in any other branch of natural science. An impetus was given to this transition by the rapidly developing science of comparative physiology, which itself sprang up as a direct result of the Theory of Evolution. In dealing with the lower members of the animal kingdom physiologists were, of necessity, compelled to reject anthropomorphic preconceptions, and to direct all their effort towards the elucidation of the connections between the external stimulus and the resulting response, whether locomotor or other reaction. This led to the development of Loeb's doctrine of Animal Tropisms; to the introduction of a new objective terminology to describe animal reactions [Beer, Bethe and Uexküll]; and finally, it led to the investigation by zoologists, using purely objective methods, of the behaviour of thc lower members of the animal kingdom in response to external stimuli-as for example in the classical researches of Jennings. Under the influence of these new tendencies in biology, which appealed to the practical bent of the American mind, the American School of Psychologists -- already interested in the comparative study of psychology -- evinced a disposition to subject the highest nervous activities of animals to experimental analysis under various [p. 6] specially devised conditions. We may fairly regard the treatise by Thorndyke [sic], The Animal Intelligence (1898), as the starting point for systematic investigations of this kind. In these investigations the animal was kept in a box, and food was placed outside the box so that it was visible to the animal. In order to get the food the animal had to open a door, which was fastened by various suitable contrivances in the different experiments. Tables and charts were made showing how quickly and in what manner the animal solved the problems set it. The whole process was understood as being the formation of an association between the visual and tactile stimuli on the one hand and the locomotor apparatus on the other. This method, with its modifications, was subsequently applied by numerous authors to the study of questions relating to the associative ability of various animals. At about the same time as Thorndyke[sic] was engaged on this work, I myself (being then quite ignorant of his researches) was also led to the objective study of the hemispheres, by the following circumstance: In the course of a detailed investigation into the activities of the digestive glands I had to inquire into the so-called psychic secretion of some of the glands, a task which I attempted in conjunction with a collaborator. As a result of this investigation an unqualified conviction of the futility of subjective methods of inquiry was firmly stamped upon my mind. It became clear that the only satisfactory solution of the problem lay in an experimental investigation by strictly objective methods. For this purpose I started to record all the external stimuli falling on the animal at the time its reflex reaction was manifested (in this particular case the secretion of saliva), at the same time recording all changes in the reaction of the animal. This was the beginning of these investigations, which have gone on now for twenty-five years-years in which numerous fellow-workers on whom I now look back with tender affection have united with mine in this work their hearts and hands. We have of course passed through many stages, and only gradually has the subject been opened up and the difficulties overcome. At first only a few scattered facts were available, but to-day sufficient material has been gathered together to warrant an attempt to present it in a more or less systematized form. At the present time I am in a [p. 7] position to present you with a physiological interpretation of the activities of the cerebral hemispheres which is, at any rate, more in keeping with the structural and functional complexity of this organ than is the collection of fragmentary, though very important, facts which up to the present have represented all the knowledge of this subject. Work on the lines of purely objective investigation into the highest nervous activities has been conducted in the main in the laboratories under my control, and over a hundred collaborators have taken part. Work on somewhat similar lines to ours has been done by the American psychologists. Up to the present, however, there has been one essential point of difference between the American School and ourselves. Being psychologists, their mode of experimentation, in spite of the fact that they are studying these activities on their external aspect, is mostly psychological -- at any rate so far as the arrangement of problems and their analysis and the formulation of results are concerned. Therefore -- with the exception of a small group of "behaviourists " -- their work cannot be regarded as purely physiological in character. We, having started from physiology, continue to adhere strictly to the physiological point of view, investigating and systematizing the whole subject by physiological methods alone. As regards other physiological laboratories a few only have directed their attention to this subject, and that recently; nor have their investigations extended beyond the limits of a preliminary inquiry. I shall now turn to the description of our material, first giving as a preliminary an account of the general conception of the reflex, of specific physiological reflexes, and of the so-called "instincts." Our starting point has been Descartes' idea of the nervous reflex. This is a genuine scientific conception, since it implies necessity. It may be summed up as follows : An external or internal stimulus falls on some one or other nervous receptor and gives rise to a nervous impulse; this nervous impulse is transmitted along nerve fibres to the central nervous system, and here, on account of existing nervous connections, it gives rise to a fresh impulse which passes along outgoing nerve fibres to the active organ, where it excites a special activity of the cellular structures. Thus a stimulus appears to be connected of necessity with a definite response, as cause with effect. It seems obvious that the whole activity of the organism should conform to definite laws. If the animal were not in exact correspondence with its environment it would, sooner or later, [p. 8]cease to exist. To give a biological example: if, instead of being attracted to food, the animal were repelled by it, or if instead of running from fire the anial threw itself into the fire, then it would quickly perish. The animal must respond to changes in the environment in such a manner that its responsive activity is directed towards the preservation of its existence. This conclusion holds also if we consider the living organism in terms of physical and chemical science. Every material system can exist as an entity only so long as its internal forces, attraction, cohesion, etc., balance the external forces acting upon it. This is true for an ordinary stone just as much as for the most complex chemical substances; and its truth should be recognized also for the animal organism. Being a definite circumscribed material system, it can only continue to exist so long as it is in continuous equilibrium with the forces external to it: so soon as this equilibrium is seriously disturbed the organism will cease to exist as the entity it was. Reflexes are the elemental units in the mechanism of perpetual equilibration. Physiologists have studied and are studying at the present time these numerous machine-like, inevitable reactions of the organism-reflexes existing from thc very birth of the animal, and due therefore to the inherent organization of the nervous system. Reflexes, like the driving-belts of machines of human design, may be of two kinds-positive and negative, excitatory and inhibitory. Although the investigation of these reflexes by physiologists has been going on now for a long time, it is as yet not nearly finished. Fresh reflexes are continually being discovered. We are ignorant of the properties of those receptor organs for which the effective stimulus arises inside the organism, and the internal reflexes themselves remain a field unexplored. The paths by which nervous impulses are conducted in the central nervous system are for the mostĚpart little known, or not ascertained at all. The mechanism of inhibitions confined within the central nervous system remains quite obscure: we know something only of those inhibitory reflexes which manifest themselves along the inhibitory efferent nerves. Furthermore, the combination and interaction of different reflexes are as yet insufficiently understood. Nevertheless physiologists are succeeding more and more in unravelling the mechanism of these machine-like activities of the organism, and may reasonably be expected to elucidate and control it in the end. [p. 9] To those reflexes which have long been the subject of physiological investigation, and which concern chiefly the activities of separate organs and tissues, there should be added another group of inborn reflexes. These also take place in the nervous system, and they are the inevitable reactions to perfectly definite stimuli. They have to do with reactions of the organism as a whole, and comprise that general behaviour of the animal which has been termed "instinctive." Since complete agreement as regards the essential affinity of these reactions to the reflex has not yet been attained, we must discuss this question more fully. We owe to the English philosopher, Herbert Spencer, the suggestion that instinctive reactions are reflexes. Ample evidence was later advanced by zoologists, physiologists, and students of comparative psychology in support of this. I propose here to bring together the various arguments in favour of this view. Between the simplest reflex and the instinct we can find numerous stages of transition, and among these we are puzzled to find any line of demarcation. To exemplify this we may take the newly hatched chick. This little creature reacts by pecking to any stimulus that catches the eye, whether it be a real object or only a stain in the surface it is walking upon. In what way shall we say that this differs from the inclining of the head, the closing of the lids, when something flicks past its eyes ? We should call this last a defensive reflex, but the first has been termed a feeding instinct: although in pecking: nothing but an inclination of the head and a movement of the beak occurs. It has also been maintained that instincts are more complex than reflexes. There are, however, exceedingly complex reflexes which nobody would term instincts. We may take vomiting as an example. This is very complex and involves the co-ordination of a large number of muscles (both striped and plain) spread over a large area and usually employed in quite different functions of the organism. It involves also a secretory activity on the part of certain glands which is usually evoked for a quite different purpose. Again, it has been assumed that the long train of actions involved in certain instinctive activities affords a distinctive point of contrast with the reflex, which is regarded as always being built on a simple scale. By way of example we may take the building of a nest, or of dwellings in general, by animals. A chain of incidents is linked ;:together: material is gathered and carried to the site chosen ; there it is built up and strengthened. To look upon this as reflex we must [p. 10] assume that one reflex initiates the next following -- or, in other words, we must regard it as a chain-reflex. But this linking up of activities is not peculiar to instincts alone. We are familiar with numerous reflexes which most certainly fuse into chains. Thus, for example, if we stimulate an afferent nerve, e.g. the sciatic nerve, a reflex rise of blood pressure occurs; the high pressure in the left ventricle of the heart, and first part of the aorta, serves as the effective stimulus to a second reflex, this time a depressor reflex which has a moderating influence on the first. Again, we may take one of the chain reflexes recently established by Magnus. A cat, even when deprived of its cerebral hemispheres, will in most cases land on its feet when thrown from a height. How is this managed? When the position of the otolithic organ in space is altered a definite reflex is evoked which brings about a contraction of the muscles in the neck, restoring the animal's head to the normal position. This is the first reflex. With the righting of the head a fresh reflex is evoked, and certain muscles of the trunk and limbs are brought into play, restoring the animal to the standing posture. This is the second reflex. Some, again, object to the identification of instincts with reflexes on this ground: instincts, they say, frequently depend upon the internal state of an organism. For instance, a bird only builds its nest in the mating season. Or, to take a simpler case, when an animal is satiated with eating, then food has no longer any attraction and the animal leaves off eating. Again, the same is true of the sexual impulse. This depends on the age of the organism, and on the state of the reproductive glands; and a considerable influence is exerted by hormones (the products of the glands of internal secretion). But this dependence cannot be claimed as a peculiar property of "instincts." The intensity of any reflex, indeed its very presence, is dependent on the irritability of the centres, which in turn depends constantly on the physical and chemical properties of the blood (automatic stimulation of centres) and on the interaction of reflexes. Last of all, it is sometimes held that whereas reflexes determine only the activities of single organs and tissues, instincts involve the activity of the organism as a whole. We now know, however, from the recent investigations of Magnus and de Kleijn, that standing, walking and the maintenance of postural balance in general, are all nothing but reflexes. [p. 11] It follow from all this that instincts and reflexes are alike the inevitable responses of the organism to internal and external stimuli, and therefore we have no need to call them by two different terms. Reflex has the better claim of the two, in that it has been used from the very beginning with a strictly scientific connotation. The aggregate of reflexes constitutes the foundation of the nervous activities both of men and of animals. It is therefore of great importance to study in detail all the fundnmental reflexes of the organism. Up to the present, unfortunately, this is far from being accomplished, especially, as I have mentioned before, in the case of those reflexes which have been known vaguely as " instincts." Our knowledge of these latter is very limited and fragmentary. Their classification under such headings as "alimentary," "defensive," "sexual," "parental" and "social" instincts, is thoroughly inadequate. Under each of these heads is assembled often a large number of individual reflexes. Some of these are quite unidentified; some are confused with others; and many are still only partially appreciated. I can demonstrate from my own experience to what extent the subject remains inchoate and full of gaps. In the course of the researches which I shall presently explain; we were completely at a loss on one occasion to find any cause for the peculiar behaviour of an animal. It was evidently a very tractable dog, which soon became very friendly with us. We started off with a very simple experiment. The dog was placed in a stand with loose loops round its legs, but so as to be quite comfortable and free to move a pace or two. Nothing more was done except to present the animal repeatedly with food at intervals of some minutes. It stood quietly enough at first, and ate quite readily, but as time went on it became excited and struggled to get out of the stand, scratching at the floor, gnawing the supports, and so on. This ceaseless muscular exertion was accompanied by breathlessness and continuous salivation, which persisted at every experiment during several weeks, the animal getting worse and worse until it was no longer fitted for our researches. For a long time we remained puzzled over the unusual behaviour of this animal. We tried out experimentally numerous possible interpretations, but though we had had long experience with a great number of dogs in our laboratories we could not work out a satisfactory solution of this strange behaviour, until it occurred to us at lazst that it might be the expression of a special freedom reflex, and that the dog simply could not remain quiet when it was constrained in the stand. [p. 12] This reflex was overcome by setting off another against it -- the reflex for food. We began to give the dog the whole of its food in the stand. At first the animal ate but little, and lost considerably in weight, but gradually it got to eat more, until at last the whole ration was consumed. At the same time the animal grew quieter during the course of the experiments: the freedom reflex was being inhibited. It is clear that the freedom reflex is one of the most important reflexes, or, if we use a more general term, reactions, of living beings. This reflex has even yet to find its final recognition. In James's writings it is not even enumerated among the special human "instincts." But it is clear that if the animal were not provided with a reflex of protest against boundaries set to its freedom, the smallest obstacle in its path would interfere with the proper fulfilment of its natural functions. Some animals as we all know have this freedom reflex to such a degree that when placed in captivity they refuse all food, sicken and die. As another example of a reflex which is very much neglected we may refer to what may be called the investigatory reflex. I call it the "What-is-it?" reflex. It is this reflex which brings about the immediate response in man and animals to the slightest changes in the world around them, so that they immediately orientate their appropriate receptor organ in accordance with the perceptible quality in the agent bringing about the change, making full investigation of it. The biological significance of this reflex is obvious. If the animal were not provided with such a reflex its life would hang at every moment by a thread. In man this reflex has been greatly developed with far-reaching results, being represented in its highest form by inquisitiveness -- the parent of that scientific method through which we may hope one day to come to a true orientation in knowledge of the world around us. Still less has been done towards the elucidation of the class of negative or inhibitory reflexes (instincts) which are often evoked by any strong stimulus or even by weak stimuli, if unusual. Animal hypnotism, so-called, belongs to this category. As the fundamental nervous reactions both of men and of animals are inborn in the form of definite reflexes, I must again emphasize how important it is to compile a complete list comprising all these reflexes with their adequate classification. For, as will be shown later on, all the remaining nervous functions of the animal organism are based upon these reflexes. Now, although the possession of such [p. 13] reflexes as those just described constitutes the fundamental condition for the natural survival of the animal, they are not in themselves sufficient to ensure a prolonged, stable and normal existence. This can be shown in dogs in which the cerebral hemispheres have been removed. Leaving out of account the internal reflexes, such a dog still retains the fundamental external reflexes. It is attracted by food ; it is repelled by nocuous stimuli; it exhibits the investigatory reflex, raising its head and pricking up its ears to sound. In addition it exhibits the freedom reflex, offering a powerful resistance to any restraint. Nevertheless it is wholly incapable of looking after itself, and if left to itself will very soon die. Evidently something important is missing in its present nervous make-up. What nervous activities can it have lost? It is easily seen that, in this dog, the number of stimuli evoking reflex reaction is considerably diminished; those remaining are of an elemental, generalized nature, and act at a very short range. Consequently the dynamic equilibrium between the inner forces of the animal system and the external forces in its environment has become elemental as compared with the exquisite adaptability of the normal animal, and the simpler balance is obviously inadequate to life. Let us return now to the simplest reflex from which our investigations started. If food or some rejectable substance finds its way into the mouth, a secretion of saliva is produced. The purpose of this secretion is in the case of food to alter it chemically, in the case of a rejectable substance to dilute and wash it out of the mouth. This is an example of a reflex due to the physical and chemical properties of a substance when it comes into contact with the mucous membrane of the mouth and tongue. But, in addition to this, a similar reflex secretion is evoked when these substances are placed at a distance from the dog and the receptor organs affected are only those of smell and sight. Even the vessel from which the food has been given is sufficient to evoke an alimentary reflex complete in all its details; and, further, the secretion may be provoked even by the sight of the person who brought the vessel, or by the sound of his footsteps. All these innumerable stimuli falling upon the several finely discriminating distance receptors lose their power for ever as soon as the hemispheres are taken from the animal, and those only which have a direct effect on mouth and tongue still retain their power. The great advantage to the organism of a capacity to react to the former stimuli is evident, for it is in virtue of their action that [p. 14] food finding its way into the mouth immediately encounters plenty of moistening saliva, and rejectable substances, often nocuous to the mucous membrane, find a layer of protective saliva already in the mouth which rapidly dilutes and washes them out. Even greater is their importance when they evoke the motor component of the complex reflex of nutrition, i.e. when they act as stimuli to the reflex of seeking food. Here is another example -- the reflex of self-defence. The strong carnivorous animal preys on weaker animals, and these if they waited to defend themselves until the teeth of the foe were in their flesh would speedily be exterminated. The case takes on a different aspect when the defence reflex is called into play by the sights and sounds of the enemy's approach. Then the prey has a chance to save itself by hiding or by flight. How can we describe, in general, this difference in the dynamic balance of life between the normal and the decorticated animal? What is the general mechanism and law of this distinction? It is pretty evident that under natural conditions the normal animal must respond not only to stimuli which themselves bring immediate benefit or harm, but also to other physical or chemical agencies -- waves of sound, light, and the like -- which in themselves only signal the approach of these stimuli; though it is not the sight and sound of the beast of prey which is in itself harmful to the smaller animal, but its teeth and claws. Now although the signalling stimuli do play a part in those comparatively simple reflexes we have given as examples, yet this is not the most important point. The essential feature of the highest activity of the central nervous system, with which we are concerned and which in the higher animals most probably belongs entirely to the hemispheres, consists not in the fact that innumerable signalling stimuli do initiate reflex reactions in the animal, but in the fact that under different conditions these same stimuli may initiate quite different reflex reactions; and conversely the same reaction may be initiated by different stimuli. In the above-mentioned example of the salivary reflex, the signal at one time is one particular vessel, at another time another; under certain conditions one man, under different conditions another -- strictly depending upon which vessel had been used in feeding and which man had brought the vessel and given food to the dog. This evidently makes the machine-like responsive activities of the [p. 15] organism still more precise, and adds to it qualities of yet higher perfection. So infinitely complex, so continuously in flux, are the conditions in the world around, that that complex animal system which is itself in living flux, and that system only, has a chance to establish dynamic equilibrium with the environment. Thus we see that the fundamental and the most general function of the hemispheres is that of reacting to signals presented by innumerable of interchangeable signification. F. Goltz, "Der Hund ohne Grosshirn," Pflüger's Archiv, V. li. p. 570, 1892. M. Rothmann, "Der Hund ohne Grosshirn." Neurologischcs Celtralblatt, V. xxviii. p. 1045, 1909. Fritsch und E. Hitzig, "Ueber die elektrische Erregbarkeit des Grosshirns." Arckiv für (Anatomie und) Physiologie, p. 300, 1870. D. Ferrier, Functions of the Brain, London, 1876. H. Munk, Ueber die Functionen der Grosskirnrinde, Berlin, 1890 and 1909. R. Magnus, Körperstellung, Berlin, 1924. C. S. Sherrington, The Integrative Action of the Nervous System, London, 1906. Ch. Richet, Réflexes Psychiques. Réflexes Conditionels. Automatisme Mental. Pavlov's Jubilee Volume, Petrograd, 1925. J. Loeb, Studies in General Physiology, Chicago, 1905. Beer, Bethe und Uexküll, "Vorschläge zu einer objectivirenden Nomenklatur in der Physiologie des Nervensystems," Biologisches Centralblatt,V., xix. P. 517, 1899. H. S. Jennings, The Behavior of Lower Organisms, New York, 1906. E. L. Thorndyke[sic], The Animal Intelligence, An Experimental Study of the Associative Processes in Animals, New York, 1898.

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Many people throughout the United States celebrate Fire Prevention Week. This year’s NFPA theme is “Smoke Alarms: A Sound You Can Live With,” and will be held October 3rd-9th. Some schools hold assemblies, have special classroom lessons and projects, and often invite local fire departments to participate. Community groups are also active in sharing information with it’s members. Look below for a few free or inexpensive resources that can be used to make this a valuable experience for your school or group. We want to hear what you do to make Fire Prevention Week informative and exciting for your students or community. Send us your photos and share with others your successful and unsuccessful experiences. It is our hope that we can all benefit from this sharing of ideas, and learn better ways to teach our life saving messages. NFPA lesson plans, coloring books, brochures, videos, bags, banners, etc. Robotronics//Coloring/activity books, bookmarks, crayons & pencils, certificates, robots & costumes, stickers, music, and more. Scholastic Fire Safety Resource Center//Free lesson plans, printables, and more resources. http://www.scholastic.com/firesafety/ Sparky.org//Games, activities, cartoons, and more.

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Bullying is a problem that can derail a child’s schooling, social life, and, most importantly, his or her emotional well-being. It’s also an issue that has been made even more pressing in recent years because of the increased use among children of the Internet, cell phones, and other means of communication as tools to harass each other. Adults may have a tendency to ignore bullying, to write it off as a normal part of life that all kids have to go through. But it’s a real problem with dangerous consequences, and it should be dealt with accordingly. Bullying is a behavior that can include any one of a whole range of actions that cause physical or emotional pain, from spreading rumors to intentional exclusion to physical abuse. Bullying prevention expert Dr. Ken Rigby has a useful formulation: Bullying = a desire to hurt + hurtful action + a power imbalance + (typically) repetition + an unjust use of power + evident enjoyment by the aggressor and a sense of being oppressed on the part of the victim. Everyone wants to believe that while sticks and stones may break our bones, words will never hurt us. But as teens and many children know, that’s not quite true. Words—and any kind of emotional abuse—can be just as harmful, if not more so, than physical abuse. Bullying is insidious, and many children (particularly boys and teenagers) won’t tell their parents or teachers about it out of fear of retribution or shame. Children may also fear being blamed themselves or losing privileges (such as cell phone access) if they report being bullied. That’s why it’s important that parents, teachers, and other responsible adults are constantly vigilant in looking for bullying behaviors. Here are some warning signs that a child is being bullied: - Unexplained cuts or bruises - Damaged or missing clothing, books, school supplies, or other belongings - Takes unnecessarily long routes to school - Suddenly loses interest in school work or begins to perform poorly - No longer wants to hang out with friends - Frequently complains of headaches or stomachaches and asks to stay home sick - Loss of appetite - Trouble sleeping - Emotionally reticent - Appears moody or depressed or appears to suffer from social anxiety and low self-esteem - Any unexplained change in behavior Why is it a Problem? Bullying has a negative effect on everyone: the bully, the target, the bystanders who witness the bullying, and anyone connected. Anti-bullying advocate Trudy Ludwig and head of the Bullying Research Network Dr. Susan Swearer pointed out some of the short- and long-term effects of bullying: - Although the statistics vary based on the different methodologies used to study bullying, it is commonly accepted that 75 percent of school-age kids are affected by bullying at some point of their school years. - Kids who are identified as a bully by age 8 are six times more likely to be convicted of a crime by the time they’re 24. - 160,000 kids in the United States miss school daily because of bullying. - Targets of bullying suffer from headaches, stomachaches, depression, and eating disorders. - Targets of bullying have a high incidence of dropping out of school, self-mutilation, substance abuse, suicide, and violence towards others. - The U.S secret service found that from 1974 to 2000 there were 37 school shootings, and two-thirds of the shooters were long-term bullied or harassed at school. - Bystanders can suffer the same physical symptoms as the targets. They get headaches and stomachaches. They have school phobias and high levels of anxiety and feel helpless and powerless. They also tend to have poor coping and problem-solving skills. Bullying Prevention Strategies Engage Your Child The first thing to do if you notice something’s wrong with your child is to talk to them. The most important thing you can do for a bullied child is to validate the situation—pay attention to the child’s feelings and let him or her know you care. You may not be able to solve all the problems for your child right away, but what’s essential is that you let him or her know that you’re supportive. “That’s the number one thing a parent can do,” says Trudy. “Really listen to your child and take your child’s problems seriously.” Be a Role Model Bullying is a learned behavior. Children pick up antisocial behaviors like bullying from adult role models, parents, teachers, and from media representation. A recent study done by Brigham Young University researchers found that there are an average of 52 acts of relational aggression an hour on reality TV and 33 an hour on regular TV shows. This type of general meanness rubs off on kids. Teach your child good social behavior from an early age. Being a positive role model can have untold influence on potential bullies, targets, and bystanders. “Bullying has been conceptualized as a social-relationship problem,” says Dr. Swearer. “If people are kind to each other and adults model healthy social relationships, we have hope that we can reduce bullying.” Your child is less likely to enter damaging or hurtful relationships if his or her parent also avoids those types of negative associations. Continual training and education is essential if bullying is to be eradicated from our communities. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services “Stop Bullying Now” campaign suggests that schools set aside 20 or 30 minutes of class time a week (or every other week) to discuss bullying with students. This will provide a regular forum for teachers to talk candidly to students about bullying and to get a feel for what the bullying climate is in the school. It will also help children understand what behaviors are considered bullying. School-wide assemblies on the subject can also be helpful in bringing the issue out into the open. It's also important to educate school staff and other adults. “Parents, teachers, [and other responsible adults] need ongoing training through in-services and educational programming,” says Dr. Swearer. Training should include explicating the nature of bullying and its effects, how to respond to bullying in the school, and how to work with others in the community to prevent bullying. Build a Consensus As Trudy says, bullying is a community problem, and it requires a community solution. Everybody has to be on board to successfully stamp out bullying: parents, teachers, administrators, counselors, bus drivers, cafeteria workers, school nurses, after-school instructors, and of course, the students themselves. It’s important that, if your child is being bullied, you don’t confront the bully or the bully’s parent yourself. It’s unlikely to be productive and can even be dangerous. Work with the community; teachers, counselors, and administrators may have additional information and resources that can help determine the appropriate course of action. Develop a comprehensive community strategy to address bullying. Similar to the need for a coordinated community effort is the need for consistency in how bullying is dealt with. Every child should be treated equally, and emotional bullying should be addressed in the same way as physical bullying. In an effort to reduce bullying, it is essential to change the social climate of the school. Established written policies should not only disallow bullying behavior, but also make clear that students are expected to act as “good citizens” by assisting students who appear to be in any kind of trouble. The rules should be clear and concise so that everyone can understand them at a glance. It’s important that the rules for bullying are enforced consistently throughout the school. “Kids know what they can get away from one teacher to the next,” Trudy points out. “That’s why it has to be a school-wide systematic approach.” School staff needs to be able to intervene immediately to stop bullying, and there should also be (separate) follow-up meetings for both the bully and the target. The parents of affected students should be involved whenever feasible. The Youth Voice Project, run by bullying prevention experts Stan Davis and Dr. Charisse Nixon, surveyed 11,000 teens in schools across the United States and asked them to share their experiences with bullying. Interestingly, the project uncovered the power of bystanders when it comes to fighting bullying. Bystanders are the students who see or hear of their peers being bullied. Typically, bystanders often feel powerless to help, thinking that stepping in may bring the bully's wrath on themselves or make them into social outcasts. But the Youth Voice Project found that some sort of connection with a bystander helped the victim cope with the situation. The victim felt better when a witness approached them, called, or emailed afterwards; acknowledged the situation; and said that what happened wasn’t okay. Therefore, it's essential to empower bystanders to help. Schools should work to protect bystanders from retaliation and help them understand that their silence can make bullies more powerful. A bystander should “comfort the person being bullied,” says Trudy. “And if [he or she] doesn’t feel safe doing something during it, do it afterwards.” Work With the Bully Don’t forget that the bully has his or her own set of problems to deal with and also needs help from adults. Bullies often engage in bullying behaviors out of a lack of empathy and trust or as a result of problems at home. "Many times kids don’t think that what they are doing is bullying,” says Trudy. “They think the silent treatment is just a normal ‘girl thing.’ But it’s not.” Bullies first need to recognize that their behavior is bullying. They then need to understand that bullying will lead to negative consequences—that they are hurting themselves as much as they are hurting others. By showing bullies that there are consequences to their actions and by forcing them to acknowledge the choices they make, you can nip bullying behavior in the bud.

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Macroplea pubipennis (Reuter 1875), Chrysomelidae Compiled by: Terhi Ryttäri & Ilpo Mannerkoski, Finland 1. Description / Ecological demands / Autecology Macroplea pubipennis is a 6-7 mm long, straw-colored chrysomelid beetle with long legs and antennas. It differs from a close relative M. mutica only by the shape of elytral apex and the male genitalia. It lives in shallow waters, at a depth range of 25-50 cm, usually in sheltered bays. This herbivore beetle is known to feed on submerged aquatic plants, such as Potamogeton, Myriophyllum and Zannichellia species. It lives underwater throughout its life cycle, but the details of its biology, especially in larval stages, are poorly known. The adult beetles crawl together, the smaller male "riding" on females' back. M. mutica lives usually on same places. In Europe, M. pubipennis is known to live only in the northern parts of Baltic Sea. Observations have been made along the coasts of Finland from the Gulf of Finland up to the Bothnian Bay – at the moment besides some stray observations only two populations are known, one in the Gulf of Finland and one in the Archipelago Sea. Globally, the species is rare and known to have a very disjunct distribution. Observations have been recorded under another name, M. piligera Weise from Central Asia – but it is not known for sure whether the same taxon is in question. M. pubipennis is a globally rare species which has at the moment at least two viable populations in the Baltic Sea. The beetle is included in the Habitats Directive Annexes II and IV. 4. Status of threat In its known distribution area in Finland M. pubipennis is classified as vulnerable and it is listed as a species under strict protection in the Nature Conservation Degree. 5. Threat factors M. pubipennis is threatened by dredging and construction. Disturbance caused by boat traffic, changes in water quality as well as changes in vegetation due to eutrophication (mainly expansion of reeds) are unfavourable to this species. 6. Conservation measures needed Unsuccessful searches of M. pubipennis have already been carried out in Estonia and Sweden. Despite of this, inventories are needed to find out the actual distribution of, and threats to, M. mutica in the Baltic Sea. More research on the ecology of the species is also needed. The most important known populations are already partly protected. Newly discovered sites should be protected as well and all harmful human activities should be prohibited there. Biström O. 1995: Kartering av stor natebock, bladbaggen Macroplea pubipennis (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) i Esboviken, Finland. (Mapping of the leaf beetle species Macroplea pubipennis in the Esbo Bay, Finland) – Sahlbergia Vol. 2:113-116. (in Swedish) Ilmonen J., Ryttäri T. & Alanen A. (eds.) 2001: Finnish plants and invertebrate animals in the EU Habitats Directive. A scientific evaluation of the Finnish Natura 2000 –proposal. – The Finnish Environment 510: 1-177. (in Finnish) Rassi P., Alanen A., Kanerva T. & Mannerkoski I. (eds.) 2001: Suomen lajien uhanalaisuus 2000 (The 2000 Red List of Finnish species). – Ympäristöministeriö & Suomen ympäristökeskus, Helsinki.

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Leap Year 2012 February 29, 2012 What are you doing with your extra 24 hours? Leap Year doesn’t come around often, so make sure to do to it up big by coming in and sharing the day with us. It is a science day after all. It’s basis is in the planetary rotation, which means that inherently it’s a science thing. So what better place to spend it than at Imagination Station. Happy Birthday Leap Year Babies! We’re inviting everyone whose birthday is February 29, to visit the science center for FREE that day! Since there aren’t that many of you out there, you’ve got to provide the proof. Drivers license, birth certificate, some other creative way – however you can prove that you are one of the unique 4.8 million Leap Year babies in the world. Seems like a big number, but when you figure that the rest of us born on the other 365 days of the year have more than 19 million people born on our birthday, makes you even more special, right? It’s a birthday celebration! Even better – we’ll be making birthday hats and celebrating the uniqueness of your day with liquid nitrogen ice cream. So take the day off of work and enjoy your special day taking in the science and enjoying instant ice cream. About Leap Year A leap year consists of 366 days, as opposed to a common year which has 365 days. During Leap Years, we add a Leap Day, an extra – or intercalary – day on February 29. Nearly every 4 years is a Leap Year in our modern Gregorian Calendar. Why do we need Leap Years? Leap Years are needed to keep our calendar in alignment with the Earth’s revolutions around the sun. It takes the Earth approximately 365.242199 days (a tropical year) to circle once around the Sun. However, the Gregorian calendar has only 365 days in a year, so if we didn’t add a day on February 29 nearly every 4 years, we would lose almost six hours off our calendar every year. After only 100 years, our calendar would be off by approximately 24 days! How do we calculate Leap Years? In the Gregorian calendar 3 criteria must be met to be a leap year: - The year is evenly divisible by 4; - If the year can be evenly divided by 100, it is NOT a leap year, unless; - The year is also evenly divisible by 400. Then it is a leap year. This means that 2000 and 2400 are leap years, while 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300 and 2500 are NOT leap years. The year 2000 was somewhat special as it was the first instance when the third criterion was used in most parts of the world since the transition from the Julian to the Gregorian Calendar. Who invented Leap Years? Julius Caesar introduced Leap Years in the Roman empire over 2000 years ago, but the Julian calendar had only one rule: any year evenly divisible by 4 would be a leap year. This lead to way too many leap years, but didn’t get corrected until the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar more than 1500 years later. Information from www.timeanddate.com

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Washington, Feb 7: A tiny capsule designed by US researchers could suppress cancers without damaging healthy cells, shows a study. Yi Tang, professor of chemical and bio-molecular engineering from the University of California – Los Angeles (UCLA), study co-author, reported developing tiny shells composed of a water-soluble polymer that safely deliver a protein complex to the nucleus of cancer cells to engineer their death. The cell-destroying material, apoptin, is a protein complex derived from an anaemia virus in birds. This protein cargo accumulates in the nucleus of cancer cells and signals to the cell to undergo programmed self-destruction. The shells, about 100 nanometers across, are roughly half the size of the smallest bug, degrade harmlessly in non-cancerous cells, the journal Nano Today reports. The process does not present the risk of genetic mutation posed by gene therapies for cancer, or the risk to healthy cells caused by chemotherapy, which does not effectively discriminate between healthy and cancerous cells, Yi said, according to a California statement. “This approach is potentially a new way to treat cancer.” “It is a difficult problem to deliver the protein if we don’t use this vehicle. This is a unique way to treat cancer cells and leave healthy cells untouched,” Yi said. Tests done on human breast cancer cell lines in lab mice showed significant reduction in tumour growth.

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alpaca (ălpăkˈə) [key], partially domesticated South American mammal, Lama pacos, of the camel family. Genetic studies show that it is a descendant of the vicuña. Although the flesh is sometimes used for food, the animal is bred chiefly for its long, lustrous wool, which varies from black, through shades of brown, to white. Flocks of alpaca are kept by indigenous people in the highlands of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. They feed on grasses growing close to the snow line, and they require a pure water supply. The Incas had domesticated the alpaca and utilized its wool before the Spanish Conquest, but subsequently the alpaca and the llama were extensively hybridized, leading to a gradual reduction in the amount of high quality alpaca wool. Exporting of alpaca wool to Europe began after Sir Titus Salt discovered (1836) a way of manufacturing alpaca cloth. Breeding alpacas is a small but growing industry in the United States, Canada, and some other non-Andean nations. Alpacas are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Artiodactyla, family Camelidae. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved. More on alpaca from Infoplease: See more Encyclopedia articles on: Vertebrate Zoology

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Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are infections that are spread primarily through person-to-person sexual contact. There are more than 30 different sexually transmissible bacteria, viruses and parasites. Several, in particular HIV and syphilis, can also be transmitted from mother to child during pregnancy and childbirth, and through blood products and tissue transfer. Some of the commonest sexually transmitted pathogens can be divided into those caused by bacteria, viruses and parasites. Cytomegalovirus (causes inflammation in a number of organs including the brain, the eye, and the bowel). Trichomonas vaginalis (causes vaginal trichomoniasis) Candida albicans (causes vulvovaginitis in women; inflammation of the glans penis and foreskin [balano-posthitis] in men). Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) as a major public health issue In developing countries, STIs and their complications rank in the top five disease categories for which adults seek health care. Infection with STIs can lead to acute symptoms, chronic infection and serious delayed consequences such as infertility, ectopic pregnancy, cervical cancer and the untimely death of infants and adults. STIs and prevention of serious complications in women STIs are the main preventable cause of infertility, particularly in women. Between 10% and 40% of women with untreated chlamydial infection develop symptomatic pelvic inflammatory disease. Post-infection tubal damage is responsible for 30% to 40% of cases of female infertility. Furthermore, women who have had pelvic inflammatory disease are 6 to 10 times more likely to develop an ectopic (tubal) pregnancy than those who have not, and 40% to 50% of ectopic pregnancies can be attributed to previous pelvic inflammatory disease. Infection with certain types of the human papillomavirus can lead to the development of genital cancers, particularly cervical cancer in women. STIs and adverse outcomes of pregnancy Untreated sexually transmitted infections are associated with congenital and perinatal infections in neonates, particularly in the areas where rates of infection remain high. In pregnant women with untreated early syphilis, 25% of pregnancies result in stillbirth and 14% in neonatal death – an overall perinatal mortality of about 40%. Syphilis prevalence in pregnant women in Africa, for example, ranges from 4% to 15%. Up to 35% of pregnancies among women with untreated gonococcal infection result in spontaneous abortions and premature deliveries, and up to 10% in perinatal deaths. In the absence of prophylaxis, 30% to 50% of infants born to mothers with untreated gonorrhoea and up to 30% of infants born to mothers with untreated chlamydial infection will develop a serious eye infection (ophthalmia neonatorum), which can lead to blindness if not treated early. It is estimated that, worldwide, between 1000 and 4000 newborn babies become blind every year because of this condition. STIs and HIV The presence of an untreated ulcerative or non-ulcerative (those STIs which cause ulcers or those which do not) infection increases the risk of both acquisition and transmission of HIV by a factor of up to 10. Thus, prompt treatment for STIs is important to reduce the risk of HIV infection. Controlling STIs is important for preventing HIV in people at high risk, as well as in the general population. Prevention of STIs The most effective means to avoid becoming infected with or transmitting a sexually transmitted infection is to abstain from sexual intercourse (i.e., oral, vaginal, or anal sex) or to have sexual intercourse only within a long-term, mutually monogamous relationship with an uninfected partner. Male latex condoms, when used consistently and correctly, are highly effective in reducing the transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections, including gonorrhoea, chlamydial infection and trichomoniasis. STIs without symptoms Some sexually transmitted infections often exist without symptoms. For example, up to 70% of women and a significant proportion of men with gonococcal and/or chlamydial infections may experience no symptoms at all. Both symptomatic and asymptomatic infections can lead to the development of serious complications. Most STIs are silent or may present with symptoms some time after the infection occurred. This makes it impossible to tell if you, a partner or potential partner is carrying a silent STI. The most reliable way of avoiding an STI is to always practice safer sex and when embarking on a new relationship to consider screening for STIs before embarking on a long-term mutually monogamous relationship with a partner who has been tested and is known to be uninfected. It is now possible to screen for many of the common STIs based on an internet ordered home sample urine test or blood test kit using a laboratory technique called PCR with results via confidential text or email. Urine Test Kits will screen for Chlamydia, Gonorrhoea, Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Gardnerella, Trichomonas, Herpes Simplex I/II Blood Test Kits will screen for HIV, Hepatitis B & C and Syphylis The “Window Period” Testing too quickly after you have run a risk of infection may result in a false negative (no infection found) result being given to you as infections may not show up on the test for some weeks. Although you should contact a healthcare provider as soon as possible if you have been at risk, when performing laboratory testing for Chlamydia and Gonorrhoea for example it is recommended that you additionally test two weeks after your risk (sex with the person you are worried about). When testing for HIV and Syphilis (blood tests) you should additionally test at least 12 weeks after your risk. If there is a specific incident which put you may need to have your tests repeated to ensure that you do not miss a possible infection. Signs and Symptoms of STIs The following signs and symptoms may be present after an STI but remember most are silent. Neonatal eye infections (conjunctivitis of the newborn) How can I find out about testing and treatment for an STI? If you are worried about or think you might you might have an STI, have recently been exposed to the risk of an STI or wish to discuss screening, testing and treatment you should do so now as early advice, testing and treatment is important. NHS:Testing is free on the NHS from genitourinary medicine clinics, sexual health clinics, many Family Planning Association and contraception clinics, your GP and pharmacies. You can find an clinic to help with STIs by phoning directory enquiries and asking for genitourinary medicine, sexually transmitted disease or venereal disease or locate one using our NHS Genitourinary Medicine Clinic page in the Sexual Health Section of our website. You can also contact NHS Direct on 0845 4647. PRIVATE:You can have confidential private testing and treatment or screening via an internet ordered home sample urine test or blood test kit. Telephone 0345 2303386 or use the Confidential Text Service 07786202070 Further Information on Sexually Transmitted Diseases in the UK Further information and help about issues relating to Sexually Transmitted Infections can be obtained from the following sites: AVERT - International AIDS Charity British Association for Sexual Health and HIV Family Planning Association Terrence Higgins Trust

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Toddlers who are allowed to watch TV tend to be less active and fatter than similarly aged children who don’t watch TV. According to a recent study for each hour of TV watched per week two-year-old children performed worse during a long jump performance test meant to examine physicality. The study found that children who watched one extra hour of TV per week between the ages of two and four had nearly a half a millimeter increase in waistline circumference. Children who watched an average of 8.82 hours of TV per week experienced a waistline that was .41cm fatter. Youngsters who watched 18 hours of TV a week were a full centimeter wider in the waist by 10 years old. The study found that 15% of children watched at least 18 hours of TV. According to lead researcher Dr. Linda Pagani from the University of Montreal: “The bottom line is that watching too much television – beyond recommended amounts – is not good. These findings support clinical suspicions that more screen time in general contributes to the rise in excess weight in our population.” Physical fitness in children was measured using a standard long jump test which is considered a good indicator of overall athletic ability. Researchers discovered that for each hour of weekly TV watched at two years of age a child lost one-third of a centimeter by the fourth grade. Dr. Pagani warns: “Watching more television not only displaces other forms of educational and active leisurely pursuits, but also places them at risk of learning inaccurate information about proper eating.” The full study can be read in the International Journal of Behavioural Nutrition and Physical Activity. The group plans to further study the effects TV has on other child health indicators.

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en

The advent of Bt corn has prompted numerous questions about the damage potential of the European corn borer. Yield losses from corn borers vary depending on hybrid response, environmental influences, and plant stage attacked. Research conducted at Penn State University shows that tunnels in young plants cause the greatest damage. Yield losses per corn borer for four plant stages are: 5.9 percent (10-leaf stage), 5.0 percent (16-leaf stage), 3.2 percent (blister stage), and 2.4 percent (dough stage). If several corn borers attack the same plant, these percentages can be multiplied by the number of insects, resulting in greater losses. Dropped ears, an additional yield loss factor, are not considered in these percentages but obviously would increase the damage potential of this insect. The percentage yield loss is an interesting concept, but how do these numbers translate into "real" yield losses in Iowa field corn? Starting in 1991, I began a series of tests that measured the yield loss from second-generation corn borers. Eighteen fields in 10 Iowa counties were sprayed with a variety of insecticides using either an airplane or high-clearance ground equipment. These fields were chosen without any indication of the potential for corn borer populations. All insecticides and an unsprayed check were replicated 2-4 times in each field. Grain yields were taken with a combine, measured in a weigh wagon or on scales, and adjusted to 15.5 percent moisture. Yield differences between the best insecticide-treated plots and the unsprayed check ranged from 0.9 to 32.6 bushels per acre across the 18 fields. The average yield loss from second-generation Euro-pean corn borers was 8.5 bushels per acre. In 16 of the 18 fields (89 percent), yield loss exceeded four bushels per acre (about a $10 per acre loss). There are two very important factors to consider relative to these yield losses. First, insect-icides rarely provided 100 percent control of corn borers (the average was 49 percent in these tests) so the yield differences I saw represented only part of the actual loss caused by second-generation corn borers. Second, corn borers during the second generation represent half of the damage equation; we also should expect some yield loss from first-generation corn borers. There is very little information that shows actual yield losses from first-generation corn borers. I have data from one field in western Iowa where several insecticide treatments were applied to measure the impact of both generations during 1996. In this field, the combined damage of both generations of borers was a yield reduction of at least 17.4 bushels (remember that insecticides don't provide 100 percent control so the actual yield loss was greater than observed). The first generation caused 5.7 bushels loss (Warrior/check treatment minus the check/check treatment), with the second generation causing 11.7 bushels loss per acre. The bottom line is this: European corn borers have the potential to cause serious reductions in yield. They don't always do it, but based on yield data, there is a high probability for yield reductions of at least $10 per acre in Iowa. Performance of Pounce and Warrior insecticides on first- and second-generation European corn borer in Iowa field corn, 1996. |First generation treatment ||Second generation treatment ||Bushels increase over check This article originally appeared on pages 32-33 of the IC-478 (4) -- April 14, 1997 issue.

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I know it sounds crazy to use ice cream — the poster child for high fat, high sugar, high calorie junk — to teach healthy eating habits, but you can. In fact, it's ice cream's sinful status that makes it the perfect vehicle for teaching kids about eating. That, plus the little fact that everyone loves it. You might not think it, but ice cream can help kids learn about portion size, new foods, peer pressure, self-control and a host of other eating skills. The most important lesson you can teach with ice cream is about portion size. Lots of research points to the importance of portion size as the key to stemming the obesity-tide, and there's no food I can think of which exemplifies the problem of portion distortion more than ice cream. Have you noticed how large the servings have gotten lately? I'm not talking about dishes such as the outrageously huge Vermonster from Ben & Jerry's which has an unbelievable 20 scoops of ice cream. I'm talking about normal ice cream servings. - One small scoop of Coldstone Creamery's chocolate ice cream has 320 calories. That's more than a 1/4 of the 1200 calories a typical 5 year old needs to consume in a day. But that's nothing compared to Coldstone's shakes. - One small Coldstone Creamery Milk and Cookies shake (Live It size) has 1090 calories. Think of that as 90% of a 5 year old's daily caloric consumption. The good news is that people easily develop habits around portion size, so you can use that to your advantage: Mimic the 100-calorie snack packs and present your kids with appropriate-sized portions. - One McDonald’s Kiddie Cone has only 45 calories. (That’s the first time I’ve ever written anything good about McDonald’s!) You can also use ice cream to teach your children to try new foods. I recently wrote about using yogurt to introduce new foods (Read The Magic of Yogurt), and the principle is the same with ice cream: because kids already like it, and because it can be modified in an infinite number of ways, you can help kids expand their palate by mixing up the kinds of scoops they're served. You don't have to go so far as to insist your child try this lovely Spaghetti & Cheese ice cream (isn't it appetizing?), and you don't have to sell your kids on the lobster ice cream (made with chunks of real lobster) sold on Martha's Vineyard. You can help your children explore the world of new flavors by introducing strawberry to a chocolate-lover. Or mixing in chocolate chips to help a kid who gravitates towards smooth-textured foods to accept meatier mouth-feels. You can also use ice cream to teach your kids about proportion, self-control, peer pressure and a host of other eating habits. To tell you the truth, these other habits are the hardest to teach, but they shouldn't be overlooked. For instance, research shows that children who learn self-control early in life, succeed in ways that are pretty wonderful: they can cope with adversity and stress, they have high levels of concentration, and they develop trustworthiness. They even do better on their SATs. Read Marshmallows Make You Smart! And while it's tough for kids to be different, letting your kids have ice cream every time their friends get it -- it's only fair, many parents rationalize -- teaches children a pretty lousy lesson. On the other hand, learning to be different can be pretty powerful. Read The Perils of Other Parents. Every time we feed our kids we’re teaching them something about eating… …we might as well teach the right lessons. ~ Changing the conversation from nutrition to habits. ~

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NORTH CAROLINA, state in S.E. U.S. Its population in 2000 was 8,049,313, of which the Jewish population was estimated at 26,500. Jews appeared in early colonial times, but a community did not develop until the late antebellum era, a trend that accelerated after Reconstruction with the rise of an urban and industrial New South. In the later 20th century, as the state transformed from an agrarian, southern society into the prosperous, multicultural Sunbelt, Jewish population grew dramatically. North Carolina was the site of the first Jewish settler in a British colony in North America when Joachim Ganz, a native of Prague, arrived in 1585, well before the much heralded date of the 1654 settlement in New Amsterdam, on Raleigh's second expedition to Roanoke Island. Ganz, a metallurgist, returned to England two years later. John Locke's Fundamental Constitutions of 1669 opened the Carolinas to "Jews, heathens, and other dissenters," but the colony, beset by sectarian politics, was inhospitable. The 1776 state constitution included a religious test that restricted public office to Protestants. With few navigable rivers, a swampy coast, and a forested terrain, North Carolina lacked commercial opportunities for Jews. In the early colonial era a few Jewish settlers followed coastal and inland trade routes from Virginia and South Carolina. A 1702 petition protested illegal votes by undesirables, including Jews. Jewish names appear on Masonic rolls and militia rosters. In the Charlotte area were storekeepers and Revolutionary War veterans Abraham Moses, Solomon Simons, and Aaron Cohen. A 1759 document identifies Joseph Laney as a Jew. Newport merchant Aaron Lopez sent 37 ships to North Carolina between 1761 and 1775. Eighteenth-century Sephardic Jews in Wilmington included Rivera, Gomez, David, and Levy. A rabbi, Jacob Abroo, is reported to have died in New Berne in 1790. The Benjamin family, whose son Judah became a U.S. senator and later a Confederate statesman, lived in Wilmington and Fayetteville after 1813. The most notable family was the Mordecais who settled in Warrenton in 1792, and in 1808 opened the Warrenton Female Seminary, which pioneered the liberal education of women. Jacob *Mordecai was a Hebrew scholar who later served as lay leader of Richmond's Beth Shalome. His daughter Rachel, married to the Wilmington merchant Aaron Lazarus, was a literary figure, and his son Alfred graduated from West Point in 1823. Mordecai children, including George Washington Mordecai, a railroad builder who served as president of the Bank of North Carolina, largely assimilated into the Christian community. In 1808 Jacob *Henry of Beaufort was elected to the state legislature, but a year later his constitutional right to serve as a Jew was challenged. After an impassioned speech, Henry was permitted to hold his seat, but the legislature reaffirmed the religious test repeatedly, and it was not removed until 1868. German Jews immigrated after 1835 when the state reformed its constitution and embarked on internal improvements. Jews from Norfolk, Baltimore, Charleston, and Richmond settled in coastal ports and market towns along rivers and rail lines. Peddlers, like the Bloomingdale brothers, worked the countryside before opening stores. In the 1850s Lazarus Fels operated a peddler's way station in Yanceyville. In 1858 Herman Weil arrived in Goldsboro, later joined by his brothers, and the family over generations organized the state's Jewry. By 1850 Charlotte had nine Jewish families, and Wilmington claimed 26 Jewish merchants. By 1852 Wilmington supported a burial society, and an Orthodox congregation formed in 1867, which was supplanted by a Reform one in 1872. When Civil War came, the state's Jews were ardent Confederates. More than 70 Jews served in North Carolina regiments, including six Cohen brothers. Civil War Governor Zebulon Vance, grateful to a courtesy from the merchant Samuel Wittkowsky at war's end, penned a celebrated philo-Semitic speech, "The Scattered Nation," which was delivered and reprinted repeatedly across the South. As the textile, furniture, and tobacco industries expanded in the New South era, Jews found opportunity in emerging mill and market towns. By 1878, 16 North Carolina towns reported Jews, and the population center began moving from the coastal plain to the piedmont. Country peddlers and urban storekeepers served both a black and a white clientele. Rail lines linked merchants to distribution centers in Baltimore and New York. In 1871 the Wallace brothers of Statesville created the country's largest herbarium. Samuel Wittkowsky, as president of the Board of Trade and founder of the South's first savings and loan, underwrote much of Charlotte's development. In 1895, Moses and Ceasar Cone, traveling agents for the family's Baltimore commercial house, built their first textile factory in Greensboro, and, joined by partners Herman and Emmanuel Sternberger, Cone Mills ranked among the world's largest producers of denim, flannel, and corduroy. In the 1880s Tarboro had 11 Jewish stores and supported a congregation, a B'nai B'rith lodge, a YMHA, and a Jewish Literary Society; in 1885 Henry Morris was mayor. The first synagogue, Temple of Israel, was erected in Wilmington in 1875, followed by Oheb Sholom in Goldsboro (1886) and Temple Emanuel in Statesville (1892). All evolved to Reform. By 1900 With an increasing East European immigration, the 820 Jews of 1878 grew to 8,252 by 1927, and congregations increased from one to 22. In the early 1880s J.B. Duke imported more than 100 Jewish immigrants to roll cigarettes in his Durham factory. Jews arrived in family chains, a pioneer drawing relatives and landsleit. Like the Germans before them, they often peddled before opening stores, and they maintained an ethnic economy, mostly in dry goods. The Baltimore Bargain House financed and supplied young immigrants and directed them to towns across the state. In 1929, 53 percent of the state's Jewry was rural. Upward mobility was rapid. Moses Richter of Charlotte earned the title of Peach King for his marketing. William Heilig and Joseph Max Meyers, two Latvian immigrants, expanded their Goldsboro store into the nation's largest furniture chain. During World War II, Jews headed to North Carolina to serve in military bases and to provide commercial services in camp towns. North Carolina welcomed émigrés from Nazi Europe. The Van Eeden colony, a dairy and agricultural collective on the coastal plain, housed refugee families from the 1930s to 1949. The state's universities offered havens to European scholars. Duke University gave sanctuary to German psychologist Louis *Stern, physicist Fritz *London, and Polish law professor Raphael *Lemkin, author of the Genocide Convention, who coined the very word genocide. In 1981 the state created the North Carolina Council on the Holocaust. North Carolina's Jews have been notable for their philanthropies and public service. Moses Cone Memorial Hospital in Greensboro was created by a family endowment, and the Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University in Greenville was named for a local family. The Blumenthals of Charlotte supported the arts, health care, and Jewish causes including the interfaith retreat, Wildacres, and the Jewish Home for the Aged in Clemmons. In 1954 I.D. Blumenthal created a unique Circuit Riding Rabbi program, with a bus outfitted as a synagogue, to serve rural communities. Leon Levine of Charlotte, who created a national network of Family Dollar Stores, has endowed museums, universities, and Jewish facilities. Prominent Jews include Gertrude Weil of Goldsboro, a suffragette leader, who was a tireless advocate for social and racial justice as well as for Jewish and Zionist causes. In 1918 Lionel Weil organized a statewide campaign for the Jewish War Sufferers Fund, and his North Carolina Plan became a national model. Jews have served in the state legislature. Charlotte's Harry *Golden published the North Carolina Israelite, which was outspoken in its advocacy of liberalism and civil rights. In 1955 the North Carolina Association of Rabbis passed a resolution calling for rapid integration of the public schools, a stand that they reiterated a year later when the governor called for voluntary segregation. Solomon Fishblate was elected to his first term as Wilmington mayor in 1878. Jews have also been elected mayors of Chapel Hill, Durham, Fayetteville, Gastonia, Greensboro, Hendersonville, Holly Ridge, Lumberton, Morganton, Tarboro, and Wilmington. E.J. Evans served six terms as mayor of Durham, 1951–1963. Numerous Jews have served in the state legislature. The success and social acceptance of Jews contrasts with a latent antisemitism that turned occasionally violent. In 1909 a new immigrant to Charlotte, Max Kahn, was murdered, and in 1925 a salesman, Joseph Needleman, was castrated outside Williamston by a mob after he allegedly affronted a woman. In the civil-rights era bombs were planted at synagogues in Gastonia and Charlotte. Jews were generally not accepted into social elites, and the Pinehurst golfing resort maintained antisemitic housing codes. In 1933 University of North Carolina president Frank Graham forced the resignation of the medical-school dean who refused to end a Jewish quota. North Carolina's Jews maintained communal ties through a network of B'nai B'rith Lodges, Hadassah, and National Council of Jewish Women chapters. The North Carolina Association of Jewish Women, founded by Sarah Weil in 1921, was a nationally unique organization that united communities across ethnic, denominational, and geographical divides. In the 1950s the Jews of High Point sponsored a statewide debutante cotillion. The mountains were home to Jewish summer camps, most notably Blue Star in Hendersonville. Jewish federations, linked to the United Jewish Communities, formed in the Charlotte, Greensboro, Raleigh, and Durham-Chapel Hill areas. The Sunbelt has welcomed the Jewish doctor, scientist, retiree, and entrepreneur just as the New South welcomed Jewish peddlers, merchants, and industrialists. North Carolina benefited from national demographic trends, which saw Jewish population shift southward. Jewish communities in Charlotte, Wilmington, the Research Triangle (Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill), and the Triad (Greensboro-High Point-Winston-Salem) on the high-tech interstate corridor grow while small-town, agrarian communities like Tarboro, Weldon, and Wilson wane or expire. Coastal and mountain resort communities have drawn Jewish retirees. With the breakdown of academic barriers, college towns also have grown dramatically. Jewish studies programs flourish at Duke University, which in 1943 had become the first southern university to establish such a program, and at the University of North Carolina campuses in Asheville, Chapel Hill, and Charlotte. Highlighting the professional migration, Gertrude Elion and Martin Rodbell won Nobel Prizes while working at the Research Triangle Park. With rapid Jewish population growth, the number of havurot and congregations has grown to more than 40 by 2005. Greensboro is the site of the American Hebrew Academy, a pluralistic boarding school with a global outreach. Charlotte supports the Shalom Park campus that includes a day school, federation headquarters, library, community center, and Reform E. Bingham, Mordecai: An Early American Family (2003); E. Evans, The Provincials: A Personal History of Jews in the South (2005); H. Golden, "The Jewish People of North Carolina," in: North Carolina Historical Review (April, 1955); L. Rogoff, "Synagogue and Jewish Church: A Congregational History of North Carolina," in: Southern Jewish History (1998). [Leonard W. Rogoff (2nd ed.)] Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved.

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RIJEKA (It. Fiume), Adriatic port in Croatia, until 1918 in Austro-Hungary; after World War I until 1945 in Italy. There were some Jews in Fiume during the 16th century under Austrian rule. Fiume was declared a free port in 1717 and attracted more Jews. When in 1776 it became attached to Hungary as its port, Jews from Hungary began to settle there, but until the mid-19th century the majority of Jews were Sephardim from *Split and *Dubrovnik, who followed the minhag Ispalatto (Spalato, "Split"). After 1848 with the influx of Hungarian, German, Bohemian, and Italian Jews, Italian and German rites were also used. A ḥevra kaddisha was founded in 1885; there were three cemeteries and a modern style synagogue was built in 1902. In 1900 there were 2,000 Jews in Rijeka. The congregation remained the only independent Orthodox one in Italy after the 1930 reforms. Children were sent to public schools – German, Hungarian, Italian, or Croatian ones – due to the heterogeneous composition of the population. The sermons were also delivered in German or Italian. In 1920 there were 1,300 Jews in Rijeka and in nearby Abbazia (Opatija), dropping to just 136 on the eve of the war. In 1938 the racial laws of Fascist Italy were promulgated; Jews When Rijeka became part of Yugoslavia in 1945, many Italian-speaking Jews left for Trieste and Italy; in 1947 there were some 170 Jews in Rijeka and the surrounding area. The community numbered 99 in 1969. Following the evacuation of Bosnian Jews from the war zone in 1992, around 60 families reconstituted the community, but many subsequently left for Zagreb and other localities in northern Croatia, leaving fewer than 100 Jews in 2004. Roth, Italy, 133, 176. ADD. BIBLIOGRAPHY: T. Morgani, Ebrei in Fiume ed in Abbazia 1441–1945 (1979). [Zvi Loker (2nd ed.)] Source: Encyclopaedia Judaica. © 2008 The Gale Group. All Rights Reserved.

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en

If you go down to Koekohe beach in New Zealand you can be sure of a big surprise. In front of you, scattered like enormous marbles from some long abandoned game between giants, are hundreds of giant spherical rocks. Or are they the egg shells of sea-born dragons? The Moeraki boulders present us with a mystery – what are they and how on earth did they get there? Some are isolated but may occur in clusters. That they are here is the result of three things – erosion, concretion and time. First the waves, inexorable and patient, have pounded the local bedrock for countless millennia. The mudstone on the beach – rock which was originally mud and clay – is slowly but surely eroded. Underneath are the boulders that the mudstone – in its original wet form, helped to form. However, the boulders were not there to begin with – that came later. Many of the Moeraki boulders give the impression of being completely spherical – and they almost are. They are septarian concretions – a sedimentary rock that has had the space between its individual grains filled up by minerals which acted like cement. Concretions form inside the layers of mud and clay and are not, as some think, boulders buried over time. They do, however, tend to form early on in the history of the deposited sediment – it is thought they occur before the rest hardens in to rock. A consequence of concretion is that the resulting boulders are more resistant to the weathering effects of the element. So, when the rest of the sedimentary layers is eroded, the boulder (eventually) appears. What is significant about these concretions is their size. They are big. While not unique on the planet, some of them are up to a meter in diameter but the majority range from 1.5 to 2.2 meters – that is almost seven feet in diameter. Most of them are almost perfect spheres. The material responsible for their concretion is a carbonate mineral called calcite. In the center the concretion is sometimes quite weak (perhaps the opposite we might expect) but the exterior is usually the hardest part being made up of sometimes 20% calcite. Not only has the calcite concreted the boulder’s clay and silt – it has replaced a lot of it too. There are large cracks on the boulders and these are known as septaria. The center of each boulder is hollow and the septaria radiate from there. It is not really known what causes these septaria but they can be filled up by several layers of calcite themselves and sometimes an extremely thin layer of quartz. The Moeraki boulders date from the Paleocene epoch which translates as the early recent. In geological terms that may well be true, but that means that the boulders are at least fifty six million years old. Our own mammalian ancestors during that epoch were mostly small and rodent like until late on. As you can imagine, there are many Māori legends concerning these hollow boulders. One says that they are eel baskets that came ashore when a large canoe was sunk. The reality is perhaps stranger than the legend. Yet whenever they get visitors, there always has to be one!

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Lesson Plans and Worksheets Browse by Subject - Allie W., Student teacher - East Stroudsburg, PA Multiplication Chart 1-100 Teacher Resources Find teacher approved Multiplication Chart 1 100 educational resource ideas and activities In this multiplication chart worksheet, students fill in each blank with the correct multiplication product. They are timed in this exercise and are asked to record their time for each block of exercise. Each block contains 10 multiplication questions and there are 10 blocks on the worksheet. The multiplication is all single digit integers. An excellent practice resource for helping students to master their multiplication skills. With 89 spaces missing from a 10x10 multiplication table, students must work to fill in the blanks and complete their multiplication chart. There is no instruction provided with this worksheet, but it could make a good supplementary activity. Answers are provided on a separate page.

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The Fall of Jericho “The people shouted, and the trumpets were blown. As soon as the people heard the sound of the trumpet, the people shouted a great shout, and the wall fell down flat” (v. 20).- Joshua 6 Commissioned to lead Israel into Canaan, Joshua sent spies into Jericho who were protected from harm through the efforts of Rahab, a Canaanite woman who feared the Lord (Josh. 2). After crossing the Jordan River, the Israelites came to Jericho where Joshua had an encounter with one whom many consider a pre-incarnate manifestation of the Son of God (chap. 3–5). Jericho, lying on the outer edge of the Promised Land, was a key city for the Israelites to conquer if they were to possess Canaan, which explains the lengthy treatment of the assault on the city in Joshua 6. As is customary in the ancient world, Jericho was a walled city, the wall being the chief means of defense against hostile armies. With this barrier, Jericho was well-equipped to endure a siege by foreign invaders, for those seeking to take the city had to get past the mighty wall. Of course, this wall was no match for our formidable Creator, and we are all familiar with how He took it down. The people marched around Jericho with the ark once a day for six days while the priests blew trumpets continually (Josh. 6:1–14). According to God’s instruction, they marched around the city seven times on the seventh day, blowing the trumpet and then giving a shout, after which the walls fell down by the Lord’s power and the people conquered the city, destroying everyone and everything in it except Rahab and her family (vv. 15–27). This annihilation of even the animals and children has troubled many, but it was not an uncommon practice in ancient wars. More importantly, God as the giver of life has the authority to take it, and in the invasion of Canaan He charged His people to eliminate everything, not because Israel was intrinsically holy but because the pagans in Canaan earned it (Gen. 15:12–21). Yet Joshua and the Israelites did not determine their victims; rather, the Lord directed them to fight a holy war in Canaan limited both in scope and duration. God’s people have never been commanded to slaughter all their enemies on every occasion. Finally, the salvation of Rahab and her household shows that even the holy war against the Canaanites was not absolute. Those willing to turn from sin and serve Yahweh, the true creator God who revealed Himself to Israel, were to be spared. Joshua and the Israelites were commanded to destroy the inhabitants of Canaan because of the spiritual threat they presented to God’s people (Ex. 34:11–16). Since this holy war was limited in scope and duration, the church is not allowed to take up the sword against unbelievers. Still, the spiritual threat of foreign gods remains, and thus we should be vigilant to pray for our neighbors and avoid adopting the worship of their deities. Passages for Further Study Permissions: You are permitted and encouraged to reproduce and distribute this material in any format provided that you do not alter the wording in any way, you do not charge a fee beyond the cost of reproduction, and you do not make more than 500 physical copies. For web posting, a link to this document on our website is preferred (where applicable). If no such link exists, simply link to www.ligonier.org. Please include the following statement on any distributed copy: From Ligonier Ministries, the teaching fellowship of R.C. Sproul. All rights reserved. Website: www.ligonier.org | Phone: 1-800-435-4343

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Why Do We Blink? Blinking is a protective reflex that cleans and moistens the eyeball. CREDIT: Eye image via Shutterstock In reality, the proverbial "blink of an eye" lasts only a tenth of a second, but that's all the time needed to clear away dust particles and spread lubricating fluids across the eyeball. Every time you blink, your eyelids spread a cocktail of oils and mucous secretions across the surface of the eye to keep your globes from drying out. Blinking also keeps eyes safe from potentially damaging stimuli, such as bright lights and foreign bodies like dust. So why don't you notice the world plunging into darkness every two to ten seconds? Scientists have found that the human brain has a talent for ignoring the momentary blackout. The very act of blinking suppresses activity in several areas of the brain responsible for detecting environmental changes, so that you experience the world as continuous. MORE FROM LiveScience.com

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The Chemistry of Life: The Human Body Editor's Note: This occasional series of articles looks at the vital things in our lives and the chemistry they are made of. You are what you eat. But do you recall munching some molybdenum or snacking on selenium? Some 60 chemical elements are found in the body, but what all of them are doing there is still unknown. Roughly 96 percent of the mass of the human body is made up of just four elements: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, with a lot of that in the form of water. The remaining 4 percent is a sparse sampling of the periodic table of elements. Some of the more prominent representatives are called macro nutrients, whereas those appearing only at the level of parts per million or less are referred to as micronutrients. These nutrients perform various functions, including the building of bones and cell structures, regulating the body's pH, carrying charge, and driving chemical reactions. The FDA has set a reference daily intake for 12 minerals (calcium, iron, phosphorous, iodine, magnesium, zinc, selenium, copper, manganese, chromium, molybdenum and chloride). Sodium and potassium also have recommended levels, but they are treated separately. However, this does not exhaust the list of elements that you need. Sulfur is not usually mentioned as a dietary supplement because the body gets plenty of it in proteins. And there are several other elements — such as silicon, boron, nickel, vanadium and lead — that may play a biological role but are not classified as essential. "This may be due to the fact that a biochemical function has not been defined by experimental evidence," said Victoria Drake from the Linus Pauling Institute at Oregon State University. Sometimes all that is known is that lab animals performed poorly when their diets lacked a particular non-essential element. However, identifying the exact benefit an element confers can be difficult as they rarely enter the body in a pure form. "We don't look at them as single elements but as elements wrapped up in a compound," said Christine Gerbstadt, national spokesperson for the American Dietetic Association. A normal diet consists of thousands of compounds (some containing trace elements) whose effects are the study of ongoing research. For now, we can only say for certain what 20 or so elements are doing. Here is a quick rundown, with the percentage of body weight in parentheses. Oxygen (65%) and hydrogen (10%) are predominantly found in water, which makes up about 60 percent of the body by weight. It's practically impossible to imagine life without water. Carbon (18%) is synonymous with life. Its central role is due to the fact that it has four bonding sites that allow for the building of long, complex chains of molecules. Moreover, carbon bonds can be formed and broken with a modest amount of energy, allowing for the dynamic organic chemistry that goes on in our cells. Nitrogen (3%) is found in many organic molecules, including the amino acids that make up proteins, and the nucleic acids that make up DNA. Calcium (1.5%) is the most common mineral in the human body — nearly all of it found in bones and teeth. Ironically, calcium's most important role is in bodily functions, such as muscle contraction and protein regulation. In fact, the body will actually pull calcium from bones (causing problems like osteoporosis) if there's not enough of the element in a person's diet. Phosphorus (1%) is found predominantly in bone but also in the molecule ATP, which provides energy in cells for driving chemical reactions. Potassium (0.25%) is an important electrolyte (meaning it carries a charge in solution). It helps regulate the heartbeat and is vital for electrical signaling in nerves. Sulfur (0.25%) is found in two amino acids that are important for giving proteins their shape. Sodium (0.15%) is another electrolyte that is vital for electrical signaling in nerves. It also regulates the amount of water in the body. Chlorine (0.15%) is usually found in the body as a negative ion, called chloride. This electrolyte is important for maintaining a normal balance of fluids. Magnesium (0.05%) plays an important role in the structure of the skeleton and muscles. It also is necessary in more than 300 essential metabolic reactions. Iron (0.006%) is a key element in the metabolism of almost all living organisms. It is also found in hemoglobin, which is the oxygen carrier in red blood cells. Half of women don't get enough iron in their diet. Fluorine (0.0037%) is found in teeth and bones. Outside of preventing tooth decay, it does not appear to have any importance to bodily health. Zinc (0.0032%) is an essential trace element for all forms of life. Several proteins contain structures called "zinc fingers" help to regulate genes. Zinc deficiency has been known to lead to dwarfism in developing countries. Copper (0.0001%) is important as an electron donor in various biological reactions. Without enough copper, iron won't work properly in the body. Iodine (0.000016%) is required for making of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolic rate and other cellular functions. Iodine deficiency, which can lead to goiter and brain damage, is an important health problem throughout much of the world. Selenium (0.000019%) is essential for certain enzymes, including several anti-oxidants. Unlike animals, plants do not appear to require selenium for survival, but they do absorb it, so there are several cases of selenium poisoning from eating plants grown in selenium-rich soils. Chromium (0.0000024%) helps regulate sugar levels by interacting with insulin, but the exact mechanism is still not completely understood. Manganese (0.000017%) is essential for certain enzymes, in particular those that protect mitochondria — the place where usable energy is generated inside cells — from dangerous oxidants. Molybdenum (0.000013%) is essential to virtually all life forms. In humans, it is important for transforming sulfur into a usable form. In nitrogen-fixing bacteria, it is important for transforming nitrogen into a usable form. Cobalt (0.0000021%) is contained in vitamin B12, which is important in protein formation and DNA regulation. - Video – Starving Out Cancer - 10 Things You Didn't Know About You - The Body Quiz MORE FROM LiveScience.com

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The War in Darfur is a guerrilla conflict or civil war centered on the Darfur region of Sudan. It began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab Sudanese in favor of Sudanese Arabs. |War in Darfur| |Part of the Sudanese Civil Wars| Pro-government militia in Darfur | JEM factions SLM (Minnawi faction) Allegedly supported by: Sudanese Armed Forces |Commanders and leaders| | Khalil Ibrahim † Abdul Wahid al Nur | Omar al-Bashir Martin Luther Agwai |Casualties and losses| |Unknown||Unknown||51 peacekeepers killed| |War in Darfur| |UNMIS / AMIS / UNAMID| |History of Darfur| The War in Darfur is a guerrilla conflict or civil war centered on the Darfur region of Sudan. It began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM/A) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) groups in Darfur took up arms, accusing the Sudanese government of oppressing non-Arab Sudanese in favor of Sudanese Arabs. One side of the conflict was composed mainly of the official Sudanese military and police, and the Janjaweed, a Sudanese militia group recruited mostly from the Arabized indigenous Africans and few Arab Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat; the majority of other Arab groups in Darfur remain uninvolved in the conflict. The other combatants are made up of rebel groups, notably the SLM/A and the JEM, recruited primarily from the non-Arab Muslim Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit ethnic groups. Although the Sudanese government publicly denies that it supports the Janjaweed, it has been providing financial assistance and weapons to the militia and has been organizing joint attacks targeting civilians. There are various estimates on the number of human casualties which range up to several hundred thousand dead, from either direct combat or starvation and disease inflicted by the conflict. There have also been mass displacements and coercive migrations, forcing millions into refugee camps or over the border and creating a large humanitarian crisis and is regarded by many, like US Secretary of State Colin Powell, as either a genocide, or acts of genocide. The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement in February 2010, with a tentative agreement to pursue further peace. The JEM has the most to gain from the talks and could see semi-autonomy much like South Sudan. However, talks have been disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village, violating the February agreement. The JEM, the largest rebel group in Darfur, has said they will boycott further negotiations. |List of abbreviations used in this article AU: African Union The conflict's origin goes back to land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture. Since the population of Darfur is predominantly Muslim, the conflict may not be only about race or religion, but about resources as the nomadic tribes facing drought are going after the territory of sedentary farmers. In the beginning of 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa people of Sudan complained that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign. Sudanese Arabs, who control the government, are widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government is accused of "deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing against non-Arabs in Darfur. American University economist George Ayittey accuses the Arab government of Sudan of practicing racist acts against black citizens. According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid." Many African commentators join Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid. Boston Globe columnist Fred Jacoby has accused Sudan of practicing apartheid against Christians in what is now South Sudan "where tens of thousands of black Africans in the country's southern region, most of them Christians or animists, have been abducted and sold into slavery by Arab militias backed by the Islamist regime in Khartoum." Alan Dershowitz has pointed to Sudan as an example of a government that "actually deserve(s)" the appellation "apartheid." Other distinguished people who have accused the regime in Sudan of practising "apartheid" against non-Arabs include former Canadian Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler. The usage of the terms "Arab" and "Black" has been opposed, because all parties involved in the Darfur conflict—whether they are referred to as ‘Arab’ (particularly Baggara/Janjaweed) or as ‘African,’ are equally indigenous. The Janjaweed group recruited mostly from the Arabized indigenous Africans/Baggara and few Arab Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat; while the majority of Arab groups in Darfur remain uninvolved in the conflict. The beginning point of the conflict in the Darfur region is typically said to be 26 February 2003, when a group calling itself the Darfur Liberation Front (DLF) publicly claimed credit for an attack on Golo, the headquarters of Jebel Marra District. Even prior to this attack, however, a conflict had erupted in Darfur, as rebels had already attacked police stations, army outposts and military convoys, and the government had engaged in a massive air and land assault on the rebel stronghold in the Marrah Mountains. The rebels' first military action was a successful attack on an army garrison on the mountain on 25 February 2002 and the Sudanese government had been aware of a unified rebel movement since an attack on the Golo police station in June 2002. Chroniclers Julie Flint and Alex de Waal state that the beginning of the rebellion is better dated to 21 July 2001, when a group of Zaghawa and Fur met in Abu Gamra and swore oaths on the Qur'an to work together to defend against government-sponsored attacks on their villages. It should be noted that nearly all of the residents of Darfur are Muslim, including the Janjaweed, as well as the government leaders in Khartoum. On 25 March 2003, the rebels seized the garrison town of Tine along the Chadian border, seizing large quantities of supplies and arms. Despite a threat by President Omar al-Bashir to "unleash" the army, the military had little in reserve. The army was already deployed both to the south, where the Second Sudanese Civil War was drawing to an end, and to the east, where terrorists sponsored by Eritrea were threatening a newly constructed pipeline from the central oilfields to Port Sudan. The rebel guerilla tactic of hit-and-run raids to speed across the semi-desert region proved almost impossible for the army, untrained in desert operations, to counter. However, its aerial bombardment of rebel positions on the mountain was devastating. At 5:30 am on 25 April 2003, a joint Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) force in 33 Toyota Land Cruisers entered al-Fashir and attacked the sleeping garrison. In the next four hours, four Antonov bombers and helicopter gunships (according to the government; seven according to the rebels) were destroyed on the ground, 75 soldiers, pilots and technicians were killed and 32 were captured, including the commander of the air base, a Major General. The success of the raid was unprecedented in Sudan; in the 20 years of the war in the south, the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) had never carried out such an operation. The al-Fashir raid was a turning point both militarily and psychologically. The armed forces had been humiliated by the al-Fashir raid and the government was faced with a difficult strategic situation. The incompetent armed forces would clearly need to be retrained and redeployed to fight this new kind of war and there were well-founded concerns about the loyalty of the many Darfurian non-commissioned officers and soldiers in the army. Responsibility for prosecuting the war was given to Sudanese military intelligence. Nevertheless, in the middle months of 2003, the rebels won 34 of 38 engagements. In May, the SLA destroyed a battalion at Kutum, killing 500 and taking 300 prisoners; and in mid-July, 250 were killed in a second attack on Tine. The SLA began to infiltrate farther east, threatening to extend the war into Kordofan. However, at this point the government changed its strategy. Given that the army was being consistently defeated, the war effort depended on three elements: military intelligence, the air force, and the Janjaweed, armed Baggara herders whom the government had begun directing in suppression of a Masalit uprising in 1986–1999. The Janjaweed were put at the center of the new counter-insurgency strategy. Though the government consistently denied supporting the Janjaweed, military resources were poured into Darfur and the Janjaweed were outfitted as a paramilitary force, complete with communication equipment and some artillery. The military planners were doubtlessly aware of the probable consequences of such a strategy: similar methods undertaken in the Nuba Mountains and around the southern oil fields during the 1990s had resulted in massive human rights violations and forced displacements. The better-armed Janjaweed quickly gained the upper hand. By the spring of 2004, several thousand people – mostly from the non-Arab population – had been killed and as many as a million more had been driven from their homes, causing a major humanitarian crisis in the region. The crisis took on an international dimension when over 100,000 refugees poured into neighbouring Chad, pursued by Janjaweed militiamen, who clashed with Chadian government forces along the border. More than 70 militiamen and 10 Chadian soldiers were killed in one gun battle in April. A United Nations observer team reported that non-Arab villages were singled out while Arab villages were left untouched: The 23 Fur villages in the Shattaya Administrative Unit have been completely depopulated, looted and burnt to the ground (the team observed several such sites driving through the area for two days). Meanwhile, dotted alongside these charred locations are unharmed, populated and functioning Arab settlements. In some locations, the distance between a destroyed Fur village and an Arab village is less than 500 meters. A 2011 study in the British Journal of Sociology, “The Displaced and Dispossessed of Darfur: Explaining the Sources of a Continuing State-Led Genocide,” examined 1,000 interviews with Black African participants who fled from 22 village clusters in Darfur to various refugee camps in 2003 and 2004. The study found that: 1) The frequency of hearing racial epithets during an attack was 70% higher when it was led by the Janjaweed alone compared to official police forces; it was 80% higher when the Janjaweed and the Sudanese Government attacked together; 2) Risk of displacement was nearly 110% higher during a joint attack compared to when the police or Janjaweed acted alone, and 85% higher when Janjaweed forces attacked alone compared to when the attack was only perpetrated by the Sudanese Government forces; 3) Attacks on food and water supplies made it 129% more likely for inhabitants to be displaced compared to attacks that involved house burnings or killing of persons; 4) Perpetrators knew and took “special advantage” of the susceptibility of Darfur residents to attacks focused on basic resources. This vulnerability came against the backdrop of increased regional desertification. In 2004, Chad brokered negotiations in N'Djamena, leading to the April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement between the Sudanese government, the JEM, and the SLA. One group which did not participate in the April cease-fire talks or agreement – the National Movement for Reform and Development — splintered from the JEM in April. Janjaweed and rebel attacks continued despite the ceasefire, and the African Union (AU) formed a Ceasefire Commission (CFC) to monitor its observance. In August, the African Union sent 150 Rwandan troops in to protect the ceasefire monitors. It, however, soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough, so they were joined by 150 Nigerian troops. On 18 September, the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 1564 declaring that the government of Sudan had not met its commitments and expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by the Janjaweed militia against villages in Darfur. It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance its monitoring mission in Darfur and urged all member states to support such efforts. During April 2005, after the government of Sudan signed a ceasefire agreement with Sudan People's Liberation Army which led to the end of the Second Sudanese Civil War, the African Union Mission in Sudan force was increased by 600 troops and 80 military observers. In July, the force was increased by about 3,300 (with a budget of 220 million dollars). In April 2005, AMIS was increased to about 7,000. The scale of the crisis led to warnings of an imminent disaster, with United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan warning that the risk of genocide was frighteningly real in Darfur. The scale of the Janjaweed campaign led to comparisons with the Rwandan Genocide, a parallel hotly denied by the Sudanese government. Independent observers noted that the tactics, which included dismemberment and killing of noncombatants and even young children and babies, were more akin to the ethnic cleansing used in the Yugoslav wars and warned that the region's remoteness meant that hundreds of thousands of people were effectively cut off from aid. The Brussels-based International Crisis Group had reported in May 2004 that over 350,000 people could potentially die as a result of starvation and disease. On 10 July 2005, Ex-SPLA leader John Garang was sworn in as Sudan's vice-president. However, on 30 July, Garang died in a helicopter crash. His death had long-term implications and, despite improved security, talks between the various rebels in the Darfur region progressed slowly. An attack on the Chadian town of Adré near the Sudanese border led to the deaths of three hundred rebels in December. Sudan was blamed for the attack, which was the second in the region in three days. The escalating tensions in the region led to the government of Chad declaring its hostility toward Sudan and calling for Chadian citizens to mobilise themselves against the "common enemy". (See Chad-Sudan conflict) On 5 May 2006, the government of Sudan signed an accord with the faction of the SLA led by Minni Minnawi. However, the agreement was rejected by two other, smaller groups, the Justice and Equality Movement and a rival faction of the SLA. The accord was orchestrated by the U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert B. Zoellick, Salim Ahmed Salim (working on behalf of the African Union), AU representatives, and other foreign officials operating in Abuja, Nigeria. It called for the disarmament of the Janjaweed militia, and for the rebel forces to disband and be incorporated into the army. July and August 2006 saw renewed fighting, with international aid organizations considering leaving due to attacks against their personnel. Kofi Annan called for the deployment of 18,000 international peacekeepers in Darfur to replace the African Union force of 7,000 (AMIS). In one incident at Kalma, seven women, who ventured out of a refugee camp to gather firewood, were gang-raped, beaten and robbed by the Janjaweed. When they had finished, the attackers stripped them naked and jeered at them as they fled. In a private meeting on 18 August, Hédi Annabi, Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, warned that Sudan appeared to be preparing for a major military offensive in Darfur. The warning came a day after UN Commission on Human Rights special investigator Sima Samar stated that Sudan's efforts in the region remained poor despite the May Agreement. On 19 August, Sudan reiterated its opposition to replacing the 7,000 AU force with a 17,000 UN one, resulting in the US issuing a "threat" to Sudan over the "potential consequences" of this position. On 24 August, Sudan rejected attending a United Nations Security Council (UNSC) meeting to explain its plan of sending 10,000 Sudanese soldiers to Darfur instead of the proposed 20,000 UN peacekeeping force. The UNSC announced it would hold the meeting despite Sudan's non-attendance. Also on 24 August, the International Rescue Committee reported that hundreds of women were raped and sexually assaulted around the Kalma refugee camp during the previous several weeks, and that the Janjaweed were reportedly using rape to cause women to be humiliated and ostracised. On 25 August, the head of the U.S. State Department's Bureau of African Affairs, Assistant Secretary Jendayi Frazer, warned that the region faced a security crisis unless the proposed UN peacekeeping force was allowed to deploy. On 26 August, two days before the UNSC meeting and on the day Frazer was due to arrive in Khartoum, Paul Salopek, a U.S. National Geographic Magazine journalist, appeared in court in Darfur facing charges of espionage; he had crossed into the country illegally from Chad, circumventing the Sudanese government's official restrictions on foreign journalists. He was later released after direct negotiation with President al-Bashir. This came a month after Tomo Križnar, a Slovenian presidential envoy, was sentenced to two years in prison for spying. On 31 August 2006, the UNSC approved a resolution to send a new peacekeeping force of 17,300 to the region. Sudan expressed strong opposition to the resolution. On 1 September, African Union officials reported that Sudan had launched a major offensive in Darfur, killing more than 20 people and displacing over 1,000. On 5 September, Sudan asked the AU force in Darfur to leave the region by the end of the month, adding that "they have no right to transfer this assignment to the United Nations or any other party. This right rests with the government of Sudan." On 4 September, in a move not viewed as surprising, Chad's president Idriss Déby voiced support for the new UN peacekeeping force. The AU, whose peacekeeping force mandate expired on 30 September 2006, confirmed that its troops would leave the region. The next day, however, a senior US State Department official told reporters that the AU force might remain past the deadline. On 8 September, António Guterres, head of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, said Darfur faced a "humanitarian catastrophe". On 12 September, Sudan's European Union envoy Pekka Haavisto claimed that the Sudanese army was "bombing civilians in Darfur". A World Food Programme official reported that food aid had been cut off from at least 355,000 people in the region. Kofi Annan told the UNSC that "the tragedy in Darfur has reached a critical moment. It merits this council's closest attention and urgent action." On 14 September, the leader of the Sudan Liberation Movement, Minni Minnawi, stated that he did not object to the UN peacekeeping force, in opposition to the Sudanese government's view that such a deployment would be an act of Western invasion. Minnawi claimed that the AU force "can do nothing because the AU mandate is very limited". Khartoum remained sternly against the UN's involvement, with Sudanese president Al-Bashir depicting it as a colonial plan and stating that "we do not want Sudan to turn into another Iraq." On 2 October, with the UN force plan suspended indefinitely because of Sudanese opposition, the AU announced that it would extend its presence in the region until 31 December 2006. Two hundred UN troops were sent to reinforce the AU force. On 6 October, the UNSC voted to extend the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Sudan until 30 April 2007. On 9 October, the Food and Agriculture Organization listed Darfur as the most pressing food emergency out of the forty countries listed on its Crop Prospects and Food Situation report. On 10 October, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Louise Arbour, claimed that the Sudanese government had prior knowledge of attacks by Janjaweed militias in Buram, South Darfur the month before, an attack which saw hundreds of civilians killed. On 12 October, Nigerian Foreign Minister Joy Ogwu arrived in Darfur for a two-day visit. She urged the Sudanese government to accept a UN formula. Speaking in Ethiopia, Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo spoke against "stand[ing] by and see[ing] genocide being developed in Darfur." On 13 October, US President George W. Bush imposed further sanctions against those deemed complicit in the Darfur atrocities under the Darfur Peace and Accountability Act of 2006. The measures were said to strengthen existing sanctions by prohibiting US citizens from engaging in oil-related transactions with Sudan (although US companies had been prohibited from doing any business with Sudan since 1997), freezing the assets of complicit parties and denying them entry to the US. The AU mission's lack of funding and equipment meant that aid workers' work in Darfur was severely limited by fighting. Some warned that the humanitarian situation could deteriorate to levels seen in 2003 and 2004, when UN officials called Darfur the world's worst humanitarian crisis. On 22 October, the Sudanese government told UN envoy Jan Pronk to leave the country within three days. Pronk, the senior UN official in the country, had been heavily criticized by the army after he posted a description of several recent military defeats in Darfur to his personal blog. On 1 November, the US announced that it would formulate an international plan which it hoped the Sudanese government would find more palatable. On 9 November, senior Sudanese presidential advisor Nafie Ali Nafie told reporters that his government was prepared to start unconditional talks with the National Redemption Front (NRF) rebel alliance, but noted he saw little use for a new peace agreement. The NRF, which had rejected the May Agreement and sought a new peace agreement, did not issue a comment. In late 2006, Darfur Arabs started their own rebel group, the Popular Forces Troops, and announced on 6 December that they had repulsed an assault by the Sudanese army at Kas-Zallingi the previous day. In a statement, they called the Janjaweed mercenaries who did not represent Darfur's Arabs. They were the latest of numerous Darfur Arab groups to have announced their opposition to the government's war since 2003, some of which had signed political accords with rebel movements. The same period saw an example of a tribe-based split within the Arab forces, when relations between the farming Terjem and nomadic, camel-herding Mahria tribes became tense. Terjem leaders accused the Mahria of kidnapping a Terjem boy, and Mahria leaders said the Terjem had been stealing their animals. Ali Mahamoud Mohammed, the wali, or governor, of South Darfur, said the fighting began in December when the Mahria drove their camels south in a seasonal migration, trampling through Terjem territory near the Bulbul River. Fighting would resume in July 2007. On 17 November, reports of a potential deal to place a "compromise peacekeeping force" in Darfur were announced, but would later appear to have been rejected by Sudan. The UN, nonetheless, claimed on 18 November that Sudan had agreed to the deployment of UN peacekeepers. Sudan's Foreign Minister Lam Akol stated that "there should be no talk about a mixed force" and that the UN's role should be restricted to technical support. Also on 18 November, the AU reported that Sudanese military and Sudanese-backed militias had launched a ground and air operation in the region which resulted in about 70 civilian deaths. The AU stated that this "was a flagrant violation of security agreements". On 25 November, a spokesperson for UN High Commissioner for Human Rights accused the Sudanese government of having committed "a deliberate and unprovoked attack" against civilians in the town of Sirba on 11 November, which claimed the lives of at least 30 people. The Commissioner's statement maintained that "contrary to the government’s claim, it appears that the Sudanese Armed Forces launched a deliberate and unprovoked attack on civilians and their property in Sirba," and that this also involved "extensive and wanton destruction and looting of civilian property". According to the Save Darfur Coalition, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and President al-Bashir have agreed to a cease-fire whereby the Sudanese "government and rebel groups will cease hostilities for a period of 60 days while they work towards a lasting peace." In addition, the Save Darfur press release stated that the agreement "included a number of concessions to improve humanitarian aid and media access to Darfur." Despite the formality of a ceasefire there have been further media reports of killings and other violence. On Sunday 15 April 2007, African Union peacekeepers were targeted and killed. The New York Times reported that "a confidential United Nations report says the government of Sudan is flying arms and heavy military equipment into Darfur in violation of Security Council resolutions and painting Sudanese military planes white to disguise them as United Nations or African Union aircraft." The violence has spread over the border to Chad. On 31 March 2007 Janjaweed militiamen killed up to 400 people in the volatile eastern border region of Chad near Sudan. The attack took place in the border villages of Tiero and Marena. The villages were encircled and then fired upon. Fleeing villagers were later subsequently chased. The women were robbed and the men shot according to the UNHCR. There were many who, despite surviving the initial attack, ended up dying due to exhaustion and dehydration, often while fleeing. On 14 April 2007, more attacks within Chad were reported by the UNHCR to have occurred again in the border villages of Tiero and Marena. On 18 April President Bush gave a speech at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum criticizing the Sudanese government and threatened the use of sanctions if the situation does not improve. Sanctions would involve restriction of trade and dollar transactions with the Sudanese government and 29 Sudanese businesses. Sudan's humanitarian affairs minister, Ahmed Haroun, and a Janjaweed militia leader, known as Ali Kushayb, have been charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Ahmed Haroun said he "did not feel guilty," his conscience was clear, and that he was ready to defend himself. Sudanese President Omar Hassan al-Bashir and Chad president Idriss Deby signed a peace agreement on 3 May 2007 aimed at reducing tension between their countries. The accord was brokered by Saudi Arabia. It sought to guarantee that each country would not be used to harbor, train or fund armed movements opposed to the government of the other. The Reuters News Service reported that "Deby's fears that Nouri's UFDD may have been receiving Saudi as well as Sudanese support could have pushed him to sign the Saudi-mediated pact with Bashir on Thursday". Colin Thomas-Jensen, an expert on Chad and Darfur who works International Crisis Group think-tank has grave doubts as to whether "this new deal will lead to any genuine thaw in relations or improvement in the security situation". Additionally The Chadian rebel Union of Forces for Democracy and Development (UFDD) which has fought a hit-and-run war against Chad President Deby's forces in east Chad since 2006 stated that the Saudi-backed peace deal would not stop its military campaign. Thus the agreement may end up hurting the Sudanese rebels the most, leaving the Sudanese government with a freer hand. Also in May, locations related to the conflict were added in Google Earth. Oxfam announced on 17 June that it is permanently pulling out of Gereida, the largest camp in Darfur, where more than 130,000 have sought refuge. The agency cited inaction by local authorities from the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM), which controls the region, in addressing security concerns and violence against aid workers. An employee of the NGO Action by Churches Together was murdered in June in West Darfur. There have been ongoing hijackings of vehicles belonging to the UN and other international organizations—something that is also making them think twice about staying in the region. BBC News reported that a huge underground lake has been found in the Darfur region. It is suggested that this find could help end the war as it could eliminate the existing competition for precious water resources. France and Britain announced they would push for a UN resolution to dispatch African Union and United Nations peacekeepers to Darfur and would push for an immediate cease-fire in Darfur and are prepared to provide "substantial" economic aid "as soon as a cease-fire makes it possible." A 14 July 2007 article notes that in the past two months up to 75,000 Arabs from Chad and Niger crossed the border into Darfur. Most have been relocated by Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab people. The hybrid UN/AU force was finally approved on 31 July 2007 with the unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1769. UNAMID will take over from AMIS by 31 December 2007 at the latest, and has an initial mandate up to 31 July 2008. On 31 July, the ongoing conflict between the Terjem and the Mahria tribes (former partners in the Janjaweed) heated up, with Mahria gunmen surrounding mourners at the funeral of an important Terjem sheik and killing 60 with rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) and belt-fed machine guns. From 3 August 2007 until 5 August 2007, a conference was held in Arusha, Tanzania, to unite the different existing rebel groups to make the subsequent peace negotiations with the government of Sudan more streamlined. Most senior rebel leaders attended, with the notable exception of Abdul Wahid al Nur, who – while not in command of large forces, but a rather small splinter group of the SLA/M he initially founded in 2003 — is considered to be the representatives of a large part of the displaced Fur people, and there have been concerns that his absence would be damaging to the peace talks. International officials have stated that the difficulty lies in the fact that there is "no John Garang in Darfur", referring to the leader of the negotiating team of South Sudan, who was universally accepted by all the various South Sudanese splinter groups. The leaders who arrived on Friday were Gamali Galaleiddine, Khalil Abdalla Adam, Salah Abu Surra, Khamis Abdallah Abakar, Ahmed Abdelshafi, Abdalla Yahya, Khalil Ibrahim (of the Justice and Equality Movement) and Ahmed Ibrahim Ali Diraige. The schedule for Saturday consists of closed-door meetings between the AU-UN and rebel leaders, as well as between rebel leaders alone. In addition to those eight, eight more arrived there late on 4 August (including Jar el-Neby, Salah Adam Isaac and Suleiman Marajan), whereas the SLM Unity faction also boycotted the talks as the Sudanese government had threatened to arrest Suleiman Jamous if he left the hospital. The rebel leaders aimed to unify their positions and demands, which included compensation for the victims and autonomy for Darfur. They eventually reached agreement on joined demands, including power and wealth sharing, security, land and humanitarian issues. In the several months up through August, Arab tribes that had worked together in the Janjaweed militia began falling out among themselves, and even further splintered into factions. Terjem fought Mahria as thousands of gunmen from each side traveled hundreds of miles to fight in the strategic Bulbul river valley. Farther south, Habanniya and Salamat tribes clashed. The fighting did not result in as much killing as in 2003 and 2004, the height of the violence. United Nations officials said the groups might be trying to seize land before U.N. and African Union peacekeepers arrived. On 6 September 2007, the next round of peace talks was set to begin on 27 October 2007. On 18 September 2007, JEM stated that if the peace talks with Khartoum should fail, they would step up their demands from self-determination to independence for the Darfur region. On 30 September 2007, the rebels overran an AMIS base, killing at least 12 peacekeepers in "the heaviest loss of life and biggest attack on the African Mission" during a raid at the end of Ramadan season. The following groups didn't attend: Faced with a boycott from the most important rebel factions, the talks were rebranded as an "advanced consultation phase", with actual talks likely to start in November or December. On 15 November, nine rebel groups – six SLM factions, the Democratic Popular Front, the Sudanese Revolutionary Front and the Justice and Equality Movement–Field Revolutionary Command – signed a Charter of Unification and agreed to operate under the name of SLM/A henceforth. On 30 November it was announced that Darfur's rebel movements had united into two large groups and were now ready to negotiate in an orderly structure with the government. A fresh Sudanese offensive by government soldiers and Arab militiamen against Darfur rebels trapped thousands of refugees along the Chadian border, the rebels and humanitarian workers said 20 February 2008. As of 21 February, the total dead in Darfur stood at 450,000 with an estimated 3,245,000 people displaced. On 10 May 2008 Sudanese government soldiers and Darfur rebels clashed in the city of Omdurman, opposite the capital of Khartoum, over the control of a military headquarters. They also raided a police base from which they stole police vehicles. A Sudanese police spokesperson said that the leader of the assailants, Mohamed Saleh Garbo, and his intelligence chief, Mohamed Nur Al-Deen, were killed in the clash. Witnesses said that heavy gunfire could be heard in the west of Sudan's capital. Sudanese troops backed by tanks, artillery, and helicopter gunships were immediately deployed to Omdurman, and fighting raged for several hours. After seizing the strategic military airbase at Wadi-Sayedna, the Sudanese soldiers eventually defeated the rebels. A JEM force headed to the Al-Ingaz bridge to cross the White Nile into Khartoum, but was repulsed forces. By late afternoon, Sudanese TV claimed that the rebels had been "completely repulsed", while showing live images of burnt vehicles and corpses on the streets. The government imposed a curfew in Khartoum from 5 pm to 6 am, and aid agencies told their workers living in the capital to stay indoors. Some 93 soldiers and 13 policemen were killed along with 30 civilians in the attack on Khartoum and Omdurman. Sudanese forces confirmed that they found the bodies of 90 rebels and had spotted dozens more strewn outside the city limits. While Sudanese authorities claimed that up to 400 rebels could have been killed, the rebels stated that they lost 45 fighters dead or wounded. Sudanese authorities also claimed to have destroyed 40 rebel vehicles and captured 17. General Martin Agwai, head of the joint African Union-United Nations mission in Darfur, said the war was over in the region, although low-level disputes remain. There is still "Banditry, localised issues, people trying to resolve issues over water and land at a local level. But real war as such, I think we are over that," he said. In December 2010, representatives of the Liberation and Justice Movement, an umbrella organisation of ten rebel groups formed in February 2010, started a fresh round of talks with the Sudanese Government in Doha, Qatar. A new rebel group, the Sudanese Alliance Resistance Forces in Darfur, was also formed, and the Justice and Equality Movement planned further talks. The talks ended on 19 December without a new peace agreement but basic principles were agreed upon; these included a regional authority and a referendum on autonomy for Darfur. The possibility of a Darfuri Vice-President was also discussed. In January 2011, the leader of the Liberation and Justice Movement, Dr. Tijani Sese, stated that the movement had accepted the core proposals of the Darfur peace document proposed by the joint-mediators in Doha. The proposals included a $300,000,000 compensation package for victims of atrocities in Darfur and special courts to conduct trials of persons accused of human rights violations. Proposals for a new Darfur Regional Authority were also included, this authority would have an executive council of 18 ministers and would remain in place for five years. The current three Darfur states and state governments would also continue to exist during this period. In February, the Sudanese Government rejected the idea of a single region headed by a vice-president from the region. On 29 January, the leaders of the Liberation and Justice Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement issued a joint statement affirming their commitment to the Doha negotiations and intention to attend the Doha forum on 5 February. The Sudanese government postponed deciding whether to attend the forum on that date due to beliefs that an internal peace process without the involvement of rebel groups might be possible. Later in February, the Sudanese Government agreed to return to the Doha peace forum with a view to complete a new peace agreement by the end of that month. On 25 February, both the Liberation and Justice Movement and the Justice and Equality Movement announced that they had rejected the peace document proposed by the mediators in Doha. The main sticking points were the issues of a Darfuri vice-president and compensation for victims. The Sudanese government did not comment on the peace document. On 9 March, it was announced that two more states would be established in Darfur: Central Darfur around Zalingei and Eastern Darfur around Ed Daein. The rebel groups protested and stated that this was a bid to further divide Darfur's influence. Advising both the LJM and JEM during the Doha peace negotiations was the Public International Law & Policy Group (PILPG). Led by Dr. Paul Williams and Matthew T. Simpson, PILPG's team provided on the ground legal support with regard to the substantive issues in the peace process. In June, a new Darfur Peace Agreement (2011) was proposed by the Joint Mediators at the Doha Peace Forum. This agreement was to supersede the Abuja Agreement of 2005 and when signed, would halt preparations for a Darfur status referendum. The proposed document included provisions for a Darfuri Vice-President and an administrative structure that includes both three states and a strategic regional authority, the Darfur Regional Authority, to oversee Darfur as a whole. The agreement was signed by the Government of Sudan and the Liberation and Justice Movement on 14 July 2011. As of September 2012, little progress had happened since, and the situation was slowly worsening. the situation has worsened and is violent again. Refugee camps are increasing in population. Following a donors conference in Doha that pledged US$3.6 billion to help rebuild Darfur, a conference that was criticised in the region, Sudan Liberation Army - Minni Minnawi rebels had taken, according to the group's Hussein Minnawi, Ashma village and another town and were close to the South Darfur capital of Nyala. On 27 April, following weeks of fighting, a coalition that included the SLA and JEM, that they had taken Um Rawaba in North Kordofan, outside Darfur, and that they were headed for Khartoum to topple the president. The head of a faction of the SLA, Abdel Wahid Mohammed al-Nur, said: "This is a significant shift in the war in Sudan. We are heading to Khartoum. This is not a joke." Sudanese authorities claim a death toll of roughly 10,000 civilians. In September 2004, the World Health Organization estimated that there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur since the beginning of the conflict, an 18-month period, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate the following month put the number of deaths for the 6-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticized, because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence. A more recent British Parliamentary Report has estimated that over 300,000 people have died, and others have estimated even more. In March 2005, the UN's Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland estimated that 10,000 were dying each month excluding deaths due to ethnic violence. An estimated 2.7 million people had at that time been displaced from their homes, mostly seeking refuge in camps in Darfur's major towns. Two hundred thousand had fled to neighboring Chad. Reports of violent deaths compiled by the UN indicate between 6,000 and 7,000 fatalities from 2004 to 2007. In May 2005, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) of the School of Public Health of the Université catholique de Louvain in Brussels, Belgium published an analysis of mortality in Darfur. Their estimate stated that from September 2003 to January 2005, between 98,000 and 181,000 persons had died in Darfur, including 63,000 to 146,000 excess deaths. On 28 April 2006, Dr. Eric Reeves argued that "extant data, in aggregate, strongly suggest that total excess mortality in Darfur, over the course of more than three years of deadly conflict, now significantly exceeds 450,000," but this has not been independently verified. The UN disclosed on 22 April 2008 that it might have underestimated the Darfur death toll by nearly 50%. In July 2009, the Christian Science Monitor published an op-ed stating that many of the published mortality rates have been misleading because they include a large number of people who have died of disease and malnutrition, as well as those who have died from direct violence. Therefore, when activist groups make statements indicating that "four hundred thousand people have been killed," they are misleading the public. In January 2010, The Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters published an article in a special issue of The Lancet. The article, entitled Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur Conflict, estimated, with 95% confidence, that the excess number of deaths is between 178,258 and 461,520 (the mean being 298,271), with 80% of these due to diseases. 51 International peacekeepers have been killed in Darfur. International attention to the Darfur conflict largely began with reports by the advocacy organizations Amnesty International in July 2003 and the International Crisis Group in December 2003. However, widespread media coverage did not start until the outgoing United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator for Sudan, Mukesh Kapila, called Darfur the "world's greatest humanitarian crisis" in March 2004. Organizations such as STAND: A Student Anti-Genocide Coalition, later under the umbrella of Genocide Intervention Network, and the Save Darfur Coalition emerged and became particularly active in the areas of engaging the United States Congress and President on the issue and pushing for divestment nationwide, initially launched by Adam Sterling under the auspice of the Sudan Divestment Task Force. Particularly strong advocates have additionally included: New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof, Sudan scholar Eric Reeves, Enough Project founder John Prendergast, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Samantha Power, photographers Ryan Spencer Reed, former Marine Brian Steidle, actress Mia Farrow and her son Ronan Farrow, Olympian Joey Cheek, actress Angelina Jolie, actors George Clooney, and Don Cheadle, actor Jonah Hill, actress Salma Hayek, Save Darfur Coalition's David Rubenstein, Slovenian humanitarian Tomo Kriznar, and all of those involved with the Genocide Intervention Network. A movement advocating for humanitarian intervention has emerged in several countries. In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. In April 2007, the Judges of the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmed Haroun, and a Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes. The Sudan Government said that the ICC had no jurisdiction to try Sudanese citizens and that it would not hand the two men over to authorities in the Hague. On 14 July 2008, the Prosecutor filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's incumbent President Omar al-Bashir, three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity and two of murder. The Prosecutor has claimed that Mr. al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity. Leaders from three Darfur tribes are suing ICC prosecutor Luis-Moreno Ocampo for libel, defamation, and igniting hatred and tribalism. After an arrest warrant was issued for the Sudanese president in March 2009, the Prosecutor appealed to have the genocide charges added. However, the Pre-Trial Chamber found that there was no reasonable ground to support the contention that he had a specific intent to commit genocide (dolus specialis), which is an intention to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group. The definition adopted by the Pre-Trial Chamber is the definition of the Genocide Convention, the Rome Statute, and some ICTY cases. On 3 February 2010 the Appeals Chamber of the ICC found that the Pre-Trial Chamber had applied "an erroneous standard of proof when evaluating the evidence submitted by the Prosecutor" and that the Prosecutor's application for a warrant of arrest on the genocide charges should be sent back to the Pre-Trial Chamber to review based on the correct legal standard. In July 2010, Sudan's president Omar al-Bashir was finally charged by Hague for orchestrating Darfur genocide, three counts of genocide in Darfur by the International Criminal Court. Mr. al-Bashir is now the first incumbent head of state charged with crimes in the Rome Statute. Bashir has rejected the charges and said, "Whoever has visited Darfur, met officials and discovered their ethnicities and tribes ... will know that all of these things are lies." It is expected that al-Bashir will not face trial in The Hague until he is apprehended in a nation which accepts the ICC's jurisdiction, as Sudan is not a state party to the Rome Statute which it signed but didn't ratify. Payam Akhavan, a professor of international law at McGill University in Montreal and a former war crimes prosecutor, says although he may not go to trial, "He will effectively be in prison within the Sudan itself...Al-Bashir now is not going to be able to leave the Sudan without facing arrest." The Prosecutor has publicly warned that authorities could arrest the President if he enters international airspace. The Sudanese government has announced the Presidential plane will be accompanied by jet fighters. However, the Arab League has announced its solidarity with al-Bashir. Since the warrant, he has visited Qatar and Egypt. Both countries have refused to arrest him. The African Union also condemned the arrest warrant. Some analysts think that the ICC indictment is counterproductive and harms the peace process. Only days after the ICC indictment, al-Bashir expelled 13 international aid organizations from Darfur and disbanded three domestic aid organizations. In the aftermath of the expulsions, conditions in the displaced camps deteriorated, and women were particularly affected. Previous ICC indictments, such as the arrest warrants of the LRA leadership in the ongoing war at northern Uganda, were also accused of harming peace processes by criminalizing one side of a war. Some believe that the arrest warrant against al-Bashir will hinder the efforts to establish peace in Darfur, and will undermine any effort to boost stability in Sudan. |This section's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. (January 2012)| Amnesty International issued a report accusing Russia and the People's Republic of China of supplying arms, ammunition and related equipment to Sudan. This hardware has been transferred to Darfur for use by the government and the Janjaweed(Arab) militias and thus violating a UN arms embargo against Darfur. In its report it showed a photo of Chinese-made Fantan fighters that have been seen at Nyala, Darfur and a Ukrainian Antonov-26 aircraft (painted white). The report provided evidence (including eyewitness testimony) that the Sudan Air Force has been conducting a pattern of indiscriminate aerial bombings of villages in Darfur and eastern Chad, a country not officially a part of the conflict using ground attack jet fighters and Antonov planes. The report contained an image of a Russian made Mi-24 attack helicopter (reg. n° 928) at Nyala airport in Darfur, Sudan in March 2007. For several years the Sudan Air Force has used this type of attack helicopter for operations during Janjaweed attacks on villages in Darfur. The report also showed evidence that the government has been camouflaging military aircraft and helicopters by painting them white and in doing so, tried to cover up their military use by claiming that they were civilian in nature. The white Antonov-26 aircraft was reported to have been used in Darfur in bombing missions. Recently it has been confirmed by Airforces Monthly Magazine for June 2007, that China and Iran have financed and delivered "newer" aircraft for Sudan. The most recent additions have been 15–20 Chinese A5 Fantan ground attack aircraft, which are actually quite obsolete. Also confirmed by Airforces Monthly is the use of Mil Mi-24 Hind gunships and Mil Mi-171Assault Helicopters. They have been photographed painted in UN markings and white color for disguised use in illegal attack missions into the Darfur Region. The base in which they have been seen is at Nyala Airport in the Darfur Region. 8 Hinds have been confirmed operating in the Darfur region. One An-26 transport has been also confirmed delivered from a Russian civil aviation corporation. This aircraft is modified with bomb racks, and painted in U.N. white for illegal bombing missions into Darfur. The aircraft serial 7705 is used, but actually confirmed as 26563. Training for Sudanese crew has recently been confirmed to have been conducted and ongoing at Dezful-Ardestani Air Base in southern Iran. China and Russia denied they had broken UN sanctions. China has a close relationship with Sudan and increased its military co-operation with the government in early 2007. Because of Sudan's plentiful supply of oil, China considers good relations with Sudan to be a strategic necessity that is needed to fuel its booming economy. China also has direct commercial interests in Sudan's oil. China’s state-owned company CNPC controls between 60 and 70 percent of Sudan’s total oil production. Additionally, it owns the largest single share (40 percent) of Sudan’s national oil company, Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. China has also consistently opposed economic and non-military sanctions on Sudan. Recently, however, a 2007 Small Arms Survey research paper suggested that China may be changing its stance on Darfur due to international pressure. Tsim Al Bashir has sought the assistance of numerous non western countries after the West, led by America, imposed sanctions against him, he said- "From the first day, our policy was clear: To look eastward, toward China, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and even Korea and Japan, even if the Western influence upon some [of these] countries is strong. We believe that the Chinese expansion was natural because it filled the space left by Western governments, the United States, and international funding agencies. The success of the Sudanese experiment in dealing with China without political conditions or pressures encouraged other African countries to look toward China." Gérard Prunier, a scholar specializing in African conflicts, argued that the world's most powerful countries have largely limited themselves in expressing concerns and demand for the United Nations to take action in solving the genocide in Darfur. The UN, lacking both the funding and military support of the wealthy countries, has left the African Union to deploy a token force (AMIS) without a mandate to protect civilians. In the lack of foreign political will to address the political and economic structures that underlie the conflict, the international community has defined the Darfur conflict in humanitarian assistance terms and debated the label of "genocide." On 16 October 2006, Minority Rights Group (MRG) published a critical report, challenging that the UN and the great powers could have prevented the deepening crisis in Darfur and that few lessons appear to have been drawn from their ineptitude during the Rwandan Genocide. MRG's executive director, Mark Lattimer, stated that: "this level of crisis, the killings, rape and displacement could have been foreseen and avoided ... Darfur would just not be in this situation had the UN systems got its act together after Rwanda: their action was too little too late." On 20 October 120 genocide survivors of The Holocaust, and the Cambodian and Rwandan Genocides, backed by six aid agencies, submitted an open letter to the European Union, calling on them to do more to end the atrocities in Darfur, with a UN peacekeeping force as "the only viable option." Aegis Trust director, James Smith, stated that while "the African Union has worked very well in Darfur and done what it could, the rest of the world hasn't supported those efforts the way it should have done with sufficient funds and sufficient equipment." Human Rights First claimed that over 90% of the light weapons currently being imported by Sudan and used in the conflict are from China; however, according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)'s "Arms Transfers Data for 2007", in 2003–2007, Sudan received 87 per cent of its major conventional weapons from Russia and 8 per cent from China. Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China's role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain oil just as colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as they extracted natural resources. According to China's critics, China has offered Sudan support threatening to use its veto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctions and has been able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its interests in Sudan. Accusations of the supply of weapons from China, violating the UN arms embargo, continue to arise. Amnesty International slammed Russia for breaking the UN arms embargo on Darfur, Russians sold weapons like Mi-24 helicopters, Antonov 26 planes, Russian weapons sales to Sudan totaled 21 million dollars. It was reported these weapons were used to slaughter Darfur civilians. The report said Russia "cannot have been unaware of reports of serious violations of human rights and humanitarian law by the Sudanese security forces, But they have nevertheless continued to allow military equipment to be sent to Sudan." Russia was reported to "have been or should have been aware, several types of military equipment, including aircraft, have been deployed by the Sudanese armed forces for direct attacks on civilians and indiscriminate attacks in Darfur". The Russian planes were disguised as UN Planes which violate the Geneva Conventions. The Janjaweed also used Russian small arms to murder and loot, these Russian weapons spread into neighboring Chad. In 2005 helicopters from Russia were sold to Sudan for 7 million pounds sterling. Photos show Russian helicopters in Darfur. The U.S.-funded Civilian Protection Monitoring Team, which investigates attacks in southern Sudan concluded that "as the Government of Sudan sought to clear the way for oil exploration and to create a cordon sanitaire around the oil fields, vast tracts of the Western Upper Nile Region in southern Sudan became the focus of extensive military operations." However, experts say the Darfur region is unlikely to hold significant oil reserves. Sarah Wykes, a senior campaigner at Global Witness, an NGO that campaigns for better natural resource governance, says: "Sudan has purchased about $100m in arms from China and has used these weapons against civilians in Darfur." In March 2007, threats of boycotting the Olympic games came from French presidential candidate François Bayrou, in an effort to stop China's support to the Sudanese government in the war. There were also calls for boycotts from actor and UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador Mia Farrow, Genocide Intervention Network Representative Ronan Farrow, author and Sudan scholar Eric Reeves and the Washington Post editorial board. Sudan divestment efforts have also concentrated on PetroChina, the national petroleum company with extensive investments in Sudan. In May 2009 the Mandate Darfur was canceled because the "Sudanese government is obstructing the safe passage of Darfurian delegates from Sudan." The Mandate was a conference that would have brought together 300 representatives from different regions of the civil society of Darfur. The conference planned was to be held in Addis Ababa sometime in early May. ||Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (January 2012)| |Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Darfur conflict|

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DefinitionBy Mayo Clinic staff CLICK TO ENLARGE Retinal detachment describes an emergency situation in which a critical layer of tissue (the retina) at the back of the eye pulls away from the layer of blood vessels that provides it with oxygen and nourishment. Retinal detachment leaves the retinal cells lacking oxygen. The longer retinal detachment goes untreated, the greater your risk of permanent vision loss in the affected eye. Fortunately, retinal detachment often has symptoms that are clear warning signs. Early diagnosis and treatment of retinal detachment can save your vision. If you suspect you may have a retinal detachment, contact an eye specialist (ophthalmologist) as soon as warning signs appear. - Facts about retinal detachment. National Eye Institute. http://www.nei.nih.gov/health/retinaldetach/retinaldetach.asp. Accessed Jan.31, 2013. - Goldman L, et al. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders Elsevier; 2012. http://www.mdconsult.com/das/book/body/191371208-2/0/1492/0.html# Accessed Jan. 31, 2013. - Posterior vitreous detachment, retinal breaks, and lattice degeneration PPP. San Francisco, CA. American Academy of Ophthalmology. http://one.aao.org/CE/PracticeGuidelines/PPP_Content.aspx?cid=8d149a8a-0c90-4bf8-b3e1-beaffde76079. Accessed Feb. 1, 2013. - Tintinalli JE, et al. Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide. 7th ed. New York, N.Y.: The McGraw-Hill Companies; 2011. http://www.accessmedicine.com/resourceTOC.aspx?resourceID=40. Accessed Jan. 27, 2013. - Arroyo JG. Retinal detachment. http://www.uptodate.com/home. Accessed Feb.1, 2013. - Information for healthy vision. National Eye Institute. http://www.nei.nih.gov/lowvision/content/resources.asp. Accessed Feb. 1, 2013. - Programs and services. American Association for the Blind. http://www.afb.org/default.aspx. Accessed Feb. 1, 2013.

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Mathematics anxiety results in a child trembling with fear when confronted by numbers and it can affect both boys and girls. However, for ages mathematics has been seen as a masculine trait and girls are considered to be poor at math. Now, researchers have demonstrated that having math anxiety does hinder math performance in girls more than it does in boys. In the present study, researchers from University of Cambridge investigated math performance of 433 British boys and girls. They found that students who are afraid of doing math problems have poorer scores in math and that girls had higher levels of anxiety towards math than boys. There was however no gender difference in math ability. Researchers said that if girls weren't suffering from math anxiety they'd do better at the tests. Previous research has shown that math performance depends on math anxiety among children. Girls are more affected by math anxiety. Previous research had suggested a girls' poor performance in math is due to elementary school female teachers who suffer from math anxiety. In a related study, researchers hooked up children with math anxiety to MRI scans and found that children with math anxiety had higher levels of activity in brain regions that are associated with negative emotions. These children also had reduced activity in regions of the brain that deal with mathematical reasoning. Another study suggests that educational intervention aimed at reducing negative emotions towards math anxiety is better than more training in mathematics. "Mathematics anxiety warrants attention in the classroom because it could have negative consequences for later mathematics education, particularly as it is thought to develop during the primary school years," Dénes Szűcs, lead author of the study said in a statement. According to researchers, math anxiety could account for the reason why only 7 percent of pupils in the UK study mathematics at the "A" level and why the number of students taking math at a university level is in decline. Published by Medicaldaily.com

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