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there is a book called "the Statistics Problem Solver" for $4 (used) on amazon. Buy it! These problem-solver books are great for math & science classes. With thousands of solved problems and the steps for solving them shown, its like having a grad student tutor at your elbow. You have to use the book correctly, though. The wrong way is to look at your homework problem, thumb thru the book until you see a similar one, then apply it blindly to your HW. A 5th grader could do that. Instead, use the book as a way to get practice until you understand the concepts. Go to the chapter matching your current classwork, cover up the answers and start working problems. If you get it wrong, read the correct steps, cover them up, do it again. Keep working problems until you get it. When you get midterms in class you'll almost be laughing because you know you can do them all. Keep in mind that a standard expectation for a college class is 2-3 hours outside of the class for every hour in it. Your class will meet 3x a week for an hour, which means you ought to be putting in 6-9 hours outside of class for it. Do this, and use your time effectively, you'll do well in the class.

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The countries of northern Europe have agreed to build a huge network of renewables that will connect offshore wind farms in northern Scotland to solar panels in Germany to wave power and hydroelectricity in Scandinavia. Offshore wind projects in Europe are expected to generate more than 100 gigawatts of energy, about ten percent of the continent’s demands, in coming years, roughly equivalent to a hundred large coal plants. But unpredictable weather patterns can hamper their ability to deliver reliable energy, and national power grids are too weak to overcome fluctuations in production and demand. Nine nations, including France, Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, and the UK, have joined forces to lay undersea cables beneath the North Sea in the coming decade. The grid will act as a gigantic battery, storing electricity when demand is reduced. The North Sea grid could connect to a much larger renewable plan that was launched in Germany last year. The Desertec Industrial Initiative is a $400 billion scheme that aims to deliver 15 percent of Europe’s electricity by 2050 from southern Europe and North Africa. Concentrated solar power will be delivered by power lines that stretch across the Sahara and the Mediterranean. Scientists in the European Commission estimate that just 0.3 percent of the light falling on the deserts of the Sahara and Middle East would be enough to meet all of Europe’s energy needs.

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Viticulture - n. : the cultivation or culture of grapes Enology - n. :a science that deals with wine and wine making The V&E Department combines the sciences of viticulture and enology in a single research and teaching unit that encompasses all of the scientific disciplines that impact grape growing and winemaking. For over one hundred years the University of California has maintained an active and productive program in research and education in viticulture and enology. The continuing excellence of the Department has enabled California growers and vintners to develop practices that have allowed the Golden State to achieve its potential and become a premier wine-producing region. The Rhone Rangers Scholarship The Rhone Rangers is a non-profit educational organization dedicated to the advancing the knowledge and understanding of traditional Rhone grape varieties and the wines produced from those grapes. The Rhone Rangers has adopted the French government's list of approved varieties allowed in the Cote du Rhone as the criteria for winery membership. Today, membership consists of over 125 wineries from California, Washington, and Virginia. This scholarship is given with a preference to students interested in research involving Rhone grape varieties or Rhone wines produced in the USA. The Rhone Rangers desire to see a deserving student be supported during their studies at UCD.

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December 3, 2012 | Politics and Leadership The Dilma Effect: How Brazil’s Groundbreaking President is Inspiring Other Women to Run By Maya Popa “In Portuguese, the term presidente applies to both men and women, and presidenta to women only. When Dilma was elected, people asked her which term she preferred to use and she said presidenta, with the feminine ending.” “Dilma,” it almost goes without saying, is Dilma Rousseff, voted into office in 2010 as the first woman to lead powerhouse Brazil, the world’s sixth largest economy. For the woman telling that anecdote, thirtysomething Veronica Marques of Rio, it illustrates one of Rousseff’s greatest accomplishments in office: Her ability to motivate other women to succeed, especially in public life. “For me, this simple gesture shows how having a woman as a presidenta can inspire other women not only to seek more space in the political arena, but also through their daily lives,” says Marques, an executive at ELAS, the Women's Social Investment Fund, a nonprofit that invests in women’s empowerment and education. The Dilma Effect starts at the top: After promising in her inaugural speech “to open doors, so that in the future many other women can also be president,” Rousseff put together a cabinet with three times as many women as the previous administration, giving women nine of the 24 minister-level positions--including such key jobs as ministers of planning, social development and the environment. And in this macho, macho country, thanks to Rousseff, more women are getting into politics than ever before. "Dilma took several high-profile media opportunities to encourage women to run in the last elections,” says Heather Arnet, CEO of the Women and Girls Foundation of Pennsylvania, which is partnering with ELAS to study the effect of governmental policies on the lives of Brazilian women. The result: A record 48 women sought the chance to head Brazil’s 26 states, a 60 percent increase over the previous contest. But the fight for gender equality is hardly won. Although Brazil has a 30 percent rule—requiring that 30 percent of candidates for elective office be women—females hold only nine percent of positions in the lower house of parliament and only 36 percent of lawmaker, senior official and managerial jobs, according to a 2011 report by the World Economic Forum. “There is a long way to go to have more women in politics, but we are building step by step,” says Marques. “Maybe, in some years we will have at least 50 percent of women in political positions in Brazil.” Politics, though, isn’t the only area where Brazilian women are breaking glass ceilings. Earlier this year Maria das Graças Silva Foster was named CEO of Petrobras-Petróleo Brasil--the first woman in the world to head a major oil-and-gas company. According to a recent survey, 80 percent of Brazilian women now aspire to top jobs (compared to 52 percent in the U.S), while 59 percent consider themselves “very ambitious” (compared to 36 percent in the U.S.) Arnet praises government-funded social programs for providing the right conditions for women to succeed: inexpensive, over-the-counter birth control, six months paid maternity leave, efforts to connect rural women to education and healthcare, and the bolsa familia program, compensation for poor women to keeping their children in school. "All of these policies and cultural practices together are creating an environment where women can be more economically sufficient and can take on increasing corporate and political leadership," says Arnet. Marques, though, has the most personal take on her country’s leader: “When I see myself represented by a woman as presidenta, I see that things are changing. I see that our generation of women and the next generation of women will have more space in the political arena because of her. Achieving in the political arena is not simple. Brazil has to give us—the new generation of women—the space and the opportunity for it. We want to do it, we can do it, we will do it.” SOLUTIONS FOR BRAZIL: Let’s Go Girls! The Women and Girls Foundation of Pennsylvania, led by Heather Arnet, is partnering with Veronica Marques at ELAS, on a project called Vamos Meninas! (Let's Go Girls!) to "explore the role that Brazilian voting practices, economic policies, and policies regarding family planning and child care have in fostering a culture for female advancement." In January 2013, Arnet and ELAS will visit Rio, Sao Paulo, Brasilia and other cities, to better understand the changes occurring in Brazil and their impact on women’s leadership. As Arnet explains: "Together we hope to capture stories of transformation that provide Americans insight into this emerging world economic leader, and inspiration to continue our own pursuit towards gender equity." Explaining what seems an unlikely pairing, Arnet says that “Brazil and Pennsylvania, historically, have a surprising amount in common. We are both economies which used to rely mainly on coal mining. We are traditionally macho cultures where women stayed home, and had children, and men went to work in the factories. We have had significant racial and class segregation and gender segregation in the workplace. And yet look at Brazil now. From an economic revitalization perspective and gender leadership perspective things are changing in Brazil dynamically.” A documentary about Vamos Meninas! will premiere on PBS station WQED/Pittsburgh later in 2013. Says Arnet, "We have a lot to learn from Brazil, its people and its leaders, regarding how to transform our culture and our economies for a new century." Maya Catherine Popa is a writer for the Women in the World Foundation. She is currently completing a Master's in Creative Writing at Oxford University under a Clarendon Scholarship, as well as an MFA in Poetry from NYU. She co-leads a weekly writing workshop for veterans of Iraq & Afghanistan. Her writing appears in The Huffington Post, Locustpoint, and elsewhere.

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Not only does it have over 800 illustrations and photographs but it's jam packed, full of information for your homeschool or any supplement to your children's learning. In my opinion it would make a great "Summer project" book to keep the kiddos on their toes and help them learn while having fun! The World Of Science is broken down into 7 different sections covering topics entitled: Matter and Chemicals - Energy, Motion and Machines - Electricity and Magnetism - Light and Sound - Earth and Life - Space and Time - and includes over 60 Science experiments. The photographs and diagrams are just right to help you teach your budding scientists. My 3 scientists range in age from 6 years old to 10 years and the information is shared in such a way that from my Kindergartner to my 5th grader, they were able to learn, understand, and enjoy what we've done so far. We've been studying the atmosphere, covered in the Earth and Life section. One of the things we learned about is the Greenhouse effect. The boys are looking forward to doing more and I have a feeling we'll have conquered all the experiments by the end of the summer. They love this type of learning and it sticks with them so much better than plain questions and answers! The World Of Science is a wonderful addition to our homeschool curriculum. I highly recommend it. We are using it as a supplement to our main course and it covers enough topics that it would make a nice addition to any curriculum. It reads much like an encyclopedia, thorough yet made for children to easily understand. The introduction begins with, "In the beginning God Created the Heavens and the Earth." It goes on to explain about the Scientific method, talks about Real science, various fields of science, and even an explanation as to why we should do science. I think every home could benefit by having such a well rounded resource. We used a tin tray I had on hand with a plastic lid that attaches recycled toilet paper/ or paper towel rolls for the seed cups sand and soil from outside & seeds from the dollar store (you could also use grass with roots or flowers from outside) 1. Place about 1 inch of sand in the bottom of container tray 2. Cut paper rolls down to 2 inches - 2 1/2 inches 3. Places cups in tray and push them down into the sand 4. Fill individual cups with soil 5. Use a finger to make a little hole to drop seeds into 6. Cover back up with the soil - Water them in well 7. Cover with plastic lid and set tray in indirect sunlight (you don't want to fry your little plants but they do need light - a windowsill is a good spot) Within just a few minutes the boys noticed that our little greenhouse was beginning to fog up and collect condensation on the plastic lid - before we've even sprouted our little carrots - they're understanding the "greenhouse effect" From other cool sites: Check out a couple of really fun ways to make your own greenhouses - grow some plants - and learn about the What kind of Science are you doing in your homeschool? Do you have any fun ideas to share?

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Partita No. 1 : Work information - Work name - Partita No. 1 - Work number - BWV 1002 - B minor - 1720-01-01 02:00:00 - Adam Abeshouse - Adam Abeshouse - Recording date - 1994-09-29 00:00:00 Johann Sebastian Bach One of the greatest composers in history, Johann Sebastian Bach (father of C.P.E, J. C. and W. F. Bach) was by far the most significant member of the Bach dynasty of musicians. He outshone his forebears and contemporaries, but did not always receive the respect he deserved in his own lifetime. After a brief engagement as a violinist in the court of Weimar, Bach became organist at the Neukirche in Arnstadt. In June 1707 he moved to St. Blasius, Mühlhausen, and married his cousin Maria Barbara Bach. In 1708 he was appointed court organist in Weimar where he composed most of his works for organ. In 1717, he was appointed Court Kapellmeister to the young Prince Leopold at Cöthen, but was refused permission to leave Weimar. The Duke only allowed Bach to go after holding him prisoner for nearly a month. While at Weimar, Bach wrote his violin concertos and the six Brandenburg Concertos, as well as several suites, sonatas and keyboard works, including several, such as the Inventions and Book I of the 48 Preludes and Fugues (The Well-tempered Clavier). In 1720 Maria Barbara died, and the next year Bach married Anna Magdalena Wilcke. Bach resigned the post in Weimar in 1723 to become cantor at St. Thomas’ School in Leipzig where he was responsible for music in the four main churches of the city. Here he wrote the Magnificat and the St. John and St. Matthew Passions, as well as a large quantity of other church music. In Leipzig he eventually took charge of the University “Collegium Musicum” and occupied himself with the collection and publication of many of his earlier compositions. Over the years that followed, Bach’s interest in composing church music declined somewhat, and he took to writing more keyboard music and cantatas. As his eyesight began to fail, he underwent operations to try and correct the problem, and these may have weakened him in his old age. He died at age 65, having fathered a total of 20 children with his two wives. Despite widespread neglect for almost a century after his death, Bach is now regarded as one of the greatest of all composers and is still an inexhaustible source of inspiration for musicians. Bach’s compositions are catalogued by means of the prefix BWV (Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis) and a numbering system which is generally accepted for convenience of reference. The crowning achievement of J S Bach's instrumental writing, the set of solo Sonatas and Partitas are the ultimate test of musicianship and technique for the violinist. Composed in 1720 at Cothen, the set alternates Italian sonatas and French suites or partitas. Bach's complete knowledge and mastery of the instrument allowed him to make full use of the violin's expressive range. For example, by asking the violinist to play on multiple strings at once, or play arpeggiated chords rapidly, Bach creates such complex harmonies that it's sometimes difficult to believe only one instrument is playing! Although the sonatas follow the same formal pattern, all three partitas are constructed differently, though all are suites of dance movements. Partita No. 1 consists of four pairs of movements, the second of each pair varying the first. Displaying some virtuosic passagework, especially in the Doubles, the movements retain their dance characteristics and exhibit a bewitching formal beauty.

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The 16th annual Great Backyard Bird Count takes place the weekend of Friday, Feb. 15, through Monday, Feb. 18. This activity engages citizen scientist volunteers to count birds in specific locations all across the United States and Canada on the third weekend of February each year. In 2012, this effort recorded 104,151 separate checklists, including 2,046 from Tennessee. Shelby County contributed more than 10 percent of the total, 256. And Memphis recorded 93 species, tops in the state. The 2013 Great Backyard Bird Count, a joint project of the Cornell University Laboratory of Ornithology and the National Audubon Society, will incorporate two major changes. First, it will go global. Checklists can be submitted from anywhere in the world. Second, Great Backyard Bird Count data will be merged with eBird, the National Audubon Society and Cornell University's worldwide database of bird sightings. This will require participants to create an eBird account. To do so, go to BirdCount.org. The bird count is fun and free. Just count all of the birds that you see and hear in one place (your yard, a park, schoolyard, your office) for at least 15 minutes any or every day Feb. 15-18. The information that you and thousands of others provide will help scientists to learn more about what is happening in our environment. To protect, we first must know. The entire month of February is Backyard Bird Month at the Memphis Botanic Garden. The garden is sponsoring a contest of bird photographs taken in its Nature Garden during the month. On Feb. 16, Dick Preston and other members of the Memphis Chapter of the Tennessee Ornithology Society will host a bird identification workshop at the Botanic Garden as part of the Great Backyard Bird Count weekend. There will be a free "Lunch and Learn" brown bag lunch followed by a guided bird walk in the nature garden. Afterward, data collected during the bird walk will be entered into the bird count database. The Botanic Garden will host "Celebrate Urban Birds Day" from 2 to 4 p.m. Feb. 23. There will be crafts and games, and members of the local Ornithology Society will lead a bird walk. For more information, contact Charity Novick at 901-636-4119, or go to memphisbotanicgarden.com. The 113th annual Christmas Bird Count was held at selected locations all around the globe between Dec. 15, 2012, and Jan. 5, 2013. The Memphis count on Dec. 17 had 34 observers who located 92 species. The Wapanocca (Ark.)/Shelby Forest (Tenn.) count on Dec. 29 had 24 observers locating 91 species, and the count at Arkabutla Lake on Jan. 5 enlisted 20 observers who found 110 species, a record for that count. The greatest surprise of any local Christmas Bird Count came on the Wapanocca/Shelby Forest count when an ash-throated flycatcher was discovered in Shelby Forest State Park. Ash-throated flycatcher is a Western species rarely seen east of the Great Plains and an apparent first record for Shelby County. Van Harris is a former president of the Memphis Chapter of the Tennessee Ornithology Society, a member of the Mississippi Ornithology Society and the Mississippi chapter of the National Audubon Society. Address questions to [email protected].

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Nazis secretly developed plot to drop radioactive bomb on New York from supersonic space rocket - Hermann Goering was tasked with overcoming long-range bombing problem - Much of the research would later pave the way for modern space travel Nazi chief Hermann Goering plotted to attack New York in a bizarre plot involving a manned space rocket dropping a dirty bomb over the Manhattan skyline. Vying for Hitler's attention, the head of the German air-force, Hermann Goering, set up a lab and a team of leading scientists to explore the possibility of the radioactive attack on American soil. Goering read the work of maverick Austrian engineer, Eugen Saenger and particularly his belief that a space plane could be built. New York: The Nazis wanted to attack the U.S. but they lacked long-range bombers capable of covering the distance. They explored a rocked-propelled spacecraft as a way to reach and bomb New York (pictured) The head of the Luftwaffe commissioned him and other leading physicists to explore the plane, which he then wanted to arm with a radioactive bomb capable of doing untold damage to America's most populous city. Leading historians told the Daily Express that Goering may have been gullible for believing the far-fetched plan would work, but much of the research which went into the project paved the way for modern space travel research and the space shuttle program. 'Saenger would greatly influence post-war thinking about space travel in the United States,' Dr David Baker, a space historian, told the British newspaper. 'A whole series of highly classified space-plane concepts were developed based on his theories.' Silverbird: Eugen Saenger (left) devised plans for the aircraft known as the Silverbird (right) that could reach America via space. Goering wanted the craft to be capable of dropping a 'dirty bomb' on New York 'His work certainly had an influence on aspects of the Space Shuttle programme.' Goering believed the rocket plan would enable the Third Reich to overcome the issue of flying across the Atlantic and ultimately avenge America's entry into the war. Saenger completed a 900-page plan and called the craft the Silverbird. He believed it would be able to clear the lower reaches of space after being fired with rocket engines. Anti-American: The Nazis sought a way to punish the U.S. for entering World War Two. One of the schemes they looked at was a plane which would reach America via space in order to bomb New York It was expected to reach 13,000 miles per hour, would have a 100-tonne thrust motor and would reach more than 80 miles above earth. 'The plan was to wrap the bomb with radioactive sand and have it explode high above New York casting a radioactive cloud over the city,” aviation historian David Myhra 'It was a kind of prototype dirty bomb.' Losing control: Goering was particularly keen to promote his airforce and saw the plot to bomb New York as an ideal way to win Hitler's favor 'The standard aircraft of the day could not fly from Europe to the US because they could not carry enough fuel.' 'But by reaching sub-orbital altitude the Silverbird’s fuel life would be extended allowing it to bomb anywhere in the world.' 'It was wild science fiction' 'But Saenger had worked out all the mathematics. He was certain it would work.' 'Post-war analysis indicated that the space-plane would have burnt up during re-entry but this could have been overcome with thermal shielding. 'The underlying concept was sound but it was many years ahead of its time.' Goering finally dismissed the plan and the Nazis looked at other ways to bomb the U.S. but never succeeded. Saenger fled to France and was later sent for by Josef Stalin who was also interested in the Silverbird concept. He was never found by the Soviet Union and died in 1964. Dr Asif Siddiqi, an assistant professor in space history at Fordham University said: 'Saenger was the first to look into the technicalities of building a winged, reusable sub-orbital vehicle.' 'His work was extremely far-sighted.' Failure to launch: The Silverbird, pictured, was devised by Austrian engineer Eugen Saenger so the Nazis could bomb New York. The ambitious space rocket design wasn't developed beyond planning stage

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More in Outdoors Arguably the biggest mistake you can make is with "topping" your tree. It's considered something of a dirty word in horticulture circles. Topping means cutting a tree back so severely that only the stumps of large branches are left. It's done in an attempt to control the size of the tree. This stresses the tree because it takes away the leaves, its food sources. The tree will send out many smaller branches in an effort to produce more leaves quickly but they are not as strong as the previous branches and can break off easily in the wind. Tree topping also results in a pretty unattractive tree. The way to properly bring a tree down in height is to make your cuts at a joint. A joint is the place where either a leaf or a branch grows out from the stem. Cut down the tallest branches at a joint, which will reduce the height significantly, instead of leaving a bunch of stubs. This way, the tree will be able to heal itself, growing a new branch in that spot. If you have a dense tree that's completely blocking a view, you may want to thin it out. This involves removing entire branches that are too overgrown by making the proper cuts at a joint. This will allow you to see through the tree by taking some of the heaviness out of the canopy. It's always a good idea to have a pruning partner whenever you prune, but this especially helps when thinning. Before you cut, have someone stand back and look at the tree to make sure you're not chopping off an important part of the tree or taking so much as to ruin the shape. You don't want to turn your pruning tools into weapons, so you better know how to use them. Pruners and pruning saws should always be sharp and disinfected when you use them. This will help you to make a smooth, clean cut and the tree will be able to recover faster from it. For branches larger than 1-1/2" in diameter, you'll want to use a special technique called the "1,2,3 Method." This will protect the bark on your tree by preventing the branch from splitting. If you just started cutting downward on a larger branch, the weight of that branch would bring it down faster than you can cut. This would cause the branch to split and the bark would tear, making it harder for the tree to recover and more susceptible to pests or disease. Here is how this method is done: Cut #1: Make an undercut about 1' from the trunk, which means cutting on the underside of the branch. Stop cutting when you've gone one third of the way through the branch. Cut #2: Move about 3" past the undercut, toward the end of the branch, and start cutting. The weight of the branch will still take it down and the trunk may split but it won't split past your undercut. Cut #3: Finish it off by cutting off the stub at the joint. All fields are required. Remember me on this computer Please enter your email address and we will send your password Your password has been sent and should arrive in your mailbox very soon. Sign up with DIY Network to share tips with other do-it-yourselfers and comment and ask questions on projects. It's free and easy.

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Engineer your first step to a four-year degree at Edmonds Community College Engineers Make a Difference Engineering is the art of applying scientific and mathematical principles, experience, judgment, and common sense to make things that benefit people. Engineers solve problems. They improve and develop products to meet consumer and societal needs. They find ways for existing products to work better, last longer, operate more safely and cost less. They also look for innovative solutions to global problems. Engineers design bridges and important medical equipment as well as processes for cleaning up toxic spills and systems for mass transit. It's a Fact Engineering professions requiring a four-year degree are among the highest paying jobs in Washington State according to the office of Labor Market and Economic Analysis. Source: www.workforceexplorer.com

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Information for Students Welcome to the Flint Regional Science Fair! We look forward to seeing you at the Fair in March. Taking part in a science fair is fun, educational, and rewarding. This part of our web site provides information and links that can help you get started, conduct your research and enter the Flint Regional Science Fair. The FASF is held every Spring. This means you should begin planning in the Fall and Winter prior to the Fair to ensure you pick a good research topic, and have plenty of time to do a good job and present a quality project. Parents, teachers, and mentors are important helpers to identify projects, collect the resources required for your project, and track your progress. Ask your parents and your teachers for assistance. They are your best bet for one-on-one direction and support in your Science Fair experience. Elementary Division and Junior Division projects follow simpler rules than Senior Division projects. More Web Student Science Resources Questions? Email [email protected].

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Book Authors: Warren G. Bennis, Robert J. Thomas Book Review by : Anil Kumar Kartham Faculty Associate, ICMR (IBS Center for Management Research) DLeadership, cross-generational leadership, wisdom, skill, Era, Changing the world, organization, how people become leaders, Crucible, Individual factors, IQ, self-grooming, Adaptive capacity, leadership competencies The theory of leadership attempts to describe the process of leadership making. Era is an important aspect of their theory of leadership. Thus, it is relevant to ask how is "Era" different in case of geeks and geezers? At the age of 25-30, geeks are more ambitious and have larger goals compared to geezers at the same age. They dream of "Changing the world" and "making history." The Geezers on the other hand, were concerned more about making a living. The Geeks seek to balance their lives by giving enough importance to both work and family. The Geezers hardly bothered about balance at this age. The Geezers worshiped heros. They chiseled their image of successful leader based on these heroes. The Geeks had none of that sort. Their parents or teachers or even their friends were their heroes. The authors point to "Era" as the creator of these differences. This doesn't mean they had no commitment to their jobs. They were dedicated as long as they were with the company. And they were ready to leave whenever they found greener pastures. The loyalty described by Whyte in Organization Man lost favor in 1980s. The geeks valued "Balanced life" more than the geezers did. They were persistent in maintaining the balance. The following quote of a geek makes it clear: If I can't do it with balance, then I don't want to do it. Or I'm not buying into your model of success. They were not shy in acquiring wealth, unlike the geezers. They did not see money as evil. Rather the love of it as evil. The geeks and the geezers are not as dissimilar as they appear on the surface. They are made of the same stuff and in the same process. They are similar in their learning. Both groups of leaders are highly enthusiastic about learning. And they yearn and struggle to go beyond limits: individual limits such as strength or learning ability or institutional limits such as racial and/or sexual discrimination. More important similarity, the authors say they uncovered, is a sort of common experience that transformed both groups of leaders. This common experience is the basis on which the authors have built their story on "how people become leaders." More ICMR India Case Studies |Business Environment||Business Ethics||Business Reports||Business Strategy| |Corporate Governance||Economics||Enterprise Risk Management||Finance| |HRM||Innovation||Insurance||IT and Systems| |Leadership and Entrepreneurship||Marketing||Miscellaneous||Operations| |Project Management||Short Case Studies||Cases in other Languages||Free Case Studies|

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A spice commonly used in Indian foods could also double as a powerful weapon to fight against cancer, diabetes, and inflammation. If recent studies on the spice’s effect to continue producing promising results are any indication, Dr. Saraswati Sukumar of Johns Hopkins University hopes curcumin, which gives turmeric its yellow color, will help people fight off or prevent diseases such as diabetes and cancer. In an interview with India-West, Sukumar explained how she and a colleague, Dr. Anirban Maitra, are paying close attention to promising clinical trials of curcumin. Curcumin is the extract of turmeric and may soon be used in pill form. The spice is commonly integrated into many Indian dishes. Sukumar will be giving a presentation Jan. 24 in West Palm Beach, Florida, about the positive health benefits of curcumin. While more clinical trials are still needed to further understand how the common spice is beneficial to the human body, Sukumar believes a curcumin pill currently in experimental format could have a dramatic impact in fighting certain diet-induced diseases that are becoming more commonplace. “The talk I am going to be giving in Palm Beach, Florida, really covers the field to let people know what’s involved with this, what does curcumin do, what are the positive effects, so on and so forth,” Sukumar told India-West in a telephone interview earlier this week. In addition to being a strong weapon against diabetes and inflammation, steady consumption of curcumin can also counteract skin damage that result from cancer-based radiation treatment. “It has very strong anti-inflammatory activity,” Sukumar told India-West of curcumin’s health benefits. “Is that the only activity that’s really causing it to be this effective? We don’t think so. We think it has effects on multiple other pathways that are just beginning to be understood.” With an estimated 26 million people diagnosed with diabetes, Sukumar said curcumin can also be a great benefit in fighting the metabolic disease. Sukumar explained how an experiment where mice with obesity-induced diabetes were given doses of curcumin and experienced glucose levels returning to near normal levels within 20 days, thanks to an increased production of “good fat” hormones. When a follow-up clinical trial was performed in a double-blind study with pre-diabetic patients, Sukumar cited that none of the 119 subjects who were given curcumin developed the disease. However, 19 out 116 pre-diabetic patients in that same trial who were given a placebo did develop the disease. “It has an effect, indirectly, on the fat content as well as … diabetes,” the Indian American researcher told India-West, adding that the clinical trial tested patients over a nine-month period, and another follow-up study with more time passed would be needed to further validate the promising results. Both Sukumar and Maitra hope to eventually have a water-soluble curcumin pill available on the market sometime soon. However, early clinical trials of the experimental pill have not yet yielded the desired results. In current trials, Sukumar pointed out several grams of curcumin need to be consumed in order to be effective. Whether small doses of the spices can be consumed in pill format in order to have the desired effect on the body remains to be seen. Nevertheless, Sukumar expressed her excitement about further discovering the health benefits of turmeric and curcumin. “I really feel extremely positive about setting out, spending energy, and telling the world about what curcumin can do. And it’s just a spice off your rack,” Sukumar said. She added that the spice can still be used in its natural state, similar to how it is mixed into many Indian food dishes. To incorporate curcumin into one’s lifestyle, Sukumar simply suggests obtaining large portions of turmeric. “Get a bag of turmeric and use it lavishly in your food,” Sukumar told India-West. “It adds some flavor but it’s not going to hurt you.” She also suggested adding turmeric to the grilling of foods such as garlic, mushrooms, and onions. It is also best combined with warm oil. Sukumar will be speaking at an annual women’s health symposium, “A Woman’s Journey,” next week at the Palm Beach County Convention Center.

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Linn, Amy. Illuminating News: What You Don't Know About Lightning Might Come As Shock. Providence Sunday Journal. August 21, 1988. Abstract: This article explains some common misconceptions about lightning. For example, one misconception is that lightning never strikes the same place twice. This is untrue. Once lightning discovers an easy target it will likely strike again. The article also provides important safety precautions. The safest place during a thunderstorm is inside a house away from windows or inside a closed car.

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An animal detection system with the warning lights activated resulted in 1.52 mi/h lower vehicle speeds (compared to warning lights off) for passenger cars and pick-ups. Alerting drivers to the presence of large animals in the road at Yellowstone National Park. The study area was on US Highway 191 inside of the Yellowstone National Park, with a posted speed limit of 55 mi/hour. The data collection period occurred over two weeks in which there was mostly no precipitation. Researchers installed three traffic counters and road tubes outside and inside of the detection area. The counters recorded the date, time, vehicle type, vehicle speed and gap (in seconds) between vehicles. When vehicles moved in platoons, only the speed of the first vehicle in a platoon was used as a data point when the signs were activated (since the following vehicles may be influenced by the speed of the first one). A sample size of 2,428 vehicles per 24 hour period was used. The deployment of an animal detection system at Yellowstone National Park found that passenger cars, pick-ups, vans, and trucks with two units or more had lower vehicle speeds by 1.52 mi/hour with warning signs activated compared to warning signs off. Although the difference is small, it is important to note that small reductions when vehicles are traveling at high speeds have a disproportionate decrease in the probability of severe accidents. The data also showed that the number of collisions with large animals was 58 to 67 percent lower than was expected (but could not be tested for significance due to the variability in the number of collisions and just one year of post installation collision data). Driver opinion of the system documented in interviews revealed that a majority (59 percent) would have liked to see the system stay in place. The system was removed in the fall of 2008 due to high maintenance and a lack of spare parts. Author: M.P. Huijser, T.D. Holland, A.V. Kociolek, A.M. Barkdoll and J.D. Schwalm Published By: Oregon Department of Transportation Research Unit and the Federal Highway Administration Source Date: March 2009URL: http://ntl.bts.gov/lib/31000/31600/31698/Animal-Vehicle_Crash_Mitigation_Phase_2.pdf Average User Rating Typical Deployment Locations

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Meet the Other Navy Seals (and Dolphins)Cute—and creepy—photos of the US Navy program that trains marine mammals as minesweepers and underwater sentries. You've likely heard of the Navy SEAL dog that took part in the raid that killed Osama Bin Laden. Now meet the other Navy seals. Actually, they're sea lions. And dolphins. For more than five decades, the Navy has enlisted sea lions, dolphins, and other marine mammals as an elite corps of underwater sentries, searchers, and mine-sweepers. Its Marine Mammal Program started in 1960 when weapons researchers studied a Pacific white-sided dolphin named Notty to see if she might teach them something about designing speedier torpedoes. She didn't, but the service has remained intriguiged by sea mammals' speed, stealth, sonar, and smarts. During the Vietnam War, specially trained dolphins were deployed to protect ships in Cam Ranh Bay. The Navy denies that they were dispatched to kill enemy divers as part of a "swimmer nullification program", though more recently sea lions have been trained to "attach restraint devices to swimmers." (The notion of dolphins as trained killers inspired The Day of the Dolphin, a 1973 movie starring George C. Scott.) Since the mid-1970s, the program has expanded to include beluga whales, seals, and and killer whales, though bottlenose dolphins and Californa sea lions have become its two mainstays due to their "their trainability, adaptability, and heartiness in the marine environment." The Navy says its 100 or so marine mammals' primary missions are mine-hunting and "swimmer defense." Dolphins were first sent to the Persian Gulf in the late 1980s. In 1996, Navy dolphins assisted the Secret Service (PDF) during the Republican National Convention in their home port of San Diego, and NASA reportedly expressed interest in using sea lions to protect Space Shuttle launches (PDF). More recently, both dolphins and sea lions have been sent to the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea to help clear mines and guard ships. The Navy has hailed "swimmer defense dolphins" as "a strong deterrent against terrorist attacks" like the one on the USS Cole in 2000. Animal-rights activists have long objected to the Navy's marine-mammal program, criticizing the use of benign sea creatures in military operations and the cramped conditions in which they are housed and transported. "Using animals for military defense is unnecessary and cruel and could very well cost lives—not save them," PETA wrote in response to a plan to use dolphins and sea lions to guard a naval base in Washington. The Navy claims that it treats its flippered conscripts humanely, noting that they are fed "higher-than-restaurant-quality fish" and travel in pools designed "to keep the animals in an environment as much like San Diego as possible." It also argues that its work has added to the scientific knowlege of these animals: "The more we know about marine mammals, the better we can protect them."

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What You Should Know About Using HBO In Diabetic Wounds - Volume 16 - Issue 5 - May 2003 - 8371 reads - 0 comments How HBO Can Facilitate Wound Healing HBO consists of a patient breathing 100 percent oxygen while his or her entire body is enclosed in a pressure chamber. The topical application of oxygen is not recognized by the FDA as hyperbaric therapy and is not reimbursed by Medicare. Oxygen is transported two ways in that it is chemically bound to the hemoglobin and physically dissolved in the plasma. When the patient breathes air at sea level, the hemoglobin is already fully saturated so increasing the amount of respired oxygen can affect only the plasma-dissolved oxygen. Breathing oxygen at an elevated atmospheric pressure produces an increase in the plasma-dissolved oxygen fraction, which is proportional to the atmospheric pressure of the respired gas. Monoplace hyperbaric chambers are usually compressed with oxygen whereas multiplace chambers are compressed with air while the patient breathes 100 percent oxygen using a hood or aviator’s face mask. Typical treatments involve 90 minutes of oxygen breathing at 2.0 to 2.5 atmospheres absolute (ATA) with air breaks administered at 20- to 30-minute intervals in order to reduce the risk of central nervous system oxygen toxicity. (While HBO treatment is remarkably safe, be aware that otologic and pulmonary barotrauma and central nervous system, pulmonary and ocular oxygen toxicity can occur. Central nervous system oxygen toxicity is rare, but it can manifest as seizures. Seizures are less likely to occur if there are brief periods of air breathing.) Arterial PO2 elevations of 1500 mmHg or greater are achieved when the body is exposed to pressures of 2 to 2.5 ATA. Soft tissue and muscle PO2 levels can be elevated to about 300 mmHg. Oxygen diffusion varies in a direct linear relationship to the increased partial pressure of oxygen present in the circulating plasma caused by HBO. At pressures of 3 ATA, the diffusion radius of oxygen into the extravascular compartment is estimated to increase from 64 micons to about 247 micons at the pre-capillary arteriole. This significant level of hyperoxygenation allows for the reversal of localized tissue hypoxia, which may be secondary to ischemia or to other local factors within the compromised tissue. Hypoxia is a biochemical barrier to normal wound healing. In the hypoxic wound, HBO treatment allows an acute correction of the pathophysiology related to oxygen deficiency and impaired wound healing. Using HBO increases oxygen levels within the marginally vascularized periwound compartment, enhancing leukocyte bacteriocidal function. It may also potentiate some antibiotic effects. There are direct toxic effects on anaerobic bacteria and suppression of exotoxin production. It also enhances collagen synthesis and cross-linking, and other matrix deposition. What The Clinical Evidence Reveals Additionally, recent evidence suggests that HBO may induce specific growth factor receptors (PDGF) and stimulate growth factor (VEGF) release. There is also evidence that employing HBO may ameliorate or prevent leukocyte-mediated ischemia reperfusion injury.10-13 There have been 13 published peer-reviewed studies (including seven randomized, controlled trials) of HBO in diabetic foot wounds. A total of 606 diabetic patients received HBO with a 71 percent bipedal limb salvage rate, compared to 463 control patients who had a 53 percent bipedal limb salvage rate. All diabetic wounds were Wagner III-IV. It is interesting to compare this to the becaplermin clinical trials that involved Wager II ulcers. Control patients had healing rates of 25 percent while those receiving becaplermin had healing rates of 43 percent. A large retrospective series of 1,144 diabetic foot ulcer patients demonstrated the effectiveness of using adjunctive HBO in modified Wagner III, IV and V (equivalent to Wagner grade II, III and V) ulcers, based on ulcer/wound improvement, healing and salvage of bipedal ambulation (see “The Impact Of HBO: What One Study Shows” above).14 Currently, CMS policy reimburses only for treatment of Wagner III and greater ulcers.

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Final 7 Years Daniel 9 states that 70 weeks are determined for Israel. 70 weeks is 490 days, 1 year 4 months 5 days. This scripture describes the destruction of Jerusalem, as well as other things. As of Daniels time, Jerusalem was not destroyed in 490 days, so 70 weeks is not really 70 weeks. The Bible states that by two or three witnesses God's Word shall be established. So with that, on the 70th week, the he whos people previously destroyed Jerusalem will confirm the covenant for "1 week" then in the midst of the week stop it. This is called the abomination of desolation. The we travel to the next witness which is Jesus in Matthew 24. He had just finished up telling his disciples that the temple will be destroyed, but then he says when you see the abomination desolation, SPOKEN OF BY DANIEL, STAND UP IN THE HOLY PLACE, then all in Judea(which is modern day West Bank) must flee, because then shall be great tribulation. Now if the temple is destroyed how can the AoD stand up in the Holy Place? that will we get to later. Now that we know that the second half of the week there shall be great tribulation as has never been before, we can look at the scriptures describing the great tribulation to figure out whether is 3.5 days, or more. Reading Matthew 24 we find out that the great trib is the persecution of the saints. We can travel back to Daniel 7 now. verse 25 says that great words will be spoken against the most high, and the saints will be worn out for TIME, TIMES, DIVIDING OF TIME. we don't know how long that is, but there is always more than one witness. Revelation chapter 12 describes a great red dragon, whom they call the devil and satan trying to destroy a woman with a crown of 12 stars, or in other words Jerusalem, it says she flees into the wilderness for 1260 days, Matthew 24 said when ye see the abomination of desolation flee, so this matches. Revelation 13:5-6 describes this beast of the dragon previously mentioned blaspheming against God and warring with the saints for 42 months. We got 3 scriptures that have the same description of the tribulation, so concluding that time, times, dividing of time is as well 3.5 years, we can conclude that daniels 70th week is 7 years. Why did i say all this? well for one, some christians could be reading this. Im saying this because a major misinterpretation is that there is a 7 years tribulation, which is not true, its 3.5 years. Another reason is now im going to show a few things -As far as Judea fleeing, Ehud Olmert, the acting prime minister of Jerusalem is standing ready to withdraw from the West Bank -The anti-christ standing in the temple? where is the temple? In 2006 the temple society in Jerusalem finished building all the temple furniture and have started training rabbis for the sacrifices of old. They finally have a red heiffer ready for the first sacrifice whenever it happens. In late 2005 for the first time since the 5th century the San Hedrin re-emerged (the elite group of Jewish elders who put Christ to death, also of whom Paul was a part of) and had a meeting. They discussed the building of the temple. They decided, since they cannot build on the mount, then they will build it the same way Solomon built the first temple. OFFSITE. They blueprinted the temple, and it will soon be ready to move. OH! in Revelation 11, John is asked to measure the Jerusalem, but then it says the court without the temple leave out for it is given to the gentiles for they will tread the holy city for 42 months. If there was a Jewish temple standing in Jerusalem, and the gentiles had the outter courts this would indicate a time of peace, a time when Jew and Gentile share the city on a hill. In 2000 Bill Clinton states that the sharing of the temple mount was the only way for peace in Jerusalem. Ariel Sharon created a new party called the Kadina party in which his goal was to establish the final borders of Israel, or in other words, let the palestinians have part of the Holy Land as long as we can build our temple, yada yada yada. Sharon Signed it, Abbas signed it, Bush oversaw and signed it as well, the plan called THE ROADMAP FOR PEACE. Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.

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Issue Number: 93 ‘Enlightenment,’ wrote Immanuel Kant in his 1784 essay What is Enlightenment? ‘is man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity. Immaturity is the inability to use one’s understanding without guidance from another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of understanding, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another. Sapere aude! [Dare to know!] Have the courage to use your own understanding! That is the motto of enlightenment.’ Age Of Reason An Encyclopdedia of the Age of Enlightenment by Adam Dant. An Encyclopdedia of the Age of Enlightenment by Adam Dant. Neither Kant nor his eighteenth-century contemporaries believed that they lived in an enlightened age. By ‘enlightenment’, they meant a process: the lessening of darkness, the dawning of light. The human mind was liberating itself from traditional authority over thought and belief. ‘Nothing is required for enlightenment except freedom,’ wrote Kant, ‘and the freedom in question is the least harmful of all, namely, the freedom to use reason publicly in all matters.’ Kant and his fellow leaders of the Enlightenment were opposed to hegemonies, whether intellectual or political. ‘On all sides I hear: do not argue!’ Kant continues. ‘The officer says, “Do not argue, drill!” The taxman says, “Do not argue, pay!” The pastor says, “Do not argue, believe!”’ But, whereas the officer and the taxman serve authorities who dislike anyone questioning the political and social status quo, the pastor is a different matter: he represents the authority that dislikes any kind of questioning, and certainly not the kind that is sceptical about received wisdom. The project that served as a flagship for enlightenment in the eighteenth century was the Encyclopédie, edited by Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d’Alembert. A compendium of knowledge, its emphatic and rationalist war on the authority of past pieties was premised on the recognition of how obstinately they stood in the way of intellectual and social progress. In taking this stance, the Encyclopédists were following the lead of Voltaire who, with his battle-cry of Ecrasez l’infâme! (‘Wipe out the infamy’, by which he meant superstition), challenged tradition with weapons of logic and satire. ‘Have courage to free yourselves,’ Diderot exhorted his fellow men in words echoed by Kant, ‘Examine the history of all peoples in all times and you will see that we humans have always been subject to one of three codes: that of nature, that of society, and that of religion, and that we have been obliged to transgress all three in succession, because they could never be in harmony.’ In essence, the Enlightenment was a call to individuals to stand up for themselves in the light of reason. That meant understanding the world through philosophy and science, especially by applying the latter beyond physics and chemistry to the social world of politics, education and morality. The Enlightenment had its negative aspects and consequences, no doubt, but it was motivated by a real desire for the improvement of humankind’s lot and, accordingly, represents a key moment in the progress of civilisation. One of the many results of its new ambition was a shift in portraiture: in Enlightenment painting and sculpture, individuals – be they citizens, members of families or clubs – share a place once exclusively occupied by saints and princes. In its way, this represents the first dawning of the modern democratic spirit, and it would not have been possible without the Enlightenment’s belief in the universality of the human good and the ‘Rights of Man’.

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versión impresa ISSN 0259-9422 Herv. teol. stud. v.67 n.1 Pretoria 2011 Faculty of Theology, University of Pretoria, South Africa One of the presumptions of this article is that most of the people in the nascent 'Christian' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. Another presumption is that the history of these ordinary people from antiquity needs to be heard. The article aimed, with the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, to create a social context of Jesus and his disciples. The article approached the Gospels in the New Testament from the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century Roman Empire. It gives a brief analysis of one of the poverty texts, namely Matthew 6:2534. By means of interviews, stories of villagers in Tanzania, as well as their interpretations of the Gospel texts, have been documented. The people of Kinywang'anga serve as a test case for reading the 'do not worry' exhortation in the Matthean passage. Reading the text with the poor 'Almost half the world over three billion people live on less than $2.50 a day' (Poverty facts and stats; Shah 2009). 'Do not worry about your life, what you will eat or what you will drink, or about your body, what you will wear' (Mt 6:25). The New Testament was written during a time when poverty was a reality for almost everyone. Even now, after 2000 years, poverty is still present as one of the world's biggest problems. However, biblical scholarship today is done, more often than not, by those privileged with varying degrees of wealth, who do not themselves belong to any of the poorest classes of people. This fact leads to the questions: Do we understand the life of the poor enough to comprehend, for example, how they would hear the words of Jesus when he asked them not to worry about tomorrow? How did the audience, who heard this proclamation, whether in Galilee or later, elsewhere in Roman Empire, react to these words? How does a village community consisting of poor people react to these words? Traditionally, biblical studies have concentrated on the texts. These texts were written by the literate elite and represent the view of the privileged few. Most certainly the authors of the Gospels had some education and held positions of some status in their communities, which gave them the time and the skills to be able to write these texts. The history of the early Jesus movement, that later developed into the religion called Christianity, is usually written based on these texts composed by the elite. As a biblical scholar I, too, was taught to always keep the textual evidence at the forefront. 'Exegetes work with texts', it was said. Theories were not considered as important as the texts were. Within scholarly circles it became almost standard to analyse the texts in short pericopes, 'single units' as the smallest ones were called. This kind of working model was especially favoured in historical Jesus studies, where scholars tried to draw a believable and understandable figure of Jesus of Nazareth by ascribing these single units to Jesus or by simply leaving them out if they seemed too problematic or were clearly later than Jesus. However, I quickly learned three important things. Firstly, there is no text without context. The single units have never been 'single units' except for the scholars working with these texts. They were not delivered as short sayings and anecdotes by anyone or to anyone. Therefore it is not possible to understand any of these sayings, anecdotes, or short stories except by reading them within their original context. Linguistic analysis of single words and their etymologies are of no value if you do not know the context. The text always belongs to a context. Besides, the results of such investigation are not very trustworthy even if one could, with convincing argumentation, present a collection of authentic words of Jesus (which is not the case).1 Nobody's message, programme or thinking can be persuasively represented just by collecting various words and anecdotes and then using them to sum up the whole: No matter what criteria for testing the sayings are used, scholars still need to move beyond the sayings themselves to a broader context than a summary of their contents if they are to address historical questions about Jesus. Harsh criticism of the way many Jesus scholars investigate the single sayings of Jesus is given by Richard Horsley (2008:131145), who bases his critique on the examination of the memory and the gospels as 'social memory' rather than 'containers of data'. Every text and every moment of oral proclamation and performance makes best sense within its context. Overman (1996) writes: The whole story of Matthew is a crucial context and, in fact, an absolute necessity for understanding smaller parts or units of the Gospel. The story itself, written by the author as best we can reconstruct it, is the first place a sensible reader will look for clues and for a context that will help supply meaning to words, instruction, and stories in the Gospel. And there is little doubt that cross-cultural analogies, and stories and events from our own time, can indeed help to shed more light on the Gospel texts, their meanings, and their application. Secondly, I learned that it is much easier to know the context of Jesus than Jesus himself. We know a great deal about the Roman Empire in 1st century Palestine. We have trustworthy information about the cultural context that Jesus and his disciples lived in. With the help of archaeology, cultural anthropology, social history of antiquity, literature of the time as well as other disciplines, we can create the social context of Jesus and his disciples. It is much more difficult to place the figure of Jesus into that context. Thirdly, the Gospels, as we have them today, are not in their original form. Originally, they were distributed in both oral and written forms, with several different forms of each, depending on the context. The Gospels also differ from other contemporary literature because of the fact that, although authored by the elite, they do contain some traditions that have been produced by ordinary people, even poor people. This seems to me to be especially true in the Sayings Gospel Q and the Gospel of Mark and on some occasions the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Thomas. Even the theologically constructed Gospel of John contains some traditions that might have been born in rural peasant circles and the Gospel of Luke based his admittedly elite Gospel on earlier traditions found in Q and Mark. Thus, as Horsley (2008:31) writes, the Gospels 'are some of those rare historical cases of literature that represents the view from below'. Most of the people in the nascent 'Christian' communities were ordinary people struggling with questions of living under harsh conditions in a country that was occupied by an enemy force. Their history needs to be written. Horsley (2008:2124) makes an interesting distinction between 'standard history' and 'people's history' and applies this distinction to New Testament studies. To use his terms, my study would be a 'people's history'. In this article the focus is not on theological concepts or the rise of Christian beliefs. The focus is rather on the poor, the majority of people living in the 1st century Roman Empire. In choosing this focus I have approached the gospels from the viewpoint of the poor. What follows is a necessarily brief analysis of one of the poverty texts that I chose for the interviews amongst people living in poverty today. A more detailed study will be forthcoming in my book on the same subject. In these interviews, I listened to the stories of the villagers as well as their interpretations of the Gospel texts and documented them on a voice recorder. Findings from this field research amongst the poor living in villages in Tanzania in the spring of 2010 will be studied further and then compared to current biblical scholarly investigations concerning the poverty texts. One example text, Matthew 6:2534, will be presented here from a contextual standpoint, that is, from the perspective of the materially poor. The field research in Tanzanian villages One contemporary setting to read the poverty texts within the context of poverty is Tanzania. In many places in Africa, especially in rural areas, people still live in a pre-industrial, agrarian society. In many villages, there is no electricity and virtually no motor vehicles or telephones. Some tribes still live in a gatherer society whilst some tribes are nomadic. But most of the rural people are peasants who make their living from agriculture. They have tiny fields and a small number of cattle that affords them, in normal times, a modest living for themselves and their families. Most people do not produce anything for sale and almost nobody gets a salary. Also, in recent times HIV and AIDS has struck the African continent, especially sub-Saharan Africa, more heavily than any other part of the world, making, at worst, one in every four adults HIV-positive (UNAIDS 2008).2 I chose to focus on the villages in the Iringa district in the middle of Tanzania because of my earlier contacts in the area and the support of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Mission Society as well as Tumaini University. Their familiarity with village life in the district was very useful when arranging visits to local villages where people speak mainly Swahili and their own tribal languages, like Hehe, Bena or Kinga.3 The focus during the visits to the villages was twofold. Firstly, I wanted to become familiar with the social structure of the village. I asked the village chief or executive secretary the following kinds of questions: How many people live in the village? Do all villagers belong to the same tribe or kin? What do villagers do for a living? What professions or occupations do they have? How many villagers work outside of the village? How and why, do villagers keep contact with neighbouring villages and towns? What are the major problems in the village?4 In light of the issues regarding land ownership in the gospels it was especially interesting to learn that in Tanzania, the land was appropriated by the state in the 1960s. The older generation still remembers the time when the land was either owned by a tribe or by kin, or was free to anyone. Nowadays people pay rent for the land they want to cultivate. This data works not only as a necessary context for reading the poverty texts with the villagers, but offers a comparison to the hypothesis regarding the origins of Q, namely that it was supposed to have originated in the Galilean villages where loss of land was prevalent. Secondly and most importantly, I discussed the poverty texts with the villagers. I call this discussion a 'reading' but the texts were not read from a book with leather covers, but rather performed in narrative style. In Tanzania the oral culture and narrative tradition is still alive and well. By telling the stories from memory I tended to get their first reactions, which may have been different had I simply read to them from the Bible. Some of the villagers were non-Christians, so they were not too closely acquainted with the stories beforehand. Even the Christians heard the stories differently compared to the way they heard them from pastors and evangelists or even in liturgical sermons. I had hoped to have a lively discussion of the poverty stories in the Gospels and that I most certainly did. Often the religious authorities (a pastor, an evangelist or some other religious leader) were present, but I politely asked them not to take part in the discussions, given that they are professionals and I wanted to hear the voices of ordinary people. They agreed to my request and were politely quiet, but I usually had to visit their home afterwards so that they did not feel left out. I also asked the people gathered at the meeting place to set aside their understanding of the story if they had already heard it and to listen as if they were hearing it for the first time in their lives. At each meeting, there were 2050 people present from both genders and all ages and approximately 1015 of them took part in any given discussion. At this point, there are some things that I ask the reader to keep in mind before reading the following field report section. As a foreigner in mid-Tanzania, with a different way of life, I come from a completely different world than the one they inhabit. Some of them had never seen a White person before. I did not speak their language and had to rely on a translator, who belonged to one of their own tribes. As an outsider I was treated politely and perhaps regarded with some authority given that, in every situation, I was given the seat of honour directly beside the village chief or some other authorities. There is a big difference when an outsider arrives in a village and leads a discussion compared to someone that they know doing the same thing. I had to ask many questions in order to gain an understanding of village life; an understanding that I am sure was quite different from their own lived reality. An outsider usually sees things more from an overall viewpoint than insiders do. Village life in Kinywang'anga The village of Kinywang'anga was one of my first sites. I had initially chosen to perform the story of The Rich Man and Lazarus, Luke 16:1931, but after discussing with the village 'executive secretary',5 the text seemed inappropriate to village life. Even in terms of the Bible the story is located in a more urban setting. In Kinywang'anga, nobody had luxurious clothes and it would have been hard for them to imagine that there were any such people who could have eaten so well as the rich man in the story. The village was one of the poorest in the area. It consisted of approximately 1000 inhabitants who all made a living from their own little farms of generally 0.54 hectares. Almost all of them would be considered peasant farmers, which is how they saw themselves as well. There is one primary school with five teachers. Although the teachers received government pay, each also had a small farm with some cattle. In addition to the teachers there were two religious leaders in the village, one a Lutheran evangelist and the other an Anglican priest; each of them also had farms. There were no other professions amongst the inhabitants of the village and no one goes to work outside of the village. People from three different tribes, the Hehe, Bena and Kinga, live in Kinywang'anga. These tribal names are also the names of the languages spoken in the village. There are no cars in the village. There is only one tractor and a few bicycles. Despite the lack of transportation, people make weekly visits to neighbouring villages to meet with relatives and friends and sometimes to try and find medical treatment. Health care poses serious problems as there is no transportation and the distance to the nearest health centre or hospital is extensive. People in Kinywang'anga are totally dependent on the products of the earth. If there is no rain, there is no crop and they are in danger of starvation; the last time this happened was in 2000. Other catastrophes might destroy the crop as well. There were no barns or other store houses in the village which may have enabled them to keep surpluses to use during hard times or to sell as a way of providing additional income. However, the village grows sunflowers, which are pressed for their oil and sometimes sold to people travelling the main road that goes 3 kilometres out from the village. Two years ago a water pipe system was built for them, so now they have a place from which to fetch water. There is no electricity in the village. The villagers live in traditional African clay houses with grass roofs and they are very poorly dressed. Many people had no shoes. However, the women were dressed in colourful textiles for the meeting with me, carrying babies tied on their backs. Approximately 50% of the population comprises children.6 According to the standards of the World Bank, the people in Kinywang'anga live in absolute poverty, that is, under $1.25 a day (The World Bank Group 2010). Do not worry in Kinywang'anga (Mt 6:2534) After learning all of this background information, I decided to change the Gospel passage to be performed to Matthew 6:2534, the Do Not Worry passage.7 I thought it was a very challenging story in the context of life in Kinywang'anga, where people sometimes have no food at all, clothing is meager and they have enjoyed the 'pure'8 water from the pipes for only a couple of years now. Most years they have enough food, but it is quite simple and not very nutritious. Most probably the situation in 1st century Galilee (or in any rural environment in the Roman Empire) would not have been any better, but it certainly could not have been much worse. In Kinywang'anga the context for this gospel passage is totally different compared to my own country of Finland as well as most Western countries and perhaps closer to the conditions experienced by those living in 1st century Galilean villages. The meeting took place in an outside area in the shade. During the time of year that we met, the 'flowers of the field' were very beautiful and everything was green; the 'birds of the air' flew over us and sang (Mt 6:26, 28). A lively discussion followed the performance of the text. The discussion was opened by an elderly man who said that, 'Maybe Jesus spoke these words, because he found that the people had very little faith. He wanted to teach them about faith'. I suppose that what the man meant by 'faith', was, trust in God's care, but I am not sure. Another man said, 'Jesus found people so keen on material things, that they forgot the spiritual things and God. They were concerned about food, clothes and other things, but not God'. A woman said that if someone came to say such words to her, she would think that this person has something dishonest in mind. 'It would be better if somebody would tell me a better way how I could manage my life in order to get things and not to say "Do not worry"'. Another continued and said that such a person would be considered 'mentally disabled' by the villagers. The Lutheran evangelist interjected, saying that: 'Some worry is understandable, because we need many things, but one should not worry about things that are beyond one's ability to influence or control, for example weather. It is, however, good to plan your future'. When I asked if they knew anyone who did not worry about tomorrow, they strongly denied knowing such a person. The same elderly man who started the discussion, said: 'Jesus knew the people and their problems and needs, so he wanted to give them a change, a new perspective, a new way of thinking'. I asked, what would happen, if they stopped worrying about daily food and drink and clothing and just trusted in God? Someone said that then life would be very bad. Another said that it is a matter of faith. If the people believed what Jesus said and stopped working they would have thought everything comes automatically, without human involvement, if they just believed. A young woman with a baby said: 'The speech of Jesus must have divided the people in two groups: others had faith and thought that "this is true, why worry", whilst the others thought "this is not possible". Faith is the main topic of Jesus' speech'. One man said that if you trust God, you will have everything you need. In further discussion over sodas, we found a solution together for this problematic text. If a person is worried, they soon become depressed and are not a joy to their friends and relatives. It is therefore better not to worry too much about worldly things that you cannot do anything about, but instead to rejoice with family and friends for all the good we have. Most of the scholarly commentators of the Do Not Worry text do not discuss it in the context of the poor, although some features in the saying refer to this issue.9 For example, Jesus speaks of the grass of the field that is thrown into an oven. The poor often used grass as a fuel in the oven to cook bread, because wood was so scarce (Malina & Rohrbaugh 2003:51). Also, the figure of Gentiles as 'striving for all these things' is understandable in a context where Gentiles usually represent the rich who have better and easier lifestyles than local villagers.10 It is important to note that the religious and cultural memory of the people in Kinywang'anga is not identical with the social memory of the 1st century Galilean villagers. Key terms in the passage such as 'heavenly Father', 'Solomon in all his splendor', 'Gentiles', 'strive first for his kingdom and his righteousness', would have resonated with 1st century Jewish listeners differently from the Tanzanian poor, who would be without an important context for understanding the passage. In Kinywang'anga it became clear to me that the Do Not Worry passage makes no sense at all in a village where people are living in ongoing poverty. The villagers tried to find a spiritual message in the saying, maybe because it was not reasonable to live a careless life, as Jesus seemed to be advising. They interpreted the saying in the light of the Kingdom of God (v. 33), which they seemed to have understood within a spiritual context. But what about people who have already lost the basic necessities that were needed for living: the sources of food and drink (field, cattle), access to water supply (such as a well) and the possibility of making or purchasing adequate clothing? In Kinywang'anga I met one person who fit this description; he was a young man behaving strangely, dressed even more poorly than the villagers and seemingly suffering from one or more severe illness. According to the locals he was mentally ill. During the spring of 2010 I also visited the Palestinian territories in the West Bank. Although I did not read this particular passage with the Palestinians, I discussed the Kingdom of God with them. As Muslims their understanding was also spiritual, but compared to the people in Kinywang'anga, their understanding was much more concrete. The Kingdom of God for them was 'doing God's will' and therefore not only a spiritual entity. Quite the contrary, the Palestinians, who suffered from injustice by the Israelites, understood the Kingdom of God as a movement of oppressed people who have God as their shelter when they do God's will. The Kingdom of God was equivalent to the intifada. William R. Herzog II (2010) has written: In the hierarchy of rural life, then, there are two thresholds at which peasants may lose their previous status, and it is at these moments that they will resist their decline most fiercely. (Herzog II 2010:5152) Quoting James C. Scott (1976), he concludes that: When threatened with the loss of their land and the security of their village, they will form movements and perhaps even rebel. The same is true when peasants reach the second, more desperate threshold, 'when the subsistence guarantees within dependency collapse', and the relative stability of tenancy gives way to the perilous life of a day laborer. (James C. Scott 1976:3940) This had obviously not happened in Kinywang'anga, where most people still had the security offered by village life and their small farms. In the Palestinian territories, in contrast, the people had suffered from injustice and loss of land. The life of many Palestinians had become very difficult. In that context it is much easier to imagine how they would react to the exhortation 'Do Not Worry'. Especially young men would eagerly join any movement resisting the unjust oppressor. They could stop worrying about the questions of daily life and strive for the movement that they believed brings justice, peace and welfare.11 The context of do not worry in the gospels In the Gospels we can find three groups where Jesus' words on not worrying about daily life could have been understood and maybe even hailed as good news. The first one is the group of landless peasants, who had quite recently lost all their property to some rich landowners, probably absentee landlords, as a result of debts they were not able to pay. Such people would have quickly fallen under the sustenance level and their future was either to become slaves, beggars, criminals, bandits or some other social outcast. These are just the kind of people who might form movements for resistance. If the group believed that their plight triggered an eschatological turn in the immediate future, some kind of a collapse of the normal system of social stratification leading to the possibility of shared goods, they could have heard the words of Jesus as a proclamation of power. However, in the literal context of Matthew's gospel there are no clear indications that the words should be understood this way. The Do Not Worry passage is a part of the Sermon on the Mount and although the Gospel of Matthew also contains an apocalypse later in chapter 24, it would be a stretch to read the chapter 6 passage in light of this. Rather, the verbal context of Matthew leads one to think about one's relation to property rather than to the end times. Preceding Mattew 6:2534 the evangelist talks about almsgiving (6:14), prayer, including central petitions concerning daily living (6:515), fasting (6:1618),12 storing property or treasures (6:1921), envy, or the evil eye (6:2223)13 and the impossibility of serving both God and Mammon (6:24). In chapter 7, the themes change from property to one's relationships with other people. Therefore, it seems to me that, at least in its Matthean context, Jesus' words would not have made sense as an eschatological proclamation. In the context of Q this might have been possible, but the sequence of Q (its different phases and the social context of Q) are still debated so much that it is not possible to enter into that discussion in this article. The second possible group for whom Jesus' Do Not Worry saying would have been understandable was in a group made up of 'itinerant charismatic preachers'. The earliest followers of Jesus were supposedly people living in Galilean villages where Jesus' proclamation of the Kingdom of God was welcomed and understood as a liberating action that would soon free them from subjugation to the Roman Empire. Heavy taxation, wars, punishments and other consequences of the occupation were a tremendous burden on the peasant population. The message of the Kingdom of God was spread from village to village by Jesus' disciples, who had left their earlier lives (whether voluntarily or under pressure) and lived solely on the support of villagers who accepted the movement's message. These are the people that were sent to proclaim the Kingdom of God without carrying a purse, a bag or sandals (Lk 10:112).14 Itinerant, wandering charismatic preachers did not need to work for their living. They did not have to worry about their living in the same way that peasants who were dependent on their crops did. They adopted a lifestyle, which made them free from worries concerning agricultural production. Therefore, they were like the birds in the sky. They trusted the benevolence of the people in the villages that they visited, some of whom might have been their relatives or friends (the most popular reason for going to nearby villages and towns for Tanzanian villagers is to visit relatives and friends). However, this interpretation also fits much better in the rural context of Q and not so well into the more urban context of the Gospel of Matthew.15 Also, Matthew places the Q material concerning the itinerant preachers elsewhere in the Gospel, not in the Sermon on the Mount. It is still important to know that Matthew, when including material from Q into his Gospel, took these texts as a larger entity of texts dealing with property and poverty and placed them in Jesus' longest speech in chapters 57. The third group of people for whom the Do Not Worry saying makes sense can be found in the immediate context of the speech. The geographical context was naturally the city where the Gospel of Matthew was written. The majority of modern scholars locate the gospel geographically to Syria16 and suggest that it was written in Antioch, the third largest city of the Roman Empire at the time (e.g. Meier 1982:2227; Luz 1985:7374; Stambauch & Balch 1986:145; Stark 1996:147162; Brown 1997:21213; Carter 2008:21).17 Andries van Aarde (2007) writes: The Matthean Jesus' exposure of the power of the Roman Empire (and that of the Temple authorities) does not mean that Gentiles are excluded from God's inclusive basileia or that the marginalized now included were only Israelite peasants. The 'lost sheep of the house of Israel' pertain to both Israelites and non-Israelites and include people such as: - the economically poor who are without family support (such as those referred to in Mt 19:21), - the socially homeless (such as a 'partriarchless' woman divorced by her husband in Mt 19:9 and the children without parents mentioned in Mt 19:1315), - and ethnic outcasts (such as the Canaanite mother in Mt 15:2128 and the Roman centurion in Mt 8:513 and Mt 27:54). Seen from the perspective of Israel as a covenantal family, the above group were marginalized and those were the kind of people who could be among the crowds that followed Jesus 'from Galilee and the Decapolis and Jerusalem and Judea and from across the Jordan' (Mt 4:23). They were those who were granted God's goodness because of God's righteousness, the 'last who became the first' (Mt 20:115). (Van Aarde 2007:423) In light of understanding the Gospel of Matthew as proclaiming the Kingdom of God, not only as anti-Roman, but also inclusive of the marginalised people, both Israelites and non-Israelites, the Do Not Worry saying makes sense in its Matthean context and becomes more understandable from the viewpoint of the poor. The poor in the Gospel of Matthew were not ordinary Israelite peasants living in small farms, but people with no family support and no home and even from different ethnic origins. According to Matthew, they formed the audience of the Sermon on the Mount (4:2325). Jesus says to them that they should first strive for the kingdom of God and his righteousness. When these outcasts are accepted as true members of the family-like community of Jesus' followers, they do not have to worry about their future, because they will be the 'last who became the first'. The community will take care of their material needs. Choosing Kinywang'anga as a test case for reading the Do Not Worry exhortation was challenging: I did not have any idea how the poor peasant farmers in the village would comprehend the passage. I must say that it was first a disappointment that they did not seem to understand it any better than I did. The saying made no sense in their context. However, the test case study helped me to see that most probably it was as difficult to understand in 1st century Galilean villages as in an African village nearly 2000 years later. The poor who first heard these words were not poor peasants still working in their tiny fields and worrying about daily sustenance. However, if these kind of people lose their security as a result of oppression (that is 'persecution' in the New Testament), as has happened in the West Bank, the exhortation becomes empowering for them in uniting them for struggle for their own rights. With the example of Kinywang'anga I wanted to show the usefulness to biblical scholarship, to say nothing of the necessity, of getting to know people living in poverty and to understand their living conditions. Of course, Tanzania is not 1st century Palestine. It is, however, much closer to it than the Western world where most scholarly work on the Bible is done. For me my visits to the African villages gave me new insights into the Bible and helped me to understand how large the cultural gap is between our world and the New Testament World of the poor. Did I gain a better understanding of the poverty texts? No, quite the contrary. Unfortunately, it is not possible to present more examples here, but it is my hope that the one presented in this article makes it clear how hard it is to understand the words of Jesus or the evangelists, not to speak of applying those words to our own modern lives. Brown, R.E., 1997, An introduction to the New Testament, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland. (The Anchor Bible Reference Library). [ Links ] Carter, W., 2008, Matthew, storyteller, interpreter, evangelist, rev. edn., second printing, Hendrickson, Peabody, Massachusetts. [ Links ] Funk, R.W., Hoover, R.W. & the Jesus Seminar, 1993, The five gospels: What did Jesus really say? The search for the authentic words of Jesus, MacMillan, New York. [ Links ] Hanson, K.C. & Oakman, D.E., 2008, Palestine in the time of Jesus: Social structures and social conflicts, 2nd edn., Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ] Herzog, W., 2010, 'Why peasants responded to Jesus', in R.A. Horsley (ed.), Christian Origins. A people's history of Christianity 1, pp. 47-70, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ] Hoffmann, P., 1972, Studien zur Theologie der Logienquelle, Neutestamentliche Abhandlungen, Neue Folge 8., Verlag Aschendorff, Münster. [ Links ] Horsley, R.A., 2008, Jesus in context: Power, people & performance, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ] Kloppenborg Verbin, J.S., 2000, Excavating Q: The history and setting of the Sayings Gospel, Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ] Luz, U., 1985, Das Evangelium nach Matthäus 1 (Mt 17). Evangelisch-Katholischer Kommentar zum Neuen Testament. Band I/1., Benziger Verlag, Zürich, Einsiedeln, Köln; Neukirchener Verlag des Erziehungsvereins GmbH, Neukirchen-Vluyn. [ Links ] Malina, B., 2001, The New Testament world: Insights from cultural anthropology, 3rd edn., revised and expanded, Westminster John Knox Press, Louisville, Kentucky. [ Links ] Malina, B.J. & Rohrbaugh, R.L., 2003, Social-science commentary on the synoptic gospels, 2nd edn., Fortress Press, Minneapolis. [ Links ] Meier, J.P., 1982, 'Antioch', in R. Brown & J.P. Meier (eds.), Antioch and Rome: New Testament cradles of Catholic Christianity, pp. 1186, Chapman, London. [ Links ] Meier, J.P., 2001, A marginal Jew: Rethinking the historical Jesus. Volume three: Companions and competitors, The Anchor Bible reference library, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland. [ Links ] Nolland, J., 2005, The gospel of Matthew: The new international Greek Testament commentary, Eerdmans Publishing co., Grand Rapids, Michigan and Paternoster Press, London. [ Links ] Overman, J.A., 1996, Church and community in crisis: The gospel according to Matthew, The New Testament in context, Trinity Press International, Valley Forge, PA. [ Links ] Sanders, E.P., 1985, Jesus and Judaism, SCM Press, London. [ Links ] Sato, M., 1988, Q und Prophetie: Studien zur Gattungs- und Traditionsgeschichte d. Quelle Q., WUNT 2,29, Mohr, Tübingen. [ Links ] Scott, J.C., 1976, The moral economy of the peasant: Rebellion and subsistence in southeast Asia, Yale University Press, New Haven. [ Links ] Shah, A., 2009, Poverty facts and stats, viewed 05 April 2010 from http://www.globalissues.org/article/26/poverty-facts-and-stats. [ Links ] Stambauch, J.E. & Balch, D.L., 1986, The New Testament in its social environment, Library of early Christianity, Westminster Press, Philadelphia. [ Links ] Stark, R., 1996, The rise of christianity: A sociologist reconsiders history, Princeton University Press, New Jersey. [ Links ] UNAIDS, 2008, 'Report on the global AIDS epidemic', viewed 05 April 2010, from http://www.unaids.org/en/KnowledgeCentre/HIVData/GlobalReport/2008/2008_Global_report.asp. [ Links ] Van Aarde, A.G., 2007, Jesus' mission to all of Israel emplotted in Matthew's story, Neotestamentica 41(2), 416436. [ Links ] Van Tilborg, S., 1972, The Jewish leaders in Matthew, Brill, Leiden. [ Links ] Pikku-kaari 20 B, 70420 Kuopio, Finland Received: 23 Apr. 2010 Accepted: 16 Aug. 2010 Published: 07 June 2011 Note: Dr Sakari Häkkinen is participating as a research associate of Prof. Dr Andries G. van Aarde, Honorary Professor at the Faculty of Theology of the University of Pretoria, South Africa. 1.The work of the Jesus Seminar resulted in the publication of Funk, Hoover and the Jesus Seminar 1993. Not even this work, even though born from the co-operation of numerous biblical scholars, represents the final truth on what the historical Jesus once said. The debate still goes on. 2.According to the 2007 estimations of UNAIDS (a joint United Nations and World Health Organization program on HIV and AIDS) in the southern parts of Africa of the adult population (1549) 25% 28% were infected by HIV. In the Tanzanian area I visited, the estimation was the worst in the country, 15.7% of the adult population. 3.I am very grateful to Tumaini University for assigning two assistants, Rev. Aleck Mhanga and Rev. Yekonia Koko to me as well as for the use of a car during my stay in mid-Tanzania. 4.The data I acquired in the field has been tabulated, but is not presented here for practical reasons. 5.Kinywang'anga's village chief was not present. I was told that he might join us later (or perhaps he had something else to do). I did not meet him at all. Instead, the executive secretary gave me all the information I needed and I noticed that he also had some authority in the village and was considered to be one of the wealthiest men in the village with his herd of 25 cows. In my opinion, the 'executive secretary' in every Tanzanian village is the modern equivalent of the 'scribes' in Galilean villages. Both the executive secretaries and the Galilean scribes (and later rabbis) were responsible for the village archives and official documents. See Hanson and Oakman (2008:166167). 6.The office of the village chief was quite stark. It had a table and a chair, a wooden bench and a tiny shelf, that seemed to hold some papers and a huge cardboard box containing condoms! 7.The saying is originally from Q and thus is also in Luke 12:2234. Parts of the text can be found also in P. Oxy p. 655, which contains saying 36 of the Gospel of Thomas. 8.Visitors and foreigners in Tanzania are advised not to drink the water that comes out of these pipes. 9.For example, Meier (2001:517) takes for granted that Jesus is warning about the dangers of wealth, as if the people worrying about their daily life would seek wealth. This seemed not to have been the situation amongst the villagers in Kinywang'anga. Nolland (2005:305316) speaks about 'hard work to earn enough to purchase the cloth' and 'Jesus can assume that his hearers will share his aesthetic judgment that natural beauty outshines the most artful of human productions'. 10.This came to me when I was visiting the villages. As a foreigner, I was viewed by them as being 'rich'. 11.There were also some Muslims attending the discussion in Kinywang'anga, but they did not differ from the other villagers in terms of their attitude to work or worrying. 12.From a poor person's perspective, fasting is a very interesting phenomenon. If people were already poor and were enduring what amounted to forced fasting, Jesus' advice to put oil on their heads and to wash their faces must have sounded very strange indeed. The saying is more suited to an urban environment and possibly in a society whose members are not suffering from poverty. 13.The concept of the 'evil eye' referred to envy (Malina 2001:108133). 14.The synoptic sayings source Q was probably composed and used by Galilean villagers from several villages that formed a network consisting of twofold followers of Jesus: itinerant missionaries and settled disciples of Jesus (e.g. Hoffmann 1972:329333; Sato 1988:379380). For other scholars promoting the wandering (charismatic) missionaries and their localised allies (or leaders?), see Kloppenborg Verbin (2000:179184; deviating claims: 184196). 15.The gospel was most probably written for a community living in an urban environment. Urban locale may be suggested by 26 uses in the Gospel of 'city' compared to four of 'village' (Brown 1997:212). 16.Syria is added in Matthew 4:24 to Mark's description of Jesus' activity. Also, the early Jewish Gospel of the Nazarenes, which is related to Matthew, circulated in Syria. In Syria, the Jesus-believing Jews were called 'Nazoraioi', the Greek term used in Matthew 2:23 (Luz 1985:74; Brown 1997:212). 17.The main arguments for Antioch are (1) Ignatius of Antioch seems to have known and probably cited the Gospel of Matthew (the citation is not clearly from Matthew, however); (2) The Didache quotes Matthew and is located by most scholars in Antioch; (3) The first two chapters of the Fourth Ezra (later known as the Fifth Ezra) quoted from Matthew; (4) Antioch as a Greek-speaking city that had a relatively large Jewish population fits well with the conditions mentioned in the Jewish Gospel written to a mixed audience in Greek and; (5) The dominant influence that Matthew's gospel would have in subsequent Christianity suggests that it served as the Gospel of a major Christian church in an important city, such as Antioch. According to Brown (1997:213), the most persuasive evidence stems from the correspondence of the internal evidence. Brown argues quite convincingly that the gospel was addressed to a once strongly Jewish Christian church that had become increasingly Gentile in composition and J.P. Meier has shown how the history of Christianity in Antioch fits that situation. There were probably more Jews in Antioch than in any other place in Syria and their ceremonies attracted many Gentiles (Josephus, War 7.3.3). Also, Paul's mission to the Gentiles began in Antioch, but the community there seems to have later been led by more conservative Jews, as Paul lost the battle (described in Gl 2) and departed Antioch in the 50s. Overman (1996:1617) suggests a Galilean city (perhaps Capernaum or Sepphoris), followed by at least D. Harrington, A.J. Saldarini and A. Segal (who thinks both a Galilean environment and Antioch are possible). Galilee belonged formally to Syria. Tilborg (1972) suggests Alexandria, but Overman (1617) quite convincingly denies this possibility. Overman also provides other suggestions given by scholars on the location of the Gospel, but thinks them improbable. The earliest references to the Gospel according to Matthew by the Church Fathers imply a Palestinian location.

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Climate change has already pushed the nation's wildlife into crisis, according to a report released Wednesday from the National Wildlife Federation (NWF), and further catastrophe, including widespread extinction, can only be curbed with swift action to curb the carbon pollution that has the planet sweltering. Entitled Wildlife in a Warming World: Confronting the Climate Crisis, the report looks at 8 regions across the U.S. where "the underlying climatic conditions to which species have been accustomed for thousands of years," the report explains, have been upturned by human-caused climate change. “Some of America’s most iconic species—from moose to sandhill cranes to sea turtles – are seeing their homes transformed by rapid climate change,” stated Dr. Amanda Staudt, climate scientist at the National Wildlife Federation. Feb 15, 2013 Living on Earth: STARVING POLAR BEARS Polar Bears have long been the poster species for the problem of climate change. But a new paper in Conservation Letters argues that supplemental feeding may be necessary to prevent polar bear populations from going extinct. Polar bear expert Andrew Derocher from the University of Alberta joins Host Steve Curwood to discuss how we can save the largest bear on the planet.http://www.loe.org/shows/segments.html?programID=13-P13-00007&segmentID=2

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When selecting a solar electric back power system for your home or business, it is important to know approximately how much power you will need to have available to power emergency loads during a blackout. Unlike an offgrid solar system which needs to replenish the amount of power consumed with available sunlight within each day that the system is operating. A backup power system need only supply power for the anticipated duration of a blackout, which in most cases is only a few hours. In fact in most cases, solar panels are not necessary in such a system because the backup power system's batteries can be recharged in anticipation of the next power failure by using utility power once it has returned to normal operation. The only advantage that solar panels would serve in such a system would be in the event that a prolonged outage (More than 24 hours) should occur. In a typical backup power system, batteries store the energy that is needed to power the designated emergency loads for the pre-determine period of time. Just like a small UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) for your computer can supply power for 5 to 15 minutes allowing you time to safely shut you computer off, a backup power system supplies power but in this case for hours or even days, allowing you to operate your home or business until the power has returned. In order to select the appropriate system for your backup power needs, it is important to match your anticipated power consumption with your back up system's battery bank capacity. To correctly size a system for your home or business you must first determine the wattage of each item that you wish to power during a power failure and also determine how long each item will run during the power failure. For example a 60 watt light bulb that is used for 5 hours will consume 300 watt hours. Watts multiplied by time is equal to watt hours. A microwave oven that consumes 800 watts that runs for 15 minutes, consumes 200 watt hours, 800 watts times .25 hours equals 200 watt hours. So to correctly size a system, simply make a list of each item that you intend to run. Next to each item write down it's power consumption in watts and next to that write down the amount of time that the item will run during the power failure, then multiply the watts of the item by the amount of time that it will run and write that number down in the last column. After you have calculated the watt hour consumption for each item, simply add each item's watt hour rating together and you'll have your total consumption.. For example: Once we have this information, it's a simple matter to match the number of batteries that you will need in order to store enough power for what you Choosing an inverter for your backup power system DC to AC inverters are available as inverter units only, or may have additional circuits added that allows them to charge batteries when an external AC source is fed into the inverter. This type of configuration is know as an inverter/charger. In addition to the charger circuit, these units will typically include a device known as an AC transfer switch. The advantage to purchasing an inverter/charger with transfer switch is that it can function as a highly reliable automatic power backup unit or UPS. When the utility company is operating normally the inverter/charger passes the utility company power through its internal transfer switch to your appliances and maintains a charge on your battery bank. As soon as the utility power fails, the inverter automatically stops charging the battery bank and begins producing its own AC power which is passed on to your appliances through its internal AC When the utility power returns, the inverter goes back to charging the batteries and again passes the utility power though the transfer switch to your appliances. Most inverter/chargers switch from utility power to inverter power and back again so fast that most of your appliances will hardly miss a beat. Sizing the wattage rating of an inverter for your backup system is a simple matter of determining the total number of appliances that you would typically be operating on a concurrent basis, and adding a buffer of at least 500 watts. In other words if there was a possibility that you would have your 600 watt microwave, a 200 watts coffee maker and a 200 watt stereo running at the same time, you would be drawing 1000 watts, then you should choose a 1500 watt inverter. An inverter should never be run at it's maximum rating for prolonged periods of time, doing so will shorten the life of the inverter. Another issue to consider is the amount of surge current that your appliances draws. Any appliance that uses a transformer, motor or other magnetic device draws what is known as surge current at startup. These devices are otherwise known as inductors. Inductors appose the flow of electrical current. When an inductor is first energized there is a great degree of inertia that must be overcome for the magnetic field which surrounds the inductor to reach it's maximum field. Just as it's difficult to initially push a car by hand that is at rest and gets easier to push as it gets going. Initially starting an inductor takes a great deal of current to get it started but backs off on the current after it gets going. Devices such as microwave ovens, refrigerator compressors, fan motors and large transformer based appliances can draw from 3 to 6 times it's normal wattage in an initial surge of current. This initial surge of current typically only lasts milliseconds but it's enough to shut down an inverter if it's not sized properly. Thus it's important to choose an inverter that has enough surge capacity to start such appliances. For example a meager 600 watt microwave oven will typically require a 2000 watt inverter just to get it started. If all of this information seems a little overwhelming, don't worry our friendly knowledgeable staff are here to help you every step of And finally, be cautious when purchasing a backup power system for your home or place of the Internet. Get to know who you're dealing with. Many of the backup power kits that are available on the Internet are actually home made configurations. Many websites on the Internet that would appear to be large reputable companies are actually home based affairs that operate from an impossible to trace POB (PO Box). Remember, you're about to give this individual your personal information and more importantly your credit card number. Is his company solvent ? Does he have liability insurance ? Does he really have the items that you're about to purchase in stock ? Does he have any stock ? With the advent of the energy crisis, dozens of home based dealers with little or no formal training or experience have cropped up on the Internet. Even if you don't live nearby, ask the dealer if you can get directions to his place of business so you can stop by and take a look at some products. If you can't get directions or a straight answer from him, then in our opinion, steer clear ! It's important to remember that it takes only minutes to upload a website to the Internet and only seconds to take it down. would like to learn more about protecting yourself when shopping on the Internet

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Problems of Philosophy Chapter 5 - Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description After distinguishing two types of knowledge, knowledge of things and knowledge of truths, Russell devotes this fifth chapter to an elucidation of knowledge of things. He further distinguishes two types of knowledge of things, knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. We have knowledge by acquaintance when we are directly aware of a thing, without any inference. We are immediately conscious and acquainted with a color or hardness of a table before us, our sense-data. Since acquaintance with things is logically independent from any knowledge of truths, we can be acquainted with something immediately without knowing any truth about it. I can know the color of a table "perfectly and completely when I see it" and not know any truth about the color in itself. The other type of knowledge of things is called knowledge by description. When we say we have knowledge of the table itself, a physical object, we refer to a kind of knowledge other than immediate, direct knowledge. "The physical object which causes such-and-such sense-data" is a phrase that describes the table by way of sense-data. We only have a description of the table. Knowledge by description is predicated on something with which we are acquainted, sense-data, and some knowledge of truths, like knowing that "such- and-such sense-data are caused by the physical object." Thus, knowledge by description allows us to infer knowledge about the actual world via the things that can be known to us, things with which we have direct acquaintance (our subjective sense-data). According to this outline, knowledge by acquaintance forms the bedrock for all of our other knowledge. Sense-data is not the only instance of things with which we can be immediately acquainted. For how would we recall the past, Russell argues, if we could only know what was immediately present to our senses. Beyond sense-data, we also have "acquaintance by memory." Remembering what we were immediately aware of makes it so that we are still immediately aware of that past, perceived thing. We may therefore access many past things with the same requisite immediacy. Beyond sense-data and memories, we possess "acquaintance by introspection." When we are aware of an awareness, like in the case of hunger, "my desiring food" becomes an object of acquaintance. Introspective acquaintance is a kind of acquaintance with our own minds that may be understood as self-consciousness. However, this self-consciousness is really more like a consciousness of a feeling or a particular thought; the awareness rarely includes the explicit use of "I," which would identify the Self as a subject. Russell abandons this strand of knowledge, knowledge of the Self, as a probable but unclear dimension of acquaintance. Russell summarizes our acquaintance with things as follows: "We have acquaintance in sensation with the data of the outer senses, and in introspection with the data of what may be called the inner sense—thoughts, feelings, desires, etc.; we have acquaintance in memory with things which have been data either of the outer senses or of the inner sense. Further, it is probable, though not certain, that we have acquaintance with Self, as that which is aware of things or has desires towards things." All these objects of acquaintance are particulars, concrete, existing things. Russell cautions that we can also have acquaintance with abstract, general ideas called universals. He addresses universals more fully later in chapter 9. Russell allocates the rest of the chapter to explaining how the complicated theory of knowledge by description actually works. The most conspicuous things that are known to us by description are physical objects and other people's minds. We approach a case of having knowledge by description when we know "that there is an object answering to a definite description, though we are not acquainted with any such object." Russell offers several illustrations in the service of understanding knowledge by description. He claims that it is important to understand this kind of knowledge because our language uses depends so heavily on it. When we say common words or proper names, we are really relying on the meanings implicit in descriptive knowledge. The thought connoted by the use of a proper name can only really be explicitly expressed through a description or proposition. Bismarck, or "the first Chancellor of the German Empire," is Russell's most cogent example. Imagine that there is a proposition, or statement, made about Bismarck. If Bismarck is the speaker, admitting that he has a kind of direct acquaintance with his own self, Bismarck might have voiced his name in order to make a self-referential judgment, of which his name is a constituent. In this simplest case, the "proper name has the direct use which it always wishes to have, as simply standing for a certain object, and not for a description of the object." If one of Bismarck's friends who knew him directly was the speaker of the statement, then we would say that the speaker had knowledge by description. The speaker is acquainted with sense-data which he infers corresponds with Bismarck's body. The body or physical object representing the mind is "only known as the body and the mind connected with these sense-data," which is the vital description. Since the sense-data corresponding to Bismarck change from moment to moment and with perspective, the speaker knows which various descriptions are valid. Still more removed from direct acquaintance, imagine that someone like you or I comes along and makes a statement about Bismarck that is a description based on a "more or less vague mass of historical knowledge." We say that Bismarck was the "first Chancellor of the German Empire." In order to make a valid description applicable to the physical object, Bismarck's body, we must find a relation between some particular with which we have acquaintance and the physical object, the particular with which we wish to have an indirect acquaintance. We must make such a reference in order to secure a meaningful description. To usefully distinguish particulars from universals, Russell posits the example of "the most long-lived of men," a description which wholly consists of universals. We assume that the description must apply to some man, but we have no way of inferring any judgment about him. Russell remarks, "all knowledge of truths, as we shall show, demands acquaintance with things which are of an essentially different character from sense-data, the things which are sometimes called 'abstract ideas', but which we shall call 'universals'." The description composed only of universals gives no knowledge by acquaintance with which we might anchor an inference about the longest-lived man. A further statement about Bismarck, like "The first Chancellor of the German Empire was an astute diplomatist," is a statement that contains particulars and asserts a judgment that we can only make in virtue of some acquaintance (like something heard or read). Statements about things known by description function in our language as statements about the "actual thing described;" that is, we intend to refer to that thing. We intend to say something with the direct authority that only Bismarck himself could have when he makes a statement about himself, something with which he has direct acquaintance. Yet, there is a spectrum of removal from acquaintance with the relevant particulars: from Bismarck himself, "there is Bismarck to people who knew him; Bismarck to those who only know of him through history" and at a far end of the spectrum "the longest lived of men." At the latter end, we can only make propositions that are logically deducible from universals, and at the former end, we come as close as possible to direct acquaintance and can make many propositions identifying the actual object. It is now clear how knowledge gained by description is reducible to knowledge by acquaintance. Russell calls this observation his fundamental principle in the study of "propositions containing descriptions": "Every proposition which we can understand must be composed wholly of constituents with which we are acquainted." Indirect knowledge of some particulars seems necessary if we are to expressively attach meanings to the words we commonly use. When we say something referring to Julius Caesar, we clearly have no direct acquaintance with the man. Rather, we are thinking of such descriptions as "the man who was assassinated on the Ides of March" or "the founder of the Roman Empire." Since we have no way of being directly acquainted with Julius Caesar, our knowledge by description allows us to gain knowledge of "things which we have never experienced." It allows us to overstep the boundaries of our private, immediate experiences and engage a public knowledge and public language. This knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description theory was a famous epistemological problem-solver for Russell. Its innovative character allowed him to shift to his moderate realism, a realism ruled by a more definite categorization of objects. It is a theory of knowledge that considers our practice of language to be meaningful and worthy of detailed analysis. Russell contemplates how we construct a sense of meaning about objects remote from our experience. The realm of acquaintance offers the most secure references for our understanding of the world. Knowledge by description allows us to draw inferences from our realm of acquaintance but leaves us in a more vulnerable position. Since knowledge by description also depends on truths, we are prone to error about our descriptive knowledge if we are somehow mistaken about a proposition that we have taken to be true. Critics of this theory have held that Russell's hypothesis of knowledge by description is confusing. His comments when defining sense-data, that the physical world is unknowable to us, contradict his theory of knowledge by descriptions. He implies that "knowledge by description" is not really a form of knowledge since we can only know those things with which we are acquainted and we cannot be acquainted with physical objects. Russell's theory amounts to the proposition that our acquaintance with mental objects appears related in a distant way to physical objects and renders us obliquely acquainted with the physical world. Sense-data are our subjective representations of the external world, and they negotiate this indirect contact. While innovative, Russell's theory of knowledge by description is not an attractive theory of knowledge. It is clearly unappealing because our impressions of the real world, on his view, are commensurate with muddy representations of reality. Though we have direct access to these representations, it seems impossible to have any kind of direct experience of reality. Reality, rather, consists in unconscious, inferential pieces of reasoning. Readers' Notes allow users to add their own analysis and insights to our SparkNotes—and to discuss those ideas with one another. Have a novel take or think we left something out? Add a Readers' Note!

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In terms of their breadth, we can describe plans as strategic or tactical. Strategic plans are plans that are organization-wide (apply to the entire organization). The plans establish overall objectives, and position an organization in terms of its environment. Strategic plans drive the efforts of an organization to achieve its goals, and they serve as a basis for the tactical plans. Tactical plans often referred to as operational plans. Tactical plans are plans that specify the details of how an organization’s overall objectives should be achieved. Unlike strategic plans that tend to cover long periods of time, tactical plans tend to cover short periods of time. Some examples of tactical plans are an organization’s monthly, weekly, and daily plans.

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An illustration of NASA’s Mars Exploration Rover Spirit. Credit: NASA JPL NASA’s Mars Exploration Rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, have been trekking across the Martian surface for the past half decade, surviving dust storms, sand traps, and three freezing winters with only minor setbacks. Now Spirit, having just received much fanfare in celebration of its five-year anniversary on the planet, appears to be running awry, and its operating team is concerned. It plans to conduct diagnostic tests on the rover later this week. Engineers first noticed Spirit’s peculiar behavior on Sunday. The rover had radioed to say that it had received its driving commands for the day, but strangely, it had not moved. While NASA says that this can happen for a number of reasons, the rover also failed to record its day’s activities to its nonvolatile memory–storage that is retained even when the rover is powered off. The next day, the team asked the rover to determine its orientation by locating the sun. Spirit found the sun, but it inaccurately reported its location. The Spirit team does not yet have an explanation for why the rover may be a little out of whack, but one hypothesis is that it could be suffering the fleeting effects of cosmic rays hitting its electronics. Diagnostic tests should provide a more definitive answer soon. Spirit, like Opportunity, is a warrior of the Red Planet. Both rovers, launched in January 2004, were scheduled to last a minimum of three months and a maximum of six. Now, after five years, the rovers have turned Mars into what seems like a next-door neighbor–not the alien planet that it once was. Since landing, the rovers have made important scientific discoveries. Spirit discovered deposits of salts and minerals such as sulfur and silica, which only form with water. This happened when it inadvertently dug a trench behind itself while dragging a broken right front wheel. This video highlights Spirit’s adventures: crater-exploring rover, was fortunate to land on exposed bedrock that was determined to be laid down in water some 3.5 to 4 billion years ago. This was the first evidence of ancient surface water. It also discovered tiny balls of material that appear to have formed in the presence of water. This video highlights Opportunity’s activities: Scott Maxwell, a rover driver at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, says that “the mission just keeps getting better and better the longer it goes.” “Mars is such a complex place, and these are such capable vehicles that there will never come a time when we’re done; five years from now there is going to be some wonderful, tantalizing thing just beyond our reach that we didn’t quite get to,” adds Steve Squyres, principal investigator of the rovers at Cornell University. Videos by NASA Smaller design teams can now prototype and deploy faster.

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Pricing Carbon Emissions A bill before Congress may prove a costly way to reduce greenhouse gases. - Friday, June 5, 2009 - By Kevin Bullis Experts are applauding a sweeping energy bill currently before the United States Congress, saying that it could lead to significant cuts in greenhouse-gas emissions and improve the likelihood of a comprehensive international agreement to cut greenhouse gases. "It's real climate-change legislation that's being taken seriously," says Gilbert Metcalf, a professor of economics at Tufts University. But many warn that the bill's market-based mechanisms and more conventional regulations could make these emissions reductions more expensive than they need to be. The bill, officially called the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, is also referred to as the Waxman-Markey Bill, after its sponsors, Henry Waxman (D-Ca.) and Edward Markey (D-Mass.). The legislation would establish a cap and trade system to reduce greenhouse gases, an approach favored by most economists over conventional regulatory approaches because it provides a great deal of flexibility in how emissions targets are met. But it also contains mandates that could significantly reduce the cost savings that the cap and trade approach is supposed to provide. In a cap and trade system, the government sets a cap on total emissions of greenhouse gases from various industrial and utility sources, including power plants burning fossil fuels to generate electricity. It then issues allowances to polluters allowing them to emit carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases; total emissions are meant to stay under the cap. Over a period of time, the government gradually reduces the cap and the number of allowances until it reaches its target. If companies' emissions exceed their allowances, they must buy more. Economists like the system because companies can choose to either lower their emissions, such as by investing in new technology, or buy more allowances from the government or from companies that don't need them--whichever makes the best economic sense. It is meant to create a carbon market, putting a value on emissions. In the proposed energy bill, the government will set caps to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions by 17 percent by 2020 (compared with 2005 levels) and by 80 percent by 2050--targets chosen to prevent the worst effects of climate change. Setting caps will make electricity more expensive, as companies turn to cleaner technologies to meet ever lower caps or have to spend money to buy allowances from others with lower emissions. But the bill has some provisions for cushioning the blow, especially at first. For one thing, it gives away most of the allowances rather than charging for them, and it also requires that any profits gained from these free allowances be passed on to electricity customers. It also allows companies to buy "offsets" that permit them to pay to reduce emissions outside the United States. If the program is designed right, there are fewer allowances than the total emissions when the program starts. At first, when the caps are relatively easy to meet, the prices for allowances on the carbon market will be low. But eventually, they will get higher as the allowances become scarcer. In an ideal world, companies will predict what the price of the allowances will be, and plan accordingly.

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We hear so much about toxins in fish, you’re probably wondering – what exactly is safe to eat? According to Health magazine, experts say that most seafood is healthy to eat twice a week. It contains high-quality protein, heart-healthy omega-3s, and low levels of saturated fat. Some types also contain pollutants such as mercury, which could harm developing babies. It is important to avoid these. Luckily, it’s pretty easy to do. Here’s how. - Think small. Tim Fitzgerald is a scientist and senior policy specialist with the Environmental Defense Fund. He says that the best way to reduce exposure to contaminants is to cut back on eating big fish. Pollutants from the atmosphere regularly settle into the ocean, and fish that grow large - like shark, marlin and Chilean sea bass - accumulate more contaminants in their bodies during their long lives. - Also: Mix it up. You want to eat a variety of seafood to lower the risks of contaminants. For example, if you like tuna, eat it only once a week because it’s a bigger fish. Then choose something smaller, such as shrimp, for your next meal. Whatever you do, don’t stop eating all seafood out of fear. Dr. Dariush Mozaffarian is a director with the Harvard School of Public Health. He says that eating fish is the single best dietary change you can make to reduce your risk of heart disease. Studies show that the abundant omega-3 fats in seafood help your heart by lowering blood-fat levels, slowing the buildup of plaque in your arteries, and lowering blood pressure. Also, the Environmental Defense Fund has come up with a new “Super Green” list of seafood that’s both low in contaminants, great sources of omega-3s, and easy on the planet – meaning they’re not caught by trawls and dredges, which damage the ocean floor. This list includes farmed muscles, oysters and trout, wild Alaskan salmon, pole-caught Albacore tuna, and wild Pacific sardines. So go ahead and enjoy them.

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Is the U.S. Ready for Human Rights? :: Discussion Guide The articles mentioned below are available on our website: see our Focus index to our Human Rights issue. You are welcome to download and photocopy the articles free of charge. If you would like to purchase multiple copies of YES! or subscriptions for your class or group, please phone 800/937-4451. The United States has been proud of its leadership in human rights. Many times throughout history, we have amended our constitution to answer demands for increased tolerance and equal treatment of all citizens. Yet now we find uncharged captives held indefinitely in Guantánamo Bay, reports of torture in Abu Ghraib, limits on prisoners' access to habeas corpus, and other violations. In order for any great nation to progress, it must reflect upon itself, celebrating its accomplishments, addressing areas of concern, and working towards improvement. One of the key goals of this issue of YES! is to present such a “look in the mirror” for the United States. This discussion guide will focus on the following articles: - Sometimes a Great Nation by Eric Foner - Check Your Rights at the Border by Justin Akers Chacon - Who's Afraid of Economic Human Rights? by Carol Estes - Mere Justice by Jesse Wegman - Yes. We're Ready. by Larry Cox & Dorothy Thomas - The Universal Declaration of Human Rights with footnotes by the YES! team Sometimes a Great Nation SEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Sometimes a Great Nation by Eric Foner The United States has sometimes been the world leader in human rights. Yet as Thomas Jefferson warns, “the price of liberty is eternal vigilance.” Has our record of courage and decency led us to assume that we are still the gold standard of human rights enforcement? Foner urges us to examine our true history—one made up of both justice and injustice, of honor and cowardice. Can we reclaim our right to call ourselves a truly great nation in terms of human rights? Foner says yes. - In your opinion, what are the some of the U.S.'s greatest achievements in human rights? What are some of the times the U.S. has fallen short of its ideals? - Consider a time when someone discriminated against you based on your gender or the color of your skin, or something more abstract, like your faith or level of education. Discuss this experience. Were you treated with less dignity than you deserve? How did it make you feel? - Throughout history, various groups have been denied equal opportunities for reasons that seem justified at the time. In examining past differences that were once intolerable, but are now accepted, perhaps we can learn something. Do you see any commonalities among groups of the past and present that have been excluded and oppressed? - Sometimes, we are a great nation. With concentrated effort, we can reclaim a national identity associated with upholding human rights. What steps can you as an individual take to advance this change? Check Your Rights at the Border SEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Check Your Rights at the Border by Justin Akers Chacon U.S. trade policy is one of the factors contributing to the immigration of people from Mexico and Central America seeking work in the United States. Free trade agreements have lowered tariffs and undermined traditional economies. Chacon says that human rights are among the many things immigrants leave behind while making the journey north. - Part of eliminating stereotypes is identifying and addressing them. What words or images come to mind when you think of the word “immigrant?” Where did these associations come from? - Consider your own heritage. If your ancestors immigrated to the United States, what stories have they passed down in your family? Did they experience economic, cultural, social, or other kinds of discrimination? - What role do immigrants play in our country? What are the advantages and disadvantages of easing the limitations on international migration? What effect would that have in your own life, neighborhood, and job? - What distinguishes “beneficial” immigration from “harmful” immigration? Who's Afraid of Economic Human Rights? SEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Who's Afraid of Economic Human Rights? by Carol Estes Evidently, the U.S. government is. Even though 155 of the world's nations have ratified the Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which recognizes economic rights for all, the United States has not. Carol Estes argues that people who live in the richest country in the world should be entitled to housing, food, and medical care. - “If you're homeless, you must have done something wrong to end up there, and you alone are responsible for getting yourself out of that situation.” Have you seen or heard messages like this? If so, where have they come from? Do you agree or disagree with them? - The UDHR recognizes that every human being has economic rights. Do you think that in the United States we treat basic economic security as a right, or something to be earned? - Does having a population of permanently poor people serve to sustain, or even benefit, an economic system? - How would your life be different if our government provided the basic economic security outlined in the UDHR to all its citizens? What might you lose? What might you gain? SEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Mere Justice by Jesse Wegman In his article, Wegman discusses the obstacles faced by prisoners who seek review of their cases using habeas corpus. He explains the origin of AEDPA, the Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, which dramatically hinders access to this right. The Act speeds up the process by which death-row inmates are pushed to executions, and simultaneously restricts all other prisoners' ability to appeal for justice. - Do you think prisoners have too much access to court review of their cases, or too little? - Wegman mentions that many politicians crack down on prisoners' rights because they are afraid of being perceived as “soft” or “sympathetic” towards criminals. How do you feel about this? What does this tell us about our society? Yes. We're Ready. SEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: Yes. We're Ready. by Larry Cox & Dorothy Thomas Larry Cox, the executive director of Amnesty International, and Dorothy Q. Thomas, senior program advisor to the U.S. Human Rights Fund, say that human rights are a powerful unifying force for activists, and many groups are drawing on human rights theory to make change. - Think of a cause about which you feel strongly. Does this cause share values with those promoting human rights? Could you imagine forming a meaningful connection with someone working towards a cause different from your own, based on human rights? - How might you expand the human rights network within your own community? The Universal Declaration of Human Rights SEE ARTICLE ONLINE :: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights with footnotes by the YES! editorial team In 1948, the UDHR was birthed into the world through the efforts of Eleanor Roosevelt and the newly formed United Nations. The document was the first of its kind. Its 30 articles define the basic rights we all own, simply by virtue of being human. The UDHR has been translated into hundreds of languages, yet its contents are unfamiliar to many. Examine your rights. Then consider the YES! footnotes, showing a U.S. position on each article. - Had you seen the UDHR before? Do any of the 30 articles surprise you? If so, which ones, and why? - The YES! team debated long and hard over whether to include the footnotes about the U.S.'s position on each article. How did you feel about these interjections? Did they make the document more meaningful, or take away from its inherent beauty? - How do you feel about this document? Is it just a case of one group imposing norms on others, or are there such things as “universal human rights”? If such rights exist, does this document capture them? What rights do you feel are missing from the document, if any? What are you doing? How are you using this discussion guide? How could we improve it? Please share your stories and suggestions with us at editors @ yesmagazine.org, with “Discussion Guide” as the subject. YES! is published by the Positive Futures Network, an independent, nonprofit organization whose mission is to support people's active engagement in creating a more just, sustainable, and compassionate world. That means, we rely on support from our readers. Independent. Nonprofit. Subscriber-supported.

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Sole, Lemon – UK Lemon Sole is a medium sized flatfish found along the northern European coast on coarse gravelly and rocky bottoms at depths ranging from 40 to 200 m. They mature relatively quickly and live up to nine years. Lemon Sole appear to be at medium levels of abundance, although information about population size is somewhat limited. In the United Kingdom, they are generally taken by beam and otter trawls as bycatch in mixed whitefish fisheries that target Cod, Haddock, and Whiting. Bottom trawls can damage the seafloor. Management of Lemon Sole in the United Kingdom is limited and bycatch levels are mostly unknown. This fish may have high levels of PCBs that could pose a health risk to adults and children. More contaminant info here.

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Brock student launches interactive children’s book for iPad Published on February 05 2013 A Brock PhD student’s idea for an interactive children’s book has grown into reality. Danielle Beckett, a certified classroom teacher who now studies learning and cognition in the Faculty of Education at the University, created The Gingerbread Man storybook for the iPad through her start-up company GroDigital. And this is no ordinary touch and flip e-book for children. Beckett’s creation also doubles as a reading assessment tool because of groundbreaking voice-recognition technology developed by computer science students from Brock. “The voice recognition allows for the child to be assessed while reading and providing feedback to improve their reading performance,” says Beckett. “With this project, we’re spearheading voice recognition technology.” The interactive choose-your-own-adventure e-book is based upon the popular 19th-century fairy tale, The Gingerbread Man, and is designed for children ages 4 to 8.

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Initial surveys began this week and are focusing on the collection of water samples for eDNA analysis. Electroshocking and netting survey efforts will also be conducted starting next week. The eDNA surveys will occur in the Sandusky River and Bay, and the Maumee River and Bay. Samples will be collected in the areas where positive eDNA samples were collected in 2011 and at additional locations believed to provide suitable bighead and silver carp habitat. MDNR Research Program Manager Tammy Newcomb said, "Our coordinated sampling efforts with partner agencies are very important in order to revisit areas where positive samples were collected last year, and to expand sampling to areas that may be reproductively favorable for bighead or silver carp. These are the areas where we can be most effective in preventing expansion of these species should they be present." MDNR and ODNR requested assistance from the USFWS to develop and implement this assessment effort. The USFWS is contributing significant technical and logistical expertise, as well as personnel, survey equipment and vessels. The US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) will analyze the collected eDNA water samples. Access the joint release with additional details and links to information including videos and images (click here). [#GLakes] 32 Years of Environmental Reporting for serious Environmental Professionals

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Lice are tiny insects that do not need wings. They are brownish coloring and they're very small when they are born. That’s exactly why it is really not easy to see them. Full grown head lice are usually about the size of a little sesame seed. Head lice can not fly or swim and they only by individual touching another person. How do the lice reproduce It begins with a female louse laying eggs near the hair roots to keep the eggs comfortable and warm. The eggs hatch about a week later and baby lice are born. The nits or the vacant eggshells remain glued on the hair. When your hair grow out the eggshells end up being detectable and you may notice that there is something white-colored stuck to your head. Then you'll definitely know that you almost certainly have lice. It takes them about seven to 10 days for being fully grown. If they are grown they start to move from 1 head to some other, usually searching for a brand new home. Lady lice may lay eggs already after the 6th day after she came into this world. So to get rid of lice you have to act immediately and get rid of all the lice before the sixth day. If you don’t then the cycle starts all over again given that sole head lice could lay up to 10 eggs each day. To discover these tiny pests you need to search really carefully. You must search your entire head by a single small area of hair at a time. You will need to do this in a very good light or you will miss out on them. The eggs are extremely small however you can easily spot them because they're very white-colored. You can only see the eggs very close to the scalp. The eggs are glued on your hair with a highly effective material. Who should you treat Only people who have head lice should be technically treated, however it is a good idea to look at your whole family for lice. Especially when a kid is carrying lice, since you are in close contact with the kid. The best method is to wet the hair and use a thin hair comb to go through the hair very carefully. When your child has lice then it'sbest if you inform all other parents of youngsters that your kid is in contact with and also the school. Without treating everyone the kid might be in touch with the head lice are going to be back again. Tips on how to avoid lice from coming back again? The first thing to do is to clean every thing which you've had contact with. Ensure that you use high temperature. You really need to thoroughly clean covers, hats, clothing, scarves and headwear to be sure. On the other hand do not need to clean the entire residence, because the lice aren't able to live for an extended time without humans. It's going to take them just a few days to pass away from hunger. Hope it helped on how to get rid of lice.

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October 20 2008 Position Paper No. 611: Peeking Behind the Blue Ribbon Download the complete report below. The No Child Left behind Act of 2002 (NCLB) was enacted to shine more light on student performance previously hidden by school-wide, aggregate achievement results. NCLB makes important progress toward that goal by requiring states to report the performance of various student sub-groups, including minority children, students with disabilities, and non-native English speakers. One of the country's most prestigious distinctions is to be named a U.S. Department of Education No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Blue Ribbon School. In 2007, only 133 public schools nationwide were honored as Blue Ribbon Schools for scoring in the top 10 percent on state assessments. "These schools are proving that when we raise the bar our children will rise to the challenge," according to Secretary of Education Margaret Spellings.[i] These schools also did not enroll many from disadvantaged backgrounds, and a closer look at these award-winning schools reveals that many of them do not live up to that touted "Blue-Ribbon" label. On average, just 11 percent of students at those 2007 Blue-Ribbon schools came from impoverished backgrounds, three percent of students were classified with limited English proficiency (LEP), and only eight percent of students had disabilities.[ii] The median home value in the schools' neighborhoods exceeded $300,000 on average, and the median family income approached $100,000. Yet at one in three of those Blue-Ribbon schools, at least 25 percent of students in at least one grade were not proficient in at least one core subject tested. On average, more than a quarter of students in two grades scored below proficiency in two subjects at those underperforming 2007 Blue-Ribbon schools. Specifically, at underperforming award schools, the percentage of students in at least one grade who did not score proficient ranged from 26 to 62 percent in reading, and from 26 to 56 percent in math. Many Blue-Ribbon schools that underperformed in those core subjects also had similarly poor performance in at least one grade in science. This analysis finds many states are engaging in NCLB accountability-avoidance, unwittingly aided by the Blue-Ribbon award designation. Such avoidance is likely to increase as the 2013-2014 school year deadline for 100 percent student proficiency approaches, making a U.S. Department of Education blue ribbon an increasingly unreliable indicator of academic quality in the coming years, absent necessary reforms. Instead of piling on additional, expensive federal mandates, this analysis recommends improved public accountability through greater transparency to preserve the delicate balance between flexibility for states and accurate information for parents. Specific recommendations include reporting grade-level student proficiency in all core subjects tested as a condition for receiving federal NCLB funds. State proficiency results should also be reported alongside nationally-representative proficiency results to make declines in state standards more apparent. To ensure universally rigorous assessment, states should publicize annual passing scores on their tests and their annual student proficiency targets. The best accountability assurance of all-better than any blue ribbon-is for the U.S. Department of Education to provide parents with information that is both accurate and actionable, then enforce their children's right of exit from underperforming schools.

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Our Baby Parrots All of our baby parrots are left with their mother for the first three weeks of their lives. Doing this ensures a strong immune and gut flora system develops. At three weeks of age, the babies are taken from the nest, are handfed and the socialization period begins. At around eight weeks old, the babies have a complete examination by a licensed avian veterinarian to make sure they are healthy and doing fine. At the same time as the checkup we have them DNA-sexed. As the babies start the weaning process, we introduce them to a great variety of pellets, fruits, rice, pasta, eggs, vegetables and even some chicken. This usually begins at approximately five to six weeks of age, but they are also still being handfed. We gradually start to cut back on the handfeeding as the babies grow and mature. We let the babies let us know when that time arrives. When they are not hungry, they will spit the formula back out or they just won’t open their beaks. It is very common for a baby parrot to lose some of their body weight at this point. All our babies are raised in our home, in a family environment. Our house is a very busy place, with lots of ongoing activity. We are Foster Parents, so we have children of all ages playing with, cuddling and just talking to the baby parrots. Running around the house also are two tiny Yorkshire Terriers and a Toy Maltese. Needless to say, our babies are exposed to many different faces and voices. The babies get to run around our kitchen for large periods of time throughout the day – this is their time to play together and get acquainted with their siblings and friends.

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What are managed lanes? Highway facilities or a set of lanes where operational strategies are proactively implemented and managed in response to changing conditions. Transportation agencies are faced with growing challenges of congestion and a limited ability to expand freeway capacity due to construction costs, right-of-way constraints, and environmental and societal impacts. Transportation officials are taking advantage of opportunities to address mobility needs and provide travel options through a combination of limited capacity expansion coupled with operational strategies that seek to manage travel demand and improve transit and other forms of ridesharing. The managed lanes concept is gaining interest around the country as an approach that combines these elements to make the most effective and efficient use of a freeway facility. The distinction between managed lanes and other traditional forms of freeway lane management is the operating philosophy of "active management." Under this philosophy, the operating agency proactively manages demand and available capacity on the facility by applying new strategies or modifying existing strategies. The agency defines from the outset the operating objectives for the managed lanes and the kinds of actions that will be taken once pre-defined performance thresholds are met. You will need the Adobe Acrobat Reader to view the PDFs on this page. United States Department of Transportation - Federal Highway Administration

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Croatia should apologize for World War II genocide before joining the EU Croatian fascists murdered hundreds of thousands of victims as part of a campaign against Serbs and Jews. Croatia is nearing the finish line of a multiyear race to join the European Union. Its accession has been pushed along by traditional ally Germany, and by the United States, which has encouraged the EU’s southwest expansion to include all of the Balkans and even Turkey.Skip to next paragraph Subscribe Today to the Monitor Croatia has complied with most of the formal entry requirements and is expected to join in 2012. However, there is another – moral – requirement Croatia should have to meet for its own sake before being admitted. It should fully and publicly acknowledge its role in World War II as a loyal ally of the Nazi cause, and its ardent participation in genocide against its Serbian, Jewish, and Gypsy (Roma) populations. The scattered, vague, and half-hearted denials masking as apologies that Croatia has used to improve its image in recent years don’t count. The country should come to grips with its genocidal role in the same way Germany has come to grips with its Nazi past. Just this week, the Serbian parliament apologized for its role in the infamous Srebrenica massacre of 1995 that killed some 7,000 Bosnian Muslims. Such an apology was considered unthinkable even a few years ago, yet the pressures of joining the EU helped nudge that nation to account for this war crime. It’s time Croatia did the same. Croatia has more than its share of apologies to make for crimes it committed during the Balkans conflict of the 1990s, but it can start with the massive killings it unleashed during World War II. Although estimates vary, between 300,000 and 700,000 victims were murdered by Croatian fascists during the war. When Hitler’s forces invaded Yugoslavia in the spring of 1941, Croatian right-wing extremists, under the leadership of Ante Pavelic and his fascist “Ustashi” movement, were given control of Croatia. Pavelic aligned the country enthusiastically to the Nazi cause and immediately launched a horrific onslaught against the Serbian minority. The official policy was popularly expressed as: Kill one-third of the Serbs, convert another third to Roman Catholicism, and expel the remaining third from Croatia. The Roman Catholic Church insists it condemned the atrocities, but the record suggests a mix of official responses, ranging from weak condemnations to tacit support. While the killing was under way, the Croatian archbishop, Aloysius Stepanic, blessed the new regime and Pavelic was granted an audience with Pope Pius XII. A number of Franciscan monks participated in the killing. After the war ended, the Vatican helped Ustashi criminals evade capture and flee to South America.

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The benefits of exercise are many, from producing physically fit bodies to providing an outlet for fun and socialization. When added to a weight control program these benefits take on increased significance. We already have noted that proper exercise can help control weight by burning excess body fat. It also has two other body-trimming advantages: 1) Exercise builds muscle tissue and muscle uses calories up at a faster rate than body fat and 2) Exercise helps reduce inches and a firm, lean body looks slimmer even if your weight remains the same. Additional benefits may be seen in how exercise affects appetite. A lean person in good shape may eat more following increased activity, but the regular exercise will burn up the extra calories consumed. There are other physical benefits of regular exercise as well. Regular physical activity helps you feel better because it: • Increases your strength, movement, balance, and flexibility. • Helps control blood pressure and blood sugar. • Helps build healthy bones, muscles, and joints. • Helps your heart and lungs work better. • Boosts energy during the day and may aid in sleep at night. The psychological benefits of exercise are equally important to the weight conscious person. Exercise decreases stress and relieve tensions that might otherwise lead to overeating. • Exercise builds physical fitness which in turn builds self-confidence, enhanced self-image, and a positive outlook. When you start to feel good about yourself, you are more likely to want to make other positive changes in your lifestyle that will help keep your weight under control. • In addition, exercise can be fun, provide recreation and offer opportunities for companionship. The exhilaration and emotional release of participating in sports or other activities are a boost to mental and physical health. Pent-up anxieties and frustrations seem to disappear when you’re concentrating on going that extra mile.

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The word Diwali has its origin from the Sanskrit word "Deepavali" which means "rows of light". Diwali is the festival that falls on the night of “Amavasya” (no moon) but the “diyas” we light gives us the message of spreading light and driving the darkness away. On Diwali day, shops are packed with people buying fire crackers; mothers are busy preparing special dishes for family feasts. Late evening is the time for a special Pooja at home, and illuminating the houses with rows of oil lamps, candles and colourful lanterns. Each day of the festival has a significance in life - Balipadyami - “Truth alone wins” Healthy eating is not about strict nutrition philosophies, staying unrealistically thin, or depriving yourself of the foods you love. Rather, it’s about feeling great, having more energy, and keeping yourself as healthy as possible. As the saying goes “Truth alone wins”, it’s mostly the kind of food that makes the person you are. Here are a few ways to eat healthy - - Eat enough calories but not too many - Eat a wide variety of foodsespecially vegetables and fruits - Keep portions moderate, especially high-calorie foods - Don’t be the food police, you can enjoy your favorite sweets and fried foods in moderation - An excellent way to add healthy sweetness to your meals is by using sweet vegetables like sweet potatoes or yams and reduce your craving for other sweets Naraka Chaturdashi - "Burn the evil" Burning the evil need not be burning the idols of evil powered Gods only. This can be about burning evil thoughts in our minds and the unhealthy foods that have made their way into our lives. Let’s make a conscious effort to give up the unhealthy eating pattern - - Do not rush through your meals. Take time to chew your food slowly, savoring every bite… Reconnect with the joy of eating. - Avoid stress while eating. Try taking some deep breaths prior to beginning your meal, or light candles and play soothing music to create a relaxing atmosphere. - Listen to your body; ask yourself if you are really hungry. It actually takes a few minutes for your brain to tell your body that it has had enough food, so eat slowly. - Start your day with a healthy breakfast to jumpstart your metabolism. - Eating small, healthy meals throughout the day can help you ward off snack attacks. Lakshmi Pooja - "Wealth is Worship" Life is not merely to be alive but to be healthy and wealthy. A Spanish proverb says "A man who is too busy to take care of his health is like a mechanic too busy to take care of his tools". Health and Wealth decides the quality of life we lead. If you want to lead a happy life, wealth and health are both important. Here is a gentle reminder of all the wonderful benefits of healthy eating - - A long life is worth living only when there’s quality, and good eating patterns provide a good quality of life - Happiness need not be temporary, but can be a permanent one. By eating healthy foods you'll suffer less from those terrible ups and downs that make you moody - Vitality can be achieved by healthy eating along with exercise - The better you sleep, the more rested you feel when you wake up Sesame Seed (Til) - Khoya laddu 2 cups khoya 1 1/2 cups of coarsely powdered roasted sesame seeds (til) Powdered sugar to taste Kesar, chopped almonds and pistas for decoration - Roast the khoya on low flame till it is very light golden yellow in color. - Let it cool for a few minutes. - Then add coarsely powdered roasted sesame seeds and mix it. - Add powdered sugar when the above mixture is luke warm. - Mix well and shape into small balls. If the mixture is too hot, then the sugar will melt, so care has to be taken that mixture is not hot. - Arrange in a plate and decorate with kesar, chopped almonds and pistas.

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Contact: Science Press Package American Association for the Advancement of Science Caption: In this audio file, a University of Oregon archaeologist provides an overview of his research at Oregon's Paisley Caves since he began excavating there in 2002. He refers to much earlier work at the site by archaeologist Luther Cressman, who died in April 1994 after 35 years on the UO faculty. This audio file relates to a paper that appeared in the July 13, 2012, issue of Science, published by AAAS. The paper, by Dennis L. Jenkins at University of Oregon in Eugene, Or., and colleagues was titled, “Clovis Age Western Stemmed Projectile Points and Human Coprolites at the Paisley Caves.” Credit: [Audio courtesy of University of Oregon] Usage Restrictions: Please cite the owner of the audio file when publishing. This audio file may be freely used by reporters as part of news coverage, with proper attribution. Non-reporters must contact Science for permission.

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Dengue Fever in India 04 March 2013 Dengue fever is a growing concern in India. In 2012, 247 deaths were recorded as a result of dengue fever nationwide. Latest data on disease prevalence released by the Health Ministry shows a significant rise in the incidence of dengue fever from 18 860 cases in 2011, to 49 606 in year 2012. Around 1700 dengue cases were reported from Delhi in 2012. Advice for Travellers India is a popular tourist destination and travellers should be aware of the risk of dengue fever. Avoidance of mosquito bites, particularly during daylight hours, by covering up with clothing, the use of bite avoidance measures such as repellent and bed nets is advised. Elimination of breeding sites around hotel rooms/houses is advised for longer term stays.

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|Updated: 4/10/2007 10:12 am ||Published: 4/10/2007 10:12 am For your car's engine to be able to start, several things have to happen. The flywheel needs to turn the crankshaft, which moves the pistons up and down, which in turn makes the valves draw air into the combustion chamber to mix with fuel to ignite. The process starts when your car's starter motor connects gears with the flywheel after the key switch is turned to start. The starter motor will disengage after the engine is started. Your car's battery provides electricity to turn the starter, and your car's alternator keeps the battery charged and powers all the accessories in your car once it's running. The alternator generates more electricity the faster your car's engine runs. The voltage regulator in your car controls the amount of current to the battery and prevents damage from overcharging. Contact a qualified mechanic in your area for more information on your car's starting system.

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Story and photos by Nikki Carlson On THE MILK RIVER - Water sloshing against the river banks and bending around rocks gives the Milk River a fine-tuned heartbeat. This rhythmic dance whispers the river's past and future. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service watershed specialist Warren Kellogg says the Milk River is a precious "jewel in our back yard" and its legacy should continue for future generations. "You feel like you've gone back in time" when you're on the river, Kellogg said. NRCS's mission is to educate people about conservation, management and improvement of the environment and natural resources. Last Friday, 15 nature enthusiasts - including three members of the Hill County Conservation District board of supervisers, staffers, family members and guests - grabbed their paddles and floated an 8-mile stretch of the Milk River. Among them was conservation district administrative assistant Shannon Patterson. "We just wanted to keep (the float) educational for the supervisors and people who might find it interesting," Patterson said. The weather was sunny and complimented the 5-hour float. As they moved downstream, they noted improvements that can be made in the areas of safety, wildlife habitat and conservation. They observed pump sites, bank erosion and weeds. "Having a waterway like this 100 years ago was very important for other reasons than right now," Kellogg said. "Right now, the importance is community recreation, tourism, municipal water and irrigation." Rows of rusty antique cars lining parts of the riverbank are one issue the conservation district and NRCS are concerned about. The cars were initially placed on some riverbanks about 50 years ago, Kellogg said, as a preventative measure against erosion. Kellogg said the car bodies should be replaced with rock as a safer and more attractive alternative. "People used to use them a long time ago as riprap. Aesthetical and water quality-wise, this isn't a practical practice." Conrad Nystrom, conservation district chairman, said the state Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks is planning to remove the car bodies this fall when the water level drops. "(The cars) are an eyesore, pollutant to the water, a hazard for recreationists, rafts, and there's erosion going on behind the car bodies," Nystrom said. "It really didn't solve the problem as well as people thought it would." Another topic was a non-native shrub known as Russian olive that's growing along the riverbanks. Why all of the shrub talk? Kellogg said this particular shrub "invades and crowds out native plants" in the area. "They're very adaptive to dry areas, but it's also on river water and it's kind of a nuisance," Kellogg said. "If it's allowed to go, eventually you could have 100 percent Russian olive on this river bottom." On a positive note, the cottonwood tree is also making a comeback along the Milk River. At a stopping point, Kellogg pointed out young cottonwoods along the bank. "They're starting to come back now due to a change in management over the years," he said. Years of erosion have left the roots of some cottonwoods naked along the riverbank, clearly suggesting that they will eventually fall over into the water. In order to prevent that, Kellogg suggested the trees be cut down and the roots left alone so even more erosion will not occur. Barbed wire fences gliding down the slopes beneath the river's surface were another cause for alarm for the supervisors because of the hazard they create for boaters. After the guided canoe tour, the group had gained a lifelong experience on the Milk River. So what's in store for the Milk River? Now its whispers are being heard. "I think it's a beautiful trip, beautiful day, and nice company," said Nystrom. "I appreciate Warren being here and giving us lots of good information."

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To finish Aladdin's Window—i.e. to attempt to complete something begun by a great genius, but left imperfect. The genius of the lamp built a palace with twenty-four windows, all but one being set in frames of precious stones; the last was left for the sultan to finish; but after exhausting his treasures, the sultan was obliged to abandon the task as hopeless. Tait's second part of Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel is an Aladdin's Window. Source: Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, E. Cobham Brewer, 1894 More on Aladdin's Window from Infoplease:

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Islamic slavery has been the most horrible, yet the least known slavery in history. So, author M. A. Khan decided to publish the chapter "Islamic Slavery" from his book "Islamic Jihad: A Legacy of Forced Conversion, Imperialism and Slavery". This part contains: 1) INTRODUCTION, 2) THE QURANIC SANCTION OF SLAVERY, 3) THE PROPHETIC MODEL OF SLAVERY. (Part 2) "Allah sets forth (another) Parable of two men: one of them dumb, with no power of any sort; a wearisome burden is he to his master; whichever way he directs him, he brings no good: is such a man equal with one who commands Justice, and is on a Straight Way?" --- Allah, in Quran 16:76 "(Allah) brought those of the People of the Scripture… and cast panic into their hearts. Some (adult males) ye slew, and ye made captive some (women and children)." --- Allah, in Quran 33:26–27 "It is written in the Quran that all Nations who should not have acknowledged their (Muslims’) authority were sinners; that it was their right and duty to make war upon whoever they could find and to make slaves of all they could take as prisoners; and that every Mussulman who should be slain in battle was sure to go to Paradise." --- Tripoli’s London ambassador Abd al-Rahman to Thomas Jefferson & John Adams (1786) on by what right the Barbary States enslaved American seamen. The cover image shows Muhammad & his followers on a Jihad raid, in which he used to plunder and capture the women and children as slaves. Slavery is a socio-economic institution, in which some human individuals, called slaves, become property of others, called masters or owners. Devoid of freedom and liberty, slaves are expected to provide loyal and diligent service for the comfort and economic well-being of their masters. Deprived of any human rights, slaves are the unconditional possession of their owners: mere chattels, having no right to leave, refuse work, or receive compensation for their labor. The position of slaves in society in many respects is akin to that of domesticated animals. Just as cows, horses and other beasts of burden are trained and utilized for economic advantage, such as for pulling carts or plowing fields—slaves are exploited for the benefit, comfort and economic well-being of the owner. Slave-trade, integral to slavery, involves buying and selling of human beings as a commodity like any other commercial transaction. Slavery, in essence, is the exploitation of the weak by the strong and has a very long history. One major criticism of the West by all, and particularly by Muslims, pertains to the trans-Atlantic slave‑trade by European powers and their mindless exploitation and degrading treatment of slaves in the Americas and West Indies. Muslims are often quick to point fingers at the European slave-trade; they often claim that the exploitation of slaves enabled countries like the United States to amass the huge wealth they enjoy today. One young Muslim, born in America, wrote: ‘Do you know how the American slave-hunters went to Africa, seized the black people and brought them to America as slaves? America’s economic power owes a great deal to the labor of those slaves’ (personal communication). Terming the 350-year trans-Atlantic slave-trade ‘the worst and most cruel slavery’ in history, the Nation of Islam Minister Louis Farrakhan claims that some white Americans do not know that ‘they are in the privileged position… today based on what happened to us (Blacks)’ in the past. An overwhelming majority of Muslims believe that Islamic history is devoid of the abhorrent practice of slavery. Rocky Davis (aka Shahid Malik), an Australian Aboriginal convert to Islam, told the ABC Radio that ‘Christianity were the founders of slavery. Not Islam.’ When Muslims in India talk about the practice of slavery in the subcontinent—they talk about the harrowing tales of how the Portuguese transported slaves from coastal areas of Goa, Kerala and Bengal in terrible conditions. It is already noted that history books in Pakistan teach that before Islam, there was exploitation and slavery, which vanished with the coming of Islam. They will never talk about the slavery that Muslim invaders and rulers practiced on a grand scale in India. This Muslim silence about the widespread practice slavery under Islamic rules, such as in India, likely results from their ignorance of historical facts. In modern history writing in India, there is extensive whitewashing of the atrocities that took place during the Muslim invasions and the subsequent Islamic rule. Such distortions of the true picture of Islamic history compound Muslims’ ignorance about Islamic atrocities in medieval India and create an erroneous perception amongst them about the extensive slavery practised by Muslim rulers. As recounted throughout this book, slavery was regrettably a prominent institution throughout the history of Islamic domination everywhere. It also had unique features, namely large-scale concubinage, eunuchs, and ghilman (described below). THE QURANIC SANCTION OF SLAVERY The institution of slavery in Islam was formalized in the following Quranic verse, in which Allah distinguishes free human beings or masters, who exercise justice and righteousness, from the dumb, useless and burdensome ones, the slaves: Allah sets forth (another) Parable of two men: one of them dumb, with no power of any sort; a wearisome burden is he to his master; whichever way he directs him, he brings no good: is such a man equal with one who commands Justice, and is on a Straight Way? [Quran 16:76] Allah warns the believers against taking the slaves as equal partner in status and in sharing their wealth, lest they have to fear them as anyone else: …do ye have partners among those whom your right hands possess (i.e., slaves, captives) to share as equals in the wealth We have bestowed on you? Do ye fear them as ye fear each other? [Quran 30:28] Allah recognizes some human beings, namely the masters, as more blessed by Himself than the less favored slaves as part of His divine plan. He warns Muslims against sharing His gifts to them equally with their slaves. Those who would take slaves as equal, warns Allah, would deny Him: Allah has bestowed His gifts of sustenance more freely on some of you than on others: those more favoured are not going to throw back their gifts to those whom their right hands possess, so as to be equal in that respect. Will they then deny the favours of Allah? [Quran 16:71] Allah does not only sanction the institution of slavery, He also gave divine blessing to masters (Muslim men only can own slaves) to have sex with the female slaves: And those who guard their private parts, Except in the case of their wives or those whom their right hands possess—for these surely are not to be blamed [Quran 70:29–30] And who guard their private parts, except before their mates or those whom their right hands possess, for they surely are not blameable [Quran 23:5–6] Therefore, if there are women amongst the captives or slaves, Muslims are divinely sanctioned to have sex with them as they do with their wives. This verdict of Allah founded the institution of sex-slavery or slave-concubinage in Islam, which was widespread in the pre-colonial Muslim world and continued well into the mid-twentieth century. As far as legal marriage is concerned, there is a limitation of four wives for a man at one time [Quran 4:3], but no such limitation on the number of sex-slaves. Allah also gave a divine sanction to Muslims for acquiring female slaves for sexual engagement by waging wars against the infidels: O Prophet! surely We have made lawful to you your wives whom you have given their dowries, and those whom your right hand possesses out of those whom Allah has given to you as prisoners of war… [Quran 33:50] Muslims can engage in sex with the captured slave women even if they are married, but not with the married free Muslim women: Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess… [Quran 4:24]. There are other verses in the Quran that talks approvingly of slaves and capturing them in wars. Thus, according to the divine commands of the Islamic God as enshrined in the holy Quran, Muslims are allowed to keep slaves. They can amass slaves by waging wars, have sex with the female slaves, and of course, use them as they wish. For Muslims, having sex with female slaves is as legal as having sex with their married wives. Slavery appears to be one of the most desired divine privileges in Islam, since Allah took the pain of reminding Muslims about this divine right time and again in so many verses. THE PROPHETIC MODEL OF SLAVERY Allah did not rest with repeatedly reminding Muslims to engage in slavery, but also took the initiative to guide Prophet Muhammad on how to enslave the infidels, such as in the following verse: And He (Allah) brought those of the People of the Scripture (i.e., Banu Qurayza) who supported them (i.e., the Quraysh) down from their strongholds, and cast panic into their hearts. Some (adult males) ye slew, and ye made captive some (women and children)… [Quran 33:26–27] In this verse, Allah charged the Banu Qurayza Jews with supporting the Quraysh of Mecca "from their strongholds" against Muslims in the battle of the Trench (627). Based on this unsubstantiated accusation, Allah commanded that some of the Jews, the adult males, were to be slain, and the rest, the women and children, enslaved. The Prophet duly complied with this divine command. He distributed the enslaved women and children among his disciples, himself acquiring one-fifth of them. The young and pretty ones amongst the female captives were made sex-slaves; the Prophet himself took beautiful Rayhana, whose husband and family members had been slain in the massacre. He took her to bed on the same night. After conquering Khaybar the following year, Muhammad carried away their women and children as slaves. In many other attacks, the Prophet and his followers enslaved and carried away the women and children of the vanquished. Therefore, after aggressively attacking and defeating the infidels, enslaving the women and children became a model of Muhammad’s wars. Some of the slaves could be sold or ransomed for generating revenues. The young and pretty ones amongst the female captives became sex-slaves. Since emulating Muhammad in action and deed is central to living a good Muslim life in Islamic thought, Muslims duly embraced his model of slavery (comprising enslavement, slave-trade and slave-concubinage) and perpetuated it during the later centuries of Islamic domination. Muhammad’s example of dealing with the Jews of Banu Qurayza or Khaybar became the standard template for capturing slaves. This led to a massive rise in enslavement, sex-slavery and slave-trade in medieval Islamdom. After Muhammad’s death, Muslims—armed with sanctions of the Quran and Sunnah—embarked on an unbridled mission of waging holy war to conquer the world for the purpose of spreading Islam and expanding Islamic rule. As Islam burst out of Arabia, Muslim invaders became adept at capturing the vanquished infidels, particularly the women and children, in large numbers as slaves. In Islamic thoughts (as noted already), the civilizations preceding and outside of Islam are jahiliyah or erroneous in nature, invalidated with the coming of Islam. Only Muslims were in the sole possession of truth in the form of the true faith of Islam. In their thoughts, the world outside the boundary and religion of Islam, notes Bernard Lewis, ‘was inhabited by the infidels and barbarians. Some of these were recognized as possessing some form of religion and a tincture of civilization. The remainder, polytheists and idolaters, were seen primarily as sources of slaves.’ Muslims captured slaves in such great numbers that slave-trade became a booming business enterprise; markets across the Muslim world became teeming with slaves. Accordingly, ‘it goes to the credit of Islam to create slave trade on a large scale, and run it for profit like any other business,’ writes Lal. (Complete bibliography will be posted in the last part) . Farrakhan L, What does America and Europe Owe?, Final CalL, 2 June 2008 . ABC Radio, Aboriginal Da’wah - "Call to Islam", 22 March 2006; http://www.abc.net.au/rn/talks/8.30/relrpt/stories/s1597410.htm . Famous scholar Abu Ala Maududi in his interpretation of this verse notes: “When you do not make your own slaves partners in your wealth, how do you think and believe that Allah will make His creatures partner in His Godhead?” [Maududi AA, Towards Understanding the Quran, Markazi Muktaba Islami Publishers, New Delhi, Vol. VIII]. In other words, associating partners with Allah, which is the most abhorrent thing to do in Islam, is tantamount for a man to take his slaves as equal partner. . Ibn Ishaq, The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, Karachi, p. 461-70 . Lewis B (1966) The Arabs in History, Oxford University Press, New York p. 42 . Lal KS (1994) Muslim Slave System in Medieval India, Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi, p. 6 written by Cyril Methodius , September 04, 2011

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New Smell Discovered A newly discovered smell is the olfactory equivalent of white noise, scientists report in the journal Proceedings of the National Academies of Science CREDIT: MrGarry, Shutterstock Scientists have discovered a new smell, but you may have to go to a laboratory to experience it yourself. The smell is dubbed "olfactory white," because it is the nasal equivalent of white noise, researchers report today (Nov. 19) in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Just as white noise is a mixture of many different sound frequencies and white light is a mixture of many different wavelengths, olfactory white is a mixture of many different smelly compounds. In fact, the key to olfactory white is not the compounds themselves, researchers found, but the fact that there are a lot of them. "[T]he more components there were in each of two mixtures, the more similar the smell of those two mixtures became, even though the mixtures had no components in common," they wrote. Almost any given smell in the real world comes from a mixture of compounds. Humans are good at telling these mixtures apart (it's hard to mix up the smell of coffee with the smell of roses, for example), but we're bad at picking individual components out of those mixtures. (Quick, sniff your coffee mug and report back all the individual compounds that make that roasted smell. Not so easy, huh?) Mixing multiple wavelegths that span the human visual range equally makes white light; mixing multiple frequencies that span the range of human hearing equally makes the whooshing hum of white noise. Neurobiologist Noam Sobel from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel and his colleagues wanted to find out whether a similar phenomenon happens with smelling. [7 New Flavors Your Tongue May Taste] In a series of experiments, they exposed participants to hundreds of equally mixed smells, some containing as few as one compound and others containing up to 43 components. They first had 56 participants compare mixtures of the same number of compounds with one another. For example, a person might compare a 40-compound mixture with a 40-compound mixture, neither of which had any components in common. This experiment revealed that the more components in a mixture, the worse participants were at telling them apart. A four-component mixture smells less similar to other four-component mixtures than a 43-component mixture smells to other 43-component mixtures. The researchers seemed on track to finding the olfactory version of white noise. They set up a new experiment to confirm the find. In this experiment, they first created four 40-component mixtures. Twelve participants were then given one of the mixtures to sniff and told that it was called "Laurax," a made-up word. Three of the participants were told compound 1 was Laurax, three were told it was compound 2, three were told it was compound 3, and the rest were told it was compound 4. After three days of sniffing their version of Laurax in the lab, the participants were given four new scents and four scent labels, one of which was Laurax. They were asked to label each scent with the most appropriate label. The researchers found that the label "Laurax" was most popular for scents with more compounds. In fact, the more compounds in a mixture, the more likely participants were to call it Laurax. The label went to mixtures with more than 40 compounds 57.1 percent of the time. Another experiment replicated the first, except that it allowed for participants to label one of the scents "other," a way to ensure "Laurax" wasn't just a catch-all. Again, scents with more compounds were more likely to get the Laurax label. The meaning of these results, the researchers wrote, is that olfactory white is a distinct smell, caused not by specific compounds but by certain mixes of compounds. The key is that the compounds are all of equal intensity and that they span the full range of human smells. That's why roses and coffee, both of which have many smell compounds, don't smell anything alike: Their compounds are unequally mixed and don't span a large range of smells. In other words, our brains treat smells as a single unit, not as a mixture of compounds to break down, analyze and put back together again. If they didn't, they'd never see mixtures of completely different compounds as smelling the same. Perhaps the next burning question is: What does olfactory white smell like? Unfortunately, the scent is so bland as to defy description. Participants rated it right in the middle of the scale for both pleasantness and edibility. "The best way to appreciate the qualities of olfactory white is to smell it," the researchers wrote. MORE FROM LiveScience.com

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Frederick Starr: Anthropologist Lost from the History Books You probably haven’t heard of Frederick Starr. Like his contemporary Franz Boas, Starr was an anthropologist coming to fame while the discipline of anthropology was still being formed. Throughout his career, Starr studied people and cultures on three different continents, and still found time to make a name for himself as a lecturer at the University of Chicago. But unlike Boas—who is considered the father of American Anthropology—you won’t find Starr’s name in many textbooks. The tale of how Frederick Starr was nearly forgotten is one full of controversy and ideology. Starr’s Early Life and Career Frederick Starr was born in 1858 in Auburn, New York, to the Reverend Frederick Starr Jr. and Helen Mills Starr. As a child, Starr was a strong student and an avid collector of fossils and minerals. He explored that interest further at the University of Rochester, where he studied geology; two years later, he transferred to Lafayette College in Pennsylvania and graduated in 1882. He received a doctorate in geology from Lafayette College in 1885. In the late 1800s, anthropology was still a new and growing discipline, so Starr didn't study it formally. It wasn’t until after his schooling, while teaching at Coe College, that Starr discovered his interest in the subject. He conducted both ethnographic and archaeological fieldwork among the local Sauk and Fox Indian tribes and reputedly taught the first anthropology course in Iowa while at Coe. It's not clear who or what specifically spurred Starr’s interest in anthropology, but he pursued it avidly, leaving his studies of geology behind. Following his work at Coe College, Starr held several short-term positions, including working with the ethnological collection at the American Museum of Natural History, before finally accepting a long-term faculty position at the University of Chicago in 1892. During his time at the University of Chicago, Starr became a very influential public speaker, frequently giving lectures on anthropological subjects that were open to the public through the University’s extension program. After attending an extension course about prehistoric and primitive art, W.R. French, the director of the Art Institute of Chicago at the time, wrote that Starr’s lectures were “both authoritative and agreeable,” and that “Professor Starr has eminently the art of making scientific truth interesting to intelligent but unprofessional academics.” An Anthropologist is Born According to Donald McVicker, author of Frederick Starr: Popularizer of Anthropology, Public Intellectual, and Genuine Eccentric, Starr engaged in an incredibly varied anthropological career at the turn of the 20th century. He conducted notable research in Mexico, among many Native American tribes in the United States, with the Ainu people of Japan, and in several regions of Africa. The World’s Fairs that took place in the United States in the late 19th and early 20th centuries seemed to provide Starr with the perfect opportunities to put his work on display. Much to his dismay, however, Starr was not allowed an influential position at the famous World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. He was excluded by better known anthropologists like Boas and Frederic Ward Putnam, director of Harvard’s Peabody Museum. Starr was commissioned to collect data about and artifacts from the Eastern Cherokee people in North Carolina for Putnam and Boas, but contributed little else to this fair. At the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in St. Louis in 1904, however, Starr’s work made a much bigger splash. The anthropologist brought nine Ainu people and a translator back with him from Japan to be part of an exhibit at the fair. These Ainu, members of a Japanese indigenous group from Hokkaido in the northern part of the country, were to be displayed as part of a literal representation of the evolutionary stages of humanity towards civilization; along with several other indigenous groups assembled by other anthropologists, they were on display as “barbarous and semi-barbarous peoples.” While this is unquestionably offensive to today's sensibilities, the visitor response to the exhibit at the time was overwhelmingly positive, as most people had never before heard of the Ainu and were intrigued by their appearance and practices. In a 1993 article about the Ainu exhibit, anthropologist James W. Vanstone reports the reactions from writers and visitors to the exhibit: One enthusiastic writer referred to the Ainu as "mysterious little Japanese primitives" and noted that visitors were impressed by their cleanliness and polite manners, but somewhat disappointed that they were no "man-eaters, dog-eaters or wild men." In addition to contributing to these World’s Fairs, Starr produced several publications in conjunction with his fieldwork. These publications included many scholarly and other articles, as well as books like The Truth about the Congo, about his studies in that region; Indians of Southern Mexico: An Ethnographic Album; and In Indian Mexico: A Narrative of Travel and Labor, about the performance and findings of his extensive work with Indian tribes in Mexico. Starr’s Methods and Misconduct in Mexico His appearance in St. Louis with the Ainu may have been Starr’s most publicly recognized work, but if he is remembered at all today, it's for his fieldwork in Mexico. Starr recalls his purpose there in In Indian Mexico: The work I planned to do among these indian towns was threefold: 1. The measurement of one hundred men and twenty-five women in each population, fourteen measurements being taken upon each subject; 2. The making of pictures,—portraits, dress, occupations, customs, buildings, and landscapes; 3. The making of plaster busts of five individuals in each tribe. The primary goals in making such recordings were to observe the differences between various Mexican tribes and to establish the placement of such people, and their race and culture, on the same scale that he had placed the Ainu, from barbarous to civilized. It was assumed at the time that there were physical characteristics, such as cranial shape and size, that could mark such distinctions between races (a theory that has long since been disproved). In his book, Starr refers to the Mexican people he is studying as “ignorant, timid, and suspicious.” He also makes regular references to them being too drunk to allow their measurements to be taken. All of these characteristics assigned to these Mexican Indians by Starr explained, in his point of view, the difficulty he often had in securing subjects for measurement, and justified the forceful methods he felt compelled to use. Starr took advantage of the fact that prisoners could not refuse his requests to measure them, and regularly photographed and measured imprisoned subjects for his work. What’s more, if there were individuals he wished to measure who did not acquiesce, he would threaten them with arrest and jail time so that they could no longer refuse. The authorities did not object to these methods, instead providing support for Starr by collecting subjects and keeping order. Starr even recounts a specific incident where policemen stopped a bullfight in progress in order to obtain a young man taking part in the fight for Starr’s research. Starr Fading from View Over time, Starr’s brutish, unethical methods and offensive ideas became questionable in the eyes of the anthropological community. The theories of his contemporary Boas, however, began to amass a great deal of support from other anthropologists and academics. Boas, born and educated in Germany, moved to the United States in 1887 and proceeded to make substantial contributions to the methodology of American anthropology. By incorporating the methods of natural science into the discipline of anthropology, Boas emphasized the importance of conducting research before developing theories, as well as approaching studies in the most ethical and unbiased ways possible. What’s more, he developed the modern interpretation of culture, viewing it as learned behavior and a product of a people's history, rather than a hierarchical measurement of civilization that would place the western world on top. While most anthropologists, inspired by Boas, began to recognize the people they studied as part of the larger, equal human race, Starr continued to regard them as primitive and inferior, demonstrated by his attitude towards his subjects in Mexico. Soon, Starr’s methods of fieldwork were widely considered unethical and his ideas about culture outdated. Starr’s charisma and ability as a speaker managed to keep him relevant in public education spheres toward the end of his career. In this capacity, Starr overshadowed Boas, who preferred not to address the general themes of anthropology necessary in public lecturing and was nervous about his skill in speaking English, which was not his first language. The academic discipline of anthropology, though, became dominated by Boas’ methods and, over the years, Frederick Starr and his methods were phased out. Today, his work is rarely read, or even mentioned, in discussions or classes on anthropological history. After 31 years at the University of Chicago, Starr retired from his post in 1923. True to form, he continued to travel the globe and engage in public speaking events until his death; he died unexpectedly of pneumonia while in Japan in 1933.

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náma: (lit. 'name'): 'mind', mentality. This term is generally used as a collective name for the 4 mental groups (arúpino khandha), viz. feeling (vedaná), perception (saññá), mental formations (sankhára) and consciousness (viññána). Within the 4th link (náma-rúpa) in the formula of the paticcasamuppáda (q.v.), however, it applies only to karma-resultant (vipáka) feeling and perception and a few karma-resultant mental functions inseparable from any consciousness. As it is said (M. 9; D. 15; S. XII, 2): "Feeling (vedaná), perception (saññá), volition (cetaná), impression (phassa), mental advertence (manasikára): this, o brother, is called mind (náma)." With the addition of 2 more mental factors, namely, mental vitality (jívita) and concentration (samádhi), here 'stationary phase of mind' (cittatthiti), these 7 factors are said in the Abhidhammattha Sangaha to be the inseparable mental factors in any state of consciousness. For the complete list of all the 50 mental formations of the sankhára-kkhandha (not including feeling and perception), s. náma-káya: the 'mind-group' (as distinguished from rúpa-káya, the corporeality-group) comprises the 4 immaterial groups of existence (arúpino khandhá; s. khandha). This twofold grouping, frequent in Com., occurs first in D. 15, also in Pts.M. (I, 183); náma-káya alone is mentioned in Sn. 1074. náma-rúpa (lit. 'name and form'): 'mind-and-body', mentality and corporeality. It is the 4th link in the dependent origination (s. paticcasamuppáda 3, 4) where it is conditioned by consciousness, and on its part is the condition of the sixfold sense-base. In two texts (D. 14, 15), which contain variations of the dependent origination, the mutual conditioning of consciousness and mind-and-body is described (see also S. XII, 67), and the latter is said to be a condition of sense-impression (phassa); so also in Sn. 872. The third of the seven purifications (s. visuddhi), the purification of views, is defined in Vis.M. XVIII as the "correct seeing of mind-and-body," and various methods for the discernment of mind-and-body by way of insight-meditation (vipassaná, q.v.) are given there. In this context, 'mind' (náma) comprises all four mental groups, including consciousness. - See náma. In five-group-existence (pañca-vokára-bhava, q.v.), mind-and body are inseparable and interdependent; and this has been illustrated by comparing them with two sheaves of reeds propped against each other: when one falls the other will fall, too; and with a blind man with stout legs, carrying on his shoulders a lame cripple with keen eye-sight: only by mutual assistance can they move about efficiently (s. Vis.M. XVIII, 32ff). On their mutual dependence, see also paticca-samuppáda With regard to the impersonality and dependent nature of mind and corporeality it is said: "Sound is not a thing that dwells inside the conch-shell and comes out from time to time, but due to both, the conch-shell and the man that blows it, sound comes to arise: Just so, due to the presence of vitality, heat and consciousness, this body may execute the acts of going, standing, sitting and lying down, and the 5 sense-organs and the mind may perform their various functions" "Just as a wooden puppet though unsubstantial, lifeless and inactive may by means of pulling strings be made to move about, stand up, and appear full of life and activity; just so are mind and body, as such, something empty, lifeless and inactive; but by means of their mutual working together, this mental and bodily combination may move about, stand up, and appear full of life and ñána: 'knowledge, comprehension, intelligence, insight', is a synonym for paññá (q.v.); see also vipassaná. of knowledge and vision', is the last of the 7 purifications and a name for path-knowledge (maggañána), i.e. the penetrating realization of the path of Stream-winning, Once-returning, Non-returning or Arahatship. Vis.M. XXII furnishes a detailed explanation of it (s. visuddhi, VII). In A. IV, 41 ñánadassana apparently means the divine eye (dibbacakkhu, s. abhiññá), being produced through concentrating the mind on light. nánatta-saññá: The 'variety (or multiformity) - perceptions are explained under jhána (q.v.). ñána-vipphárá iddhi: the 'power of penetrating knowledge', is one of the magical powers (iddhi, q.v.). understanding (or comprehension) of the known', is one of the 3 kinds of full understanding (pariññá q.v.). natthika-ditthi: 'nihilistic view' (a doctrine that all values are baseless, that nothing is knowable or can be communicated, and that life itself is meaningless), s. ditthi. is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.). natural morality: pakati-síla navanga-buddha (or satthu)- sásana: nava-sattávása: s. sattávása. naya-vipassaná: s. kalápa ñáya: 'right method', is often used as a name for the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga), e.g. in the Satipatthána Sutta (M. 10, D. 22). nekkhamma: 'freedom from sensual lust', renunciation. Though apparently from nir + Ö kram, 'to go forth (into the homeless state of a monk)', this term is in the Páli texts nevertheless used as if it were derived from káma, lust, and always as an antonym to káma. It is one of the perfections (s. páramí). N. sankappa, thought free from lust, or thought of renunciation, is one of the 3 kinds of right thought (sammá-sankappa), the 2nd link of the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga, 2), its antonym being kámasankappa, nesajjikanga: one of the 13 dhutanga neutral, karmically: avyákata (q.v.); n. feelings, s. vedaná. 'sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception', is the name for the fourth absorption of the immaterial sphere (arúpávacara), a semi-conscious state, which is surpassed only by the state of complete suspense of consciousness, called 'attainment of extinction' (nirodha-samápatti, q.v.). See jhána (8). n'eva-sekha-n'ásekha: 'neither in training nor beyond training', i.e. neither learner nor master. Thus is called the worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), for he is neither pursuing the 3-fold training (sikkhá q.v.) in morality, mental culture and wisdom, on the level of the first 3 paths of sanctity, nor has he completed his training as an Arahat. See sekha. - (App.). neyya: 'requiring guidance', is said of a person "who through advice and questioning, through wise consideration, and through frequenting noble-minded friends, having intercourse with them, associating with them, gradually comes to penetrate the truth" (Pug. 162). Cf. ugghatitaññú. neyyattha-dhamma: A 'teaching the meaning of which is implicit, or has to be inferred' as contrasted with a 'teaching with an explicit or evident meaning' (nítattha-dhamma). In A. I, 60 (PTS) it is said: "Whoso declares a sutta with an implicit meaning as a sutta with explicit meaning (and conversely), such a one makes a false statement with regard to the Blessed One." - See paramattha. Nibbána, (Sanskrit nirvána): lit. 'extinction' (nir + Ö va, to cease blowing, to become extinguished); according to the commentaries, 'freedom from desire' (nir+ vana). Nibbána constitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all Buddhist aspirations, i.e. absolute extinction of that life-affirming will manifested as greed, hate and delusion, and convulsively clinging to existence; and therewith also the ultimate and absolute deliverance from all future rebirth, old age, disease and death, from all suffering and misery. Cf. Parinibbána. "Extinction of greed, extinction of hate, extinction of delusion: this is called Nibbána" (S. XXXVIII. 1). The 2 aspects of Nibbána are: (1) The full extinction of defilements (kilesa-parinibbána), also called sa-upádi-sesa-nibbána (s. It. 41), i.e. 'Nibbána with the groups of existence still remaining' (s. upádi). This takes place at the attainment of Arahatship, or perfect holiness (s. ariya-puggala). (2) The full extinction of the groups of existence (khandha-parinibbána), also called an-upádi-sesa-nibbána (s. It. 41, A. IV, 118), i.e. 'Nibbána without the groups remaining', in other words, the coming to rest, or rather the 'no-more-continuing' of this physico-mental process of existence. This takes place at the death of the Arahat. - (App.: Nibbána). Sometimes both aspects take place at one and the same moment, i.e. at the death of the Arahat; s. sama-sísí. "This, o monks, truly is the peace, this is the highest, namely the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum of rebirth, the fading away of craving, detachment, extinction, Nibbána" (A. III, "Enraptured with lust (rága), enraged with anger (dosa), blinded by delusion (moha), overwhelmed, with mind ensnared, man aims at his own ruin, at the ruin of others, at the ruin of both, and he experiences mental pain and grief. But if lust, anger and delusion are given up, man aims neither at his own ruin, nor at the ruin of others, nor at the ruin of both, and he experiences no mental pain and grief. Thus is Nibbána visible in this life, immediate, inviting, attractive, and comprehensible to the wise" (A. III, 55). "Just as a rock of one solid mass remains unshaken by the wind, even so neither visible forms, nor sounds, nor odours, nor tastes, nor bodily impressions, neither the desired nor the undesired, can cause such a one to waver. Steadfast is his mind, gained is deliverance" (A, VI, 55). "Verily, there is an Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. If there were not this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed, escape from the world of the born, the originated, the created, the formed, would not be possible" (Ud. VIII, 3). One cannot too often and too emphatically stress the fact that not only for the actual realization of the goal of Nibbána, but also for a theoretical understanding of it, it is an indispensable preliminary condition to grasp fully the truth of anattá (q.v.), the egolessness and insubstantiality of all forms of existence. Without such an understanding, one will necessarily misconceive Nibbána - according to one's either materialistic or metaphysical leanings - either as annihilation of an ego, or as an eternal state of existence into which an ego or self enters or with which it merges. Hence it is said: "Mere suffering exists, no sufferer The deed is, but no doer of the deed is Nibbána is, but not the man that enters The path is, but no traveler on it is Literature: For texts on Nibbána, see Path, 36ff. - See Vis.M. XVI. 64ff. - Anattá and Nibbána, by Nyanaponika Thera (WHEEL 11); The Buddhist Doctrine of Nibbána, by Ven. P. Vajiranana & F. Story 'rebirth', is a synonym for patisandhi (q.v.). -paññá): 'morality (concentration, wisdom) connected with penetration'; s. hána-bhágiya-síla. of aversion', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight; s. vipassaná (4), samatha-vipassaná (2), visuddhi (VI, 5). perception (or consciousness, or view) of permanency, is one of the 4 perversions nihilistic view: natthika-ditthi; exercise' s. kasina. nimitta: mark, sign; image; target, object; cause, condition. These meanings are used in, and adapted to, many contexts of which only the doctrinal ones are mentioned here. 1. 'Mental (reflex-) image', obtained in meditation. In full clarity, it will appear in the mind by successful practice of certain concentration-exercises and will then appear as vividly as if seen by the eye. The object perceived at the very beginning of concentration is called the preparatory image (parikamma-nimitta). The still unsteady and unclear image, which arises when the mind has reached a weak degree of concentration, is called the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta). An entirely clear and immovable image arising at a higher degree of concentration is the counter-image (patibhága-nimitta). As soon as this image arises, the stage of neighbourhood (or access) concentration (upacára-samádhi) is reached. For further details, s. kasina, samádhi. 2. 'Sign of (previous) kamma' (kamma-nimitta) and 'sign of (the future) destiny' (gati-nimitta); these arise as mental objects of the last karmic consciousness before death (maranásanna-kamma; s. karma, III, 3). Usages (1) and (2) are commentarial (s. App.). In sutta usage, the term occurs, e.g. as: 3. 'Outward appearance': of one who has sense-control it is said- that "he does not seize upon the general appearance' of an object (na nimittaggáhí; M. 38, D. 2; expl. Vis I, 54f; see síla). 4. 'Object': the six objects, i.e. visual, etc. (rúpa-nimitta; S. XXII, 3). Also, when in explanation of animitta-cetovimutti, signless deliverance of mind (s. cetovimutti, vimokkha), it is said, 'sabba-nimittánam amanasikárá', it refers to the 6 sense-objects (Com. to M. 43), and has therefore to be rendered "by paying no attention to any object (or object-ideas)." - A pleasant or beautiful object (subha-nimitta, q.v.) is a condition to the arising of the hindrance of sense-desire; a 'repellent object' (patigha-nimitta) for the hindrance of ill-will; contemplation on the impurity of an object (asubha-nimitta; s. asubha) is an antidote to sense-desire. 5. In Pts.M. II, in a repetitive series of terms, nimitta appears together with uppádo (origin of existence), pavattam (continuity of existence), and may then be rendered by 'condition of existence' (s. Path, nimmána-rati: the name of a class of heavenly beings of the sensuous sphere; s. deva. nine abodes of beings: s. sattávása. ninefold dispensation: s: sásana. nippapañca: s. papañca. corporeality', is identical with rúpa-rúpa, 'corporeality proper', i.e. material or actual corporeality, as contrasted with 'unproduced corporeality' (anipphanna-rúpa), consisting of mere qualities or modes of corporeality, e.g. impermanence, etc., which are also enumerated among the 28 phenomena of the corporeality group. See khandha, Summary I; Vis.M. XIV, 73. niraya: lit. 'the downward-path', the nether or infernal world, usually translated by 'hell', is one of the 4 lower courses of existence (apáya, q.v.). The Buddhists are well aware that on account of the universal sway of impermanence a life in hell, just as in heaven, cannot last eternally, but will after exhaustion of the karma which has caused the respective form of rebirth, necessarily be followed again by a new death and a new rebirth, according to the stored-up nirodha: 'extinction'; s. nirodha-samápatti, of extinction', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassaná q.v.). See ánápánasati nirodha-samápatti: 'attainment of extinction' (S. XIV, 11), also called saññá-vedayita-nirodha, 'extinction of feeling and perception', is the temporary suspension of all consciousness and mental activity, following immediately upon the semi-conscious state called 'sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception' (s. jhána, 8). The absolutely necessary pre-conditions to its attainment are said to be perfect mastery of all the 8 absorptions (jhána), as well as the previous attainment of Anágámi or Arahatship (s. ariya-puggala). According to Vis.M. XXIII, the entering into this state takes place in the following way: by means of mental tranquillity (samatha) and insight (vipassaná) one has to pass through all the 8 absorptions one after the other up to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and then one has to bring this state to an end. If, namely, according to the Vis.M., the disciple (Anágámi or Arahat) passes through the absorption merely by means of tranquillity, i.e. concentration, he will only attain the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and then come to a standstill; if, on the other hand, he proceeds only with insight, he will reach the fruition (phala) of Anágámi or Arahatship. He, however, who by means of both faculties has risen from absorption to absorption and, having made the necessary preparations, brings the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception to an end, such a one reaches the state of extinction. Whilst the disciple is passing through the 8 absorptions, he each time emerges from the absorption attained, and regards with his insight all the mental phenomena constituting that special absorption, as impermanent, miserable and impersonal. Then he again enters the next higher absorption, and thus, after each absorption practising insight, he at last reaches the state of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and thereafter the full extinction. This state, according to the Com., may last for 7 days or even longer. Immediately at the rising from this state, however, there arises in the Anágámi the fruition of Anágámiship (anágámi-phala), in the Arahat the fruition of Arahatship (arahatta-phala). With regard to the difference existing between the monk abiding in this state of extinction on the one hand, and a dead person on the other hand, M 43 says: "In him who is dead, and whose life has come to an end, the bodily (in-and-outbreathing), verbal (thought-conception and discursive thinking), and mental functions (s. sankhára, 2) have become suspended and come to a standstill, life is exhausted, the vital heat extinguished, the faculties are destroyed. Also in the monk who has reached 'extinction of perception and feeling' (saññá-vedayita-nirodha), the bodily, verbal and mental functions have been suspended and come to a standstill, but life is not exhausted, the vital heat not extinguished, and the faculties are not For details, see Vis.M. XXIII; for texts s. Path 206. 'analytical knowledge of language', is one of the 4 patisambhidá (q.v.). nirvana: (Sanskrit= ) Nibbána nissarana-pahána: 'overcoming by escape', is one of the 5 kinds of overcoming (pahána q.v.). nissaya: 'foundation'. The 2 wrong foundations of morality are craving (tanhá-nissaya) and views (ditthi-nissaya). Hence there are two wrong bases of morality: morality based on craving (tanhá-nissita-síla) and morality based on views (ditthi-nissita-síla). (App.) " 'Based on craving' is that kind of morality which has come about by the desire for a happy existence, e.g.: 'O that by this morality I might become a godlike or heavenly being!' (A.IX, 172). 'Based on views' is that morality which has been induced by the view that through the observation of certain moral rules purification may be attained" (Vis.M. I). nissaya-paccaya: 'support', base, foundation, is one of the 24 conditions (s. paccaya, 8). nítattha-dhamma: A 'doctrine with evident meaning', contrasted with a 'doctrine with a meaning to be inferred' (neyyattha-dhamma, q.v.). See also paramattha. nívarana: 'hindrances', are 5 qualities which are obstacles to the mind and blind our mental vision. In the presence of them we cannot reach neighbourhood-concentration (upacára-samádhi) and full concentration (appaná-samádhi), and are unable to discern clearly the truth. They 1. sensuous desire (kámacchanda), 2. ill-will (vyápáda), 3. sloth and torpor (thína-middha), 4. restlessness and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca), 5. skeptical doubt (vicikicchá; In the beautiful similes in A. V, 193, sensuous desire is compared with water mixed with manifold colours, ill-will with boiling water, sloth and torpor with water covered by moss, restlessness and scruples with agitated water whipped by the wind, skeptical doubt with turbid and muddy water. Just as in such water one cannot perceive one's own reflection, so in the presence of these 5 mental hindrances, one cannot clearly discern one's own benefit, nor that of others, nor that of both. Regarding the temporary suspension of the 5 hindrances on entering the first absorption, the stereotype sutta text (e g. A. IX, 40) runs as follows: "He has cast away sensuous desire; he dwells with a heart free from sensuous desire; from desire he cleanses his heart. "He has cast away ill-will; he dwells with a heart free from ill-will, cherishing love and compassion toward all living beings, he cleanses his heart from ill-will. "He has cast away sloth and torpor; he dwells free from sloth and torpor; loving the light, with watchful mind, with clear consciousness, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor. "He has cast away restlessness and scruples; dwelling with mind undisturbed, with heart full of peace, he cleanses his mind from restlessness and scruples. "He has cast away skeptical doubt; dwelling free from doubt, full of confidence in the good, he cleanses his heart from "He has put aside these 5 hindrances, and come to know these paralysing defilements of the mind. And far from sensual impressions, far from unwholesome things, he enters into the first absorption, etc." The overcoming of these 5 hindrances by the absorptions is, as already pointed out, a merely temporary suspension, called 'overcoming through repression' (vikkhambhana-pahána). They disappear forever on entering the 4 supermundane paths (s. ariyapuggala), i.e. skeptical doubt on reaching Sotápanship; sensuous desire, ill-will and mental worry on reaching Anágámiship; sloth, torpor and restlessness on reaching Arahatship. For their origination and their overcoming, s. A. I, 2; VI, 21; S. XLVI, 51. See The Five Mental Hindrances, by Nyanaponika Thera (WHEEL 26). niyáma: the 'fixedness of law' regarding all things; cf. tathatá. - Pañca-niyáma is a commentarial term, signifying the 'fivefold lawfulness' or 'natural order' that governs: (1) temperature, seasons and other physical events (utu-niyáma); (2) the plant life (bíja-n.); (3) karma (kamma-n.); (4) the mind (citta-n.), e.g. the lawful sequence of the functions of consciousness (s. viññána-kicca) in the process of cognition; (5) certain events connected with the Dhamma (dhamma-n.), e.g. the typical events occurring in the lives of the Buddhas. (App.). niyata-miccháditthi: 'wrong views with fixed destiny', are the views of uncausedness of existence (ahetuka-ditthi), of the inefficacy of action (akiriya-ditthi), and nihilism (natthika-ditthi). For details, s. ditthi; and M. 60, Com. (WHEEL 98/99). - (App.) niyata-puggala: a 'person with a fixed destiny', may be either one who has committed one of the 5 'heinous deeds with immediate result' (ánantarika-kamma, q.v.), or one who follows 'wrong views with fixed destiny' (niyata-micchá-ditthi, q.v.), or one who has reached one of the 4 stages of holiness (s. ariya-puggala). About the latter cf. the frequent passage: "Those disciples in whom the 3 fetters (of personality-belief, sceptical doubt and attachment to mere rules and ritual; s. samyojana) have vanished, they all have entered the stream, have forever escaped the states of woe; fixed is their destiny (niyata), assured their final enlightenment." noble abodes: s. vihára. noble family, Passing from n.f. to n.f.: kolankola; s. sotápaññá. noble persons: ariya-puggala noble power: ariya iddhi; s. noble truths, the 4: ariya-sacca; s. sacca. - The 2-fold knowledge of the n.t.; s. sacca-ñána. noble usages, the 4: ariya-vamsa is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.). non-violence: s. avihimsá. not-self: s. anattá. corporeality', designates the 4 primary elements (mahábhúta or dhátu), as distinguished from the 'derived corporeality' (upádá-rúpa), such as the sensitive organs, etc. Cf. khandha, I. nutriment: s. ojá, áhára. - áhára is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) - n.- produced corporeality; s. samutthána.

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Cart: 0 items The Power of the Stop Shot (Part 2) The Power of the Stop Shot (part 2 of 2) In Part 1 of this 2-part series, we defined the stop shot and all its wonderful benefits. You learned to use the stop shot to calibrate your stroke, stop the cue ball, and control the slide in the early stages of position play. I promised you that once you were able to execute the stop shot from any distance at any speed, then you would always be able to predict which direction the cue ball is going. By now, I’m assuming you’ve had the opportunity to shoot hundreds, maybe thousands of stop shots. Have you mastered it yet? Are you able to consistently get that cue ball to slide and stop at the point of contact? If you’ve grasped the concept of a sliding cue ball then you’re ready for part 2. In this lesson, we will use the same speed and tip position that we learned, to execute a stop shot, to cut shots. Before, when the shot was lined up straight in, the cue ball had nothing to do but to stop. It transferred 100% of its energy into the object ball. Now, if you apply that same speed and tip position to cause a sliding ball at the point of contact, you can predict which direction the cue ball will be traveling. Where is Whitey Going? As a basic rule of thumb, when the cue ball is sliding at the point of contact with the object ball, you can trust it will travel at an imaginary perpendicular line from the line of which the object ball is traveling. This diagram illustrates the direction the cue ball slides when it contacts the object ball. Obviously, the more extreme the cut angle, the less energy the cue ball transfers to the object ball. Therefore, the cue ball will come off at a greater speed. To keep that cue ball on the perpendicular line while controlling the speed, the same theory applies that we used with the stop shot. To achieve the same results, LOWER SPEED = LOWER TIP POSITION. All position play begins with understanding the slide zone. When you know which direction the neutral cue ball is going, you can manipulate that line simply by aiming higher or lower. Aiming above center causes a rolling cue ball and moves the line forward, above perpendicular. Aiming lower to cause backspin brings the cue ball backward below the perpendicular line. When you’re able to control the rock, not only does it mean you can play better position for your next shot, but think how handy it will be when you need to avoid a scratch or break out a group of balls. These fine points are what keep players from finishing a run out. Things to Consider - How clean are the balls? If the balls are dirty they will act as gears upon contact and cling together for a fraction of time before the cue ball slides on the perpendicular line. Likewise, if the balls are newly washed, they can become much more responsive. If the balls were just cleaned, you may want to aim a little higher than you would think or bring your speed down. - How worn is the cloth? Slippery, new cloth will also make a surprising difference. When a table is freshly recovered, the cue ball tends to slide in place, even though it may be rolling. Therefore, this will shift the slide window. You’ll need to bring your speed down to achieve the desired results. - Is the cue ball actually sliding at the point of contact? Playing with the Aramith Pro Cup Measle Cue Ball helps you see exactly where the cue ball is sliding at various speeds and distances. You can also easily identify if you’ve inadvertently hit too high or low based on the cue ball’s response after it contacts the object ball. - Did you cheat the pocket? Object balls can still go in even if they don’t enter the center of the pocket. Whichever side of the pocket the object ball enters will shift the perpendicular line of the cue ball. This can be used to your advantage when you need to create more or less angle but always be specific with exactly where you intend to pocket the ball. Understanding how to adjust your speed and tip position to manipulate the slide zone will help you predict the path of the cue ball. The next time you’re in the mile high area and looking for a Denver billiard instructor, be sure to look me up.

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A Short History of the Permanent Diaconate THE EARLY CHURCH Traditionally, the beginning of the order of deacons is traced back to the story in Acts of the Apostles, Acts 6: 1-6. Whether this pertains to the history of the ordained order of deacons as they developed in the early centuries of the church is in dispute, but it is very much in the spirit in which the diaconate was and has been understood ever since. Very early in the history of the church, deacons were understood to hold a special place in the community, along with bishops and presbyters. The role of all ordained ministries is to be modeled on the life of Christ, and that of deacons especially was and still is, that of Christ the servant. Perhaps the earliest reference to deacons in this sense (ca. 53 A.D.?) occurs in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians in which he addresses "all the saints in Christ Jesus who are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons". However, it would be a mistake to interpret the servant role too literally as one of "waiting on tables". One of the seven first deacons, Stephen, was stoned to death because of his bold preaching of the Gospel, Acts 6: 8-15, 7: 54-60 . He is the first recognized martyr of the church, and his feast day is celebrated on December 26. Of the remaining seven, those of whom we have historical knowledge, it is clear that their ministry also quickly broadened to preaching and spreading the Gospel message. The deacon became the eyes and ears of the bishop, his "right hand man". The bishop's principal assistant became known as the "archdeacon", and was often charged with heavy responsibilities, especially in the financial administration of the local church, above all in distribution of funds and goods to the poor. One measure of the importance of the deacon in the early church is the number of deacons elected pope in the early Middle Ages. Of the thirty-seven men elected pope between 432 and 684 A.D., only three are known to have been ordained to priest before their election to the Chair of Peter. (Llewellyn) During the first Christian millennium deacons undertook, as the bishops' assistants, the functions that are today those of the vicar general, the judicial vicar, the vicar capitular, the cathedral chapter and the oeconome, or finance officer. In current canon law these are almost exclusively priests' functions. (Galles) John Collins, writing in Pastoral Review, has this to say about the meaning of "diakonia" as understood in the early church: "Two final segments: firstly my description of the semantic character of diakon- as applied to deacons in the early church (from Appendix I, Diakonia, p. 337). As is well known, Vatican II cited this “not unto the priesthood, but unto the ministry” in Lumen Gentium. Thus it was understood that deacons were ordained not for any specific set of duties for serving the needy but to serve the bishop in whatever set of duties he would determine. The circumstances today are, of course, far different than in the early church. The size and complexity of the modern diocese makes such an intimate relationship with the bishop impractical. Although deacons serve in a wide variety of settings, including hospitals and prisons, the focus for today's deacon is normally parish based. However, he retains the historical tie with his bishop, whose "servant" he remains. The major point we should take from a study of early church history and the witness of the early Fathers of the Church is that they acknowledge the importance of the diaconal ministry. Saint Ignatius of Antioch, about 100 AD, says that it would be impossible to have the Church without bishops, priests and deacons. He explains that their task was nothing less than to continue ‘the ministry of Jesus Christ'. Beginning as early as the fifth century, there was a gradual decline in the permanent diaconate in the Latin church, although it remained, right to the present, a vital part of the Eastern churches, both Catholic and Orthodox. One important factor was simply a failure on the part of both presbyters and deacons to understand the unique value of the diaconate as a distinct order in its own right. Deacons with too much power were often self-important and proud. Presbyters, on their part, were resentful at the fact that often deacons had power over them! St. Jerome demanded to know why deacons had so much power – "After all, deacons could not preside at Eucharist, and presbyters were really the same as bishops". By the early middle ages, the diaconate was perceived largely as only an intermediate step toward the reception of ordination to the priesthood. It was this prevailing attitude of the "cursus honorum" that was most responsible for the decline of the diaconate. The "cursus honorum" was simply the attitude of "rising through the ranks", following a tradition of gradual promotion, inherited from practices of secular government of the Roman Empire. Most older Catholics will be familiar with the many levels of "minor orders" and "major orders". First came the liturgical rite of "tonsure" which conferred upon a man the status of "cleric", and made him eligible for ordination. Then came the minor orders of porter, lector, exorcist and acolyte. These were ordinations but they were not sacraments. Finally came the major orders of sub deacon, deacon and priest. Sub diaconate, although a major order, was not a sacrament. The sub deacon did not receive a stole. Deacon and priest were, of course, sacramental in character. The whole process is well illustrated in a drawing (thanks to Dr. William Ditewig): "Then, in 1972, Paul VI, following the direction of Vatican II, issued Ministeria quaedam, which realigned these things for the Latin Rite. Tonsure was suppressed, and now a person becomes a cleric through SACRAMENTAL ORDINATION AS A DEACON; this was a change to a pattern of more than 1000 years standing! The Pope also suppressed the minor orders altogether, converting two of them into "lay" ministries no longer requiring ordination; he also suppressed the subdiaconate, shifting the promise of celibacy to the diaconate. That left only two orders, both sacraments, from the old schema. Since Vatican II itself had taught about the sacramental nature of the bishop, we wound up with the three-fold ordained ministry that we have now, all of which are conferred by ordination and all of which confer a sacramental "character." Finally, the three orders are further subdivided by those orders that are sacerdotal (bishop and presbyter) and the orders that are diaconal (bishop and deacon). Yes, right now, presbyters are also deacons because they were ordained transitional deacons on their way to the presbyterate, BUT, as Guiseppe points out, this could be easily changed, and many are arguing for that (it's not likely anytime soon, but the case still needs to be pushed!)" (Ditewig) The time finally came during deliberations of the Second Vatican Council in 1963, calling for restoration of the diaconate as a permanent level of Holy Orders. In June 1967 Pope Paul VI implemented this decree of the Council when he published the Apostolic letter Diaconatus Ordinem, in which he re-established the permanent diaconate in the Latin Church. The Council in its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium) returns to the roots of the diaconate which we have previously discussed, roots going back to the New Testament and the early church Fathers: At a lower level of the hierarchy are deacons, upon whom hands are imposed "not unto the priesthood, but unto a ministry of service". For strengthened by sacramental grace, in communion with the bishop and his group of priests they serve in the diaconate of the liturgy, of the word, and of charity to the people of God. It is the duty of the deacon, according as it shall have been assigned to him by competent authority, to administer baptism solemnly, to be custodian and dispenser of the Eucharist, to assist at and bless marriages in the name of the Church, to bring Viaticum to the dying, to read the Sacred Scripture to the faithful, to instruct and exhort the people, to preside over the worship and prayer of the faithful, to administer sacramentals, to officiate at funeral and burial services. Dedicated to duties of charity and of administration, let deacons be mindful of the admonition of Blessed Polycarp: "Be merciful, diligent, walking according to the truth of the Lord, who became the servant of all." (Lumen Gentium para. 29) And so we have come full circle. The permanent diaconate has proved to be a resounding success, growing at an astounding rate throughout the world, but nowhere so much as here in the United States. The theology of the diaconate has yet to be fully explored, but with the help of the Holy Spirit, it will mature. An excellent selection of books dealing with both the history and theology of the diaconate is available from the National Association of Diaconate Directors, http://www.nadd.org/publications.html . For an excellent recent (Nov. 2006) scholarly article dealing with the meaning of "diakonia" see http://www.thepastoralreview.org/cgi-bin/archive_db.cgi?priestsppl-00127 .

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

An end-stop occurs when a line of poetry ends with a period or definite punctuation mark, such as a colon. When lines are end-stopped, each line is its own phrase or unit of syntax. So when you read an end-stopped line, you'll naturally pause. In that sense, it's the opposite of enjambment, which will encourage you to move right along to the next line without pausing. Bright Star, would I were as stedfast as thou art— Not in lone splendor hung aloft the night, And watching, with eternal lids apart, Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite, See how the lines each have their own units of sense? And they each end in a punctuation mark that indicates a pause. These, Shmoopers, are end-stopped lines. In fact, "Bright Star" is mostly end-stopped, with only two examples of enjambment. Check out the poem, and see if you can find them.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

Vinca is very drought-tolerant and has an extremely long blooming season. It can also tolerate the highest temperatures we face during the summer growing season. Great improvements have been made in vinca flower colors and varieties during the past 25 years. In the 1980s, gardeners had few choices in terms of vinca growth habits, flower colors or disease resistance. In the 1990s, new forms and new flower colors arrived with rapid expansion occurring between 2000-2005. Vinca flower colors now include pink, deep rose, red, blush, scarlet, white, white with a red eye, lavender blue, peach, apricot, orchid, burgundy and many others. You can have vinca varieties that are upright and vinca varieties that are spreading. Plants generally grow 18-20 inches tall with a spread of 12-14 inches. Spreading types, though, have more trailing or ground cover habits and reach only 6-8 inches tall (at the most) with spreads of 18-14 inches. We do have vinca problems in the landscape, and based on the number of calls with vinca issues this spring, this is a bad year for vinca. This is surprising considering we now have disease-resistant varieties and we had a very dry spring and early summer. The main disease culprit is a fungus called Phytophthora, which always is present in our soils. It is often responsible for root rots and crown rots, and it attacks many types of plants. This fungus causes a disease seen shortly after planting, but it also can be found later in the year. Rhizoctonia is another disease common on vinca in Louisiana. It normally shows up in the summer after plants are established. Plant pathologists can also find Botrytis (gray mold) and Alternaria (leaf spot) on vinca in summer and fall. To get the best performance out of vinca in your landscape, consider the following LSU AgCenter recommendations: •Begin with good quality plants. Inspect plants obtained from the greenhouse grower or retail garden center for healthy roots. •Select a full-sun location. Vinca need at least eight hours of direct sun daily for optimum performance. •Properly prepare the landscape bed to allow for drainage and aeration. Raise the bed at least 6 inches if drainage is questionable. If beds are already established, all debris from the previous planting needs to be removed. Possibly, mulch should be removed also and add another couple inches of landscape soil prior to planting. •Although late April through early May is the ideal first planting date for the spring, you can continue planting vinca through the summer. The main thing to remember is that vinca love warm soil. •Plant so that the top of the root ball is level with or slightly higher than the soil of the bed. Proper spacing also is important because a crowded planting limits air circulation and can create conditions more favorable to disease development. Space transplants at least 8-10 inches apart. The more quickly plants grow together, the higher the likelihood of disease moving through foliage later in the year. •Mulch to decrease splashing of rainfall and irrigation water from soil onto the lower stems and foliage of the plants. Bedding plants should be mulched to a depth of about 1 inch. Pine straw is the preferred mulch material. •Manage irrigation properly. This is the main culprit in plant decline in commercial landscape beds. Vinca need very little irrigation once they’re established. Avoid regular overhead irrigation. Even if the landscape bed drains very well, an adequate volume once a week is the most water that should be applied. •Don’t plant periwinkles in the same bed year after year. Rotate them with other summer bedding plants that like sunny locations, such as blue daze, lantana, pentas, angelonia, scaevola, verbena, melampodium or sun-tolerant coleus. Varieties of vinca available in Louisiana include Pacifica, Cooler, Mediterranean, Victory, Titan, Nirvana and Cora series. Cooler and Pacifica are older varieties that still perform well with correct care. Mediterranean vincas spread and should be planted only in hanging baskets and containers. Titans have the largest flowers of all the vinca groups. The newer and more expensive Nirvana and Cora vincas have genetic resistance to Phytophthora. A few other vincas we have evaluated at the LSU AgCenter recently are not being sold in any significant quantities in Louisiana. It is late in the bedding-plant season, but pay attention to vinca in landscapes. Are you noticing them looking good or looking bad? Try to figure out why a particular planting is performing well or not performing well. Vinca can have trouble through the summer and fall if proper practices are not followed, so consider the above options to improve your success. For more information, contact Dr. Chris Robichaux, county agent/area horticulturist, St. Martin/Iberia Parishes, at 332-2181 or 369-4440.

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Fans of Lake St. Clair's 420 square miles of water connecting Lake Erie and Lake Huron want to make it the sixth Great Lake. They should forget it. At 26 miles long and 14 miles wide at its widest, this lake is important as a link and an established part of the Great Lakes waterway system. But a Great Lake? The notion makes no more sense than an effort four years ago to designate Lake Champlain, which lies between Vermont and New York, a Great Lake. Leading the campaign to promote Lake St. Clair, a puddle in comparison with Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, are two members of the Macomb Water Quality Board. Their aims are as economic as ecological, as connected to sport fishing as to shipping, and to clean water as to biodiversity. What's behind their petition to the Great Lakes Commission is money. Lake St. Clair's characterization as a “Great,” though it flies in the face of common sense, would entitle it to federal dollars allocated to the real Great Lakes for pollution and weed control, to save wetlands, correct contamination from runoff, and help get rid of noxious marine life such as the gobey and the zebra mussel brought in by foreign vessels. But Lake St. Clair, because it connects Lake Erie and Lake Huron, may be entitled to some of this money anyway. If the lake is contaminated, if it harbors alien noxious species, they will be quick to spread to the Great Lakes. It is a key part of the system. Is this money possible? Of course it is. The Great Lakes Commission last year set aside a half million dollars in federal funds to correct chronic pollution in Lake St. Clair. It could use some of its allocations under the Great Lakes Legacy Act to keep conditions in Lake St. Clair comparable to those in the Great Lakes. And if there is a reason to fix Lake St. Clair, surely it is easier for Congress to fix it than to see this relatively small body of water declared a Great Lake. Michael J. Donahue, who heads the Great Lakes Commission, acknowledges that the commission staff has been calling St. Clair the sixth Great Lake for a while, if only to illustrate the importance of the whole water system. But even he concedes that the name is not the issue, that what Lake St. Clair needs is some kind attention and some recognition because it “might be a lot more important, economically and ecologically, than the five Great Lakes.” Maybe so, but there are not six Great Lakes, only five.

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Christian parents should gather their families together each day for spiritual instruction and prayer. This opportuity must be seized when the children are young. Even a child of two will bow his head, and say "Amen" at the end of a prayer. This Catechism has been made available to help you teach your children the Word of God. Family worship might well include: 1. Two or three verses of a hymn 2. The reading of a few verses of Scripture 3. Catechism questions and answers 4. Prayer need not be tedious or long-winded Encourage the children to pray. Use your imagination to make family worhsip attractive and interesting. The children will sometimes be ready to discuss the Catechism answers with you. They will enjoy looking up passages of scripture where the Catechism truths are found. Pray for the guidance and help of the Holy Spirit. God will honour you if you are faithful. Remember the promise, "Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it" (Proverbs 22:6). 1. Q. Who made you? A. God made me (Gn 1:26, 27, 2:7; Eccl. 12:1; Acts 17:24-29). 2. Q. What else did God make? A. God made all things (Gn 1, 31; Acts 14:15; Rom. 11:36; Col 1:16). 3. Q. Why did God make you and all things? A. For his own glory (Ps 19:1; Jer 9:23, 24; Rv 4:11, 4:15). 4. Q. How can you glorify God? A. By loving him and doing what he commands (Eccl. 12:13; Mk 12:29-31; John 15:8-10; 1 Cor 10:31). 5. Q. Why ought you to glorify God? A. Because he made me and takes care of me (Rom. 11:36; Rv 4:11; cf. Dan 4:39). 6. Q. Are there more gods than one? A. There is only one God (Deut 6:4; Jer 10:10; Mk 12:29; Acts 17:22-31). 7. Q. In how many persons does this one God exist? A. In three persons (Mt 3:16, 17; John 5:23, 10:30, 14:9, 10, 15:26, 16:13-15; 1 John 5:20; 2 John 9; Rv 1:4, 5). 8. Q. Who are they? A. The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (Mt 28:19; 2 Cor 13:14; 1 Pet 1:2; Jude 20, 21). 9. Q. Who is God? A. God is a Spirit, and does not have a body like men (John 4:24; 2 Cor 3:17; 1 Tim 1:17). 10. Q. Where is God? A. God is everywhere (Ps 139:7-12; Jer 23:23, 24; Acts 17:27, 28). 11. Q. Can you see God? A. No. I cannot see God, but he always sees me (Ex 33:20; John 1:18; 1 Tim 6:16; Ps 139; Prov. 5:21; Heb. 4:12, 13). 12. Q. Does God know all things? A. Yes. Nothing can be hidden from God (1 Chron 28:9; 2 Chron 16:9; Lk 12:6, 7; Rom. 2:16). 13. Q. Can God do all things? A. Yes. God can do all his holy will (Ps 147:5; Jer 32:17; Dan 4:34, 35; Eph 1:11). 14. Q. Where do you learn how to love and obey God? A. In the Bible alone (Job 11:7; Ps 119:104; Is 8:20; Mt 22:29; 2 Tim 3:15-17). 15. Q. Who wrote the Bible? A. Holy men who were taught by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet 1:20, 21; Acts 1:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 1 Pet 1:10, 11). 16. Q. Who were our first parents? A. Adam and Eve (Gn 2:18-25, 3:20, 5:1, 2; Acts 17:26; 1 Tim 2:13). 17. Q. Of what were our first parents made? A. God made the body of Adam out of the ground, and formed Eve from the body of Adam (Gn 2:7, 21-23, 3:19; Ps 103:14). 18. Q. What did God give Adam and Eve besides bodies? A. He gave them the breath of life and they became living souls (Gen. 2:7; Job 33:4; Eccl 12:7; Zech 12:1). 19. Q. Have you a soul as well as a body? A. A soul is not something a person has, it is the person. Man was not given a soul, but rather he became a soul. (Gen. 2:7; Mk 8:34-37, 12:30). 20. Q. Can a soul die? A. Yes. The soul that continues in sin shall die. (Ezek. 18:20; Mt 10:28; Mk 8:34-37). 21. Q. What is your soul? A. My soul includes all of me that should know and love God (Mk 8:34-38; Eph. 3:16-19). 22. Q. In what condition did God make Adam and Eve? A. He made them holy and happy (Gn 1:26-28; Ps 8:4-8). 23. Q. Did Adam and Eve stay holy and happy? A. No. They sinned against God (Gn 3:1-7; Eccl 7:29; Hos 6:7 where "men~~ = Adam). 24. 24. Q. What was the sin of our first parents? A. Eating the forbidden fruit (Gn 2:16, 17, 3:6). 25. Q. Why did they eat the forbidden fruit? A. Because they did not believe what God had said (Gn 3:1-6; cf. Heb. 11:6). 26. Q. Who tempted them to this sin? A. The devil tempted Eve, and she gave the fruit to Adam (Gn 3:1-13; 2 Cor 11:3; 1 Tim 2:13, 14; cf. Rv 12:9). 27. Q. What happened to our first parents when they had sinned? A. Instead of being holy and happy, they became sinful and miserable (Gn 3:14-24, 4:1-24; James 1:14, 15). 28. Q. What effect did the sin of Adam have on all mankind? A. All mankind is born in a state of sin and misery (Ps. 5 1:5; Rom. 5:12, 18, 19; 1 Cor 15:21, 22; 1 John 5:19). 29. Q. What do we inherit from Adam as a result of this original sin? A. A sinful nature (1 Kings 8:46; Ps 14:2, 3, 58:3; Eccl 9:3; Mt 15:18-20; John 2:24, 25; Rom. 8:7). 30. Q. What is sin? A. Sin is any transgression of the law of God (1 John 3:4; Rom. 3:20; James 2:9-11). 31. Q. What is meant by transgression? A. Doing what God forbids (1 Sam 13:8-14, 15:22, 23; Hos 6:7; Rom. 1:21-32). 32. Q. What does every sin deserve? A. The anger and judgment of God (Deut 27:26; Rom. 1:18, 2:2; Gal 3:10; Eph 5:6). 33. Q. Do we know what God requires of us? A. Yes, he has given us his law both in our hearts and in writing (Rom. 2:14-15). 34. Q. How many commandments did God give on Mt. Sinai? A. Ten commandments (Ex 20:1-17; Deut 5:1-22). 35. Q. What are the ten commandments sometimes called? A. God's moral law (Lk 20:25-28; Rom. 2:14, 15, 10:5). 36. Q. What do the first four commandments teach? A. Our duty to God (Deut 6:5, 6, 10:12, 13). 37. Q. What do the last six commandments teach? A. Our duty to our fellow men (Deut 10:19; Mic 6:8; cf. Gal. 6:10). 38. Q. What is the sum of the ten commandments? A. To love God with all my heart, and my neighbor as myself (Deut 6:1-15; 11:1; Mt 22:35-40; James 2:8). 39. Q. Who is your neigHeb.or? A. All my fellow men are my neighbors (Lk 10:25-37, 6:35). 40. Q. Is God pleased with those who love and obey him? A. Yes. He says, 'I love them that love me' (Prov. 8:17; Ex 20:6; 1 John 4:7-16). 41. Q. Is God pleased with those who do not love and obey him? A. No. 'God is angry with the wicked every day' (Ps 7:11; Mal 2:17; Prov. 6:16-19; 1 Cor 16:22). 42. Q. What is the first commandment? A. The first commandment is, You shall have no other gods before Me (Ex 20:3; Deut 5:7). 43. Q. What does the first commandment teach us? A. To worship God only (Is 45:5, 6; Mt 4:10; Rv 22:8, 9). 44. Q. What is the second commandment? A. The second commandment is, You shall not make for yourself [a]an idol, or any likeness of what is in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the water under the earth. You shall not worship them or serve them; for I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children, on the third and the fourth generations of those who hate Me, but showing lovingkindness to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments (Ex 20:4-6; Deut 5:8-10). 45. Q. What does the second commandment teach us? A. To worship God in the right way, and to avoid idolatry (Is 44:9-20, 46:5-9; John 4:23, 24; Acts 17:29). 46. Q. What is the third commandment? A. The third commandment is, Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain (Ex 20:7; Deut 5:11). 47. Q. What does the third commandment teach us? A. To reverence God's name, word, and works (Is 8:13; Ps 29:2, 138:2; Rv 15:3, 4). 48. Q. What is the fourth commandment? A. The fourth commandment is, Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy man-servant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it (Ex 20:8-11, 23:12; Deut 5:12-15). 49. Q. What does the fourth commandment teach us? A. To keep the Sabbath holy (Lv 19:20, 23:3; Is 58:13, 14). 50. Q. What day of the week is the Christian Sabbath? A. The first day of the week, called the Lord's Day (Acts 20:7; Rv 1:10). 51. Q. Why is it called the Lord's Day? A. Because on that day Christ rose from the dead (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:9; Lk 24:1-6; John 20:1). 52. Q. How should the Sabbath be kept? A. In prayer and praise, in hearing and reading God's Word, and in doing good to our fellow men (Is 58:13, 14; Acts 20:7; 1 Cor. 16:2; Lk 4:16; Mt 12:10-13). 53. Q. What is the fifth commandment? A. The fifth commandment is, Honor thy father and thy mother that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee (Ex 20:12; Deut 5:16). 54. Q. What does the fifth commandment teach us? A. To love and obey our parents (Mt 15:3-6; Eph. 6:1-3; Col. 3:20). 55. Q. What is the sixth commandment? A. The sixth commandment is, Thou shalt not kill (Ex 20:13; Deut 5:17) 56. Q. What does the sixth commandment teach us? A. To avoid hatred, all that leads to it, and all that follows from it. (Mt 5:21-24; 1 John 3:15; James 4:1-3). 57. Q. What is the seventh commandment? A. The seventh commandment is, Thou shalt not commit adultery (Ex 20:14; Deut 5:18). 58. Q. What does the seventh commandment teach us? A. To be pure in heart, language and conduct (Mt 5:27, 28; Eph. 5:3-5; Phil. 4:8, 9). 59. Q. What is the eighth commandment? A. The eighth commandment is, Thou shalt not steal (Ex 20:15; Deut 5:19). 60. Q. What does the eighth commandment teach us? A. To be honest and not to take the things of others (Ex 23:4; Prov. 21:6, 7; Eph. 4:28). 61. Q. What is the ninth commandment? A. The ninth commandment is, Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neigHeb.or (Ex 20:16; Deut 5:20). 62. Q. What does the ninth commandment teach us? A. To tell the truth and not to speak evil of others (Ps 15:1-3; Zech 8:16; 1 Cor 13:6; James 4:11). 63. Q. What is the tenth commandment? A. The tenth commandment is, Thou shalt not covet thy neigHeb.or's house, thou shalt not covet thy neigHeb.or's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neigHeb.or's (Ex 20:17; Deut 5:21; Rom. 7:7). 64. Q. What does the tenth commandment teach us? A. To be content with what we have (Phil 4:11; 1 Tim 6:6-8; Heb. 13:5). 65. Q. Can any man keep these ten commandments? A. No mere man, since the fall of Adam, ever did or can keep the ten commandments perfectly (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:19, 20; James 2:10; 1 John 1:8, 10). 66. Q. Of what use are the ten commandments to us? A. They teach us our duty, make clear our condemnation, and show us our need of a Saviour (1 Tim 1:8-11; Rom. 3:20; Gal 3:24). 67. Q. Does God condemn all men? A. No. Though he could justly have done so he has graciously entered into a covenant to save many (Rom. 3:19, 20, 23-25; John 17:11, 12; Is 53:11). 68. Q. What is a covenant? A. A covenant is an agreement between two or more persons (e.g., 1 Sam 18:3; Mt 26:14, 15). 69. Q. What is the covenant of grace? A. It is an eternal agreement within the Trinity to save certain persons called the elect, and to provide all the means for their salvation (Gn 17:1-8; Rom. 11:27; Heb. 10:16, 11; 13:20, 21; Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:25-28). 70. Q. What did Christ undertake in the covenant of grace? A. Christ undertook to keep the whole law for his people, and to suffer the punishment due to their sins (Rom 8:3, 4; Gal 4:4, 5; Heb. 6:17-20, 7:22, 9:14, 15, 13:20, 21). 71. Q. Did our Lord Jesus Christ ever sin? A. No. He was holy, blameless and undefiled (Heb. 7:26; Lk 23:47; Heb. 4:15; 1 Pet 2:22; 1 John 3:5). 72. Q. How could the Son of God suffer? A. Christ, the Son of God, took flesh and blood, that he might obey and suffer as a man (John 1:14; Rom. 8:3; Gal 4:4; Phil 2:7, 8; Heb. 2:14, 17, 4:15). 73. Q. What is meant by the atonement? A. The atonement consists of Christ's satisfying divine justice, by his sufferings and death, in the place of sinners (Mk 10:45; Acts 13:38, 39; Rom. 3:24-26, 5:8, 9; 2 Cor 5:19-21; Gal 3:13; 1 Pet 3:18). 74. Q. For whom did Christ obey and suffer? A. Christ obeyed and suffered for those whom the Father had given him (Is 53:8; Mt 1:21; John 10:11, 15, 16, 26-29, 17:9; Heb. 2:13). 75. Q. What kind of life did Christ live on earth? A. Christ lived a life of perfect obedience to the law of God (Mt 5:17; Rom. 10:4; 1 Pet 2:21, 22). 76. Q. What kind of death did Christ die? A. Christ experienced the painful and shameful death of the cross (Ps 22; Is 53; Gospel records). 77. Q. Who will be saved? A. Only those who repent of sin and believe in Christ will be saved (Mk 1:15; Lk 13:3,5; Acts 2:37-41, 16:30, 31, 20:21, 26:20). 78. Q. What is it to repent? A. Repentance involves sorrow for sin, leading one to hate and forsake it because it is displeasing to God (Lk 19:8-10; Rom. 6:1, 2; 2 Cor 7:9-11; 1 Thess. 1:9, 10). 79. Q. What is it to believe in Christ? A. A person believes who knows that his only hope is Christ and trusts in Christ alone for salvation (John 14:6; Acts 4:12; 1 Tim 2:5; 1 John 5:11, 12). 80. Q. How were godly persons saved before the coming of Christ? A. They believed in the Saviour to come (John 8:56; Gal 3:8, 9; 1 Cor 10:1-4; Heb. 9:15, 11:13). 81. Q. How did they show their faith? A. They offered sacrifices according to God's commands (Ex 24:3-8; 1 Chron 29:20-25; Heb. 9:19-23, 10:1, 11:28). 82. Q. What did these sacrifices represent? A. They were symbolic of Christ, the Lamb of God, who was to die for sinners (Ex 12:46 cf. John 19:36; Heb. 9, Heb. 10; John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7; 1 Pet 1:19). 83. Q. What does Christ do for his people? A. He does the work of a prophet, a priest and a king (Heb. 1:1-3; Rv 1:5; Mt 13:57; Heb. 5:5-10; John 18:37). 84. Q. How is Christ a prophet? A. He teaches us the will of God, reveals God to us, and really was God in human flesh. (Deut 18:15, 18; John 1:18, 4:25, 14:23, 24; 1 John 5:20). 85. Q. Why do you need Christ as a prophet? A. Because I am ignorant (Job 11:7; Mt 11:25-27; John 6:67-69, 17:25, 26; 1 Cor 2:14-16; 2 Cor 4:3-6). 86. Q. How is Christ a priest? A. He died for our sins and prays to God for us (Ps 110:4; 1 Tim 2:5, 6; Heb. 4:14-16, 7:24, 25; 1 John 2:1, 2). 87. Q. Why do you need Christ as a priest? A. Because I am guilty (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:19-23; Heb. 10:14, 27, 28; 1 John 1:8, 9). 88. Q. How is Christ a king? A. He rules over us and defends us (Ps 2:6-9; Mt 28:18-20; Eph 1:19-23; Col 1:13, 18; Rv 15:3, 4). 89. Q. Why do you need Christ as a king? A. Because I am weak and helpless (John 15:4, 5; 2 Cor 12:9; Phil 4:13; Col 1:11; Jude 24, 25). 90. Q. What did God the Father undertake in the covenant of grace? A. By His goodness and mercy, God the Father elected, and deteRom.ined to justify, adopt and sanctify those for whom Christ should die (Ex 33:18, 19; Eph 1:3-5; Rom. 8:29-33; Gal 4:4-7; Heb. 10:9, 10; 1 Cor 1:8, 9; Phil 1:6; 1 Thess. 4:3, 7, 5:23, 24). 91. Q. What is election? A. It is God's goodness as revealed in his grace by choosing certain sinners for salvation (Eph 1:3, 4; 1 Thess. 1:4; 1 Pet 1:1, 2). 92. Q. What is justification? A. It is God's regarding sinners as if they had never sinned and granting them righteousness (Zech 3:1-5; Rom. 3:24-26, 4:5, 5:17-19, 8:33; 2 Cor 5:21; Heb. 8:12; Phil. 3:9). 93. Q. What is righteousness? A. It is God's goodness as revealed in his law, and as honored in Christ's perfect obedience to that law. (Ex 33:19, 34:6; Ps 33:5; Hos 3:5; Rom. 11:22). 94. Q. Can anyone be saved by his own righteousness? A. No. No one is good enough for God (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:10-23; Eph. 2:8-10; Phil. 3:8, 9). 95. Q. What is adoption? A. It is God's goodness in receiving sinful rebels as his beloved children (John 1:12; Eph. 1:5; Eph. 5:1; Gal 4:7, 31; 1 John 3:1-3). 96. Q. What is sanctification? A. In sanctification God makes sinners holy in heart and conduct so that they will demonstrate his goodness in their lives (John 17:17; Eph. 2:10, 4:22-24; Phil. 2:12-13; 1 Thess. 5:23). 97. Q. Is this process of sanctification ever complete in this life? A. No. It is certain and continual, but is complete only in heaven (Phil. 3:12-15; 2 Pet 1:4-8; 1 John 3:1-3). 98. Q. What hinders the completion of sanctification in this life? A. The Scripture says "The flesh lusts against the Spirit so that you cannot do the things you would" (Gal. 5:17). 99. Q. Since we are by nature sinful, how can one ever desire to be holy and to gain heaven where God lives? A. Our hearts must be changed before we can be fit for heaven (Eph. 4:17-24; Col 3:5-12). 100. Q. Who can change a sinner s heart? A. Only the Holy Spirit can change a sinner's heart. (John 3:3; Rom. 8:6-11; 1 Cor 2:9-14; 2 Thess. 2:13, 14; Titus 3:5-6). 101. Q. What did the Holy Spirit undertake in the covenant of A. He regenerates, baptizes, and seals those for whom Christ has died (Eph. 2:1-8; 1 Cor 12:13; Eph. 1:13, 14; Eph. 4:30; 2 Cor 1:22). 102. Q. What is regeneration? A. It is a change of heart that leads to true repentance and faith (Gal 5:22; Eph. 2:5-8; 2 Thess. 2:13). 103. Q. Can you repent and believe in Christ by your own power? A. No. I can do nothing good without God's Holy Spirit (John 3:5, 6, 6:44; Rom. 8:2, 5, 8-11; 1 Cor 2:9-14; Gal 5:17, 18; Eph. 2:4-6). 104. Q. How does the Holy Spirit baptize believers? A. He puts them into the body of Christ by making them a living part of all those who truly believe in Him (1 Cor 12). 105. Q. How does the Holy Spirit seal believers? A. He comes to live within them to guarantee that they will receive the wonders God has promised those who love Him (Rom. 8:9-11; Eph. 1:13, 14; Eph. 4:30; 2 Tim 1:9; 2 Cor 1:22). 106. Q. How can you receive the Holy Spirit? A. God has told us that we must pray to him for the Holy Spirit (Lk 11:9-13; John 4:10, 16:24); but the evidence of His presence is seen most clearly in our trusting and loving the Lord Jesus Christ. (Lk 12:8-10; John 3:3-5, 16, 20, 21, 14:17-21; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Pet 1:2; 1 John 5:6-12). Part 117 107. Q. What is prayer? A. Prayer is talking with God (Gn 17:22, 18:33; Neh 1:4-11, 2:4; Mt 6:6; Rom. 8:26, 27). 108. Q. In whose name should we pray? A. We should pray in the name of the Lord Jesus (John 14:13, 14, 16:23, 24; Heb. 4:14-16). 109. Q. What has Christ given to teach us how to pray? A. The Lord's Prayer (Mt 6:5-15; Lk 11:1-13). 110. Q. Can you repeat the Lord's Prayer? A. "Our Father who is in heaven, Hallowed be Your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, On earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not lead us into temptation, but deliver us from evil." 111. Q. How many petitions are there in the Lord's Prayer? 112. Q. What is the first petition? A. "Hallowed be thy name" (Mt 6:9; Lk 11:2). 113. Q. What do we pray for in the first petition? A. That God's name may be honored by us and all men (Ps 8:1, 72:17-19, 113:1-3, 145:21; Is 8:13). 114. Q. What is the second petition? A. "Thy kingdom come" (Mt 6:10; Lk 11:2). 115. Q. What do we pray for in the second petition? A. That the gospel may be preached in all the world, and believed and obeyed by us and all men (Mt 28:19, 20; John 17:20, 21; Acts 8:12, 28:30, 31; 2 Thess. 3:1). 116. Q. What is the third petition? A. "Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven" (Mt 6:10; Lk 11:2). 117. Q. What do we pray for in the third petition? A. That men on earth may serve God as the angels do in Heaven (Ps 67, 103:19-22; John 9:31; Rv 4:11). 118. Q. What is the fourth petition? A. "Give us this day our daily bread" (Mt 6:11; Lk 11:3). 119. Q. What do we pray for in the fourth petition? A. That God will give us all things needful for our bodies (Ps 145:15, 16; Prov. 30:8, 9; 1 Tim 4:4, 5). 120. Q. What is the fifth petition? A. 'And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us" (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4). 121. Q. What do we pray for in the fifth petition? A. That God will pardon our sins, and help those who have sinned against us (Ps 51: Mt 5:23, 1 John 4:20, 21). us to forgive 24; 18:21-35; 122. Q. What is the sixth petition? A. 'And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil" (Mt 6:13; Lk 11:4). 123. Q. What do we pray for in the sixth petition? A. That God will keep us from sin (1 Chron 4:10; Ps 119:11; Mt 26:41). 124. Q. How does the Holy Spirit bring us to salvation? A. He uses the Bible, which is the Word of God (1 Thess. 1:5, 6, 2:13; 2 Tim 3:15, 16; James 1:18; 1 Pet 1:22, 23). 125. Q. How can we know the Word of God? A. We are commanded to hear, read and search the Scriptures (1 Pet 2:2; Rv 3:22; Mt 21:42, 22:29; 2 Tim 3:14-17). 126. Q. What is a church? A. A church is an assembly of baptized believers joined by a covenant of discipline and witness who meet together regularly to minister to one another that they might grow "in the grace and knowledge of the Lord" (Mt 18:20; Acts 2:42). 127. Q. What two ordinances did Christ give to his Church? A. Baptism and the Lord's Supper (Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:24-26). 128 Q. Why Did Christ give these ordinances? A. To show that his disciples belong to him, and to remind them of what he has done for them (Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:24-26) 129. Q. What is Baptism? A. The dipping of believers into water, as a sign of their union with Christ in his death, burial, and resurrection (John 3:23; Acts 2:41, 8:12, 35-38; Col 2:12). 130. Q. What is the purpose of baptism? A. Baptism testifies to believers that God has cleansed them from their sins through Jesus Christ (Acts 22:16; Col 2:11-14). 131. Q. Who are to be baptized? A. Only those who repent of their sins, and believe in Christ for salvation should be baptized (Acts 2:37-41, 8:12, 18:8, 19:4, 5). 132. Q. Should babies be baptized? A. No; because the Bible neither commands it, nor gives any example of it. 133. Q. What is the Lord's Supper? A. At the Lord's Supper, the church eats bread and drinks wine to remember the sufferings and death of Christ (Mk 14:22-24; 1 Cor 11:23-29). 134. Q. What does the bread represent? A. The bread represents the body of Christ, broken for our sins (Mt 26:26; 1 Cor 11:24). 135. Q. What does the wine represent? A. The wine represents the blood of Christ, shed for our salvation (Mt 26:27, 28; 1 Cor 11:25). 136. Q. Who should partake of the Lord's Supper? A. The Lord's Supper is for those only who repent of their sins, believe in Christ for salvation, receive baptism, and love their fellow men (Mt 5:21-24; 1 Cor 10:16, 17, 11:18, 20, 27-33; 1 John 3:24-27, 4:9-11). 137. Q. Did Christ remain in the tomb after his crucifixion? A. No. He rose from the tomb on the third day after his death (Lk 24:45-47; 1 Cor 15:3, 4). 138. Q. Where is Christ now? A. Christ is in heaven, seated at the right hand of God the Father (Rom. 8:34; Col 3:1; Heb. 1:3, 10:12, 12:2). 139. Q. Will the bodies of the dead be raised to life again? A. Yes. 'There shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the faithful and unfaithful' (Acts 24:14, 15; John 5:28, 29; 1 Corinthians 15:54-57; Dan 12:2). 140. Q. What will happen to the wicked in the day of judgment? A. They shall perish and be destroyed in the Lake of Fire which is the second death (Psalm 1:6 Psalm 145:20; John 3:16; Ps 9:16, 17; Lk 12:5; Rom. 2:8, 9, 12; 2 Thess. 1: 9; Rv 20:12-15). 141. Q. What will happen to the righteous in the day of judgement? A. They shall receive eternal life and live with God forever (John 3:16; John 12:25; Rom. 2:8, 9, 12; 1 Thess. 4:17; Rv 21:3-4). 142. Q. In light of these truths, what should you do? A. I should cry out to God for mercy, repent of sin and believe savingly in the Lord Jesus Christ (Lk 13:23, 24; John 6:27; Acts 16:31).

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Some individuals with disabilities require assistive technology (AT) in order to access computers. Hundreds of Windows AT third-party products are available, making it possible for almost anyone to use Windows® applications, regardless of their disabilities. The Microsoft® Windows® operating systems also provides a core set of basic accessibility features and AT applications, which can be deployed on all computers in a computer lab or classroom without additional cost. These applications provide students with basic accessibility features from any workstation, maximizing the inclusiveness of the learning environment. It should be noted that the AT applications that are bundled with Windows provide only a minimum level of accessibility, not the full set of features that many users require for equal access to the operating system, educational programs, and other software applications. Therefore, many educational entities deploy the standard set of Windows AT on all workstations by default, but additionally 1) provide a small number of dedicated workstations that are equipped with commonly requested third party AT, and 2) are prepared to purchase and install additional AT as needed by specific students. It should also be noted that the availability of AT does not itself guarantee accessibility. Software applications must be designed in a way that is compatible with AT and other accessibility features of the operating system. For information about purchasing software products that are accessible, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How can I tell whether a software application is accessible? The following is a list of basic accessibility features that are included with Windows XP. Previous versions of Windows also included several of these same features. Display and Readability: These features are designed to increase the visibility of items on the screen. - Font style, color, and size of items on the desktop—using the Display options, choose font color, size and style combinations. - Icon size—make icons larger for visibility, or smaller for increased screen space. - Screen resolution—change pixel count to enlarge objects on screen. - High contrast schemes—select color combinations that are easier to see. - Cursor width and blink rate—make the cursor easier to locate, or eliminate the distraction of its blinking. - Microsoft Magnifier—enlarge portion of screen for better visibility. Sounds and Speech: These features are designed to make computer sounds easier to hear or distinguish - or, visual alternatives to sound. Speech-to-text options are also available. - Sound Volume—turn computer sound up or down. - Sound Schemes—associate computer sounds with particular system events. - ShowSounds—display captions for speech and sounds. - SoundSentry—display visual warnings for system sounds. - Notification—Get sound or visual cues when accessibility features are turned on or off. - Text-to-Speech—Hear window command options and text read aloud. Keyboard and Mouse: These features are designed to make the keyboard and mouse faster and easier to use. - Double-Click Speed—choose how fast to click the mouse button to make a selection. - ClickLock—highlight or drag without holding down the mouse button. - Pointer Speed—set how fast the mouse pointer moves on screen. - SnapTo—move the pointer to the default button in a dialog box. - Cursor Blink Rate—choose how fast the cursor blinks—or, if it blinks at all. - Pointer Trails—follow the pointer motion on screen. - Hide Pointer While Typing—keep pointer from hiding text while typing. - Show Location of Pointer—quickly reveal the pointer on screen. - Reverse the function of the right and left mouse buttons—reverse actions controlled by the right and left mouse buttons. - Pointer schemes—choose size and color options for better visibility. - Character Repeat Rate—set how quickly a character repeats when a key is struck. - Dvorak Keyboard Layout—choose alternative keyboard layouts for people who type with one hand or finger. - StickyKeys—allow pressing one key at a time (rather than simultaneously) for key combinations. - FilterKeys—ignore brief or repeated keystrokes and slow down the repeat rate. - ToggleKeys—hear tones when pressing certain keys. - MouseKeys—move the mouse pointer using the numerical keypad. - Extra Keyboard Help—get ToolTips or other keyboard help in programs that provide it. The Accessibility Wizard is designed to help new users quickly and easily set up groups of accessibility options that address visual, hearing and dexterity needs all in one place. The Accessibility Wizard asks questions about accessibility needs. Then, based on the answers, it configures utilities and settings for individual users. The Accessibility Wizard can be run again at any time to make changes, or changes can be made to individual settings through Control Panel. Windows Accessibility Utilities: - Magnifier—a display utility that makes the computer screen more readable by creating a separate window that displays a magnified portion of the screen. - Narrator—a text-to-speech utility that reads what is displayed on the screen—the contents of the active window, menu options, or text that has been typed. - On-Screen Keyboard—displays a virtual keyboard on the computer screen that allows people to type data by using a pointing device or joystick. - Utility Manager—enables administrator-level users to check an accessibility program's status and start or stop an accessibility programs—automatically, if required. - Speech Recognition—Vista and newer versions of the OS have built-in speech recognition For more information about how to access these features and utilities in Windows products visit Microsoft's website Windows Accessibility Resources . For a comparison of accessibility features across operating systems, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How does accessibility differ across operating systems? - How can I tell whether a software application is accessible? - Windows Accessibility Resources - How does accessibility differ across operating systems?

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

Latiné loqui disce sine molestiá! Learn to speak Latin with ease! ¡Aprende a hablar latín sin esfuerzo! Apprenez à parler latin sans peine! Impara a parlare latino senza sforzo! Lernen Sie latein zu sprechen ohne Mühe! you will need to have the following font installed on your system: Maybe this font can be downloaded for free from the Internet. The alphabet used by the Romans of the classical period consisted of the following letters: A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z It is basically the same alphabet as is still used today by a majority of languages in the world. The ancient Romans already observed a functional difference between the standard I and a more elongated alternative, which would later became J, but didnt conceive of a meaningful distinction between V and U, as was later established, nor did they use other variants like Ç, Ñ or W. The Romans of the classical period had several styles to write the above letters, greatly depending on the materials used to write. As is true for most scripts, nevertheless, these styles can be grouped into two distinct ones. There is a formal one, that we now call capitális, that was used on monuments, legal documents, public announcements, books for sale, jewelery, and in general whenever the text was meant to endure and might even have some sort of ornamental value. We can see it below used on stone, bronze, plastered walls, papyrus or, later on, parchment, and on many other surfaces and objects. There was a second style, the informal one, that we now call cursíva, that was used for everyday transactions with no ornamental value. This is less well known to most people, because of the precarious nature of the materials on which it was used and the lesser artistic value of the objects where we find it; but it was in fact the main style most Romans would have used in their practical lives. We can see it below on waxen or wooden tablets, wall graffiti or bone, and was used on many similar surfaces. In time there developed a third style, the unciális, which is just a smaller version of the capitális with some strong influence of the cursíva. The shapes of the letters of the capitális style are practically identical with our present capitals, whereas the cursíva may have influenced the evolution of the former into the unciális, a smaller version which is in turn the predecessor of our lower case characters; but it is important to understand that, in Roman times, the difference between the capitális and the cursíva, or even the later unciális, was not at all comparable to the difference we now make between capitals and lower case when we use capitals at the beginning of some words, or for titles, in texts otherwise written in lower case. They were just different styles to write the same single case of letters, and were equivalent rather to the duality that exists between our printing and our handwritten letters. They would of course not have been mixed in any one piece of writing, as we would not type some letters and write others by hand within the same text, let alone the same word. Just like the Arabs or the Japanese, therefore, in spite of a variety of writing styles, the Romans didnt either have an equivalent to our meaningful alternation between capitals and lower case within the same piece of writing in any of them, nor did they write any differently the first letter of a sentence or proper name and the rest. The Romans, in order to save space, given the high cost of most of the materials they wrote on, used the so called ligátúræ, i.e. groupings of letters written as a cluster by sharing a common stroke. There were many of them: AE could be found as Æ, and similarly AN, TR, VM and many others could appear fused together in groups of two, three and even more letters. The Romans had only two diacritics, and they didnt use any of the two with any regularity. The Romans would often write without even separating the words with spaces, as we have seen above in several instances. Moreover, they certainly never distinguished sentences or phrases using commas, semicolons, colons or stops, neither did they know of question or exclamation marks, brackets, inverted commas or any other diacritic we are used to. In fact, the only sign they used, and only in the more elegant writings, like monumental ones, was a dot they used not as final stop, but to separate single words. We have also seen this on the inscriptions above. This dot could sometimes take more sophisticated shapes, as a little ivy leaf, for instance, as below. The Romans of the most sophisticated period of classical culture used, as much in monumental writing as in more domestic texts, a sign called apex, identical to what we nowadays know as acute accent ( ´ ). This sign, nevertheless, was not used to indicate the accent or stress in the word as in a minute number of modern vernaculars, but to mark long vowels (see the file on pronunciation), as is still done today in languages like Icelandic, Hungarian, Czech and many others. Latin spelling nowadays It is obvious that the writing practices of the Romans of the classical period were rather primitive in comparison with present ones. Some people believe for that reason that our spelling habits are vernacular, and therefore somehow spurious and artificially imposed on Latin subsequently. They forget that most of our spelling customs are the natural development of Roman practices and were organically furthered throughout history by people who spoke and wrote in Latin, in order to achieve greater clarity and distinction when reading and writing Latin itself, not the vernacular languages; and these usages passed on from Latin to the vernaculars, and not the other way around. The ancient difference in shape between a shorter and a more elongated I (i/j), the latter of which, already in antiquity, was frequently used in the cursiva in word-initial position, often corresponding to the consonantal sound, as can be seen in the illustrations above, was formalised in later periods for this useful function specifically, thus allowing for complete transparency as regards the difference in pronunciation between the first sound in janua and in iambus, or in meaning between forms like perjerat and perierat. The previously meaningless difference between the pointed V of the capitalis and the rounded u of some forms of cursiva or of the uncialis was equally put to the service of a more transparent spelling. It was thus finally possible duly to distinguish vowels from consonants. Other variants that could be allocated no distinctive phonetic value, like a taller or shorter T or a more or less stretched S, were either kept for merely aesthetic purposes or eventually dropped as functionally improductive. Some ligatures like æ or were likewise preserved to help distinguish the corresponding diphthongs from the hiatuses ae and oe, whereas many others were abandoned. The separation of words by means of spaces was found to be such a useful device that few contemporaries would be able to read without it; and the rich variety of signs of punctuation introduced also in later stages of the history of Latin helped reading with the necessary pauses, and allowed us to distinguish the component parts of sentences, or to determine beyond doubt whether we are confronted with a statement, an exclamation or a question. Finally, the distinction between capitals and lower case brought in not only a certain elegance, but also some further clarity to grammar (highlighting proper names) and to discourse structure (marking the beginnings of sentences). There has most unfortunately arisen, nevertheless, and for all the wrong reasons, a fashion of spelling fundamentalism that, abandoning a more than reasonable tradition of centuries of Latin writing, purports to go back to the writing usages of the ancient Romans. This is as absurd as wanting to give up the use of paper or the modern book, and claiming that something is not classical Latin unless its written on papyrus rolls. It should be obvious to anyone that we can be completely respectful of ancient culture and cultivate the purest form of classical Latinity while using more developed methods of writing than our ancestors had at their disposal and which are moreover the result of centuries of Latin tradition. Of course, since fundamentalists rarely guide themselves by reason, the return to the old usages doesnt follow any further criteria than their own arbitrary whim, and they sometimes are purists and sometimes not, as they please. Thus, some have set about eliminating the distinction between i and j as non-Roman, but they are only too happy against all logic to keep that between v and u. Others consider that the use of capitals should be eliminated, and they do use lower case letters at the beginning of sentences, but they then arbitrarily keep capitals for proper names or even adjectives. Of course, none of those purists has dared to admit the fact that a return to ancient usage would imply writing everything rather in capitals than in lower case, and that they would in fact have to stop using any punctuation at all. The saddest aspect of the modern spelling mess is that it has nothing to do with Latin. It originates in attempts at spelling reforms that seemed to make perfect sense in a vernacular like Italian, but which some people felt the need to force also upon Latin, with deplorable consequences. While most European languages, including Latin, felt very comfortable with the century-old usage of i and j, and v and u, as all those letters represented clearly different sounds or appeared in clearly different syllabic contexts, in Italian the use of i and j had become so complicated by conflicting and arbitrary uses without too much relation with any phonetic reality that people struggled to determine when a word had to be written with i and when with j. Italian being a language with otherwise very straightforward spelling principles, a pressure arose therefore to drop the use of j. Now, this absolutely sensible measure for Italian was unnecessarily applied also to Latin by people who were persuaded that Latin must be spelt as modern Italian. Obviously, they could never have convinced the international Latin using community on such grounds, so they started to contrive specious justifications: that the sound of the vowel and the semivowel were similar enough (even though it is exactly the same difference that i and j have in German and many other languages that have never considered dropping the spelling distinction), that it brought Latin spelling closer to ancient practices (although, as we have explained, the distinction between i and j has in fact a much more ancient history than that of u and v), etc. Of course, they never mentioned that every single one of those reasons applies with exactly equal force to the Latin pair i/j (where [i] differs from [j]) and to the pair u/v (where [u] differs from either [w] or [v], however we care to pronounce it), which the Italians had no intention to simplify because in Italian it made sense to continue to use both letters in the latter case. As the international community began to drop the use of j in a quest for ancient purity, it became more and more obvious to everyone who hadnt given up the human capacity to reason, that it made absolutely no sense in Latin to drop the j without dropping also the v; so, having genuinely assimilated the specious excuses of the Italians to bring Latin spelling closer to Roman times, the best philologists around the world felt it absolutely necessary to do without v too, and many critical editions of classical texts are now published that way. We have thus a traditional i/j/u/v system, which was foolishly undermined and turned into just i/u/v in accordance with some vernacular spelling reforms, but in a move that has now inevitably but most unfortunately backfired (certainly against the expectations of those who promoted the use of i/u/v) into an ugly i/u system as the only reasonably acceptable outcome. Not only that, following the same perverse train of thought, many now feel the need also to drop the use of capitals in Latin texts. Where this absurd nonsense will take Latin spelling is difficult to foresee, but we cannot but lament that the narrow-minded whim of a nation with the most arrogant attitude towards the language of our common civilisation has managed to bring absolute chaos to an elegant, sensible, and century-long Latin spelling tradition. We consider that our spelling usages were developed through millennia according to criteria of utility and clarity, which it is as absurd as it is unnecessary to renounce. Even if some certainly rude spirits could consider giving up aesthetic developments like the distinction between capitals and lower case, it seems absolutely preposterous to eliminate usages that reflect better the pronunciation of the language and help reading. Indeed, we should avoid as non-transparent spelling those practices which, with the specious excuse of being truer to ancient practices or following vernacular considerations, disregard centuries of legitimate Latin spelling tradition and prefer to hinder learning of the Latin language by failing to represent transparently its different sounds. Using one and the same letter i to represent both the vowel [i] and the consonant [j] may be true to the most ancient practices, but it is as unfortunately as unnecessarily non-transparent because it doesn't allow to distinguish which is which in words like "iam" (where the i represents a semivowel, pronounced as English y in yes) and "iambus" (where the i represents a vowel, pronounced as English i in it), etc. Non-transparent spelling makes that more and more people nowadays fail to learn the language properly as they are preposterously kept in the dark about the sounds the words they read and write actually contain (we've heard many a professor, let alone students, pronounce "iam" rhyming with Ian and "iambus" starting as yummy). Using i for the vowel and j for the semivowel is conversely a much more transparent spelling, which is justified by centuries of Latin spelling tradition and which allows us to see immediately which is which by writing "jam" but "iambus", etc. Equally using the same ae combination both for the diphthong in "aereus" (where the ae represent a diphthong, pronounced in one syllable, rather like English eye) and the hiatus in "aerius" (where the ae represent an hiatus, pronounced in two syllables, rather like English a in father followed by the e in error), etc. is sadly non-transparent (and leads to error just as many). Using æ for the diphthong and ae of the hiatus, or at least ae for the diphthong but aë for the hiatus, is a much more transparent spelling and it allows us to see immediately which is which by writing "æreus" but "aerius" (or "aereus" but "aërius"), etc. As inconsistent spelling we must avoid spelling practices that choose to be transparent in some cases but not in others with no legitimate phonetic or historical reason to do so in one case and not in the other whatsoever, as when some people choose to distinguish the vowel [u] from the semivowel [w] by writing the former as u and the latter as v, which is a nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as u, which would be non-transparent, and they don't care in this case not to be true to ancient practices; but then, with no phonetic or historical reason to do so, they choose not to to distinguish the vowel [i] from the semivowel [j] by writing the former as i and the latter as j, which would be nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as i, which is non-transparent. Equally choosing to distinguish the diphthong æ from the hiatus ae in a usefully transparent way, rather than writing both as ae, but at the same time not distinguishing the diphthong from the hiatus oe and writing both non-transparently as oe, would be also inconsistent. Finally, indicating the length of the vowels in writing was something that the ancient Romans didn't need to do because they just knew which was which, either because they were native speakers or because they could learn to pronounce the words by listening to native speakers. The use of the apex in ancient inscriptions or manuscripts is therefore quite haphazard. For us, on the other hand, using a more thorough form of spelling, consistently marking all long vowels, is much more poignantly required if we aspire ever to learn to pronounce the words correctly. There was one case, nevertheless, when even ancient native speakers advocated that the use of the apex is actually necessary (cf. Quint. Inst. 1,7,2s), and that is when when a difference of length in a vowel can produce a different meaning in a word, as in "malus" and "málus" or "liber" and "líber" or "rosa" and "rosá" or "loqueris" and "loquéris". We must certainly never omit such necessary apices. It is absolutely unnecesary to give up our spelling lore, on any grounds; and we advocate the full reinstatement of our century-long, sensible spelling tradition, in the interests of transparency, consistency, and thoroughness.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

This is another image I found on Google+ All lines are absolutely straight, parallel and perpendicular but why does it appear to have a curvature? Related: How does this illusion work? Like these questions :) Many of these illusions come from Prof. Akiyoshi Kitaoka, a japanese Psychologist and expert for Gestalt Psychology. On his website you'll find some more fascinating illusions and questions to ask here ;) The illusion above is named Cafe Wall illusion and the newest model to explain those illusions is the contrast-polarity model. Short explanation from his webpage: The paper explained it better to me: This explains why you perceive a tilt. If you position the smaller squares now in distinct edges of the big squares, you can achieve 2- and 3-dimenional illusions. Here you see a increasing of the tilt due to more smaller squares: Here you can see that the positioning of the smaller squares is critical to achieve the 3D effect of the orignial bulge effect in your question: Notice that Gestalt Psychology is a non-reductionistic theory approach and investigates mainly the phenomenology and underlying Gestalt Laws of visual perception. How these Gestalt Laws developed on a deeper level is a question of neurobiological evolution similar to, "why have some species of apes color-vision and some not". The ellipses in the explaining picture above show you, that our cognitive visual machine somehow tries to group divided objects (square and line of same contrast/brightness) in one line and we see a tilt. I'm guessing here, but this is probably due to cognitive brain algorithm that saves things and objects we see and perceive mainly by countor and shapes, rather than pixel by pixel like a computer and digital camera do it, which of course don't perceive any tilt or 3D illusion in any of those trick images :) Read the papers for more explanations and examples, not behind a paywall:

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Giant Marble Harvests Energy From Sun And Moon It looks like a giant, glass marble. But this globe is no game. It’s a sun-tracking, solar energy concentrator created by Barcelona-based architects Rawlemon and, according to the designers, is able to collect not just sunlight but moonlight as well. The weatherproof sphere is designed to rotate and follow the sun across the sky. It’s so sensitive to light that at night, it can even harvest moonlight and convert it into electricity. Andre Rawlemon, the architect and designer, says his spherical, sun-tracking glass globe is able to concentrate sunlight and moonlight up to 10,000 times and that the system is 35 percent more efficient than photovoltaic designs that track the sun. One of Rawlemon’s idea is to build these globes into the exterior walls of buildings and use them to generate electricity. Other products to invest in when this technology reaches full commercialization potential: Bounty and Windex. Seriously though, the ability alone to convert moonlight to electricity could be a game changer for the manufacturers of photovoltaic cells where typical solar panels offer a range of 8 to 12 hours of usable daylight for the generation of electricity. Coupled with products that offer greater efficiency and other simple behavioral aspects like turning off computers and monitors (or at least put in stand-by) when they’re not being used could add up to significant savings and longer-term environmental benefits.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

Yesterday I responded to novelist Laurie Halse Anderson’s question about whether John Adams actually wrote about 1777 as “the year of the hangman.” I quoted Adams’s words from over a decade later indicating that unspecified, untraceable “Tories” had said that 1777 “had three gallowses in it, meaning the three sevens.” However, Adams didn’t write “the year of the hangman,” and neither did anyone else I can find in the 1770s. The label doesn’t appear the Archive of Americana database of period newspapers and pamphlets. Nor is it in the Adams family letters, the George Washington Papers, and the other digital databases I usually check for period usage. In fact, the earliest use of that phrase for 1777 that I found through Google Books is Lynn Montross’s The Reluctant Rebels: The Story of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, published in 1950. That book includes a chapter titled “Year of the Hangman,” and at one point says, “It was the year of the hangman, and the gallows jokes exchanged in the State House were not so humorous after the imprisonment of [Richard] Stockton...” As far as I can tell, Montross coined that phrase; I haven’t uncovered an earlier usage. He didn’t say the words came from 1777, only that it reflected how the Patriots saw their situation that year. But then the same words appeared in other books, with the growing implication that it was a genuine period phrase: - The 1966 Encyclopedia of the American Revolution, edited by Mark Boatner, included an entry on “Hangman, year of the.” - One part of The River and the Rock: The History of Fortress West Point, 1775-1783, authored by Dave Richard Palmer in 1969, carried that title. - The phrase “year of the gallows” comes from a character’s mouth in Thomas Fleming’s 1976 novel Liberty Tavern. - John S. Pancake’s 1777: The Year of the Hangman (1977) quotes Adams’s original letter to explain its subtitle. - Gary Blackwood’s The Year of the Hangman (2002) is an alternate history marketed to teen-aged readers. - The strategy game shown above, designed by Ed Wimble, is “an operational study of the campaign for Philadelphia.” - Most recently, Glenn F. Williams’s award-winning military history Year of the Hangman: George Washington’s Campaign Against the Iroquois was published in 2005.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

Scientific name: Coenonympha tullia Rests with wings closed. Some have row of ‘eyespots’ on underwings, like Ringlet, but some don’t. The Large Heath is restricted to wet boggy habitats in northern Britain, Ireland, and a few isolated sites in Wales and central England. The adults always sit with their wings closed and can fly even in quite dull weather provided the air temperature is higher than 14B:C. The size of the underwing spots varies across its range; a heavily spotted form (davus) is found in lowland England, a virtually spotless race (scotica) in northern Scotland, and a range of intermediate races elsewhere (referred to aspolydama). The butterfly has declined seriously in England and Wales, but is still widespread in parts of Ireland and Scotland. Size and Family - Family – Browns - Small/Medium Sized - Wing Span Range (male to female) - 41mm - Listed as a Section 41 species of principal importance under the NERC Act in England - Listed as a Section 42 species of principal importance under the NERC Act in Wales - Classified as a Northern Ireland Priority Species by the NIEA - UK BAP status: Priority Species - Butterfly Conservation priority: High - European Status: Vulnerable - Protected in Great Britain for sale only The main foodplant is Hare's-tail Cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) but larvae have been found occasionally on Common Cottongrass (E. angustifolium) and Jointed Rush (Juncus articulatus). Early literature references to White Beak-sedge (Rhyncospora alba), are probably erroneous. - Countries – England, Scotland and Wales - Northern Britain and throughout Ireland - Distribution Trend Since 1970’s = -43% The butterflies breed in open, wet areas where the foodplant grows, this includes habitats such as; lowland raised bogs, upland blanket bogs and damp acidic moorland. Sites are usually below 500m (600m in the far north) and have a base of Sphagnum moss interspersed with the foodplant and abundant Cross-leaved Heath (the main adult nectar source). In Ireland, the butterfly can be found where manual peat extraction has lowered the surface of the bog, creating damp areas with local concentrations of foodplant.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

The concept of disability has changed significantly through history. At one point, disability was seen as the result of sin, either by the person with the disability or his or her parents. Disability was associated with guilt and shame, and people with disabilities were hidden away. Merriam-Websterís definition of disability: limitation in the ability to pursue an occupation because of a physical or mental impairment; lack of legal qualification to do something; or a disqualification, restriction or disadvantage. Most of the time, we apply these definitions to a person who ďhasĒ a disability. What if it is society that has the disability, not the individual? With the advent of modern medicine, a medical understanding of disability developed. In a medical model of disability, the person with a disability is seen as having an illness, which presumably should be cured. The person with a disability, as someone who is sick or diseased, is excused from normal life and responsibilities such as working, family obligations and household maintenance. The approach of the Social Security Administration supports the idea of disability as something that excludes one from a normal life. To fit the administrationís definition of disability, a person must be able to prove that he or she is incapable of gainful employment. The inference is that by having a disability, one remains outside mainstream society. Yet there is another way to view disability. This view considers disability as a normal part of life. After all, most of us will have a disability, whether temporary or permanent, at some time in our life. As many people with disabilities will attest, their disabilities are integral to what makes them who they are. It isnít the disability that needs to be changed. The physical and attitudinal barriers people with disabilities face are what need to change. For example, people who are unable to walk may still be able to move around as much as anyone with the use of wheelchairs and other assistive technology. The inability to use their limbs may be less of a limitation than heavy doors that donít open automatically or stairs that keep them from a building. Similarly, culture and environment can dictate whether something is a disability. In a culture where healers and shamans regularly interact with a spirit world, hearing voices isnít a disability. Only in societies where reading is essential to daily functioning is a learning disability recognized. In our society, a vision impairment that necessitates wearing glasses isnít considered a disability, but a mobility impairment that requires a person to use a walker is. Disability is defined by context. It follows, then, that what makes something a disability is external to the individual. If we presumed that people with disabilities were able to live full and enriching lives, participate fully in their communities and have adult responsibilities, couldnít we make it so by removing the societal barriers that we create? When we view disability as a natural part of life, our entire approach to disabilities has to change. Tara Kiene is the director of case management with Community Connections Inc.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

Treating Hirschsprung's disease requires surgery to remove the affected bowel and then join the healthy bowel segments. There are three different approaches, each with a high rate of success. The choice depends on the overall health of the child and the training and experience of the surgeon Sometimes a single surgical procedure is recommended to remove the aganglionic segment , then bring the healthy bowel down into the rectum , and join it to the rectal wall : this is called a "pull-through . If an infant is too small or a child is critically ill, a temporary colostomy may be necessary prior to the pull-through. In a colostomy, the colon is brought out to the surface of the abdomen so that stool contents can be discharged into a special bag for disposal Subsequent to the colostomy, the pull-through surgery can be planned. The colostomy opening can then closed at the time of the pull-through, or, in some cases, at a third operation after it is clear that the pull-through is working. For most children with Hirschsprung's disease, there are no long-term complications after successful surgery. A significant minority of children, though, are troubled with persistent constipation ), or persistent enterocolitis Personal Note: Being affected with this disease, and not having had the surgery due to incorrect early diagnosis, I am inspired to say that living with this problem without surgery is very difficult. You may experince humiliation due to inability to control bowel movments, severe pain when having bowel movments, and constant illness due to the inability to remove toxins from the body. Please do not allow a child to grow up with this disease.

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

Intellectual knowledge appears to be innate and privy to the few, but in fact, access to information, development of intellectual work skills, time investment, and the maintenance of intellectual appearances are key to being perceived as an intellectual. To make education more equitable, professors must go beyond knowledge transmission and instruct students in the concrete skills of knowledge acquisition and knowledge presentation. Instruction in intellectual skills-acquisition implies the breakdown of the traditional professor-student relationship and of the academic intellectual hierarchy and professors must learn to cope with the consequences of adopting new pedagogies. If we wish to share the secrets of our professions, how do we prepare our students for such a democratic approach and at the same time maintain our professional status? The author, a professor of Spanish language and literature, presents strategies for democratizing education and demystifying intellectual work through the application of skills-based pedagogical methodologies to the teaching of literature. The implications that these strategies have for a new type of learning and the impact that they have on social stratification will also be discussed. |Keywords:||Democratizing Education, Demystifying Intellectual Work, Knowledge Acquisition Skills, Interpretative Skills, Teaching Literature, Skills Based Teaching| Assistant Professor of Spanish, Department of Literature and Languages, Roosevelt University, Chicago, Illinois, USA There are currently no reviews of this product.Write a Review

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HuggingFaceFW/fineweb-edu/sample-100BT

A new study shows that inheritance may be the cause for the rise in diabetes in the U.S. Scientists are studying additional forms of inheritance, besides DNA, like metabolic programming, which can occur in the womb or shortly after birth, and causes permanent changes in metabolism. Researchers in the study looked at mice with diets high in saturated fat and studied the results in the mice and their offspring. They found that a high-fat diet brought on type 2 diabetes in the adult mice. If a pregnant female mouse stayed on a high-fat diet, their offspring had a greater chance of developing diabetes, even when given a moderate-fat diet. Researchers say that these studies have only been tested on mice, so there’s no further reason as of yet to warn mothers to eat differently during pregnancy. Even mated with healthy mice, the next generation offspring could develop diabetes as well. This study was published in the September issue of the Journal of Lipid Research. Source: Journal of Lipid Research

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See also the Browse High School Calculus Stars indicate particularly interesting answers or good places to begin browsing. Selected answers to common questions: Maximizing the volume of a box. Maximizing the volume of a cylinder. Volume of a tank. What is a derivative? - Deriving Simpson's Rule [06/07/1998] Can you show me a derivation of Simpson's Rule? - Deriving the Area of a Sphere [10/21/2003] I know the area of a sphere is 4phi(r^2), but I'm wondering how to derive that formula. I know it should be done in cylindrical coordinates, and I'm thinking that the arc of a circle is defined as rd(theta) and it's multiplied with rd(phi) to get (r^2)d(theta)d(phi). Could you please help explain this? - Deriving the Gamma Function [12/15/2000] How can you prove that sqrt(pi)/2 = (1/2)!, and what is a fractional factorial like that equal to? - Deriving the Integral for the Surface Area of a Sphere [06/28/2001] I need to find the cost per square foot of steel that makes up a tank, so I need a way to derive the surface area of part of a sphere with a given - Deriving the Quotient Rule [9/5/1995] How do I prove this derivation: (f/g)' = fg'-fg'/g^2 ? - Deriving Trig Functions; Taylor Series [05/01/2001] How would I find, from first principles - no tables, no calculator - for example, 32 degrees? If I use a formula, how is it derived? - Descartes' Method for Tangents [09/02/1998] Can you help me find the equation of the tangent of y^2 = 2x using - Design a More Efficient Soda Can [4/23/1995] The problem is to design a more efficient soda can that holds the regular 12 oz. of liquid. The can needs to have the least possible surface area. - Determining Tangent to an Ellipse, Minimizing Area [02/20/1998] Find the equation of the tangent to the ellipse that forms, with the coordinate axes, the triangle of smallest possible area. - Determining the Length of a Coil of Ribbon [08/31/2001] How will calculus give me the same answer I found with algebra and - Determining Whether a Function is Continuous [06/10/2000] How can you tell whether or not a function is continuous? - Differentiability, Intervals, Inflection Points of Piecewise Function [05/13/1998] For what values of k and p will the function be continuous and differentiable? On what interval will it be increasing? Find all points - Differential Equations and Flow Rate [02/14/1999] A solution containing 3 lb/gal of dye flows into a 100 gal tank at 5 - Differential Notation [04/16/2009] Why is the second derivative written as d^2y/dx^2? - Differentials [09/18/1998] What is the difference between finding the derivatives of a function (dy/dx), and finding its differentials (dy,dx)? - Differentiate Twice [11/14/1997] If y = xsin(3x) prove that y''+9y = 6cos(3x), where y'' is its second - Differentiating [01/14/1998] Please help me differentiate (y^2) * cos (1/y) = 2x + 2y. - Differentiating and Integrating the Formula for Area of Circle [05/11/1998] The formula for a circle's circumference is the derivative of the formula for its area. What is the significance of this? - Differentiating a Polynomial [04/25/1999] Differentiate with respect to x: f(x) = x^8 + 3x^5 + (3-5x)^4. - Differentiating the Ceiling Function [10/16/2000] How do I find dD/dp for an equation involving the ceiling function? How do I minimize D as a function of P? - Differentiating the Rate of Decay [3/14/1996] A lump of radioactive subtance is disintegrating at time 't' days after it was first observed to have mass 10 grams and: (dm/dt) = -km (where k is a positive constant). Find the time, in days, for the substance to reduce to 1 gram in mass, given that its half life is 8 days. - Differentiating Under the Integral Sign [01/11/2001] Can you give me an example of the integration method called "differentiating under the integral sign"? - Differentiating y with Respect to ... y? [11/05/2010] A student familiar with differentiation struggles to take the derivative of a function with respect to the self-same variable. Doctor Ali puts the student back on track with a - Differentiating y = x^x [11/3/1994] Please could you differentiate y=X^X (that's X to the power of X)? - Differentiation Problem [11/15/1997] A light shines from the top of a pole 50 ft. high. A ball is dropped from the same height at a point 30 ft. away from the light... - Distance From a Point to a Plane [03/31/1998] Can you show me the proof of the formula for the distance between a point and a plane? - Distance to the Sun [04/16/1999] Find the distance from Earth to the sun when t = 90 days... - Does f Have a Local Extrema at x = 0? [07/10/2003] f(x) = (x^3)/6 + (x^2)/2 + cosx - 1. Does f have a local extremum at x - Domain, Asymptotes, Intercepts of a Function [04/01/2003] What is the domain of this function? What asymptotes does it have? What are the x and y intercepts? Etc... - Domain/Range of a Function [01/22/1997] How do you find the domain and range of the function f(x) = 2x^2-3x+1? (Both with and without calculus.) - Dominant Terms [03/25/1998] What are dominant terms, and how do you obtain their values? - Donkey Grazing Half a Field [08/08/1997] A donkey is attached by a rope to a point on the perimeter of a circular field. How long should the rope be so that the donkey can graze exactly half the field? - Double Integration in Polar Coordinates [03/27/2003] Evaluate double integral x-y/x*2+y*2 over x*2+y*2 equal to or less - e as a Series and a Limit [03/30/1998] Why does e = 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! + ... and lim (1 + 1/n) ^ n, as n -- - An Easy Definition of Calculus [9/4/1995] What is calculus? - e^(e^x) = 2 [01/28/2002] I have been trying to solve e^(e^x) = 2. Help! - An Ellipse Or A Circle? - Parametric Equations [12/05/1998] Is this parametric equation elliptical or a circle?... And how do I compute the slopes at points 0, pi/4, pi/2, 3pi/2,and 2pi? - An Elliptic Integral [01/05/2003] - Epsilon/Delta Definition of Limits [08/26/1999] Can you explain how to use the epsilon/delta definition of limits? - Epsilon-Delta Proofs [09/28/2004] An explanation of the thinking behind two epsilon-delta proofs, one from a calculus textbook and one from an answer in our archives.

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(Phys.org)—Controlling "mixing" between acceptor and donor layers, or domains, in polymer-based solar cells could increase their efficiency, according to a team of researchers that included physicists from North Carolina State University. Their findings shed light on the inner workings of these solar cells, and could lead to further improvements in efficiency. Polymer-based solar cells consist of two domains, known as the acceptor and the donor layers. Excitons, the energy particles created by solar cells, must be able to travel quickly to the interface of the donor and acceptor domains in order to be harnessed as an energy source. Researchers had believed that keeping the donor and acceptor layers as pure as possible was the best way to ensure that the excitons could travel unimpeded, so that solar cells could capture the maximum amount of energy. NC State physicist Harald Ade and his group worked with teams of scientists from the United Kingdom, Australia and China to examine the physical structure and improve the production of polymer-based solar cells. In findings published in two separate papers appearing this month online in Advanced Energy Materials and Advanced Materials, the researchers show that some mixing of the two domains may not be a bad thing. In fact, if the morphology, or structure, of the mixed domains is small, the solar cell can still be quite efficient. According to Ade, "We had previously found that the domains in these solar cells weren't pure. So we looked at how additives affected the production of these cells. When you manufacture the cell, the relative rate of evaporation of the solvents and additives determines how the active layer forms and the donor and acceptor mix. Ideally, you want the solvent to evaporate slowly enough so that the materials have time to separate – otherwise the layers 'gum up' and lower the cell's efficiency. We utilized an additive that slowed evaporation. This controlled the mixing and domain size of the active layer, and the portions that mixed were small." The efficiency of those mixed layers was excellent, leading to speculation that perhaps some mixing of the donor and acceptor isn't a problem, as long as the domains are small. "We're looking for the perfect mix here, both in terms of the solvents and additives we might use in order to manufacture polymer-based solar cells, and in terms of the physical mixing of the domains and how that may affect efficiency," Ade says. Explore further: Femtosecond 'snapshots' reveal a dramatic bond tightening in photo-excited gold complexes More information: "From Binary to Ternary Solvent: Morphology Fine-tuning of D/A Blend in PDPP3T-based Polymer Solar Cells", Advanced Materials, 2012. In the past decade, great success has been achieved in bulk hetero-junction (BHJ) polymer solar cells (PSCs) in which donor/acceptor (D/A) bi-continuous interpenetrating networks can be formed and in some recent reports, power conversion efficiency (PCE) even approach 8%. In addition to the intrinsic properties of active layer materials, such as band gaps and molecular energy levels, morphological properties of the D/A blends including crystallinity of polymers, domain size, materials miscibility, hierarchical structures, and molecular orientation, are also of great importance for photovoltaic performance of the devices. Therefore, several strategies including slow growth, solvent annealing, thermal annealing, selection of solvent or mixed solvent have been applied to modify or control of the morphology of the D/A blends. Among these, binary solvent mixtures have been successfully used in morphology control. For example, the dichlorobenzene (DCB) or chlorobenzene (CB)/1, 8-diiodooctane (DIO) binary solvent system has been widely applied in PSC device fabrication process. By mixing a few volume percent of DIO with the host solvent (DCB or CB), efficiencies of many kinds of polymers can be improved dramatically. Besides DIO, other solvents, like 1, 8-octanedithiol (OT), N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), 1-chloronaphthalene (CN), chloroform (CF), can also be used. According to these works, it can be concluded that crystallinity, as well as domain size in the blends can be tuned effectively by using binary solvent mixtures, and thus binary solvent mixtures play a very important role in high performance PSCs.

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WASHINGTON, DC — The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) today announced the launch of a website, DOepatents, which allows search and retrieval of information from a collection of more than 20,000 patent records. The database represents a growing collection of patents resulting from R&D supported by DOE and demonstrates the Department’s considerable contribution to scientific progress from the 1940s to the present. “From helping the blind to see again to identifying hidden weapons through holographic computerized imaging technology, the U.S. Department of Energy has supported and will continue to support research addressing some of the world’s most pressing scientific challenges,” Under Secretary for Science Dr. Raymond L. Orbach said. “Content within DOepatents represents a truly impressive demonstration of DOE research and development and technological innovation.” Highlighted at DOepatents is a compilation of noteworthy DOE innovations from the past few decades. These technologies have improved quality of life and provided national economic, health and environmental benefits. One such invention is the Artificial Retina, a collaborative research project between DOE national laboratories, universities and the private sector aimed at restoring vision to millions of people blinded by retinal disease. Another invention is the DOE National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s pioneering multi-junction solar cell. A cell based on this design set a world efficiency record in converting sunlight to electricity. The DOepatents database also includes inventions of Nobel Laureates associated with DOE or its predecessors such as Enrico Fermi, Glenn Seaborg and Luis Alvarez, along with other distinguished scientists. patents consists of bibliographic records, with full text where available via either a PDF file or an HTML link to the record at the United States Patent and Trademark Office. The DOepatents database is updated quarterly with new patent records. The website is updated on a regular basis with news and information about significant and recent inventions. Resource links for inventors are included at the site, as well as Recent Inventions and Patent News pages. DOepatents was developed by the DOE Office of Scientific and Technical Information (OSTI) and may be viewed at http://www.osti.gov/doepatents/. OSTI, a part of the DOE Office of Science, accelerates discovery by making research results rapidly available to scientists and to the public. The Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the nation. Jeff Sherwood, DOE, (202) 586-5806 Cathey Daniels, OSTI, (865) 576-9539

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Heel Bursitis is another type of heel pain. The sufferer of this kind of heel pain experiences pain at the back of the heel when the patient moves his joint of the ankle. In the heel bursitis type of heel pain there is swelling on the sides of the Achilles’ tendon. In this condition the sufferer may experience pain in the heel when his feet hit the ground. Heel bruises are also referred as heel bumps they are usually caused by improper shoes. The constant rubbing of the shoes against the heel. What is bursitis? Bursitis is the inflammation of a bursa. Normally, the bursa provides a slippery surface that has almost no friction. A problem arises when a bursa becomes inflamed. The bursa loses its gliding capabilities, and becomes more and more irritated when it is moved. When the condition called bursitis occurs, the normally slippery bursa becomes swollen and inflamed. The added bulk of the swollen bursa causes more friction within an already confined space. Also, the smooth gliding bursa becomes gritty and rough. Movement of an inflamed bursa is painful and irritating. “Itis” usually refers to the inflammation of a certain part of the body, therefore Bursitis refers to the constant irritation of the natural cushion that supports the heel of the foot (the bursa). Bursitis is often associated with Plantar Fasciitis, which affects the arch and heel of the foot. What causes bursitis? - Bursitis and Plantar Fasciitis can occur when a person increases their levels of physical activity or when the heel’s fat pad becomes thinner, providing less protection to the foot. - Ill fitting shoes. - Biomechanical problems (e.g. mal-alignment of the foot, including over-pronation). - Rheumatoid arthritis. Bursitis usually results from a repetitive movement or due to prolonged and excessive pressure. Patients who rest on their elbows for long periods or those who bend their elbows frequently and repetitively (for example, a custodian using a vacuum for hours at a time) can develop elbow bursitis, also called olecranon bursitis. Similarly in other parts of the body, repetitive use or frequent pressure can irritate a bursa and cause inflammation. Another cause of bursitis is a traumatic injury. Following trauma, such as a car accident or fall, a patient may develop bursitis. Usually a contusion causes swelling within the bursa. The bursa, which had functioned normally up until that point, now begins to develop inflammation, and bursitis results. Once the bursa is inflamed, normal movements and activities can become painful. Systemic inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, may also lead to bursitis. These types of conditions can make patients susceptible to developing bursitis. - Cold presses or ice packs. - Anti-inflammatory tablets. - Cushioning products. - Massaging the foot / muscle stimulation. - Stretching exercises. - Insoles or orthotics.

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Green building facts - Buildings consume 32% of the world’s resources including 12% of fresh water and 40% of the world’s energy (7). - In Australia commercial buildings produce almost 9% of our national Greenhouse gas emissions (8). - To make way for the new Law School the Edgeworth David building and the Stephen Roberts lecture theatre were demolished in 2006. Over 80% of the materials from these buildings were recycled including the valuable copper from the roof of the lecture theatre The new Law School Building 7. “Environmentally Sustainable Buildings: Challenges and Policies” OECD (2003) 8. “Australia State of the Environment Report” Department of Environment & Heritage (2001)

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Fri 23 Sep, 2011 Tags: 1920s, 1930s, Agness "Aggie" Underwood, gold diggers, Hazel Glab, Herald-Examiner, Los Angeles Record, murder, Robert J. James, snake handlers, William Randolph Hearst Los Angeles has always had more than its share of creative felons, so it stands to reason that it would take an equally creative, gutsy, and dedicated reporter to cover them. One of the most revered reporters who ever worked in Los Angeles was Agness “Aggie” Underwood. Underwood began her career at the LOS ANGELES RECORD in the 1920s. She was sharp, but there were lots of sharp people in the news business at that time. What made Aggie great were her instincts. She seemed to know just how to approach a story to get the most from it. By relying on her gut feelings she managed to keep several paces ahead of her competition, and to earn a reputation for solving crimes. When the Los Angeles Record folded in the mid-1930s Aggie, who by this time loved the newspaper business (and needed the money), agreed to work for William Randolph Hearst’s Los Angeles daily, THE HERALD-EXAMINER. Her decision to join Hearst’s paper was the making of her career. Twelve years after joining the paper she was promoted to editor. Agness Underwood was the first woman in the U.S. to become the editor of a major metropolitan newspaper. Aggie Underwood’s work as a reporter inspired the lecture that I’m going to give on October 8, 2011, 2 p.m., in the Taper Auditorium at the Central Library in downtown Los Angeles. The lecture is entitled “GOLD DIGGERS & SNAKE HANDLERS: Deranged L.A. Crimes from the Notebook of Aggie Underwood” and it is sponsored by Photo Friends. Photo Friends is a non-profit whose mission is to promote and to preserve the photographs in the collection of the Los Angeles Public Library. I hope that you’ll join me as I examine two murder cases from 1936, both of which were covered by Aggie Underwood.

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The atoll is closed to the public and travel to the island is not allowed. Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll in 1934, and subsequently the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and 1960s, and until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction is now complete. Cleanup and closure of the facility was completed by May 2005. Toxic waste from both operations is buried on the island. The Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently discussing future management options, in the interim Johnston Atoll and the three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force. Tropical, but generally dry; consistent northeast trade winds with little seasonal temperature variation. Strategic location in the North Pacific Ocean; Johnston Island and Sand Island are natural islands, which have been expanded by coral dredging; North Island (Akau) and East Island (Hikina) are manmade islands formed from coral dredging; egg-shaped reef is 34 km in circumference some low-growing vegetation. Highest point: Summit Peak, at 5 meters Get in By plane There is an abandoned airstrip on Johnston Island. By boat [add listing] Buy There is currently no economic activity on Johnston Atoll. [add listing] Sleep There are no public accommodations on Johnston Atoll.

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In Writing Secure PHP, I covered a few of the most common security holes in websites. It's time to move on, though, to a few more advanced techniques for securing a website. As techniques for 'breaking into' a site or crashing a site become more advanced, so must the methods used to stop those attacks. Most hosting environments are very similar, and rather predictable. Many web developers are also very predictable. It doesn't take a genius to guess that a site's includes (and most dynamic sites use an includes directory for common files) is an www.website.com/includes/. If the site owner has allowed directory listing on the server, anyone can navigate to that folder and browse files. Imagine for a second that you have a database connection script, and you want to connect to the database from every page on your site. You might well place that in your includes folder, and call it something like connect.inc. However, this is very predictable - many people do exactly this. Worst of all, a file with the extension ".inc" is usually rendered as text and output to the browser, rather than processed as a PHP script - meaning if someone were to visit that file in a browser, they'll be given your database login information. Placing important files in predictable places with predictable names is a recipe for disaster. Placing them outside the web root can help to lessen the risk, but is not a foolproof solution. The best way to protect your important files from vulnerabilities is to place them outside the web root, in an unusually-named folder, and to make sure that error reporting is set to off (which should make life difficult for anyone hoping to find out where your important files are kept). You should also make sure directory listing is not allowed, and that all folders have a file named "index.html" in (at least), so that nobody can ever see the contents of a folder. Never, ever, give a file the extension ".inc". If you must have ".inc" in the extension, use the extension ".inc.php", as that will ensure the file is processed by the PHP engine (meaning that anything like a username and password is not sent to the user). Always make sure your includes folder is outside your web root, and not named something obvious. Always make sure you add a blank file named "index.html" to all folders like include or image folders - even if you deny directory listing yourself, you may one day change hosts, or someone else may alter your server configuration - if directory listing is allowed, then your index.html file will make sure the user always receives a blank page rather than the directory listing. As well, always make sure directory listing is denied on your web server (easily done with .htaccess or httpd.conf). Out of sheer curiosity, shortly after writing this section of this tutorial, I decided to see how many sites I could find in a few minutes vulnerable to this type of attack. Using Google and a few obvious search phrases, I found about 30 database connection scripts, complete with usernames and passwords. A little more hunting turned up plenty more open include directories, with plenty more database connections and even FTP details. All in, it took about ten minutes to find enough information to cause serious damage to around 50 sites, without even using these vulnerabilities to see if it were possible to cause problems for other sites sharing the same server. Most site owners now require an online administration area or CMS (content management system), so that they can make changes to their site without needing to know how to use an FTP client. Often, these are placed in predictable locations (as covered in the last article), however placing an administration area in a hard-to-find location isn't enough to protect it. Most CMSes allow users to change their password to anything they choose. Many users will pick an easy-to-remember word, often the name of a loved one or something similar with special significance to them. Attackers will use something called a "dictionary attack" (or "brute force attack") to break this kind of protection. A dictionary attack involves entering each word from the dictionary in turn as the password until the correct one is found. The best way to protect against this is threefold. First, you should add a turing test to a login page. Have a randomly generated series of letters and numbers on the page that the user must enter to login. Make sure this series changes each time the user tries to login, that it is an image (rather than simple text), and that it cannot be identified by an optical character recognition script. Second, add in a simple counter. If you detect a certain number of failed logins in a row, disable logging in to the administration area until it is reactivated by someone responsible. If you only allow each potential attacker a small number of attempts to guess a password, they will have to be very lucky indeed to gain access to the protected area. This might be inconvenient for authentic users, however is usually a price worth paying. Finally, make sure you track IP addresses of both those users who successfully login and those who don't. If you spot repeated attempts from a single IP address to access the site, you may consider blocking access from that IP address altogether. One excellent way to make sure that even if you have a problem with someone accessing your database who shouldn't be able to, you can limit the damage they can cause. Modern databases like MySQL and SQL Server allow you to control what a user can and cannot do. You can give users (or not) permission to create data, edit, delete, and more using these permissions. Usually, I try and ensure that I only allow users to add and edit data. If a site requires an item be deleted, I will usually set the front end of the site to only appear to delete the item. For example, you could have a numeric field called "item_deleted", and set it to 1 when an item is deleted. You can then use that to prevent users seeing these items. You can then purge these later if required, yourself, while not giving your users "delete" permissions for the database. If a user cannot delete or drop tables, neither can someone who finds out the user login to the database (though obviously they can still do damage). PHP contains a variety of commands with access to the operating system of the server, and that can interact with other programs. Unless you need access to these specific commands, it is highly recommended that you disable them entirely. For example, the eval() function allows you to treat a string as PHP code and execute it. This can be a useful tool on occasion. However, if using the eval() function on any input from the user, the user could cause all sorts of problems. You could be, without careful input validation, giving the user free reign to execute whatever commands he or she wants. There are ways to get around this. Not using eval() is a good start. However, the php.ini file gives you a way to completely disable certain functions in PHP - "disable_functions". This directive of the php.ini file takes a comma-separated list of function names, and will completely disable these in PHP. Commonly disabled functions include ini_set(), exec(), fopen(), popen(), passthru(), readfile(), file(), shell_exec() and system(). It may be (it usually is) worth enabling safe_mode on your server. This instructs PHP to limit the use of functions and operators that can be used to cause problems. If it is possible to enable safe_mode and still have your scripts function, it is usually best to do so. Finally, Be Completely and Utterly Paranoid Much as I hate to bring this point up again, it still holds true (and always will). Most of the above problems can be avoided through careful input validation. Some become obvious points to address when you assume everyone is out to destroy your site. If you are prepared for the worst, you should be able to deal with anything. Ready for more? Try Writing Secure PHP, Part 3.

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Electrical workers by Shutterstock - It is undeniable that the unemployment rate would be lower if fewer government jobs had been cut. - Private sector employment is important for the simple fact that state & local tax revenues fund public sector salaries. - The private sector, despite turbulent economic times and uncertainty, continues to be the engine of economic growth. Editor's note: This article originally appeared in The New York Times' Room for Debate in response to the question: Are government layoffs the problem? What effect have public-sector job cuts had on the economy? Could governments have responded to the recession in any other way? It is undeniable that the unemployment rate would be lower, and the recovery more pronounced, if fewer government jobs had been cut. But if the private sector is "doing fine," as President Obama famously said, could one reason be those losses in state and local jobs? The answer is yes. During 2009 and 2010, President Obama and Congress spent 2.6 percent of gross domestic product at the state and local level primarily through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. But despite this huge stimulus spending, the share of G.D.P. contributed by state and local governments has collapsed since 2007. While state and local spending accounted for nearly 13 percent of G.D.P. in 2008, barely 11 percent of G.D.P. comes from state and local spending today. Meanwhile, the private sector, despite the turbulent economic times and the recent uncertainty surrounding the fiscal cliff talks, has continued to be the engine of economic growth. Despite shedding a large number of workers at the start of the recession, the private sector has added 5.0 million new employees since June 2009 as state and local governments have dropped 682,000 jobs. Private sector G.D.P. has continued to grow as businesses innovate and become more productive, finding ways to survive and grow in a challenging business environment. Public sector workers, particularly those involved in education, have an important role to play in the economy. In most states, they account for about 14 percent of all jobs. But real economic growth has to start in the other 86 percent of the economy, where most workers earn their living. Indeed, private sector employment is important if even for the simple fact that state and local tax revenues fund public sector salaries. As of January, the unemployment rate for those classified as government workers by the Bureau of Labor Statistics is only 4.2 percent, compared to 8.6 percent unemployment in the private sector. Clearly, if we care about economic recovery, we should focus our efforts at combating the specter of private sector unemployment. In a study of data from 1939 to 2008 the economist Valerie Ramey concluded that an increase in government spending typically causes private spending to fall significantly. That should mean that the current recession-driven cuts in public expenditures may be exactly the stimulus needed to get the private sector on the road to recovery.

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So I've been reading a LOT of Carl jung's works recently. In 'Dreams, Memories and reflections' as well as 'the archetypes and the collective unconscious', he describes in great detail various communications he has made with his unconscious mind, which manifest themselves in all sorts of figures and scenes. Many of the experiences he describes were prophetic in nature and in my opinion, his description of the archetypes is incredibly fascinating and links in with Tony's idea of the Daemon. In 'On the Relation of Analytical Psychology to Poetry' Jung writes :- 'The primordial image, or archetype, is a figure--be it a daemon, a human being, or a process--that constantly recurs in the course of history and appears wherever creative fantasy is freely expressed. Essentially, therefore, it is a mythological figure. . . . In each of these images there is a little piece of human psychology and human fate, a remnant of the joys and sorrows that have been repeated countless times in our ancestral history.. ' Concerning direct communication with this 'Daemon' archetype Jung came up with a method called 'active imagination', which he said he had used on himself and his patients to communicate with their subconscious (their daemon). Copied from wikipedia:- Active Imagination is a concept developed by Carl Jung between 1913 and 1916. It is a meditation technique wherein the contents of one's unconscious are translated into images, narrative or personified as separate entities. It can serve as a bridge between the conscious 'ego' and the unconscious and includes working with dreams and the creative self via imagination or fantasy. Jung linked Active Imagination with the processes of alchemy in that both strive for oneness and inter-relatedness from a set of fragmented and dissociated parts. Key to the process of active imagination is the goal of exerting as little influence as possible on mental images as they unfold. For example, if a person were recording a spoken visualization of a scene or object from a dream, Jung's approach would ask the practitioner to observe the scene, watch for changes, and report them, rather than to consciously fill the scene with one's desired changes. One would then respond genuinely to these changes, and report any further changes in the scene. This approach is meant to ensure that the unconscious contents express themselves without overbearing influence from the conscious mind. At the same time, however, Jung was insistent that some form of participation in active imagination was essential: 'You yourself must enter into the process with your personal reactions...as if the drama being enacted before your eyes were real'. Of the origination of active imagination, Jung wrote: “It was during Advent of the year 1913 – December 12, to be exact – that I resolved upon the decisive step. I was sitting at my desk once more, thinking over my fears. Then I let myself drop. Suddenly it was as though the ground literally gave way beneath my feet, and I plunged into the dark depths.” Carl Jung developed this technique as one of several that would define his distinctive contribution to the practice of psychotherapy. Active imagination is a method for visualizing unconscious issues by letting them act themselves out. Active imagination can be done by visualization (which is how Jung himself did it), which can be considered similar in technique at least to shamanic journeying. Active imagination can also be done by automatic writing, or by artistic activities such as dance, music, painting, sculpting, ceramics, crafts, etc. Jung considered indeed that 'The patient can make himself creatively independent through this method...by painting himself he gives shape to himself'. Doing active imagination permits the thoughtforms of the unconscious, or inner 'self', and of the totality of the psyche, to act out whatever messages they are trying to communicate to the conscious mind. For Jung however, this technique had the potential not only to allow communication between the conscious and unconscious aspects of the personal psyche with its various components and inter-dynamics, but also between the personal and 'collective' unconscious; and therefore was to be embarked upon with due care and attentiveness. Indeed, he warned with respect to '"active imagination"...The method is not entirely without danger, because it may carry the patient too far away from reality'. The post-Jungian Michael Fordham was to go further, suggesting that 'active imagination, as a transitional phenomenon ...can be, and often is, both in adults and children put to nefarious purposes and promotes psychopathology'.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_imagination Has anybody tried this method or done any further research into it?

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Guest Author - Preena Deepak Music and dance rituals were an important aspect of temple worship in ancient India. In this pretext it was also a common Hindu tradition to dedicate or commission young girls to gods. These girls called ‘Devadasis’ were then separated from their families and trained in music, dance and a unique lifestyle within temple gates unlike their counterparts outside. Their life was from then on, one of service to the gods. When a Devadasi attained puberty, she was married to the deity in a religious ceremony. From then on she would become a temple prostitute. Indian temples always had the patronage of Kings who ruled the country and in many instances devadasis became the concubines of the kings. In other cases, devadasis lived with their patron who provided them with property and wealth. Marriage was forbidden for Devadasis who were eternally bound to the deity. However Devadasis became available to anyone who was able to ‘afford’ their keep. The word ‘Devadasi’ means ‘Servant of God’. The girls dedicated to become Devadasis were mostly from poor, lower caste families for whom devoting one child to the god only meant less pressure on the family’s meager finances. Devadasis were considered blessed as entering into wedlock with the god protected them from widowhood. As a result of these reasons several young girls were pushed into prostitution, under the safe banner of religion. Traces of the Devadasi system can be seen in many parts of India, particularly in South Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. It is believed that the Devadasis of Orissa, called ‘Mahari’ did not practice prostitution but devoted themselves to temple service and had special duties assigned to them. With the decline of monarchy in India and with the invasion of Moghul and British rulers, the Devadasi system began to deteriorate. Christian Missionaries who worked in India, Social Activists and Reformers also had a share in putting an end to this grotesque Indian custom. The Indian Government banned the Devadasi system in 1988. However in spite of this, the Devadasi system continues under cover in India. Under the burden of poverty, many young girls are still commissioned as Devadasis though Indian temples no longer have music and dance rituals or dedication ceremonies. These girls are married to the god and then sent for prostitution in red light areas. Unlike olden days, most of these girls do not have regular patrons and suffer under many men before succumbing to AIDS and other venereal diseases. The children born to Devadasis are forced to follow along the footsteps of their mothers, since they live alienated from main stream life and are rejected from social institutions. This creates a vicious circle in which many young girls in India get trapped even today.

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Log Boat is an uncommon type of boat that is made with a unique part of hollowed wood, Called “Monoxylon” is the oldest type of boat than have been found by the archeologist, these boats are similar in many countries, but the denomination is very different for example in Germany is called “einbaum” and in South America are called Canoas. Its construction considers several basic steps: The uses that people gave to this boat were very diverse, for example: In South Africa: In Africa was there was many types of fishing boats, Log-Boat were very common in Limpopo River, and many rivers. Log Boat in South Africa used to be used for transport, fishing and hunting. In Europe: If we talk about Log Boat in Europe we will find a big history around these boats. For example Byzantine Empire has used this boat to attack Constantinople, and many people gave different uses such as transport, fishing and hunting. In North America: In North America these boats were famous, with different uses. These boats were used for ceremonial purposes.

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In the realm of spirituality, Sri Aurobindo remains an enigmatic Indian personality and philosopher. He is one of the giants of modern Indian spirituality, who along with Vivekananda, Tagore, Gandhi and Radhakrishnan, was responsible for putting forth Indian philosophy in a comprehensive modern context, which then could be understood by the Western world at large. Sri Aurobindo's work is the least known of these five, but his teachings of philosophy and spirituality have the wisdom and appeal for a longer survival, similar to those of Vivekananda. Sri Aurobindo's evolution of consciousness was his life's experience that he documented in series of writings, in the process offering the world a critical and original philosophical system. In his formative years, Aurobindo surmised that the oppression of Indian thought by the ruling British had deleterious effects on it. He thus became a revolutionary inCalcutta, working against the British rulers. Four years before Gandhi started political revolution in India, Sri Aurobindo had spent time in Alipore jail in the year 1910, charged with sedition and conspiracy. In the prison, Sri Aurobindo experienced the strength of his inner consciousness and emerged as a spiritual Yogi. His Ashram in Pondicherry has survived until today under the guidance of the spiritual Mother. It is intriguing as to how a boy, who was being groomed to become an 'English Gentleman' by his father (who seemed to loathe anything 'Indian') could transform into a revolutionary freedom fighter first, and then a premier world renowned Yogi, with his own brand of spirituality and philosophy. His life-changing experience, according to him, was a result of an inner consciousness that took shape long before it could be expressed to the outer world. This perhaps explains his intuitive affinity towards his motherland, the culture of which was foreign to him during his childhood. Sri Aurobindo was the fourth child of Dr. Krishnadhan Ghose, a surgeon, who was a District Medical Officer at Khulna, East Bengal, and Swarnalatha Devi Ghose. He was originally named Aravinda Ackroyd. He was born on August 15, 1872 (that date was to become very significant in Indian history, seventy-five years later). At age five he was sent to Loretto Convent School in Darjeeling for two years. He then was sent to Manchester, England, to be home-schooled by the Dewett family until he was twelve years old. High school was finished in St. Paul's School in Cambridge followed by two years of college at King's College, Cambridge (1890-92). While at college he addressed the Indian student group called Indian Majlis and advocated freedom for India from the British. His formative years had been spent with a culture alien to India, educated by the Irish nuns of Darjeeling first, and then by the ministers and dons of the Church of England. By the time he finished college he could speak English and French fluently and also could read Greek, Latin and Italian. He could manage to speak Bengali, his mother tongue, only a bit. His affinity for his motherland had been kept alive by a radical newspaper, The Bengalee, which published articles about maltreatment of Indians in the hands of Englishmen. The paper was committed to Indian independence from the British and this fanned the affinity Aravinda Ackroyd had for his motherland, and gave him a patriotic sense of belonging. He returned to India in 1893 with great anticipation. Upon reaching the shores of Bombay, he had an intense and profound spiritual experience, 'a calm that lasted for several months' - as he would later recount. Parallel Course of Politics and Spirituality Aurobindo had already dropped the name Ackroyd and joined the service of Maharaja of Baroda. He taught English and French at Baroda College and later became Vice-President of the College. During his twelve year tenure in Baroda, Aurobindo learnt many Indian languages. He became fluent in Sanskrit, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali. In April 1901 he married Mrinalini Bose, a pious Hindu, barely half his age. While at Baroda he wrote a series of literary works, translations and political commentaries which gave him the ability of raising the consciousness of Indians, both in the political and social circles. His own mental development seemed to have progressed along two prongs. He was having unexplained spiritual experiences, seemingly accidental that pushed him more and more towards spiritual quests of higher levels. These experiences were enhanced by his meetings with Sister Nivedita in 1902 and an experience of 'the vacant Infinite' at the Sankarachaya hill in Kashmir in 1903. Mrinalini Bose, the young wife of Aurobindo had not been able to join in her husband's spiritual journey, and their differences became more than just the differences in their ages, as he became more involved in politics and yoga. Five years after his marriage to her, he wrote to her saying that he was suffering from madness. He categorized his madness at three levels. First, was that he realized his talents and resources had to be used for one purpose only i.e. for God's work. His second madness he describes as his quest to have a direct 'Realization with God'. Thirdly, to him India was the Mother, the divine embodiment of sakti that propelled him towards politics. Politically Aurobindo was becoming more and more determined to help the cause of independence for Indians from the British. He was convinced that the Western influence on the Indian mind was an impediment for the Indian spiritual maturity. He moved to Bengal in 1906 to become the principal of Bengal National College. Here he joined secret political societies, and orchestrated an underground organization with printing of anti-British pamphlets. The same year he assisted Bipin Chandra Pal in founding the radical newspaper, Bande Mataram. Later, he took over the editorship of the newspaper and succeeded Bipin Chandra Pal as the leader of National Party in Bengal. He wrote several articles including the one called 'The Doctrine of Passive Resistance,' that later became the main instrument of Gandhi in his freedom struggle to oust the British from India. For his article in Bande Mataram, he was arrested in 1907, on charges of sedition and then released on bail. Even in his development as a political revolutionary, Aurobindo went through several evolutions as well. First he was the secret revolutionary, advocating and preparing for an armed insurrection. Secondly, he undertook the task of convincing the nation that its citizens deserved and could attain independence. The country was in a state of forced subjugation, and thought that the British were too powerful and Indians too impotent to dream of independence. Moreover, Indians were under the impression that the lofty idea about independence was impractical, unattainable and almost an insane chimera. Lastly, Aurobindo had come a full circle when he wrote articles and assisted in organizing people to passively resist and practice non-cooperation. Aurobindo resigned from Bengal National College and became a leader of the nationalist movement, giving several speeches both in Bengal and Western India. In January of 1908 he met Vishnu Bhaskar Lele, a yogi in Baroda, who taught him the technique of silencing the mind and experiencing the timeless Brahman, a form of spiritual Realization. He was again arrested in 1908 in connection with Alipore conspiracy case and spent a year in jail, including in solitary confinement. He utilized his time in jail studying the Geeta, meditation and practice of yoga. After his acquittal, he started publications of two weeklies - Karmayoga in English and Dharma in Bengali. During his stay in Calcutta for a period of five years as a revolutionary leader, Aravinda Ghose tried to prove to the Indians that a politically oppressed population could not express its distinctive spiritual and cultural genius. Move to Pondicherry Aurobindo had concluded that independence for India was inevitable, and he then embraced the spiritual evolution of the soul with the same fervor as he had in raising the consciousness of Indians. In the year 1910, when Aurobindo was 37 years old, he abruptly withdrew from active politics and moved to Pondicherry to continue his spiritual work. There he met Paul Richard, a French diplomat who became an ardent fan of Aurobindo. Mira Richard, ** his wife was a spiritual personality (born Mira Alfassa on February 21, 1878 in Paris), who had mystic and psychic experiences during her adolescence. After hearing about Aurobindo she met him in 1914, an encounter instantly and profoundly spiritual for both. Mira Richard was to become “Mother” later, a symbol of sakti who was to play a central role in the creation of the Aurobindo Ashram and Auroville in Pondicherry. Mira Richard saw Aurobindo as the divine hero of tomorrow and hope for all humanity. The day after her meeting with him she wrote in her diary: “Little by little the horizon becomes precise, the path becomes clear. And we advance to an even greater certitude. It matters not if there are hundreds of beings plunged in densest ignorance. He whom we saw yesterday is on earth: His presence is enough to prove that a day will come when darkness shall be transformed into light, when Thy reign shall be indeed established upon earth.” In 1915 Paul and Mira Richard returned to France and later went to live in Japan until 1920. Then Mira sailed to Pondicherry to begin her spiritual mission with the man she saw as an avatar of the Divine. She stayed in Pondicherry in a journey with Aurobindo, where each became integral part of their quest – he as the Divine Yogi and she as the Mother sakti. After being estranged from him for more than ten years, in 1918, the ill-fated Mrinalini, Aurobindo’s wife, finally decided to go to Pondicherry to join her husband. As fate would have it, they were never meant to see each other again. She was about to embark on her journey to Pondicherry, when she contracted influenza and died. Sri Aurobindo lived in Pondicherry until his death on December 5, 1950 at the age of seventy-eight. India attained independence that he had dreamed of, on August 15, 1947, coincidentally on his seventy-fifth birthday. The date did not go unnoticed by Sri Aurobindo. He mentioned it in his speech to the nation after attaining independence. He was a satisfied man, to find India finally rid itself of foreign occupation, a task he had worked so ardently during his younger years. A Personal Journey While Indian philosophers like Radhakrishnan, Bhattacharya and Dutta have put forward comprehensive systems of Indian philosophy, they pale in comparison to Aurobindo’s richness in detail and range of topics, as evident in his vast array of writings. Moreover, Aurobindo’s system of philosophy is autobiographical, an account of his personal experience and experiment. As he became more and more knowledgeable during his personal journey of his spiritual quest, he did not hesitate to continually revise his earlier writings and teachings. Savitri: A Legend and a Symbol, Sri Aurobindo’s 24000 line epic poem about spiritual ascent and transformation of the physical world, was revised and added on to until the last days before his death. He also revised his other writings, notably The Life Divineand The Synthesis of Yoga, in order to express his more advanced experiences of his later years. All of his works except Savitri (namely The Essays on the Gita, The Human Cycle, The Ideal of Human Unity, The Secret of the Veda, and The Life Divine as well as The Synthesis of Yoga) were serialized in his philosophical publication Arya. Here he put forward comprehensive and systematic philosophical compilations based on his own personal experiences. Unlike Ramakrishna, Ramana Maharshi, Sivananda and J. Krishnamurti, who also expressed their experiences in philosophical terms, Sri Aurobindo was successful in developing an original critical and practical philosophical system, including theories of knowledge, existence, the self, natural order and the aim of life. Integral Yoga and Religion At least since 1926 his spiritual eminence was well recognized and the suffix ‘Sri’ had been added to his name. It was the same year when he withdrew completely, claiming day of siddhi (day of victory), and left the chores of establishing the Ashram and the management of the disciples to Mother. Through his four decades of practice of yoga (sadhana), Sri Aurobindo had published thirty volumes of systematic writings and correspondence. He consistently distinguished his spiritual discipline from traditional religion. He was worried that his work could some day be mistaken for a new religion and repeatedly asserted that he did not want it to be so. Perhaps he did not want his teachings to be construed in a religious sense akin to what developed from profound spiritual experiences of Gautama (Buddhism) and Jesus (Christianity), much after their passing. “Our goal is not…. to found a religion or a school of philosophy or a school of yoga, but to create a ground and a way which will bring down a greater truth beyond the mind but not inaccessible to the human soul and consciousness….” Sri Aurobindo believed in the creation of Divine life, in the existing human life, in its current form. He believed that it was not inaccessible for an ignorant mind, through discipline, to bring down a greater Truth from beyond, to the human consciousness. It is not only possible to rise out of the ignorant world-consciousness, but it is also possible to bring the supramental powers down (a descent) to the ignorant mind. This can only help in the transformation of ignorance of the mind, body and life, in order to manifest the Divine here, while on earth. Religion to him was an anathema. He however conceded that religion could be used as the first step toward achieving the supramental enlightenment. He made a clear distinction between religion and the spiritual. To Sri Aurobindo it was clear that there were three paths a human could take in his journey through life; A spiritual journey (adhyatma-jivana), a religious journey (dharma-jivana), or a journey of ordinary human life (of which mortality is a part). The laws of ignorance guide the ordinary life of average human consciousness. It is separated from its own true self and from the Divine. The religious life is led by some sect or creed that claims to have found the way out of the bounds of earth-consciousness into some beatific Beyond. The religious life is as ignorant because it often is only mired in rites and rituals, ceremonies and practices or set ideas and forms, without any attempt at dispelling ignorance. The spiritual life, in contrast, proceeds directly by a change of consciousness, wherein one finds one’s true self and comes into direct and living contact and into union with the Divine. For the spiritual seeker this change of consciousness is the one thing he seeks and nothing else matters. Aurobindo taught us the possibility of transformation of the world-consciousness through a spiritual journey of discipline and yoga. Though the potential is inherent in all, it is a receptive mind that through discipline can grasp the profound and succeed in attaining Realization. In his series of articles that became increasingly more informative as his consciousness matured, he showed us his way of self discipline through integral yoga. He never discounted the fact that this realization is possible for the ignorant during one’s lifetime. He used Mother to achieve his own personal spiritual journey (and vice versa), and considered Mother as an expression of his own consciousness. But it was the Mother who was truly the chief organizer of the Ashram in Pondicherry. The Mother: Architect of the Future In 1951 Mother founded the Sri Aurobindo International University to modernize and expand the scope of the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry. In this endeavor she also established the Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Delhi Branch together with Surendranath Jauhar in 1956. The Mother's International School, which is also located in the Sri Aurobindo Ashram (Delhi Branch), has since grown into one of the biggest and most important schools of its kind in India. There was a danger that after his death, his teachings might not have the same appeal. However, Mother and his other disciples successfully ran the Ashram in Pondicherry and then in 1968, at the age of ninety, Mother began the Auroville project (with the architect Roger Anger), in expectation of a new species of enlightened humans, and to accommodate such species. “A new species of higher consciousness will be revealed to us, little by little and Auroville wants to consciously hasten that advent. Auroville wants to be the bridge between the past and the future. Auroville belongs to no one and belongs to humanity as a whole. To live in Auroville, one must be a willing servitor of Divine Consciousness.” It is here where Aurobindo’s vision of spiritual discipline and selfless action (Karmayoga) are implemented. In addition, on Mother’s commission, cyber-artist, musician and futurist Michel Montecrossa established Mirapuri center in Italy, which is actively spreading the ideals of Sri Aurobindo in the international scene. A Miravillage, a satellite of Mirapuri is also attracting disciples in Germany. Then in 1973, the year she died, she also gave her blessings to Michel Montecrossa to establish a cultural center and guest house for the Friends of Mirapuri in Auroville. It is named 'New Community' and is located in the Auroville settlement 'Certitude,' opposite the building called 'Auroson's Home'. Throughout her life she wanted to create a new type of city for all those who wanted to develop their consciousness for a spiritually inspired evolution. In 1957 ideas for such a township again were in the air but did not materialize. In 1967 plans were made and some land acquired to found a city in the Indian state Gujarat, which she named Ompuri. This project also did not move further. There have been other disappointments. In 1982, an organized attack on Auroville by violent and sectarian movement that halted all progress at Auroville and its promise of becoming a place of peace for world unity as envisaged by the Mother came to an abrupt halt. This led to the creation of Mirapuri, that later opened its branches in Italy and the Miravillage in Germany. The Mother continued the work of Consciousness Evolution, leaving a stunning legacy of wisdom, knowledge, realization and impulses for making the Integral Yoga physically effective, in a life where Spirit and Matter are one. Mother died in 1973 at the ripe age of ninety-five, twenty three years after the Master had passed on. Sri Aurobindo’s legacy and teachings have survived and are thriving internationally today, thanks to the brilliant planning and forethought of the Mother. ** Mira Alfassa (Richard) studied art and became an accomplished artist and musician. 1897 she married Henri Morisset and gave birth to her son André. In 1905 she began to study parapsychology and occult sciences in Algeria together with Max Theon and his wife. After her divorce from Henri Morisset she founded a group of spiritual seekers, which was named l'Idée Nouvelle. In 1911 she married Paul Richard and traveled to India with him, where she met Sri Aurobindo for the first time in 1914, and started together with Sri Aurobindo and Paul Richard the journal 'Arya', which became the birth place for most of the writings of Sri Aurobindo, which later appeared in book-form. Till 1920 Mira Alfassa stayed in Japan and then came back to India to live with Sri Aurobindo. They both collaborated to further develop the Integral Yoga. Sri Aurobindo and Mira Alfassa founded the Sri Aurobindo Ashram in 1926 to accommodate the growing number of people who became interested in the Integral Yoga. After 1926 Mira Alfassa became known as The Mother, the individual expression of the power of spiritual consciousness.

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Pop-up book of Ancient Egypt, £14.99 Explore / Online Tours Word into art Word into Art This tour brings together the work of contemporary artists from the Middle East and North Africa. The use of writing - quotations, words and even single letters - has emerged as a common theme in this vibrant and original art. Each object presented here is inscribed in or draws its inspiration from Arabic, the main script of the region used to write a variety of languages including Persian. A Sacred Script looks at artworks which are based around the holy texts of the Qu'ran and the Bible. Literature and Art shows how poetry and the rich literary traditions of the Middle East have inspired artists in different ways. The works in Deconstructing the Word have been created using single words or letters. History, Politics and Identity examines how art has responded to crises and wars that have affected the Middle East. In the entry for each work, the artist's country of origin is cited first after their name, and their current place of residence second. The tour includes highlights from Word into Art: Artists of the Modern Middle East, a free exhibition at the British Museum (Room 35) from 18 May to 3 September 2006. The exhibition draws mainly on works collected by the British Museum, with some loaned objects. It includes pieces by about eighty different artists, some of whom are represented here. This tour shows how writing, so important as both a method of communication and an art form in the ancient and Islamic cultures, continues as a powerful thread running through the art of the region today. The exhibition was part of Middle East Now, a season of special events which includes lectures, films, poetry readings and music. The exhibition and the season were produced in partnership with Dubai Holding.

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This week Intel privately shared parts of its roadmap for memory technologies through 2008. Intel’s progress on phase-change memory, PCM or PRAM, will soon be sampled to customers with mass production possible before the end of the year. Phase-change memory is positioned as a replacement for flash memory, as it has non-volatile characteristics, but is faster and can be scaled to smaller dimensions. Flash memory cells can degrade and become unreliable after as few as 10,000 writes, but PCM is much more resilient at more than 100 million write cycles. For these reasons, Intel believes that phase-change memory could one day replace DRAM. “The phase-change memory gets pretty close to Nirvana,” said Ed Doller, CTO of Intel’s flash memory group. “It will start to displace some of the RAM in the system.” For its implementation of phase-change memory, Intel has since 2000 licensed technology from Ovonyx Inc.. The Ovonyx technology uses the properties of chalcogenide glass, the same material found in CD-RW and DVD-RW, which can be switched between crystalline and amorphous states for binary functions. Every potential PCRAM memory maker thus far licenses Ovonyx technology. According to Ovonyx’s Web site, the first licensee of the technology was Lockheed Martin in 1999, with Intel and STMicroelectronics in the following year. Four years after that, Nanochip signed an agreement. Elpida and Samsung were the next two in 2005, and Qimonda marks the latest with a signing this year. IBM, Macronix and Qimonda detailed last December its recent developments on phase-change memory. Researchers at IBM’s labs demonstrated a prototype phase-change memory device that switched more than 500 times faster than flash while using less than one-half the power to write data into a cell. The IBM device’s cross-section is a minuscule 3 by 20 nanometers in size, far smaller than flash can be built today and equivalent to the industry’s chip-making capabilities targeted for 2015. Intel’s initial phase-change technology, however, is already a reality, as the chipmaker revealed that it has produced a 90 nanometer phase-change memory wafer. At the 90 nanometer process size, the power requirements to write are approximate to that required for flash. Intel said that its early test work shows data retention abilities of greater than 10 years even at temperatures of 85 degree Celsius. Intel touts PCM as a “new category of memory,” as its attributes are distinctly different, and typically superior to many of the memory technologies today as it combines the best attributes of RAM, NOR and NAND. Intel wouldn’t give a firm date on the availability of its phase-change memory as several details still need to be finalized after the sampling “We're going to be using this to allow customers to get familiar with the technology and help us architect the next generation device.” Doller said. “We're hoping we can see [mass] production by the end of the year, but that depends on the customers.”

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....that indigo is one of the oldest dye stuffs in the world? For millennia this dye provided the only color fast and light fast clear blue that there was for fabrics. It was very valuable for trade and recipes were often closely guarded secrets. It has been used all over the world to make everything from intricate Japanese kimonos to Levi Jeans for the original 49ers. The thing that is special about indigo is that in its normal state the dye molecules are insoluble in water, they will just sink to the bottom of the vat unless a chemical reducing agent is added. Reducing agents steal a hydrogen atom from the dye molecule, this allows it to try and form lose bonds with the hydrogen in the water so it dissolves and creates the vat. There are all kinds of reducing agents that can be used, from yeast or live bacteria in a fermentation vat to dangerous chemicals like Lye (Sodium Hydroxide). We have a somewhat safer and effective recipe using our Dye House Color remover (Thiorea Dioxide) and Soda Ash. In Europe, one of the oldest reducing agents, and the cheapest, was stale urine. Oral dye history is full of stories about European dye houses that would put out pots for people to donate their urine and dye houses that would be built next to taverns, which provided a steady supply. It is purported that due to the smell of the dye houses they where often restricted to the outskirts of town. This amazing dyestuff naturally occurs in indigo containing plants of the tropical genus Indigofera, which grows in many countries, as well as a less concentrated form in a plant called Woad, which is native to temperate Europe. The most well known, indigofera tinctoria, was native to India, which may have been the earliest major player in the lucrative indigo trade. The name of the compound that makes up the dye is called indican. It is extracted from the plants buy crushing the leaves and soaking them until they ferment and release the indican, which was precipitated and dried in cakes. The cakes were than ground to a powder by the user. Designs on indigo cloth are achieved with various tying techniques, such as traditional Shibori and tie-dye techniques. Other types of resist such as rice paste and wax are also used to protect areas of the fabric to create intricate patterns. Indigo was also be used for printing and painting with use of different chemicals like Arsenic trisulfide, or iron sulfate and thickeners. When indigo is in solution it is a yellow green color but often the top layer of the vat is blue because it is exposed to the air. Indigo is sometimes called a magic dye because of the way the fabric changes color from a yellow green to the deep blues as the air oxidizes the dye. As the dye molecules oxidize they become insoluble in water again so they don't wash out of the fabric. The fabric is dipped in the indigo vat to soak up some dye, and then hung in the air to oxidize where it turns blue. Another feature of indigo is the ability to build up the depth of color by repeated dippings into the bath. Successive dippings and airings give you darker and darker blues. Shades can thus range from pale sky blue to deepest dark navy indigo. We are all familiar with the characteristic way in which indigo fades as the fabric is used and worn, such as the fade lines on your favorite jeans. This is because indigo does not actually chemically bond to the fabric. Instead it becomes insoluble in water again when it reacts with the air and becomes lodged in the small spaces with the fiber. Over time as the fibers are rubbed with wear it rubs out some of the dye creating faded lines. Indigo dyed fabric can also do something called crocking where it rubs off on things, and you, if not properly laundered before use. If you dont want to try out for the Blue Man Group, be sure and wash newly dyed or store bought Indigo dyed fabric and clothing with hot water and Synthrapol. Our Dharma Dye Fixative or Retayne in a hot soak can cause the fabric to retain more of the Indigo before washing, so you will get less fade on the first washing, and still no crocking after. Since indigo was one of the only natural blue dyes, and the best, it was often used to over dye yellow fabrics to make greens. In museum tapestries you will often see that many plants are very bluish, this is because natural yellow dyes are more sensitive to fading from UV light than indigo and over time the indigo has become the predominate color in the fibers. These days most indigo dye in commercial use is made synthetically, but you can still enjoy the magic of true indigo with our wonderful natural indigo. Granted it is a little more work then pre-reduced synthetics but it also has greater depth and variation which is all part of the magic.

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R. David Lankes, Ph.D. This paper examines the domain of digital reference services for and by the primary and secondary education community. Data is provided to demonstrate the current understanding of education question types and education users in digital reference. It is believed this data will be of wide utility for digital library builders geared toward primary and secondary users (K-12) such as the International Children's Digital Library and the National Science Digital Library . Digital Reference and Digital Libraries for Education Digital reference refers to Internet-based expert answering services [Lankes, 1999b]. In such a service, a user typically poses a question to a digital reference service through a web form, e-mail or a chat interface. An expert (such as a scientist or librarian) uses this input to construct an answer that is both passed back to the user as well as used in some knowledge base or enhancement to a digital library collection. There is a growing body of research and development in digital reference [Janes, 2000; Mardikian and Kesselman, 1995; Tyckoson, 2002; Lagace and McClennen, 1998; Mon, 2000; Ferguson and Bunge, 1997], and digital reference services are being implemented within the context of digital libraries such as the National Science Foundation(NSF) National Science Digital Library [National Research Council, 1998]. Much is known about use of digital reference in primary and secondary education (in this article, the term "education" will refer simply to primary and secondary education), and this knowledge has utility not only to digital reference services aimed at this population, but to the larger digital library community as well. Specifically, the author argues that services aimed at primary and secondary users represent a revelatory case for digital reference for three reasons; digital reference services for education are: Current State of the Art In order to present a picture of digital reference for education, the author first presents two major types of services in the education domain. Each type is then illustrated with an exemplar service. Types of Digital Reference Services in Education There are two obvious, though often overlapping, categories of digital reference services in education: library-based services, and AskA services. AskA services can be further divided into general services that may be of use to the education community as part of a more general mission (such as Ask Joan of Art® , an AskA service that answers questions concerning American art for anyone who asks, but is particularly useful in art education) and services targeted squarely at the education community (such as AskERIC(sm) , though it covers all levels of education including higher and continuing education). The author will concentrate on education AskA services for this paper. For the purposes of this discussion, "library reference" refers to digital reference services either centered in a public, academic, school or special library, or with primary reliance on library programs. With the advent of digital reference, a great number of libraries are now offering reference service to remote patrons [Janes, 2000]. These services take a variety of forms, from e-mail systems, to real-time chat systems. In the library context, digital reference is referred to as virtual reference, e-reference, networked reference, live reference, online reference and even chat reference. While some in the community make a distinction in the mode of delivery and the synchronous nature of the service offered, most agree that these are all part of a single larger concept of digital reference. The library reference community also provides the most in-depth discussion of policy, evaluation [McClure and Lankes, 2001] and the largest set of documented digital reference services (as opposed to the body of systems and development work out of the AskA community discussed later). Much of this work is encapsulated in the proceedings of the annual Virtual Reference Desk (VRD) Conferences [Virtual Reference Desk, 2002], which have a strong library emphasis. In fact, this article and the Digital Reference Research Symposium were outgrowths of the VRD conferences and other work. As a result of this intense interest in digital reference by the library community, several large-scale digital reference projects are available for use by the research and scholarly community. The Collaborative Digital Reference Service (CDRS) spearheaded by the Library of Congress and that has evolved into the QuestionPoint service run by OCLC in cooperation with the Library of Congress, certainly demonstrates the breadth of library-based digital reference services spanning public, academic and international libraries. The National Library of Canada's recent introduction of Virtual Reference Canada to work with Canadian digital reference services also promises to be a major source of digital reference activity and development. Other prominent digital reference efforts in the library world include KnowItNow from the Cleveland Public Library, the 24/7 Reference service that acts as a statewide digital reference network for the State of California, and the recent efforts of the State Library of Washington. Also of interest to researchers in digital reference are digital reference vendors in the library domain including LSSI's Virtual Reference Service . One special case that should not be overlooked is the Internet Public Library , for while it is not based in a library setting (it is part of the School of Information at the University of Michigan), it has its roots and traditions firmly planted in the library community. Library Reference Exemplar: KidsConnect While many library services support the education community (of course, academic libraries serve a higher education population and public libraries answer questions of students), few target primary and secondary education exclusively. One exception is the KidsConnect service. KidsConnect is a question-answering, help and referral service to K-12 students on the Internet [KidsConnect, 2002; Bennett, 1998]. It is a project of the American Library Association's American Association of School Librarians (AASL). KidsConnect has three missions: The first is to educate school library media specialists in the use of the Internet and digital reference as part of the larger ICONnect project. The second is to promote information literacy in students through digital reference [Mancall et al., 1999]. The third is to promote local school libraries (and school library media specialists) as valuable sources of information and instruction. The KidsConnect model uses a large number of volunteer school library media specialists (primarily in the United States). Each volunteer is trained using an in-depth mentoring process, then answers questions (ranging from one question a day to one a week). The digital reference transaction is conducted through e-mail and web forms. Data from the KidsConnect service provides valuable insight into the types of students using digital reference services as well as the types of questions they ask. The service has been widely advertised to schools, particularly to teachers and school library media specialists. This advertising has been done through the professional association for school library media specialists (AASL), as well as through the Internet. The data presented in Figures 1 - 5 are from 1996 - 1998; however, more recent data presented in Figures 6 - 9 are used to estimate the current validity of the earlier numbers. Figure 1 shows the number of questions answered by KidsConnect for the years 1996-1998: These numbers are very much in line, though on the high end, with current numbers of library-based digital reference services as reported at recent library meetings, including the 2002 American Library Association conference. Figure 2 shows how these questions were distributed across differing student and adult populations: These figures demonstrate a rough equivalence between primary (elementary and middle school) and secondary education (high school). The low number of users identified as "adult" is explained by both the focus of the KidsConnect service (K-12 students), but also that any questions KidsConnect received from teachers were routed (sent to) the AskERIC service. A more interesting finding, however, was the gender distribution of the questioners as seen in Figure 3: One interesting finding of the KidsConnect staff was the prominence of girls asking questions. While many hypotheses were put forward to explain this situation (e-mail providing a "safer" environment to ask questions than the well documented male dominated classroom, for example), no formal research was conducted to follow up on this finding. The other interesting finding from the KidsConnect data related to the topics or subjects of the questions asked of KidsConnect. The KidsConnect team utilized a "Subject Line Analysis" technique whereby the subject lines of a random sample of questions were examined and classified inductively into a subject scheme. If the subject lines were felt to be uninformative (they did not indicate topicality but instead were words or phrases like "Hello" or "Please help") the underlying question was examined. The results of this analysis are shown in Figure 4: It is clear from this figure that questions on the topic of science constituted the bulk of questions received. In order to provide a clearer picture of this category, the analysis was further refined by "type of science questions", as shown in Figure 5: Data such as this should prove of great use to new digital reference services geared towards education, most notably the NSF's National SMETE Digital Library [NSDL, 2002]. As mentioned before, these statistics represent somewhat dated analysis (4 years old). In 1999, operation of the KidsConnect service moved from Syracuse University to Drexel University (the previous statistics are based on Syracuse data). Syracuse then transferred much of the staff and processes of KidsConnect into the Virtual Reference Desk Learning Center. This project had a slightly different aim; it had a broader focus and also worked in a network of AskA services with general foci. However, the main concentration of the service was still on school library media specialists answering questions from the education community. Statistics from the VRD service show a strong correlation between older KidsConnect statistics and more recent VRD usage. For example, Figure 6 shows the user populations of the VRD service: Note the higher "adult" population (as compared with Figure 2) reflecting the broader focus of the VRD Network members. However, with this result removed, the distribution in primary and secondary education remains roughly equivalent to the earlier data, with a greater number of "middle school" questions. Also note in Figure 7 that science questions still dominate the service: Once again, Figure 8 provides a more fine-grained analysis of science questions: This distributions seems to hold over the three most recent years of the VRD service (as seen in Figure 9): From these more recent statistics, it seems difficult to argue that there has been a massive shift in the types of education users asking questions or in the types of questions they ask. What is also clear from analyzing these two services is that the library community has many contributions to make to the digital reference research agenda specifically with respect to education as well as to digital reference research in general. It is also clear the library community contains large-scale digital reference efforts that make excellent research environments capable of being utilized in the search for generalizable knowledge. Education AskA Services The second progenitor of current digital reference systems is AskA services. AskA services take their name from expert question and answer services tending to adopt names such as "Ask A Scientist" and "Ask A Volcanologist" [Lankes, 1999b]. These services tended to originate without interaction with formal library systems and emphasized topical expertise (as opposed to process expertise such as a librarian's ability to search for information). A fuller picture of AskA services can be drawn from two studies conducted by Lankes and White [Lankes, 1999b; Lankes, 1999c; and White, 1999]. Lankes presents an in-depth analysis of the structure and commonalities of "exemplary K-12 digital reference services." Specifically this study sought to: The outcome of this study included detailed "blueprints" and a tuned framework of AskA services grounded in complexity theory, as seen in Figure 10: White developed an analytical framework based on systems for evaluating AskA services. This framework was then applied to a variety of 11 services (including library-based services). Unlike library digital reference services that to this point have seen modest usage, AskA services, in general, have begun with large usage and have experienced continuing dramatic increases. The most recent Virtual Reference Desk survey of AskA services done in 1999 demonstrates this. Survey results in Table 1 show an average 44% increase in use of these asynchronous services from 1997 to 1998, with an average answer rate of 77% in 1998 [Lankes and Shostack, forthcoming]. Table 1: Virtual Reference Desk Survey of AskA Service Usage Compare these statistics to those of the libraries studied as part of McClure and Lankes Quality Study [Mcclure and Lankes, 2001], "In all cases the volume of digital reference questions is low, ranging from 3 to 33 per day" [Gross et al., 2002]. This study covered a range of libraries in terms of size and scope (academic, public, federal, state). One result of the large volume encountered by AskA services has been an emphasis on process, software development and automation. Whereas many library services have quickly adopted real-time technologies in which one-to-one interactions require full human intervention, AskA services have looked to asynchronous technologies. (At least this has been so at their onset. See Figure 11 for the distribution of questions received by AskERIC by mode of digital reference as an example of the predominance of asynchronous means. Note that "web" and "e-mail" are both asynchronous modes.) AskA services have also looked for means of shunting users to resources. (See Lankes for a more detailed discussion of AskA services and their architectures [Lankes, 1999b].) These run the gambit from sophisticated techniques such as automated searching of previously asked questions (as in the MadSci service), to forcing users through a list of frequently asked questions before they are able to submit a question (as in the Ask A Volcanologist service). AskA services have also tended to develop more in terms of software and systems. Early examples include Ask Dr. Math® , the MadSci Network, and How Things Work . Though there are excellent examples of software development in the library arena [Meola and Starmont, 2002], library services have by and large adopted software from the help desk and e-commerce community, such as LSSI and 24/7 Reference's use of eGain® and the common use of LivePerson® and NetAgent. While this may be changing, AskA services still remain a hot bed of systems development. Another common attribute with AskA services is their attention to the primary and secondary education community. In the case of some services, this attention is part of a larger view of the general Internet population, but in many cases, it is a special attention where education is foremost and the general population is welcome as well. This can be seen in Dr. Math and MadSci Networks. It can also be seen in services, such as AskERIC, which focus on education professionals. Education AskA Service Exemplar: AskERIC While the KidsConnect discussion sheds light on digital reference use by primary and secondary education students, AskERIC can shed light on use of digital reference by education professionals. AskERIC is a project of the U.S. Department of Education's ERIC program. It was initiated and is still operated by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology (though nearly all ERIC components (Clearinghouses, ACCESS ERIC, the ERIC Processing Facility and even the parent institution of ERIC, the National Library of Education) are involved in answering questions). AskERIC has two primary components: a question/answering service staffed by ERIC library and education professionals (see Figure 12 for the volume of questions), and a virtual library of lesson plans, which contains pointers to reviewed sites on the Internet and an archive of previously asked questions. A more in-depth description, though slightly dated, can be found in the author's dissertation [Lankes 1999b]. The purpose of AskERIC is to answer questions related to all areas of the education process. The emphasis on education professionals can be seen in AskERIC's mission as well, see Figure 13, by AskERIC's users. This distribution of users, with the majority being K-12 teachers followed by graduate students (pre-service educators are traditionally heavy users of any ERIC service), is in line with AskERIC's stated mission: AskERIC is a personalized Internet-based service providing education information to teachers, librarians, counselors, administrators, parents, and anyone interested in education throughout the United States and the world. [AskERIC, 2002] In fact, AskERIC explicitly does not answer "homework help" questions: Thank you for visiting the AskERIC Web site! If you are a K-12 student with a homework question, AskERIC may not have the resources to respond to your question. AskERIC is designed to provide education information to teachers, librarians, counselors, administrators, parents, students, and others throughout the United States and the world. Our focus is not on the specific things you are learning in school; instead, we specialize in research and ideas about how students of all ages learn best. As an example, we can respond to a question such as "What is the best time of day to teach math?", but not "What is the formula to determine the radius of a circle?". If you are looking for information in other specific subject areas or need homework help, you probably won't find AskERIC very helpful. Instead, you may want to investigate the following sites which are designed specifically for students. [AskERIC, 2002a] All student questions received by AskERIC are forwarded to other services such as the Virtual Reference Desk. What can one determine about AskERIC users besides their educational roles? First, one can determine the education level about which users were asking (a K-12 teacher was asking a question about high school, for example) as seen in Figure 14: One can also analyze the nature of the questions being asked by the professional community. AskERIC user surveys provide the anticipated use of the information gained as seen in Figure 15: Using subject line analysis once again, Figure 16 shows question types identified in AskERIC questions: Figure 17 shows the relative stability of this question distribution over time: In Figure 16 and Figure 17, "subjects" refers to particular topics or academic disciplines taught in the classroom. (Note: information from AskERIC responses may be used in higher and continuing education contexts as seen in Figure 18 where 18% of answers were intended for higher or adult education.) Figure 19 shows the relative stability of these subjects over time: Of particular interest in Figure 19 is the predominance of "language arts" as a topic for educators versus "science" for students, as seen in Figure 4 of the KidsConnect sample. One possible reason for this difference may be the abundance of science material on the Internet (particularly education-related science material) versus instructional resources in language and English instruction. Aside from the information AskERIC provides on digital reference use by education professionals, it also provides an exemplar of reference authoring [Lankes, 2001]. Reference authoring refers to the capture of information in the reference process and the transformation of this information into resources that can be used outside the reference process as part of a larger digital library context. This authoring process can be from the simple, say the creation of frequently asked questions on a web site, to the complex, say the creation on the MadSci knowledge base. The heart of the AskERIC website consists of a resource collection: In response to questions we've received at AskERIC, our network information specialists have compiled over 3000 resources on a variety of educational issues. This collection includes Internet sites, educational organizations, and electronic discussion groups. [AskERIC, 2002b] This resource collection acts not only as a set of Internet links for end-users, but for AskERIC digital reference specialists as well. As digital reference specialists constantly comb over this collection of Internet resources, ERIC citations, discussion groups and more, they are also finding new resources to add and old resources to delete. This means that it is the digital reference process itself that is used as collection development, annotation and expert review. AskERIC is only one example of AskA services geared specifically to the education community. It does, however, serve as a revelatory case. In the AskERIC exemplar we see the predominance of asynchronous technologies, high-volume usage, and the interconnection of the reference process with systems and digital libraries. Digital reference for primary and secondary education has a rich and well-documented tradition. It serves as a revelatory case for other digital reference research and provides valuable insight into digital libraries that serve the education community as well as other communities. What is apparent from this small examination of digital reference in the education context is that all levels of education use digital reference services and education questions, while covering a broad range of topics, concentrate most heavily on science (in the case of students) and language arts (in the case of education professionals). Also apparent is the usefulness of education digital reference services as research environments. AskA services and library reference services alike hold large data sets of question and answer transactions. These data sets can be used to evaluate how questions are asked, what topics are of interest to the education community, and what language is used by the education community, as well as used to examine myriad other facts. Some of these data sets are publicly available on the Internet, while others are proprietary due to privacy concerns. From this examination of digital reference services, some methodological techniques can be added to the digital reference research discussion. First among these is the concept of subject line analysis. This technique seems to provide excellent exploratory power and may provide a rapid way to compare question types across services. Lastly, analysis of digital reference services targeted towards the primary and secondary education community (or at least the study of these services) provides a wealth of models, theories and frameworks that can be brought to bear in future research. From The Lankes/Sutton Framework, the General Digital Reference Model (resulting from Lankes' complexity framework) to White's evaluative framework, there are rich analytic tools that can be used in the broader digital reference and digital library domain. Ask Joan of Art®, <http://americanart.si.edu/study/reference-main.html>. [ALA] American Library Association Presidential Committee on Information Literacy. (1989). Final report. Chicago: Author. (ED 315 028). [Bennett] Bennett, B. (1998). Pilot testing the KidsConnect service. In Lankes, R. and Kasowitz, A. (ED), AskERIC starter kit: How to build and maintain digital reference services, (pp. 147-150). Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse University. [Bristow] Bristow, A. "Academic Reference Service over Electronic Mail." College & Research Libraries News, 53 (1992): 631-632. [Collier] Collier, M. (1997). International Symposium on Research, Development, and Practice in Digital Libraries. [Ferguson and Bunge] Ferguson, C. D. and C. A. Bunge. "The Shape of Services to Come: Values-based Reference Service for the Largely Digital Library." College & Research Libraries, 58 (1997): 252-65. [Gross, et al.] Gross, M., McClure, C., Hodges, R., Graham, A., and Lankes, R. (2002). Phase II: Site Visit Summary Report. [Janes] Janes, J. (2000). Current Research in Digital Reference. VRD Proceedings. (Online) <http://www.vrd.org/conferences/VRD2000/proceedings/janes-intro.shtml>. [Kresh] Kresh, D. (2000). Offering High Quality Reference Service on the Web. D-Lib Magazine, 6(6). (Online) <http://www.dlib.org/dlib/june00/kresh/06kresh.html>. [Lankes and Sutton] Lankes, R. David and Sutton, Stuart A. (1999). "Developing a Mission for the National Education Network: The Challenge of Seamless Access." Government Information Quarterly. 16(2). [Lankes, 1999a] Lankes, R.D. (1999a). "The Virtual Reference Desk: Question Interchange Profile." White Paper for the Virtual Reference Desk. ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology; Syracuse, NY. [Lankes, 1999b] Lankes, R. (1999b). Dissertation: Building & Maintaining Internet Information Services, Syracuse University. [Lankes, 1999c] Lankes, R. D. (1999). "AskA's Lesson Learned from K-12 Digital Reference Services." Reference & User Services Quarterly. 38(1). [Lankes and Shostack] Lankes, R. and Shostack, P. (Forthcoming) "The Necessity of Real-Time: Fact and Fiction in Digital Reference Systems." Reference and User Services Quarterly. [Lankes et al.] Lankes, R. David, Collins, J. and Kasowitz, A. S. (Eds.). (2000). Digital Reference: Models for the New Millennium. New York: Neal-Schuman. [Lankes, 2001] Lankes, R. D. (2001). "Creating a New Reference Librarianship." VRD Proceedings. (Online) <http://www.vrd.org/conferences/VRD2001/proceedings/reinventing.shtml>. [Lewis] Lewis, M. (2001). "Faking it." The New York Times Magazine, New York; July 15, 2001. [LITA] LITA (1999). Top Tech Trends. (Online) <http://www.lita.org/committe/toptech/trendsmw99.htm>. [Mancall et al.] Mancall, J. and Stafford, B. and Zanger, C. (1999). ICONnect: A Snapshot of the First Three Years. Knowledge Quest. 28(1), p24-37. [Marchionini] Marchionini, G. (1999). Augmenting Library Services: Toward the Sharium. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Digital Libraries 1999 (Tsukuba, Japan, September 28-29, 1999). 40-47. <http://ils.unc.edu/~march/sharium/ISDL.pdf>. [Mardikian and Kesselman] Mardikian, J., and Kesselman, M. (1995). Beyond the desk: Enhanced reference staffing for the electronic library. Reference Services Review, 23 (1), p21-28. [Meola and Starmont] Meola, M. and Starmont, S. (2002). Starting and Operating Live Virtual Reference Services: A How-To-Do-It Manual for Librarians. New York: Neal-Schuman. [Mon] Mon, L. (2000). "Digital Reference Service." Government Information Quarterly, 17(3) 309-318. [NSDL] NSDL (2002). National Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Education Digital Library (NSDL) (Online) <http://www.ehr.nsf.gov/ehr/due/programs/nsdl> <http://www.nsf.gov/search97cgi/vtopic>. [National Research Council] National Research Council (1998). Developing a Digital National Library for Undergraduate Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Technology Education. NRC workshop, August 7-8, 1997. (Online). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. <http://books.nap.edu/books/0309059771/html/R1.html> (ED425928). [Still and Campbell] Still, J., and Campbell, F. (1993). Librarian in a box: The Use of electronic mail for reference. Reference Services Review, 21(1), pp 15-18. [Tyckoson] Tyckoson, D. (2002). On the Desirableness of Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers: The Past and Future of Reference Service. The Future of Reference Papers, (Online) <http://www.ala.org/rusa/forums/tyckoson_forum.html>. [White] White, M. D., Ed. (1999). Analyzing Electronic Question/Answer Services: Framework and Evaluations of Selected Services. ERIC Document ED433019. [Virtual Reference Desk] Virtual Reference Desk (2002). VRD Conferences. (Online) <http://www.vrd.org/conf-train.shtml>. (Corrected coding for navigational links to the editorial and guest editorial 8/31/05.) Copyright © R. David Lankes

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One of the Four Great Ancient Capitals of China, Beijing’s roots can be traced back over 3,000 years. Beijing is located in the north of the country, and its name in fact means ‘northern capital’. The city has played a vital role in China since Emperor Qin united China in 221 BC, and it was the capital city of the Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties which ruled China for 1,000 years until the 20th century. The Qing dynasty came to an end in 1911 due to the Xinhai Revolution, a movement for a Chinese Republic. In 1916 the new emperor, Yuan Shikai, died and Beijing fell under the control of regional warlords. Royal residences were ransacked and burned down, and the country degenerated into a semi-feudal society. It took more than three decades for China to recover and on 1st October 1949 the Communist Party Leader, Chairman Mao Zedong, announced the creation of the People's Republic of China. Modern day Beijing is home to 17 million residents and is an integral part of China’s prosperity. Beijing is a great starting point to explore this vast, populous country, and the coastal metropolis of Shanghai is just 1,000 kilometres to the south. Beijing has been described as ‘a portal between centuries’. Every successive dynasty has made its mark on the city, from the ornate buildings of Imperial China and the boxy architecture of the 1950-70s Sino-Soviet era to proliferation of 21st century skyscrapers. Imperial China is the most eye-catching place to start, at the 15th century imperial palaces of The Forbidden City. The courtyard-after-courtyard-after-courtyard of The Forbidden City makes up the enormous centre of the ancient walled city of Beijing. It was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 and is the world’s largest collection of preserved ancient wooden structures. Just outside of Beijing’s centre is Summer Palace, another UNESCO World Heritage Site and the summer retreat for the Qing Dynasty emperors. Equally as impressive in winter, its collection of palaces, landscaped gardens, gentle hills, pavilions, temples and bridges combine to create a harmonious and breathtaking setting. The architecture of the 1950s has been put to good use in the Dashanzi art district, also known as Factory 798. This thriving community is housed in decommissioned Bauhaus-style military factories, where art galleries, fashion designers, photographers and writers exhibit their wares to numerous visitors. Modern Chinese architecture is best exemplified by the Beijing National Stadium which attracts up to 30,000 visitors a day. Constructed for the 2008 Beijing Olympics, it is better known as the Birds' Nest due to the myriad of steel beams which criss-cross its exterior. The world’s largest Chinatown, Beijing is the ultimate destination to try Chinese cuisine. Street food is abundant and delicious: try little steamed ‘baozi’ buns, peking duck or cold noodles with cucumber, tofu and sesame seeds. However, only the strongest of stomach may want to sample the roasted scorpions. Head to the famous lantern-lit road of Guijie Street to try a hot pot; this Asian fondue is a simmering stock in which guests cook their own food. Or try Peking Duck in Chao Yang Park – clichéd but delicious and an experience in itself. Nightlife in Beijing is both lively and fun, and the bar and club scenes at San Li Tun and Hou Hai run so far into the next day that’ll you be glad of Beijing’s 24-hour food culture. The Great Wall of China, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the Seven Wonders of the World, embraces such broad dimensions that nothing else compares. It runs 10,000 miles across China from east to west, and can be seen from space. The closest place to visit it is in Badaling, just 75kms north of Beijing. However, it pays to travel an extra 45kms to the 14th century Simatai section in Gubeikou: it is less touristy and the wall is in far better condition. This section is 5.4kms long with 35 watchtowers which snake along the mountain ridges and is a truly remarkable place for sightseeing, hiking and exploration.

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The VLT Active Optics System Due to the low ratio between their thickness and their diameter, the VLT primary mirrors will be rather flexible and sensitive to various disturbances, requiring permanent control of their optical shape. Active optics consists in applying controlled forces to the primary mirror and in moving the secondary mirror in order to cancel out the errors. The scheme was developped by ESO for the 3.5-m New Technology Telescope (NTT) and is now applied to the VLT. The system must essentially compensate for static or slowly varying deformations such as manufacturing errors, thermal effects, low frequency components of wind buffeting, telescope inclination, ... It is also used when changing between Cassegrain and Nasmyth foci. A schematic view of the system is shown below. (Drawing by Ed Janssen, ESO) DescriptionThe different elements of the active optics system of the VLT are the primary mirror, with its active support system located within the M1 Cell structure, the M2 unit, the CCD Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (WFS) located in the sensor arm of the adapter, and the computer analysing the wavefront sensor data. There are three modes of operation, that are described below BaselineThe active optics baseline operation is the correction of wavefront aberrations generated by the optics of the telescope and by slowly varying temperature inhomogeneities in or near the building. The corrections are based on an image analysis. The active optics system constantly monitors the optical quality of the image using an offset reference star as it is picked up in the field by the wavefront sensor CCD in the adapter sensor arm. The same offset star is also used by the acquisition and autoguiding CCD. The system controls the relative position and the shape of the optical elements. The primary mirror shape can be actively controlled by varying the force pattern applied by means of its support system. The latter consists of 150 computer controlled axial actuators, applying a distribution of forces at the back of the mirror. Periodically the image analyzer calculates the deviation of the image from the best quality. The image analysis typically requires about 30 seconds (1/30 Hz) in order to integrate out the effect of atmospheric seeing. The computer decomposes the deviation into single optical contributions (defocus, astigmatism, coma etc...) and calculates the force correction which each active element has to perform to achieve the optimal quality. The set of 150 correction forces, one for each axial actuator, is computed and transmitted to the local control of the M1 Cell-M3 Tower for execution. The focus and coma terms are corrected by displacements of the secondary mirror. Fast correctionsThe feedback scheme is the same as above but here the maximum frequency for fast corrections is 1 Hz. These shorter integration times reduce the signal to noise ratio of measurements and affect both the sky coverage (requirement of brighter guide stars in the field) and the number of aberrations which can be corrected (only the lowest spatial frequency ones). Open loop corrections This mode does not use feedback information from the image analyser. The open loop mode is used in the absence of any sufficiently bright guide star, or in the case of image analysis failure, or as initialization for baseline operation after a new telescope preset. For this type of operation accurately predicted forces on M1 (dependent on telescope tube inclination) and predicted positions (dependent also on temperature) are required. More technical information on the principles of active optics can be obtained in the following publications: R. Wilson, F. Franza, L. Noethe, Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 34/4, 1987, p. 485 L. Noethe et al., Journal of Modern Optics, vol. 35/9, 1988, p. 1427

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I've heard that the "smog" in NYC actually helps plants and vegetables grow better. Is there any truth to this, or is it one of those things New Yorkers say to make themselves feel better, like "We have the best drinking water in the country"? -Sarah from Astoria, NY I'm sorry to burst your Big Apple bubble, but this is just wishful thinking. I'll start by blowing your mind and totally turning the question around: Do plants affect the air quality in polluted cities? Trees planted in urban areas have actually been proven to reduce air pollution by doing what they do naturally, which is filter the air. Plants suck in carbon dioxide (along with the pollution) and release clean oxygen back into the environment. Woohoo, new clean air! But the flipside of all this is that the plant is sucking in polluted carbon dioxide. And that pollution has gotta end up somewhere... Toxins pulled in from air, water and soil can eventually be transferred to the leaves and fruit of the plant. All plants are affected differently: Tomatoes, for example, harbor toxins in their leaves and not in their fruit, so you're safe if you're only eating the tomatoes and not the leaves like a weirdo. Trees planted along the streets of NYC are actually chosen for their high rate of filtration. High filtering trees help clean the air better, but they also have a strong tolerance for pollution so they can survive the tough NYC air conditions. To learn more about trees planted in NYC, check out the Million Trees Initiative- you can request a tree to be planted on your block! So, sorry Sarah... your New York City garden does not like the smog. But hey, at least you don't live in super-smoggy Los Angeles! If anyone has a specific plant they're growing and would like to know how pollution is affecting it, comment below and I'll find the answer! Have a question? Send it to Green Thumb Conundrums!

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A Brief History The Bureau’s first field office in Cincinnati opened in 1913 under the leadership of Special Agent in Charge Hinton G. Clabaugh. Over the next several years, as the Bureau’s responsibilities grew, the office investigated everything from interstate prostitution to potential espionage during World War I. 1920s and 1930s In 1920, Cincinnati became one of the Bureau’s eight field divisions, overseeing much of the administrative work of several other offices. In 1926, the division was moved to Columbus, Ohio. |Special Agent in Charge L.C. Schilder In November 1929, an office in Cincinnati was reopened with L.C. Schilder as special agent in charge. At that time, the division’s territory was far-ranging, encompassing all of Ohio and parts of Kentucky and Indiana. When Bureau offices were established in Indianapolis in 1934 and Cleveland in 1935, the Cincinnati Division’s territory was limited to the Southern Judicial District of Ohio. Still, the division handled a large and diverse number of cases, from helping to pursue John Dillinger to breaking up a number of significant interstate prostitution rings. Nelson B. Klein On August 16, 1935, the division lost its first agent in the line of duty—Special Agent Nelson B. Klein. The 37-year-old Klein and another agent were pursing a man named George Barrett for car theft and other charges when they tracked him to the northeast border of Indiana. The agents spotted Barrett and asked him to surrender, but he opened fire. Klein was mortally wounded, but his return fire struck Barrett in both legs. The criminal was captured and ultimately convicted of the murder. He was the first person to receive the death penalty under 1934 legislation that outlawed the murder of a federal agent. World War II and the 1950s With the advent of World War II in 1939, the focus of the division—along with the rest of the Bureau—turned to national security matters. In the coming years, the Cincinnati office searched for spies, helped strengthen the security of manufacturing plants in the area, searched for draft evaders and enemy aliens, and handled other war-time responsibilities. When a band of Nazi saboteurs landed on U.S. soil in 1942, Cincinnati agents helped track down their various contacts. One odd case came along in 1945. A highly explosive thermite bomb was on exhibit at the Gibson Hotel in Cincinnati when a curious newspaper boy picked it up and dropped it out of the window, scaring nearby pedestrians. Cincinnati agents responded to the scene along with police and fire personnel. The bomb didn’t ignite, and no one was harmed. As World War II came to an end, the Cincinnati Division joined the rest of the FBI in handling Cold War espionage and related national security cases. Meanwhile, agents continued to handle a variety of criminal investigations—such as pursuing two robbers who stole $160,000 from a bank in Thornville and a group of individuals who sabotaged telephone lines. In late 1947, the division’s work led to the indictment of 17 people in connection with a major prostitution ring operating in and around Ohio. |Cincinnati agents in 1949| Some cases were easier than others. In 1950, a fugitive named Fred Whiteacre stopped to stare at his own wanted poster in a federal building. He was quickly arrested by Cincinnati agents. The division also worked to identify surreptitious communist influence in certain unions and to halt attempts by bookies to fix games by intimidating college basketball players. In May 1959, division agents arrested the last escaped prisoner of war from World War II—a German soldier who had been captured in northern Africa but had escaped confinement in Ohio in 1945. The soldier lived and worked under an assumed identity for years, but ultimately turned himself in to the Bureau. 1960s and 1970s The division continued to tackle a wide range of cases during the 1960s and 1970s. |Early Cincinnati field office| In 1963, agents investigated the fraudulent awarding of contracts at a local air force base. Two years later, the office assisted the Bureau’s disaster squad in responding to the crash of an American Airlines flight that killed 58 people near Cincinnati. In the late 1960s, agents tracked the radical activities of black nationalists like H. Rapp Brown, hoping to gain insight into the race riots taking place across the nation. In 1969, the division joined with the FBI office in New Orleans and IRS agents in building a successful case against organized crime figures Sam DiPiazza and William Demming on illegal gambling, tax violation, and other charges. Stronger laws in the coming years would help the FBI to more systematically take down larger Mafia crime families. By 1971, a total of 117 special agents and 75 support staff in Cincinnati were handling an average workload of 2,398 criminal cases, 1,118 national security investigations, and 169 applicant and other matters. In the late 1970s, Cincinnati agents rescued a 3-year-old boy kidnapped from his home and arrested two brothers who plotted to blow up an Ohio school. 1980s and 1990s During the next two decades, the division focused largely on cases of white-collar crime, violent crime, property crime, organized crime, and foreign espionage. In December 1982, tragedy struck when four Chicago Division agents were killed in an airplane accident near Montgomery, Ohio. The agents—Terry Burnett Hereford, Charles L. Ellington, Robert W. Conners, and Michael James Lynch—were accompanying bank fraud suspect Carl Henry Johnson and an individual from the law firm representing him to an area where agents believed Johnson had stashed $50,000 in embezzled money. The plane—which was piloted by two of the agents and was apparently experiencing problems with its altitude readings—crashed on approach to Lunken Airport. No one aboard survived. |Raymond Luc Levasseur| On November 4, 1984, local police and Cincinnati agents arrested Ten Most Wanted fugitive Raymond Luc Levasseur and his wife in Deerfield, Ohio. A founding member of a left-wing terrorist group known as the United Freedom Front, Levasseur had been placed on the FBI’s Top Ten list in 1977 for his role in a series of bombings and bank robberies across the northeastern United States. He was convicted in 1986 and served in prison until 2004. On November 3, 1988, the division arrested another Top Ten fugitive, John Edward Stevens, who was sought in connection with 22 bank robberies across the country. In the late 1980s, the office handled a number of significant cases, including the collapse of the Home State Savings Bank of Cincinnati and a wide-ranging scheme to fix harness races that led to the indictment of more than a dozen conspirators. From 1986 through 1989, the Cincinnati Division investigated the illegal gambling activities of baseball star and Cincinnati Reds manager Pete Rose, who was later banned from the game. In the late 1980s, the division also investigated a hospital attendant named Donald Harvey, who claimed to have murdered as many as 87 people while working in various medical facilities in Kentucky and Ohio. Harvey was eventually sentenced to several life terms. In the 1980s, Cincinnati agents and IRS investigators began investigating price-fixing in the sale of industrial diamonds used for cutting and grinding tools. The case—which made use of court-authorized wiretaps and the federal witness protection program—led to indictments in March 1994. In July 2001, division agents arrested Danny William Kincaid, the Ohio leader of the white supremacist group known as Aryan Nations, for possessing an explosive device and a trove of other weapons. He pled guilty the following year. Following the events of 9/11, the Cincinnati Division joined with the rest of the Bureau in making the prevention of terrorist attacks its top priority. It strengthened its Joint Terrorism Task Force, which has components in both Cincinnati and Columbus, and set up a Field Intelligence Group. The terror task force was soon involved in some key investigations. In 2003, working with agents from FBI Headquarters and various partners, the Cincinnati Division began investigating an Ohio truck driver named Iyman Faris. Faris admitted having personal contact with several individuals tied to terrorism, and agents later learned that he had been tasked by al Qaeda operatives with attacking the Brooklyn Bridge and other targets. He pled guilty to terrorism support charges and was sentenced to 20 years in prison in October 2003. Faris also led investigators to Nuradin Abdi—a Somali national living in Columbus—who had plotted with Faris to blow up a shopping mall and discussed potential missile attacks against U.S. landmarks. Abdi pled guilty to various terrorism support charges in July 2007. A third co-conspirator, Christopher Paul, pled guilty in June 2008 to plotting to use a weapon of mass destruction against targets in the United States and Europe. Meanwhile, the division continued its work on criminal cases, investigating everything from mortgage fraud and other white-collar crimes to drug trafficking and child pornography. With new intelligence capabilities, new and deepened cooperation with a variety of law enforcement and intelligence partners, and new post-9/11 legal authorities and resources, the Cincinnati Division is committed to continuing its work to protect local communities and the country from a range of national security and criminal threats.

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On This Day - 15 April 1918 Theatre definitions: Western Front comprises the Franco-German-Belgian front and any military action in Great Britain, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Holland. Eastern Front comprises the German-Russian, Austro-Russian and Austro-Romanian fronts. Southern Front comprises the Austro-Italian and Balkan (including Bulgaro-Romanian) fronts, and Dardanelles. Asiatic and Egyptian Theatres comprises Egypt, Tripoli, the Sudan, Asia Minor (including Transcaucasia), Arabia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Persia, Afghanistan, Turkestan, China, India, etc. Naval and Overseas Operations comprises operations on the seas (except where carried out in combination with troops on land) and in Colonial and Overseas theatres, America, etc. Political, etc. comprises political and internal events in all countries, including Notes, speeches, diplomatic, financial, economic and domestic matters. Source: Chronology of the War (1914-18, London; copyright expired) Fighting continues on Bailleul-Wulverghem line, and Germans capture both places. Very violent artillery action in Luce Valley (Somme). Finland: Germans report occupation of Helsingfors. Macedonia: Greek troops cross Struma river and occupy villages in Seres district. British troops take two villages south-west of Demirhissar. Naval and Overseas Operations British Naval forces sink ten German armed trawlers in Kattegat. Austria: Count Czernin's resignation announced.

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Who Invented Fireworks Article Fourth of July for Kids There are many different ways that the Fourth of July can be celebrated. Each year, families everywhere participate in some sort of activity to celebrate the Fourth of July. This year, if you are searching for a way to celebrate the Fourth of July, you should consider simply doing things that surround the enjoyment of your child. Here, you will find many suggestions that you can use to create a Fourth of July for kids. You can implement one of these suggestions this Fourth of July, or all of them! One of the first ways that you can create a Fourth of July for kids is to encourage children to dress in the American colors. You may even allow children to purchase an outfit that reflects the American spirit. You can allow children to create an American hat, or other accessories that they can wear. You may choose to purchase small flags that they can wave as they walk around throughout the day. You may want to teach them what the different symbols and colors on the American flag represent and encourage them to teach others throughout the day of the Fourth of July. A Fourth of July for kids can include teaching many patriotic songs like “Yankee Doodle”, and teaching the history of the song and why the lyrics are what they are. It is also a great idea to check out books from the library that tell the story of the Fourth of July. These books should be the appropriate grade level for the child that you are sharing it with. There are numerous books, for example, that teach about the Fourth of July for very small children so that they have a basic understanding of the events of the day and why we celebrate it. If you want to celebrate a Fourth of July for kids, you should consider creating many arts and crafts that surround the holiday. You may want to create a firework display from paper, and American flag from fabric or poster board, and similar other things. There are many things that you can create using various items around the house that can teach children about the Fourth of July. This type of tactile learning allows many children to comprehend lessons more easily. If you are going to host a Fourth of July party, you should allow your child to decorate for the event using the lessons that they have learned regarding this holiday. This can prove to be a lot of fun for the child and the people who attend the event will enjoy the creativity of the child. You may also want to allow the child to create small flags or a variety of other items to give to the guests as a thank you for coming to the Fourth of July party.

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Folic Acid and Birth Defects For at least three decades researchers have suggested that low folic acid intake during pregnancy is related to birth defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly. Two more recent studies, one in Hungary and another in England, are even more convincing that supplementing a pregnant woman's diet with this B vitamin dramatically decreases her baby's chance of birth defects. Hungarian researchers worked with almost 5000 pregnant women. Every day half of the women received a multi vitamin and mineral tablet containing 800 micrograms of folic acid. The rest took a tablet with a minimum of nutrients and no folic acid. All the women took their tablets one month before conception and continued through their first trimester. The folic acid group had 40 percent less birth defects than the women given none of this vitamin and none of their babies with neural tube problems. There were six cases of neural tube defects among the newborns whose mothers who didn't take folic acid (13). When English investigators gave four milligrams of folic acid each day to women who had given birth to a child with a neural tube defect in the past, the results were even more pronounced. Almost three-quarters of these supplemented women delivered children free from this birth defect (14). As of last September, health officials at the Centers for Disease Control recommended that all women of childbearing age should take folic acid as a preventive measure (15). - Needleman HL, Gatsonis CA. Low-level lead exposure and the IQ of children. Journal of the American Medical Association 1990;263(5): 673-78. - Anon. Fatal pediatric poisoning from leaded paint--Wisconsin, 1990. Journal of the American Medical Association 1991;265(16): 2050-51. - Jaroff L. Controlling a childhood menace. Time 1991, February 25: 68-69. - Sibbison JB. USA: lead in soil. The Lancet 1992;339: 921-22. - Anon. Is aluminum a dementing ion? The Lancet 1992;339: 713-14. - Sherrard DJ. Aluminum--much ado about something. The New England Journal of Medicine 1991;324(8): 558-9. - Farrar G et al. Defective gallium-transferrin binding in Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome: possible mechanism for accumulation of aluminum in brain. The Lancet 1990;335: 747-50. - Rosenberg IH, Miller JW. Nutritional factors in physical and cognitive functions of elderly people. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1992;55: 1237S-43S. - Jenner FA. Vitamins in schizophrenia. The Lancet 1973, October 6: 787-88. - Foster HD. The geography of schizophrenia: possible links with selenium and calcium deficiencies, inadequate exposure to sunlight and industrialization. Journal of Orthomolecular Medicine 1988;3(3): 135-40. - Nielsen FH. Nutritional requirements for boron, silicon, vanadium, nickel, and arsenic: currently knowledge and speculation. Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology 1991;5: 2661-2667. - McBride J. The making of an essential element? Agricultural Research 1989, April: 12-13. - Czeizel AE, Dudas I. Prevention of the first occurrence of neural-tube defects by periconceptional vitamin supplementation. The New England Journal of Medicine 1992;327(26): 1832-35. - MRC Vitamin Study Research Group. Prevention of neural tube defects: results of the Medical Research Council Vitamin Study 1991;338(8760): 131-37. - Cimons M. US advises folic acid use to reduce birth defects. Los Angeles Times 1992, September 15: A1 & A17.

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The Curandera's Garden It is not uncommon for a Mexican to consult a curandera for spiritual healing while under a medical doctor's care. E-mail This Page to Your Friendsx A link to %this page% was e-mailed In the 15th century Florentine Codex of Aztec physicians, the healer is "well versed in herbs, who knows, through experience the roots, the trees, the stones. She keeps her secrets and traditions." The healer is clearly female. But where the Codex covers Aztec physicians, the text indicates this role applies to the male gender. Today the role of healer or "curandera" still exists in Hispanic culture. It is not uncommon for a Mexican to consult a curandera for spiritual healing while under a medical doctor's care. For the very poor with no access to modern medicine, the curandera serves both roles, blending the art of healing the mind with the administration of botanical medicines. In the Mexican neighborhoods of most Southwestern cities you'll find botanicas, which are herb stores that carry dried traditional plant cures of the curandera's trade. If she is fortunate enough to have a plot of land, the curandera would tend a garden of useful plants for her own fresh harvest. Some of these plants are quite toxic poisons, but in her training she learned the proper dosage and preparation. Many, such as morning glory and peyote, would be divination plants handed down to her from the Aztec Nahuatl traditions. The most common of these potent medicines is called 'tlapatl' in Nahuatl or 'toloache' in Spanish. It is the wild datura of the desert and Mexico. This nightshade contains serious medicine and may be the single most powerful plant in this garden. The curandera's garden would also contain New World natives and some European herbs introduced by the Spanish early on. Maguey agave is perhaps the most ubiquitous plant in Mexico because of its use in the fermentation of an alcoholic beverage known as "pulque." Its fiber is utilized for everything from scrub brushes to weaving cloth. The agave leaf was scraped and boiled to treat assorted venereal diseases The many benefits of "nopal" or prickly pear, Opuntia ficus indica, are just now coming to light in the alternative medicine community. Flat paddle-shaped stems of this plant are chopped and simmered down to a potent brew. It is the main component of treating maladies of the heart such as angina and edema. The mix is drunk on a daily basis as a preventative. The many forms of sagebrush, genus Artemisia, are known as 'ajenjo.' They include both native and European species, all of which are strongly bitter and potentially toxic. The herbs have been used in the Old World and the New to treat intestinal parasites. They also can make up a powerful antibacterial for treating infected wounds. Some very long-lived woody shrubs also fall into this curandera garden pharmacoepia. Bushy apache plume, Fallugia paradoxa, is a desert shrub known as 'ponil.' Aspirin-like qualities are found in its inner bark, much like that of aspen and willow. A strong tea of the root and bark is also used for hair-loss treatment. Bright red Ocotillo blossoms from the woody 'oqueria splendens' are boiled, and the tea used to treat sore throat and tonsillitis. The leaves of a bright yellow trumpet flowered shrubby vine, Tecoma stans, known as "tronadora," are used to treat adult diabetes. It is important to remember that these uses of plants are not medical advice or recommendations. The way each is gathered, prepared and administered can range considerably. This is folk medicine handed down verbally from curandera to apprentice, and all are combined with a strong dose of love and personal attention. The curandera's garden is beautiful because it reflects how people have helped one another for centuries. And no one can deny that when the ocotillo turns to fire and datura perfumes the night air, the Aztec gods are pleased that Nahuatl ways live on in the 21st Century. Find an excellent compendium of plants and their uses in: Los Remedios, by Michael Moore Traditional Herbal Remedies of the Southwest Red Crane Books Maureen Gilmer is a horticulturist and host of Weekend Gardening on DIY-Do It Yourself Network. For more information, visit www.moplants.com or DIYNetwork.com. Distributed by Scripps Howard News Service. On Hawaii's Haleakala volcano you'll find all things lavender -- crafts, soaps and recipes. Garden designer Matt James helps a busy California executive transform her backyard eyesore into a personal refuge.(4 photos) Fitness guru Wes Cole offers valuable advice on how to keep gardening from becoming a pain in the neck -- and back and knees.

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History of Western Political Tradition A brief overview of the development of political philosohpy from Socrates to Marx by John A. Sterling Biblical origins of American Political philosophy by John A. Sterling. A look at the biblical and philosophical origins of self-government. Christianity as an Influence on the Founders A look at some of the best-known founding fathers and what they said about Christianity and the Bible. Also, what their contemporaries said about them and their faith. By John A. Sterling Scroll down the page for Documents and quotes that demonstrate the ideological basis of American Self-Government 1. Magna Carta 2. The Mayflower Compact 3.Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms. 4. The Declaration of Independence 5. The U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights 6. The Federalist Papers This hyperlink takes you to the THOMAS information site maintained by the U.S. Government. To return to the Law & Liberty Foundation, use the BACK button on your browser. 7. Davy Crockett's speech on the Floor of Congress 1830 8. Madison Veto of Public Works Law March 3, 1817 9. Sermon by Samuel West on the right to rebel against governors, 1789 10. Offenses Against God by Sir William Blackstone11. Discourse on Civil Liberty by Nathaniel Niles, legislator, judge, & preacher, (1741-1821) 12. Civil Disobedience: A duty to disobey by Jonathan Mayhew, (1720-1766) Sites on the Web where you can find many more historical documentsLINKS The Constitution Society Articles on Religion and America's Founding

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Born at Belbrook House, Mountrath, Queen's County, Ireland, 1810; died at Manchester, N.H., 17 September, 1884. Left motherless in infancy, she was confined to the care of a maternal grant-aunt who undertook the formation of her religious character according to the method of Fénelon. Naturally of a gay disposition, she was carried away by the frivolities of fashionable life until her scruples led her to confide in her director. She followed his advice in offering her services to the foundress of the Congregation of the Sisters of Mercy, whom she assisted in instructing the little inmates of the House for Homeless Children recently erected. Assuming the plain black habit of the institution in 1828, she conducted the affairs of the home while Mother McAuley and two foundress companions were making their novitiate in the Presentation Convent of George's Hill preparatory to the founding of the new congregation. After their return as professed Sisters of Mercy she and six companions assumed the garb of the congregation. In 1837 Sister Mary Francis Xavier was appointed superior of the convent at Carlow, which had been built under her supervision and was the first house of the congregation outside of Dublin. In 1839 she founded the convent of Naas and in 1840 that of Weyford, to which soon after its establishment the public orphan asylum was affiliated. From Wexford foundations have been sent out as far as Australia. The convent of Sligo is perhaps the most noteworthy of her Irish foundations on account of its flourishing training-school for teachers. In 1843 Bishop O'Connor of Pittsburgh applied to Carlow for a foundation for his diocese, and Mother Warde with a band of six left for America. At Pittsburgh the sisters took charge of the cathedral Sunday school and the instruction of adults. Mother Warde's power of language and sympathy allied to ardent zeal won many to the Church. Parochial schools and academies, visitation of the sick poor in their houses and in the poor house, visitation of the penitentiary, and the opening of the first hospital in Pittsburgh followed each other in rapid succession. In 1846 a foundation was made in Chicago in compliance with Mother Warde's promise to Bishop Quarter. In 1848 she opened a second branch house in the Alleghanies on land given by the Reverend Demetrius Gallitzin within the limits of his Catholic settlement of Loretto. In 1850, though the "Knownothings" had recently burned the convent of the Ursulines near Boston, Mother Warde accepted the invitation of Bishop O'Reilly of Hartford to open a house in Providence. After the sisters' installation a mob surrounded the convent, threatening them with death if they would not immediately vacate the premises. Mother Warde exacted a promise from each of their Catholic defenders that no shot would be fired except in self defence, and the sisters held possession of the convent. One of the rioters had remarked to his companions: We made our plans without reckoning the odds we shall have to contend with in the strong controlling force the presence of that nun commands. The only honourable course for us is to retreat from this ill-conceived fray. I, for one, shall not lift a hand to harm these ladies. In 1852 Mother Warde opened houses in Hartford and New Haven to which free schools were attached; later on academies were opened and the works of mercy inaugurated. In 1854 Mrs. Goodloe Harper, daughter of Charles Carroll of Carrollton, donated to the congregation a house and some ground at Newport, R.I., for a convent and schools. Her daughter, Miss Emily Harper, was also a generous benefactor. In 1857 free and select schools were opened at Rochester, and later at Buffalo, by desire of Bishop Timon. On 16 July, 1858, Mother Warde and a band of missionaries left Providence for Manchester, by invitation of Bishop Bacon of Portland, and there established night schools for factory children. St. Mary's Academy was opened the same year. In 1861, at the request of Bishop Wood, Mother Warde opened a convent at Philadelphia, where free schools and the works of mercy were instituted. In 1864 a foundation was sent to Omaha; in 1865 a branch house and schools were opened at Bangor, Maine; in 1871 a colony of sisters was sent to Yreka, California, and North Whitefield Mission, Maine, was undertaken by Mother Warde, who likewise sent foundations to Jersey City, Bordentown, and Princeton, N.J. In 1857 Bishop Bacon requested her to open an orphanage in Portland, but a disastrous fire delayed the work until 1872, when the Burlington foundation had been begun. The Kavanagh School was given to the sisters by Miss Winifred Kavanagh; an academy was also opened at Portland. On the feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, 1878, Mother Warde sent the sisters to labour among the Indians of Maine at Old Town, Pleasant Point, and Dana's Point. The Government builds the schools houses and pays the sisters salaries for teaching the Indian children. Mother Warde's last works were the opening of an Old Ladies' Home and a Young Ladies' Academy at Deering, Maine. At the time of her golden jubilee in 1883 Mother Warde was the oldest Sister of Mercy living. Her salient characteristics were great purity of heart, earnestness of purpose, sincerity, and large-mindedness. She was exceedingly reserved, but sympathizing and compassionate towards others. Endowed with rare common-sense, she was an optimist in all things. In appearance she was of medium height, erect, and of commanding presence; her forehead was high, and her blue eyes deeply set. Life of Mother M. Xavier Warde (Manchester); Annals of Sisters of Mercy, III-IV. APA citation. (1912). Mary Francis Xavier Warde. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15553a.htm MLA citation. "Mary Francis Xavier Warde." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15553a.htm>. Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by Thomas M. Barrett. Dedicated to my grandmother, Mary Loretta Ashley Barrett. Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. October 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads.

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EVEN a material 10 billion times as strong as steel has a breaking point. It seems neutron stars may shatter under extreme forces, explaining puzzling X-ray flares. Neutron stars are dense remnants of stars gone supernova, packing the mass of the sun into a sphere the size of a city. Their cores may be fluid, but their outer surfaces are solid and extremely tough - making graphene, the strongest material on Earth, look like tissue paper by comparison. These shells may shatter, though, in the final few seconds before a pair of neutron stars merges to form a black hole - a union thought to generate explosions known as short gamma-ray bursts. David Tsang of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena and colleagues have calculated how the mutual gravitational pull of such stars will distort their shape, creating moving tidal bulges. As the stars spiral towards each other, orbiting ever faster, they squeeze and stretch each other ever faster too. A few seconds before the stars merge, the frequency of this squeezing and stretching matches the frequency at which one of the stars vibrates most easily. This creates a resonance that boosts the vibrations dramatically, causing the star's crust to crack in many places - just as a wine glass may shatter when a certain note is sung, the team says (Physical Review Letters, DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.108.011102). The star's gravity is too powerful to let the pieces fly away, but the sudden movement can disturb its magnetic field, accelerating electrons and leading to a powerful X-ray flare. That could explain observations by NASA's Swift satellite in which a blast of X-rays preceded some short gamma-ray bursts by a few seconds. Combining observations of X-ray flares with those of gravitational waves emitted by the stars as they spiral together could fix the exact frequency at which the shattering occurs, which would reveal more about the stars' mysterious interiors, says Tsang. If you would like to reuse any content from New Scientist, either in print or online, please contact the syndication department first for permission. New Scientist does not own rights to photos, but there are a variety of licensing options available for use of articles and graphics we own the copyright to. Have your say Only subscribers may leave comments on this article. Please log in. Only personal subscribers may leave comments on this article

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The world economy is being reshaped by new technologies, services, and trading relationships. Much of this dynamism is fuelled by ambitious developing-world nation-states like Brazil, India and South Africa. As governments, businesses and regional blocs in the global south expand their horizons, they increasingly bypass rich northern states. But is this south-south cooperation any more progressive or less selfish than the more familiar and hegemonic north-south relationship? The idea of south-south cooperation started to influence the field of development studies in the late 1990s. It was fuelled by a growing realisation that poor nations might find appropriate, low-cost and sustainable solutions to their problems in other developing countries rather than in the rich north. It drew on clear examples of existing waste and alternative opportunity; for example, if African farmers need boreholes to access water, it surely makes more sense to access Indias huge pool of expertise than to send expensive European water engineers. The concept quickly spread from the seminar room to the policy chamber. By 1997, Britains new department for international development (DfID) explicitly aimed under its first minister, Clare Short to withdraw from its aid programmes any requirement to use British service providers. The intention was to encourage recipient governments to spend the aid more effectively especially on solutions sourced from other developing nations. By the early 2000s, some forward-thinking developing nations themselves were incorporating this altruistic principle into their foreign policies. Luís Ignácio Lula da Silvas Brazil is just beginning to make Africa part of its wider effort to build the countrys global profile; recently it granted fellow-Lusophone Mozambique a project to install and staff its own factory producing anti-retroviral HIV drugs, thus reducing its reliance on expensive imports. China and Africa An even more potent example of south-south cooperation is the Peoples Republic of China. Chinas presence in Africa goes back centuries: archaeologists digging in the ruins of Africas great medieval trading states at Timbuktu and Great Zimbabwe have found fine porcelain and other evidence of a trading network that spanned half the world. After the PRC was founded in 1949, the new state based its relations with the developing world on a defined doctrine, the five principles of peaceful coexistence; it also used its own legacy of colonial aggression and experience of liberation to forge links with the African nation-states emerging from colonial rule. China in the 1960s lacked the resources of the cold-war superpowers, but still invested significant energies in support of independent Africa. The PRC, driven by perceived ideological, anti-imperialist affinities, dispatched Chinese technicians to nominally leftist states to provide military training, modest economic aid and infrastructural monuments to socialist solidarity. The era of liberation wars in the 1970s saw China choose sides and patronise its favoured forces, as in Angola. This interest receded in the 1980s as Chinese development efforts were diverted inwards. But the post-Tiananmen period gave earlier ideological bonds a fresh twist: the hostility of many African leaders to democratic pressures and (especially) western, hegemonic conceptions of human rights chimed with Chinas own preconceptions. Throughout the 1990s, China increased its aid to African governments and resumed its earlier rhetoric of mutual respect and concern for diversity a discourse that resounded strongly in a continent highly attuned to the perceived neo-colonial reflexes of the former ruling powers. In return, Beijing received recognition of its sovereignty over Taiwan, indifference to its human-rights abuses, and support in international organisations. In 2000, a new China-Africa cooperation forum agreed a joint economic and social programme, one that lent a developmental and commercial slant to the five principles. China has subsequently been well in advance of the G8 by cancelling $10 billion of the debt it is owed by African states; at the second Sino-Africa business conference in December 2003, China offered further debt relief to thirty-one African countries, as well as opening the prospect of zero-tariff trade. The tensions in what might be called Chinas developmental evangelism in Africa are evident. The ideological underpinnings retain some potency and the principle of non-interference in domestic politics persists. But as Chinese commercial interests dominate the relationship, the strain of avoiding entanglement in ethically and politically complex questions increases. For China, insensitivity to human-rights abuses can be finessed as respecting cultural diversity, but this gets harder in a more open, regulated trading environment. Rapid economic growth in China in the last decade, coupled with oil exploration and economic diversification in west-central Africa, has created new links. More than 60% of African timber exports are now destined for east Asia; 25% of Chinas oil supplies are now sourced in the gulf of Guinea region. China-Zimbabwe: a special relationship But China is moving beyond merely securing essential inputs to acquiring stakes in potentially productive African enterprises. Zimbabwe is a prime example of the kind of place where China likes to do business. In return for bailing out Robert Mugabes regime with injections of cash, machinery, equipment and military supplies, Chinese state-owned enterprises have assembled a portfolio of shares in some of Zimbabwes prize assets. In buying a 70% stake in the Zimbabwes only electricity generation facilities at Hwange and Kariba, and stakes in the national railway, the Chinese have stepped in where other developing nations (even Libya) have feared to tread. And on a micro-level, Chinese entrepreneurs are quickly supplanting small-scale retailers and local manufactures on Harares streets. Zimbabwes deteriorating political situation and asset-hungry officials may deter most private investors, but the Chinese government can instruct managers of state enterprises to take the risk, rely on good intergovernmental relations to guarantee investment flow, and depend on state coffers to absorb any loss in the last resort. Chinas lack of domestic political criticism, meanwhile, frees its government and companies from reputational risks and pressures that can leave western-based companies exposed. Informed, responsible shareholders might be cautious about backing state-led projects in Sudan or Mauritania which rely on a brutally-enforced stability; such issues have little visibility to the Chinese public. Chinas new hard-nosed Africa policy gives it a strong incentive to circumvent the kind of multilateral aid and investment agendas promoted by Britains Tony Blair and Gordon Brown at the G8 summit, with their inconvenient governance concerns and transparency provisions. As China moves towards becoming the third-largest investor in Africa, its unilateralism will impact on the internal continental map. The South African alternative Amidst the dynamism of the east Asian economies, it is tempting to forget that the continent itself is generating an economic powerhouse. South Africa, freed of its apartheid-era isolationist shackles, has become an interested and aggressive explorer of the rest of the continent. The South African model is mixed: private companies led the charge into the new mobile telecommunications sphere, household names like Shoprite followed across the continent, while para-statals (state-owned enterprises) are also active. Thabo Mbekis economically liberal instincts have been contained by the job-loss fears of his leftist coalition partners, and he has commercialised rather than fully privatised key state enterprises such as the power utility Eskom. This entity has reinforced Mbekis peace plan for the Democratic Republic of Congo by committing its own $500-million investment to the Inga dam, the 3,500-megawatt hydroelectric facility on the Congo river. This project would undoubtedly light up the DRCs cities but Eskoms greatest benefit is probably tying the potentially huge electricity resource into a regional grid which would feed much-needed power supplies to South Africas industrial zones. This project aptly sums up the dual nature of developing-world investment in Africa. Is such investment, as Mbeki would have it, good for all involved or is it simply a new wave of economic colonisation which will leave most of Africa with as few benefits as in the past? As the developing nations themselves come to rival the investment presence of the G8 and former colonial powers in Africa, it is salutary to recall that south-south cooperation may be more efficient and less wasteful than the wests grand gestures but it is no less self-interested.

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The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has issued action plans to address the potential health risks of two chemicals used in making polyurethane polymers, adhesives, sealants and coatings. Both plans focus on “the potential health effects that may result from exposures to the consumer or self-employed worker while using products containing uncured (unreacted) diisocyanates (e.g., spray-applied foam sealants, adhesives, and coatings)” and from incidental exposures to the general population. The plans identify a range of actions the agency is considering under the authority of the Toxic Substances Control Act. “There has been an increase in recent years in promoting the use of foams and sealants by do-it-yourself energy-conscious homeowners, and many people may now be unknowingly exposed to risks from these chemicals,” said Steve Owens, assistant administrator for EPA’s Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention. |OSHA regulates workplace exposure to diisocyanate compounds.| The two new plans are the latest in EPA’s program of Chemical Action Plans launched in 2009. EPA is also currently crafting an Action Plan for siloxanes. Uncured Compounds at Issue Diisocyanates are used to make polyurethane polymers. Most polyurethane products, such as foam mattresses or bowling balls, are fully reacted (cured) and not of concern. Adhesives, coatings, spray foam and other products, however, continue to react while in use and may contain "uncured" diisocyanates to which people may be exposed, according to EPA. Diisocyanates are known to cause severe skin and breathing responses in workers who have been repeatedly exposed to them. The chemicals have been documented as a leading cause of work-related asthma, and in severe cases, fatal reactions have occurred, EPA says. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration currently regulates workplace exposures through Permissible Exposure Limits. EPA plans to consider the potential risks from consumer exposure to these chemicals. The spray foam industry notes that “persons developing sensitivity to isocyanates may have dangerous systemic reactions to extremely small exposures, including respiratory failure.” In a report on respiratory protection, it notes: “MDI should be not be heated or sprayed except with strict engineering controls and personal protective equipment.” Possible actions to address concerns associated with TDI, MDI and related compounds include: - Issuing rules to gather data on significant adverse effects; - Obtaining unpublished health and safety data from industry sources; - Requiring exposure monitoring studies for consumer products; and - Banning or restricting consumer products containing uncured MDI or TDI. EPA said it would work “with other federal agencies, the polyurethanes industry, and others to ensure improved labeling and provide comprehensive product safety information for polyurethane products containing uncured compounds, especially in consumer products.”

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Right now, the accelerator is stopped for the annual maintenance shutdown. This is the opportunity to fix all problems that occurred during the past year both on the accelerator and the experiments. The detectors are opened and all accessible malfunctioning equipment is being repaired or replaced. In the 27-km long LHC tunnel, surveyors are busy getting everything realigned to a high precision, while various repairs and maintenance operations are on their way. By early March, all magnets will have been cooled down again and prepared for operation. The experimentalists are not only working on their detectors but also improving all aspects of their software: the detector simulations, event reconstruction algorithms, particle identification schemes and analysis techniques are all being revised. By late March, the LHC will resume colliding protons with the goal of delivering about 16 inverse femtobarns of data, compared to 5 inverse femtobarns in 2011. This will enable the experiments to improve the precision of all measurements achieved so far, push all searches for new phenomena slightly further and explore areas not yet tackled. The hope is to discover particles associated with new physics revealing the existence of new phenomena. The CMS and ATLAS physicists are looking for dozens of hypothetical particles, the Higgs boson being the most publicized but only one of many. When protons collide in the LHC accelerator, the energy released materializes in the form of massive but unstable particles. This is a consequence of the well-known equation E=mc2, which simply states that energy (represented by E) and mass (m) are equivalent, each one can change into the other. The symbol c2 represents the speed of light squared and acts like a conversion factor. This is why in particle physics we measure particle masses in units of energy like GeV (giga electronvolt) or TeV (tera electronvolt). One electronvolt is the energy acquired by an electron through a potential difference of one volt. It is therefore easier to create lighter particles since less energy is required. Over the past few decades, we have already observed the lighter particles countless times in various experiments. So we know fairly well how many events containing them we should observe. We can tell when new particles are created when we see more events of a certain topology than what we expect from those well-known phenomena, which we refer to as the background. We can claim that something additional and new is also occurring when we see an excess of events. Of course, the bigger the excess, the easier it is to claim something new is happening. This is the reason why we accumulate so many events, each one being a snap-shots of the debris coming out of a proton-proton collisions. We want to be sure the excess cannot be due to some random fluctuation. Some of the particles we are looking for are expected to have a mass in the order of a few hundred GeV. This is the case for the Higgs boson and we already saw possible signs of its presence last year. If the observed excess continues to grow as we collect more data in 2012, it will be enough to claim the Higgs boson discovery beyond any doubt in 2012 or rule it out forever. Other hypothetical particles may have masses as large as a few thousand GeV or equivalently, a few TeV. In 2011, the accelerator provided 7 TeV of energy at the collision point. The more energy the accelerator has, the higher the reach in masses, just like one cannot buy a 7000 CHF car with 5000 CHF. So to create a pair of particles with a mass of 3.5 TeV (or 3500 GeV), one needs to provide at least 7 TeV to produce them. But since some of the energy is shared among many particles, the effective limit is lower than the accelerator energy. There are ongoing discussions right now to decide if the LHC will be operating at 8 TeV this year instead of 7 TeV as in 2011. The decision will be made in early February. If CERN decides to operate at 8 TeV, the chances of finding very heavy particles will slightly increase, thanks to the extra energy available. This will be the case for searches for particles like the W’ or Z’, a heavier version of the well-known W and Z bosons. For these, collecting more data in 2012 will probably not be enough to push the current limits much farther. We will need to wait until the LHC reaches full energy at 13 or 14 TeV in 2015 to push these searches higher than in 2011 where limits have already been placed around 1 TeV. For LHCb and ALICE, the main goal is not to find new particles. LHCb aims at making extremely precise measurements to see if there are any weak points in the current theoretical model, the Standard Model of particle physics. For this, more data will make a whole difference. Already in 2011, they saw the first signs of CP-violation involving charm quarks and hope to confirm this observation. This measurement could shed light on why matter overtook antimatter as the universe expanded after the Big Bang when matter and antimatter must have been created in equal amounts. They will also investigate new techniques and new channels. Meanwhile, ALICE has just started analyzing the 2011 data taken in November with lead ion collisions. The hope is to better understand how the quark-gluon plasma formed right after the Big Bang. This year, a special run involving collisions of protons and lead ions should bring a new twist in this investigation. Exploring new corners, testing new ideas, improving the errors on all measurements and most likely the final answer on the Higgs, that is what we are in with the LHC for in 2012. Let’s hope that in 2012 the oriental dragon, symbol of perseverance and success, will see our efforts bear fruit. To be alerted of new postings, follow me on Twitter: @GagnonPauline or sign-up on this mailing list to receive and e-mail notification.

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Print This Page Contribute to ReadWriteThink / RSS / FAQs / Site Demonstrations / Contact Us Home › Email Lesson Plan | Standard Lesson Author: Carolyn Wilhelm Children find favorite words, phrases, and sentences from familiar stories. Working together, they combine their words and phrases to create a poem. The poem is then shared as performance poetry. (A link to this page will be included in your message.) Back to this resource Send me a copy (Separate multiple e-mail addresses with commas. Limited to 20 addresses.) characters remaining 300 To help us eliminate spam messages, please type the characters shown in the image. © 2013 IRA/NCTE. All rights reserved. Technical Help | Legal | International Reading Association | National Council of Teachers of English

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The hoary marmot (Marmota caligata), the Alaska marmot (M. broweri), and the woodchuck (M. monax) are the three species of marmots that live in Alaska. The hoary marmot can be found at the bases of active talus slopes in the mountains of central, southeastern, and southwestern Alaska. It also occurs down to sea level along some areas of the coast. The Alaska marmot lives in similar talus habitat throughout much of the Brooks Range. The woodchuck digs its den in loess (wind-deposited soils) along river valleys in the dry lowlands of eastcentral Alaska. General description: Large relatives of the squirrel, the hoary and closely related Alaska marmots weigh 10 pounds (4.5 kg) or more and may exceed 24 inches (61 cm) in total length. The woodchuck weighs between 2 and 6 pounds (.4-2.7 kg). They may grow to be 20 inches (50.8 cm) long. The animals attain their maximum weight in late summer, when they accumulate thick layers of fat that will sustain them through winter hibernation. Body shape is similar in all three species: head short and broad, legs short, ears small, body thickset, tail densely furred, and front paws clawed for digging burrows. Hoary and Alaska marmots are predominantly gray with a darker lower back and face and a dark, reddish tail. The hoary marmot has a white patch above its nose and usually has dark brown feet, giving it the Latin name caligata, meaning “booted.” The Alaska marmot does not have a white face patch, its feet may be light or dark, and its fur is much softer than the stiff fur of the hoary marmot. A uniform reddish brown, the woodchuck has an unmarked brown face. The name woodchuck originated as a Cree Indian word used to describe a number of similar-sized animals and does not describe characteristics of the woodchuck's behavior or habitat preference. Life history: In Alaska, all marmots mate in April or May. About a month later, two to six young are born hairless and blind. The young disperse two months after birth and may breed for the first time when they are 2 or 3 years old. Marmots may live to 5 years or more. They feed on grasses, flowering plants, berries, roots, mosses, and lichens. Hoary and Alaska marmots make their summer homes on the bases of active talus slopes, where the rocks protect them from predators and provide lookout stations. Woodchuck dens may be up to 30 feet long, are dug in the loamy soils of river valleys in Interior Alaska, and end with a chamber containing a large grass nest. Most marmot dens have a main entrance with a mound of dirt near the hole and a number of concealed entrances. Marmots are social animals. Although each family has a separate burrow, these burrows are located near each other, forming a colony. True hibernators, marmots enter a state of torpor in winter during which all bodily functions are reduced. Hoary marmots and woodchucks hibernate alone in the same burrows in which they spent the summer. To protect themselves from the cold, they plug the tunnel leading to the nest chamber with a mixture of dirt, vegetation, and feces. They emerge from their winter hibernation in April or early May to find food and mates. Adapted to the harsher winter climate of the Brooks Range, Alaska marmots create a special winter den which has a single entrance and is characteristically located on an exposed ridge that becomes snow-free in early spring. The entrance is plugged after all colony members are inside, and no animals can leave until the plug thaws in early May. Consequently, Alaska marmots mate before they emerge from their winter den. These dens are relatively permanent for each colony, and some are used for more than 20 years. Because hibernation begins in September, most marmots in Alaska spend two-thirds of each year locked in their winter dens. Marmots are most active in early morning and late afternoon, although they may leave their burrows during other daylight hours. Marmots need wind to control mosquito levels and rarely venture out on calm days. The Alaska marmot marks its territory by rubbing its face and glands on rocks and along trails. The hoary marmot probably marks its territory in the same way. The pelt colors of marmots help them blend with the lichen-colored rocks or rusty-brown soil of their surroundings. Nevertheless, marmots remain alert for predators including eagles, foxes, coyotes, wolves, and bears. When the Alaska marmot is alarmed, it produces a slurred, low-pitched warning call. The alarm call of both hoary marmot and the woodchuck is a loud whistle. They also hiss, squeal, growl, and yip. In areas where marmots are hunted by humans, they have learned to remain quiet when humans approach. Good climbers and swimmers, woodchucks may also take to trees or water to avoid predators. Marmots often secondarily benefit other animals and plants. Abandoned marmot holes can become homes for small mammals. In moderation, their digging and defecation loosen, aerate, and improve the soil. Alaska Natives have long relished marmot meat and used its thick coat for warm clothing. Although these wary animals are difficult to approach closely, persistent observers are rewarded by the fascinating sight of a marmot community. The northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus yukonensis) is a gliding (volplaning) mammal that is incapable of true flight like birds and bats. There are 25 subspecies across North America with Interior Alaska being the most northern and western limit of the species' range. The generic name, Glaucomys, is from the Greek glaukos (silver, gray) and mys (mouse). Sabrinus is derived from the latin word sabrina (river-nymph) and refers to the squirrel's habit of living near streams and rivers. General description: Adult flying squirrels average 4.9 ounces (139 gm) in weight and 12 inches (30 cm) in total length. The tail is broad, flattened, and feather-like. A unique feature of the body is the lateral skin folds (patagia) on each side that stretch between front and hind legs and function as gliding membranes. This squirrel is nocturnal and has large eyes that are efficient on the darkest nights. Eye shine color is a distinctive reddish-orange. Flying squirrel pelage is silky and thick with the top of the body light brown to cinnamon, the sides grayish, and the belly whitish. Habitat requirements: Flying squirrels require a forest mosaic that includes adequate denning and feeding areas. Den sites include tree cavities and witches' brooms. Tree cavities are most numerous in old forests where wood rot, frost cracking, woodpeckers, and carpenter ants have created or enlarged cavities. Witches' brooms, clumps of abnormal branches caused by tree rust diseases, are the most common denning sites of flying squirrels in Interior Alaska. About November or December, when temperatures begin to drop sharply, flying squirrels move out of cavities and into brooms. In the coldest periods of winter, they form aggregations of two or more individuals in the brooms and sleep in torpor. Feeding areas preferred by flying squirrels contain fungi (mushrooms and truffles), berries, and tree lichens and may be in either young or old forests. Dried fungi cached in limbs by red squirrels are sometimes stolen by flying squirrels. Flying squirrels probably get water from foods they eat and rain, dew, and snow. Constant sources of free water (lakes, ponds, and watercourses) do not appear to be a stringent habitat requirement. In a year's time, a flying squirrel in Interior Alaska may use as many as 13 different den trees within 19.8 acres (8 ha). On a night foray, a squirrel may travel as far as 1.2 miles (2 km) in a circular route and be away from its den tree for up to 7 hours. It may change den trees at night and move to different ones more than 20 times over a year, staying in each for a varying numbers of days. Den trees with brooms are used more than twice as much as trees with cavities. Fairly dense, old closed-canopy forests with logs and corridors of trees (especially conifers) that are spaced close enough to glide between are needed for cover from predators. High quality flying squirrel habitat can be a community mosaic of small stands of varying age classes in which there is a mix of tall conifers and hardwoods. Part of the mosaic must be old coniferous forest with den trees containing witches' brooms, woodpecker cavities, and natural cavities for nesting sites. Riparian zones provide excellent habitat in all coniferous forest associations. Life history: Flying squirrels in Alaska may breed anytime from March to late June, depending on length and severity of the winter. The female can breed before 11 months of age and give birth at about 1 year of age. Gestation requires about 37 days, so the young are born from May to early July. One litter of two per year is probably the usual case for Alaska, but they are known to have litters ranging from one to six in other parts of their range. At birth, the young flying squirrel (nestling) is hairless, and its eyes and ears are closed. Development is slow in comparison with other mammals of similar size. Their eyes open at about 25 days, and they nurse for about 60 to 70 days. By day 240, the young are fully grown and cannot be distinguished from adults by body measurements and fur characteristics. Mortality rate for flying squirrels 1 and 2 years old is about 50 percent, and few live past 4 years of age. Complete population turnover can occur by the third year. Individual flying squirrels nest in tree cavities, witches' brooms, and drays. In Interior Alaska, most brooms and cavity entrances have southerly exposures. Nests in cavities are usually located about 25 feet above the ground but may range between 5 and 45 feet. Flying squirrels excavate chambers in witches' brooms and line them with nesting materials. A dray nest is a ball-like mass of mosses, twigs, lichens, and leaves with shredded bark and lichens forming the lining of the chamber. Flying squirrels build drays entirely by themselves or modify the nests of other species (e.g., bird nests, red squirrel nests). The dray is usually positioned close to the trunk on a limb or whorl of branches with its entrance next to the trunk. Most drays in Alaska are probably conifers. Food habits: The flying squirrel is omnivorous. While little is known about its diet in Alaska, the food it consumes in other parts of its range include mushrooms, truffles, lichens, fruits, green vegetation, nuts, seeds, tree buds, insects, and meat (fresh, dried, or rotted). Nestling birds and birds' eggs may also be eaten. Those observed foraging in the wild in Interior Alaska ate mushrooms (fresh and dried), truffles, berries, tree lichens, and the newly flushed growth tips on white spruce limbs. In spring, summer, and fall the diet is mostly fresh fungi. In winter it's mostly lichens. Flying squirrels are not known to cache fungi for winter in Alaska, but they are known to do so elsewhere in their range. Witches' brooms and tree cavities would be likely places to find their caches. Predators and parasites: Owls, hawks, and carnivorous mammals prey on flying squirrels. Primary predators are probably the great horned owl, goshawk, and marten due to their common occurrence and widespread range in Alaska's forests. Three different flea species may infest a single squirrel. Economic and ecological value: Flying squirrels are important to forest regeneration and timber production because they disperse spores of ectomycorrhizal fungi like truffles. Truffles are fruiting bodies of a special type of fungus that matures underground. They are dependent upon animals to smell them out, dig them up, consume them, and disperse their spores in fecal material where the animal travels. The animal serves to inoculate disturbed sites (e.g., clearcuts, burned areas) with mycorrhizae that join symbiotically with plant roots and enhance their ability to absorb nutrients and maintain health. The flying squirrel's ecological role in forest ecosystems, therefore, gives it economic value. In addition, they may be important prey for a variety of hawks, owls, small carnivores, and furbearers like marten, lynx, and red fox. Many Alaskans value flying squirrels just for their interesting habits and aesthetic qualities. Management considerations: Logging for house logs, wood for fuel, and lumber can have devastating effects on flying squirrel populations if clearcut size is too large or if some scattered tall conifers in large cuts are not retained as cover and for travel across the open spaces. Management should include retention of other squirrel species in shared habitats. Snags with woodpecker holes or other natural cavities and coniferous trees with witches' brooms must also be maintained in managed forests in order to provide adequate habitat for flying squirrels. The red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) makes itself quite conspicuous with its lively habits and noisy chatter. Cone cuttings on stumps or rocks are common and tracks in snow are numerous where this squirrel occurs. It can be found in spruce forests over most of Alaska and has a wide range in North America. It occupies a wide variety of forest habitat, occurring in the hardwood forests of eastern North America and the coniferous forests of the west and north. General description: The active rodent averages 11 to 13 inches in length (28-33 cm), including tail, and is a rusty-olive color on the upper parts of its body with a whitish belly and underparts. In summer, a dark stripe on the side separates the upper rusty color from the white of the belly. The bushy tail is often a lighter orange or red with light tipped hairs. Life history: Red squirrels are solitary but pair for mating in February and March. Females usually breed when they are 1 year old. Three to seven young are born after a gestation period of 36 to 40 days. The young are born blind and hairless, weighing about ¼ ounce at birth. They are weaned at about 5 weeks but remain with the female until almost adult size. The young leave the female and are independent during their first winter. This means that they have to be successful at gathering and storing a winter's supply of food. Behavior: Much of the red squirrel's time in the summer is spent cutting and storing green spruce cones. There may be several bushels of cones stored in a cache. Caches may attain a diameter of 15 to 18 feet and a depth of 3 feet. Red squirrels also cache mushrooms on tree branches. They eat seeds, berries, buds, fungi, and occasionally insects and birds' eggs. They are busy collecting and storing food from early morning until dusk and also on moonlit nights. Nests may be a hole in a tree trunk or a tightly constructed mass of twigs, leaves, mosses, and lichens in the densest foliage of a tree (making the nest almost completely weatherproof). A loose mass of twigs and leafy debris in a high tree is used as a “fair weather” nest. Their ground burrows, also known as middens, are used mostly for food storage. There is usually one large active midden in each territory with perhaps an inactive or auxiliary midden. The home range of red squirrels is about ½ to 1 acre, and each squirrel knows its territory well. Each squirrel has several nests in its territory and always seems to know which retreat is nearest. Territorial behavior seems to be most rigid during caching of food and relaxes somewhat in the spring. The red squirrel is active all year but may remain in its nest during severe cold spells and inclement weather. They are agile climbers and, being extremely curious, will often attempt to enter buildings, upsetting anything they can move and gnawing on woodwork. Once in a house or cabin, they can be very destructive, tearing out insulation and mattress stuffing for use as nesting material and caching food stores in any available niche. Predators: The main predators of red squirrels are hawks, owls, and marten. Other predators may occasionally take a squirrel but are not serious threats. Around populated areas, one of the predators is the domestic housecat. Human use: The red squirrel is used to a limited extent by man for food and fur. Squirrels may be small but the meat is good eating. In parts of Canada and Alaska the pelts are sold for their fur. Red squirrels may damage trees, cutting off twigs by the bushel, but they are also helpful because they distribute and plant seeds of spruce and other trees. The Arctic Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus Parryii) was named "tsik-tsik" by the Inupiat Eskimos on account of a call this little rodent makes when it is alarmed? Tsik-tsiks are found in both arctic and alpine tundra. They fatten themselves on seeds, mushrooms and berries—almost doubling their body weight over the summer—in preparation for fall hibernation. Although they insulate their winter burrows with grasses and block the entrances with dirt, winter temperatures inside the burrows still fall well below 0° F. During hibernation, the body temperature of the arctic ground squirrel drops from 98.6° F to 26.4° F—that's below the freezing point of water and is the lowest known body temperature of any living mammal. Most mammals, including people, would be frozen solid at that body temperature! Scientists aren't sure just how these diminutive rodents do it, but they apparently have developed a unique mechanism that allows their body fluids to become supercooled—to fall below the freezing point without crystallizing into ice and damaging cell tissue. Periodically throughout the winter, the tsik-tsik will rouse itself, briefly raising its body temperature more than 70° F in four hours, before going back into hibernation. Not until late March or early April does the arctic ground squirrel finally emerge from its winter den to the light of another spring and six months of intense activity. Arctic ground squirrels are the largest and most northern of the North American ground squirrels. This species is common in the ice-free mountainous regions of Denali. Permafrost and soil type are two of the most important factors limiting ground squirrel distribution in Denali. Arctic ground squirrels are burrowing animals and they establish colonies in areas with well-drained soils and views of the surrounding landscape. Colonies often consist of multiple burrows and a maze of tunnels beneath the surface. Well-drained soils are important, as flooding of these burrows causes considerable problems for squirrels. Accordingly, squirrels usually avoid establishing colonies or excavating burrows where permafrost is close to the surface. Like many other arctic animals, arctic ground squirrels have unique physiological adaptations that allow them to survive during winter. Arctic ground squirrels are obligate hibernators and spend 7 to 8 months in hibernation. Researchers at the University of Alaska at Fairbanks have shown that during hibernation, arctic ground squirrels adopt the lowest body temperature ever measured in a mammal. The body temperature of hibernating squirrels drops below freezing, a condition referred to as supercooling. At intervals of two to three weeks, still in a state of sleep, hibernating squirrels shiver and shake for 12 to 15 hours to create heat that warms them back to a normal body temperature of about 98 degrees Fahrenheit. When the shivering and shaking stops, body temperature drops back to the minimal temperature. This type of hibernation is rare among mammals and scientists are still studying this unique physiological behavior. In Denali, ground squirrels are active from late April to early October, but the sexes and age-classes show some differences in their annual activity patterns. Adult males are usually the first to emerge from hibernation. They dig their way through the snow and stay relatively close to their burrows until the snow cover melts. Breeding occurs in May and a single litter of 5 to 10 pups is born in June. The young develop rapidly and usually emerge from their burrows in mid-July. By late summer, young abandon their natal burrow and occupy a neighboring, empty burrow or excavate a new one. Adults start hibernating as soon as they have enough body fat to survive the winter, often in late August when plenty of foods are still available. It is probably safer to enter hibernation early, even when foods are accessible, than to remain on the surface vulnerable to predators. Youngsters, however, take much longer to find foods and put on body fat and they are often active until late September. This means that youngsters are more vulnerable to predation than adults. The diet of arctic ground squirrels is diverse and opportunistic. They eat many types of vegetation including the leaves, seeds, fruits, stems, flowers, and roots of many species of grasses, forbs, and woody plants. They also eat mushrooms and meat from freshly killed animals (including ground squirrels). Because they are active only during the short subarctic summer, arctic ground squirrels must be efficient foragers. As summer progresses, they put on a tremendous amount of fat stores for the winter and often double their body weight by the time they enter hibernation in fall. The social behavior of arctic ground squirrels is complex. This species is highly territorial and squirrels may kill other squirrels over territorial disputes. However, other related females in the colony often care for orphaned youngsters. Further, territorial behavior lessens during late summer, and male squirrels may move between colonies or establish colonies of their own. So many different predators eat arctic ground squirrels that Adolph Murie called them the "staff of life" in Denali. They are one of the most important summer food sources for golden eagles, gyrfalcons, foxes, and grizzly bears.

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A Collection of Informative and Interesting Articles Absolutely Free - Start Sharing Your Knowledge Today! Home | Submit Articles | Login Online Since Year 2000 The Images of Back Children in Gwendolyn Brook's Poetry: A StudyBY: p.suresh kumar R.panneerselvam | Category: Education | Submitted: 2012-04-13 08:18:42 In between, her poetic achievement is marked by gradual and progressive ascent. She became the first African American poet to win the Pulitzer Prize in 1950, membership of the Academy if Arts and Letters un 1976, winning if two Guggenheim awards, poet laureateship of Illinois in 1968, the award by the National Endowment for Arts in 1989,JJeffrson lectureship by the National Endowments of the Humanities in 1994, the National Medals of Arts award in 1995, the "First Woman" award from the Federal Government in 1999, and more than fifty honorary decorates from various colleges and universities. Brools's creative output extends over a period of six decades. Her poetry is distinctive not only in her handling of multiplicity of forms but also in her craftsmanship. She has committed herself to the ideals of social justice for her race and sex as well as ro the aesthetics of art. The issues of racism and an authentic identity have been the recurrent themes of African American Writers. Witnessing the growth of black literature by stages-form anger to defiance, to protest, to recognition, to search for identity, and to reconciliation, Brooks wrote poetry that was at once potent, provocative, poignant, and starling, a poetry that resisted racism, asserted black consciousness, and upheld the black values, a poetry that instilled a new faith in self-reliance and dignity, and a poetry that can be a source of inspiration of succeeding generations writers. A study of Brooks's poetry will be incomplete without a study of her poetry for children, who also encounter the same kind of racial discrimination which the adult balcks are subjected to in the racially prejudiced America. Before 1967, Brooks published only one volume of poetry ofr children: Bronzeville Boys and Gorls(1956). The book consists of thirty-four poems, which are illustrated by Ronnai Solbert. All these poems portray the individual experiences of thirty-seven children, but Brooks is objective and detached in her portrayal of these boys and girls. In poems written in couplets, the first line rhymes with the second, the third line rhymes with the foruth, and so on: I have a secret place to go. Not any one may know. And sometimes when the wind is rough I cannot get there fast enough Brooks is sensitive to the prosodic features of language: The loudness in the road And laughs away from me. It laughs a lovely whiteness, And whitely whirs away, Some other where, Still white as milk or shirts. So beautiful it hurts. The compound image "flitter-twitter" defines the delicate motion of the snow. The onomatopoeic words "SUSHES" and "hushes" convey the power of the silent and quite snow to quell "the loudness in the road." "Loudness" suggests the traffic and noise, which stand in opposition to the silence of the world of nature. The irregular length of the lines suggests the irregular but the motion of the snow. Further, Brooks's poems for children cannot be categorized as nonsense verses. On the contrary, they are sensible verses. Though they appeal to our imagination, the children in her poems do not live in a pastoral, romantic, or idealized world. They are always the poor black children living in the urban ghettos. They suffer poverty and entrapment. In Gwendolyn Brooks: Poetry and the Heroic voice, Melhem argues that Brooks" Acknowldges no cruel children but implies cruelty, the indifference that sanctions poverty and compels children to be prematurely involved in adult problems" (95). Brooks's description of the bleak experience of children is an compiled protest against the socioeconomic injustices that they encounter. In "John, who is Poor," Brooks depicts the poverty of the black boy, John, who lives with his widowed mother. She request the children in the neighborhood to sympathize with him, and share their eatables with him: Oh, little children, be good to John!- Who lives so lone and alone. Whose Mamma must hurry to toil all day. Whose papa is dead and done. Give him a berry, boys, when you may, And Girls, some mint when you can. (1-6) But the poet dies not know" when his hunger will end, No yet when it began" (7-8).Brooks makes it clear that racial oppression is the causes of the sufferings of the black children. But her criticism is not overt. Further, she is objective in her description of their poverty, In keeping with the mood of the 1940s and1950s, she beloved that the whites would help the blacks solve their problems. But it took about eleven years, for her, from the year of her publication of Bronzeville Boys and Girls (1956), to realize that the whites remained indifferent to the problems of the blacks. After 1967, Brooks published three volumes of poetry for Children: Alones, The Tiger Who Wore White Gloves, and Children Coming Home. In Aloness (1971), A reflective poem of fifty-one lines, Brooks projects a child's experience of solitude. The drawings by Leroy Foster present an appealing little black boy. The nine postures of the boy are indicative of this none different moods. Unlike Bronzeville Boys and Girls, which is written in quatrains and couplets with rhyme, Aloneness is written in free verse without rhyme. It is written from the point of view of the black boy, who defines loneliness as the pain of being alone: "Loneliness means you want somebody./You have not planned to stand somewhere with other people gone./ Loneliness never has a brought color . Perhaps it is gray"1-3_). As the speaker is a child, the images are simple. The child imagines that the couloirs of loneliness are "gray." The implied idea is the child's association of the color of loneliness with the4 black people's collective loneliness in the racially oppressive America. The child defines aloneness/solitude as the pleasure of beings alone: "But aloneness is delicious" (9). He compares aloneness with" a red small apple" (12). Then he turns to the image of a pond. Aloneness is "like loving a pond in summer," a simile that graphs the child's experience of place and time (15). Nowhere does the poem mention about racial discrimination. But the poem is educational in tone. Brooks's aim is to develop a positive sense of identity among blacks. While Aloneness is in free verse, The Tiger Who Wore White Gloves or What You are You are is rhymed like" Bronzeville Boys and Girls." The poem is illustrated by the drawings of Timothy Jones. It is a beast fable. Unlike Aloneness, Which is indirectly didactic, The Tiger is directly didactic, offering strategies for survival. The title implies human folly. The tiger wears white gloves to be fashionable, but his companions ridicule his strange behavior. The theme is self-acceptance and pride: THAT TIGER FLOCK AQND WISELY WEARING WHAT'S FIERCR AS THE FACE.S NOT WHITNESS AND LACE. (15-23) The "tiger" represents the black people. "Whiteness" Represents the spurious standards of beauty established by the whites. As a metaphor, "gloves" represents phenomena like the black people's return to hair-straightening, which, for Brooks, means aping the white values. The idea is that black is that black people should develop their own attributes and esteem them. As a realist, Brooks always portrays what the blacks experience in society. Despite her commitment to black consciousness, she has not forgotten the continuous bleak experiences of the black-adults as well as children. the volume children coming home!1991), Brooks's children do not live in a romantic or an idealized world. They encounter social and economic injustices. In the prefatory poem, "After School," Brooks delineates the odds against children: * Not all of the children * Come home to cookies and coca. * One will be shot on his way home to warmth, wit and wisdom. [t/o] * One teacher mutters"My God, they are gone,"[t/o] * One is ripe to report Ten People to the Principal. [t/o] *One whispers"The Little Black Bastards." The poem attests to the simplicity of her poetry written after 1967. In this dramatic monologue, written in a child's voice, Brooks has abandoned lyricism and rhyme, and "deliberately abandoning the formal virtuosity that characterized her earlier work, Brooks represents children's voices through a seemingly simple, declarative method... (Flynnn494). The image of the innocent child exposes the evils of the social practices. Brooks's intention behind the exposition is to make the children" seek out their own strength" (495). Brooks. Gwendolyn. Bronzeville Boys and Girals. New York: Harper, 1956. ---. Aloneness. Dotroit: Broadside, 1969. ---.The Near-Johannesburg Boy, and Other Poems. Chicago: David, 1987. ---.The tiger who wore white Gloves: Or You Are What You Are. Chicago: Third world. 1987. ---.Children Coming Home. cChicago:David,1991 Flynn, Richard. 'The Kindergarten of New Consciousness': Cwendolyon Brooks and the Social Construction of Childhood." African American Review 34.3(2000):483-99. Melhem,D.H. Gwendolyn Brooks: Poetry and the Heroic Voice. Kentucky: Up of Kentucky, 1989. Article Source: http://www.saching.com/ About Author / Additional Info: Comments on this article: (0 comments so far) • Affiliate Marketing in ClickBank and Product Promotional Methods • Used Kitchen Equipment - Consider Buying them at Recycle Shops • Speech Development of Infants Traced to Their Exposure to Auditory Feedback • The Quest For Excellence Latest Articles in "Education" category: • Adolescence Educational Problem and Remedies • Regulations and the Future of Trade and Investment in Cameroon • How to Get Good Marks in Exam • Ensure Harm to the Client in Electronic Banking • Education System in India. • The Time to Prepare is Now for the Next Disaster • Benefits of Online English Classes Important Disclaimer: All articles on this website are for general information only and is not a professional or experts advice. 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Pageant of the Popes, by John Farrow, , at sacred-texts.com Italy and France and Spain all struggled to control the next conclave and the latter two powers did not hesitate to try and enlist the aid of Caesar Borgia. But happily the sinister creature was not as active at this important time as he could have been; for he was yet weak from his illness. "I had counted on the death of my father and had made every preparation for it," he lamented, "but it never occurred to me that I should have at the same time to fight death myself." However he threw his influence to favor the candidate of the French king. But to thwart him there now returned to Rome, after an exile of nearly ten years, the antagonist of his father, the experienced and veteran Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere who, friendly though he himself had been with the French, warned the cardinals that if a Frenchman were elected the papacy faced the danger of being returned to Avignon. There seemed then every chance of a deadlock but this prospect was so distasteful to the Sacred College that a name hitherto not mentioned was quickly presented and acclaimed and a month after Alexander's death the Cardinal Francesco Piccolomini, nephew of Pius II, became Pope Pius [paragraph continues] III. He was sixty-four years old and was a hopeless invalid; this latter circumstance was probably the real reason that won for him the votes of the conclave for his tenure was expected to be short. Nor were the macabre expectations disappointed. He died in less than a month but during that brief time displayed much charity and kindness and announced reform to be his aim. There was no deadlock at the next conclave for by bargain and by bribe Cardinal della Rovere secured for himself thirty-seven of the thirty-eight votes in proceedings that did not extend a full day. After long years he had finally won the tiara and triumphantly taking the name of Julius II he set out to restore the strength and possessions of the Papal States. This was no easy task, for Alexander had left a sad confusion of debts and trouble, and great properties rightfully belonging to the Church were in the clutches of his son. The Republic of Venice was noisily claiming Romagna, Spain was occupying Sicily and Naples, and the French, ever resolved to maintain a foothold in Italy were willing to resort to arms against any who would oppose them. Julius had been given a domain bankrupt in treasury and bereft of defence but not for nothing had he earned the description of terrible. He was possessed of enormous physical strength and had the courage of a lion, and his will and determination matched both these qualities. His abilities were those of a warrior statesman rather than those of an ecclesiastic but they were talents appreciated by the Romans at this time. He was not a saint and three daughters were testimony that his earlier life had been no better than that of other Renaissance prelates; but, although he had a few relations in high places, the charge of nepotism has never been levelled against him. He won, it is true, elevation to the chair of St. Peter by dubious tactics but once enthroned he acted only for the betterment, as he saw it, of that which had been placed in his care. In spite of his considerable years he was possessed of a driving energy. "No one has any influence over him," reported the Venetian Ambassador. "He consults few or none. Anything he has been thinking of overnight has to be carried out immediately the next morning, and he insists on doing everything himself. It is impossible to describe how headstrong and violent and difficult to manage he is. Everything about him is on a magnificent scale. There is nothing in him that is small or meanly selfish. Whatever is in his mind must be carried through, even if he himself were to perish in the attempt." He despised the name of Borgia yet at the beginning of his reign there was no rupture with Caesar Borgia because of a pact made before his election. At that time he had made sure there would be no opposition from any quarter and Caesar Borgia might have possessed some influence with those cardinals who owed their preferment to his father. But when he became Pope the ill begotten territories of the wicked Duke were included in his program of independence via restoration. Venice had designs on these properties also and there was long disagreement with that Republic. "From the beginning of Our reign," the Doge of Venice was informed, "it has been Our steadfast purpose to restore to the Church the territories of which she has been despoiled; to this We hold fast, and shall ever do so . . . Nothing shall induce Us to desist from demanding the restitution of these places . . . Therefore We again admonish your Highness with all paternal kindness, and command you in the name of the Lord to do freely and at once that which in justice you are bound to do." The Venetians were obstinate but in the end Julius was victorious and the banner of the Papal States was unfurled again over the coveted places. Meanwhile the decline of [paragraph continues] Caesar Borgia was startlingly rapid and the man who had been so flamboyantly master of all Italy soon found himself without friends or troops. Julius placed him under a form of arrest and then he was released but only to be imprisoned again. After a captivity of two years he escaped and a few months later was killed whilst fighting with the army of his French brother-in-law. The intrepid and impatient Pope would allow nothing to stand in the way of his plans and he marched with his troops and led them to victory at Orvieto and Perugia and Urbino. Other times the fortunes of war would turn but he was no poltroon and to the despair of less hardy members of his suite he would remain with the warriors, sharing their dangers and discomforts and inspiring them with example. To fit his policies he made and discarded allies as quickly as he made decisions and so the French were invited to assist him vanquish the Venetians and in turn, when the French became too demanding, he enlisted the support of other nations including the Venetians, to drive the French back to France. Before his election he had promised the cardinals that they should have some rights of consultation but any projected opposition from this body was made ineffectual by the creation at various times of twenty-seven new cardinals. A few discontented wearers of the Red Hat were induced by two irate monarchs, Louis XII of France and the Emperor Maximilian, to a foolish rebellion. Both rulers, with designs of their own upon Italy, were alarmed at the Pope's attempts at independence and at their instigation the renegade cardinals convoked a Council at Pisa. The scheme was a pitiful failure. A small number of churchmen did finally assemble but the townspeople were so hostile that the pseudo-Council was forced to adjourn and continue its futile mummery at another place. The world was weary of this brand of schism and the activities of the rebels never achieved importance save as a temporary annoyance to the Pope. It might have been otherwise if the French had gained the final victory and indeed for a gloomy time it appeared they would. A series of brilliant successes were achieved by the soldiers of Louis, aided by those of the Emperor, and there was strong likelihood that Rome would be sacked. Further gloom came when the strain imposed upon the overworked Pope had the expected result and he was stricken by an illness so grievous that the physicians pronounced his recovery impossible. Arrangements were made for his funeral and a panic descended upon the city when the news was known. "Never," wrote the Venetian Ambassador, "has there been such a clang of arms round the death-bed of any former Pope; never has the danger been greater than it is now. May God help us!" To the amazement of all and to the dismay of his enemies the Pope recovered and quickly restored order to Rome with an iron hand. He was not yet discouraged and with typical determination he set out to win even at this apparently hopeless stage. And win he did for by extraordinary diplomatic skill he succeeded in inducing Maximilian to withdraw his support and separate his troops from the French army. Furthermore the Emperor, suddenly alarmed at the prospect of a French-controlled Italy, permitted Swiss soldiers to pass through his dominions. The Swiss had come in answer to the Pope's pleas and it was they who decisively routed the French. A wild joy prevailed in Rome and thunderous adulation was heard when Julius returned to the Vatican. "Never," reported the observant Venetian envoy, "was any Emperor or victorious general so honored on his entry into Rome as the Pope has been today." Julius II. Reigned 1503 to 1513. Click to enlarge Pope Julius II. This is the man who climbed up on the scaffolding to argue with Michael Angelo. See pages 229 to 235. No details seem to miss the attention of this prodigious worker. The vexations and colossal labors of his martial campaigns and political efforts did not hinder a keen interest in the establishment of the bishoprics in the New World; a legate from an important court, a soldier with news from the army, a missionary returned from a remote place, all alike received his rapt interest. Laws and statutes were examined with meticulous care and the machinery of civil law was made less cumbersome. Roads and bridges were built or repaired throughout the Papal States and long needed measures were taken to protect the farmers and their crops from the avarice of the overlords and from the depredations of their soldiery. No matter how great the burden of his anxieties the Pope somehow in the interest of his subjects found the time to write such letters as he wrote to one of his governors: "A citizen of Bertinoro has complained to the Pope that the Castellan has taken wood from him and injured him in other ways. Let the Castellan and his abettors be punished without fail and take care that no harm comes to the complainant." Nor did the realm of art escape the interest of the amazing man. Surpassed even were the examples of predecessors in this respect and his intense antipathy to all things connected with the Borgia name did not prevent him from continuing with projects commenced in Alexander's reign. Bramanti, the architect, was given the task of rebuilding St. Peter's basilica into a structure vast and magnificent and it was the beginning of the great edifice which stands today. Michael Angelo was called to Rome and the world is aware of the splendid results produced by that inspired summons. The genius of Rafael and the prowess of his gifted colleagues flowered under the warmth of papal encouragement and subsidy. Julius had a rare sympathy for the artistic mind and he understood well, as he put it, "the humors of such men of genius." When Michael Angelo had rushed from Rome in a rage swearing that he would leave his work uncompleted an astonished and shocked official in Florence told him, "You have behaved towards the Pope in a way that the King of France himself would not have ventured upon. There must be an end of this. We are not going to be dragged into a war, and risk the whole state for you. Go back to Rome." The obstinate artist took his time but finally returned and when he appeared before Julius a prelate thought to save him from the expected wrath by pleading, "Your Holiness should not be so hard on this fault of Michael Angelo; he is a man who has never been taught good manners, these artists do not know how to behave, they understand nothing but their art." The Pope turned the full force of his anger upon the unfortunate cleric. "You venture," he roared, "to say to this man things I should not have dreamt of saying. It is you who have not manners. Get out of my sight, you miserable, ignorant clown." From this time on there were no great differences between the Pope and the great man of art, although there were many noisy arguments. Court attendants would marvel at the sight of their formidable master abandoning all dignity and clambering up the dusty scaffolding which festooned the Sistine Chapel. A grimy hand to help him would be extended by the busy genius, sometimes irritated at being interrupted, and there the two would discuss the details and progress of the superb frescoes. After Julius had secured temporal strength and independence and brought order and prosperity to the States of the Church his restless mind became occupied with the gigantic problem of sorely needed Church reform. He had already issued a pungent bull against simony in papal elections and now he assembled in Rome, after a year of careful preparation, a heavily attended Council of the Church. By this time the exhausted and aged pontiff was nearing his end but what he wished to say was read by a cardinal. The congregated dignitaries of all nations were told frankly the critical time had come when drastic measures had to be taken to correct the dreadful state of Church discipline. Would that he had lived longer to employ the full force of his vigor on this project. But his time was run and he was soon on his death bed. Even there the great, if imperfect Pope, weakened though he was, behaved as his usual self, calmly giving the necessary instructions for his funeral, uttering measured words of farewell to his weeping friends, and arranging prayers to be said for his soul. He then died and "Rome felt that the soul which had passed from her had been of royal mould," recorded a friend. "I have lived forty years in this city, but never yet have I seen such a vast throng at the funeral of any former Pope. The guards were overpowered by the crowds insisting on kissing the dead man's feet. Weeping they prayed for his soul, calling him a true Pope and Vicar of Christ, a pillar of justice, a zealous promoter of the Apostolic Church, an enemy and queller of tyrants." The Bull against simony was read aloud at the next conclave and such elaborate precautions were taken to prevent the odious practice that no suspicion of this nature can darken the memory of the next pope, the thirty-eight year old Giovanni de Medici who became Leo X. Certainly a factor to contribute heavily to his winning the majority of the votes was his membership in the powerful Florentine family: although it is true that his life was without scandal and it is also true that to fit him for high ecclesiastical rank he had received a special and comprehensive education from a carefully selected group of distinguished tutors. He was the son of one of the most strong and colourful figures of the Renaissance, Lorenzo de Medici, the ruler of Florence who was called the Magnificent. At thirteen years of age he had been given the dignity of the cardinalate although up to the time of his elevation to the papacy the extent of his clerical progress was a deacon's orders. After receiving the acclaim of the conclave he was ordained priest, consecrated bishop two days later, and then solemnly and with splendor given the tiara on the steps of the now half demolished Basilica of St. Peter. The debris of the broken structure was a strangely fitting background for his coronation because the rebuilding of this edifice provided the incident which in this reign was to bring unparalleled sorrow and disaster to the Catholic Church. To provide the funds for the erection of the new St. Peter's, indulgences were unfortunately offered for money and in Germany an outraged Augustinian friar protested vigorously by writing a series of ninety-five theses against such abuses and nailing his manuscript to the door of the castle church at Wittenberg. The name of the friar was Martin Luther, the fateful day was the 31st of October 1517, and the historic and so tragically symbolic wielding of hammer against church door occurred in the fifth year of Leo's reign. And it was an event which, while receiving instantaneous attention throughout Germany, failed to cause alarm or immediate interest in Rome. The storm had broken, the most critical time in the long history of the Church had arrived, and there was nought but apathy on the part of the Pope. Absorbed in the unsavory intricacies of his politics and pleasures, Leo failed to recognize the importance of Luther's initial deed and there can be little excuse for his catastrophic lethargy. There was no lack of warning. For years past the clamor for reform within the Church had been steadily increasing throughout Europe and matching this spirit in growth and volume was contempt for ecclesiastical authority. At the council which his predecessor had inaugurated and which had continued on into his own reign, lengthy and complicated resolutions had been proposed and accepted; but, as a layman who attended the Council complained, "We have heard a great deal about the making of laws, but very little about their observance." In many ways the new Pope seemed to resemble Alexander VI rather than Julius. His family was enriched and given favours whenever possible and his court, thronged by artists and writers and frivolous noblemen, was that of a gay and youthful prince rather than that of the Bishop of Rome. The delights of the banqueting table, the amusements of dramatic pageants, the mummery of buffoons, the thrill of the hunting field, all these things occupied the time and interest of the man who was pope when Luther began his attack and who, endowed with the tastes and principles of his family, wove a mesh of political activities which kept him continuously embroiled with the various rulers of Europe. Deceit and treachery were the habitual characteristics of this dangerous game as played by him and consequently when he tried to raise funds for the prosecution of a new crusade, the response from the nations was mostly a cynical indifference. A Florentine statesman who frequently served and advised him was Niccolo Machiavelli whose name has endured as a synonym for subterfuge and intrigue of the basest type. So it was not unnatural that antipathy to Rome fattened upon the lavish duplicity which was presented as papal diplomacy. The unreal title of Emperor was still desired by kings and this vanity the Pope used freely in his schemes, openly supporting one aspirant for the historic but illusory honor while at the same time his legates would be whispering encouragement to another deluded prince. The intention behind Leo's ceaseless and complicated negotiations was to keep Spain and France and Germany from further encroachments in Italy. Once in his reign the French did attempt an invasion but they were driven back before the fury of the Swiss mercenaries. In the peace which followed it was agreed that the unsuccessful schism which had begun under French auspices at Pisa should now be abandoned and that, while the French monarch should possess the right of nomination in regard to benefices, canonical investiture could only be given by the pope. Despite the resolutions of the recent Council clerical abuses continued and increased, and in Rome when thirty-one cardinals were made at one creation it was well known that although a few new wearers of the purple were indeed worthy men, the majority of their colleagues had openly purchased the honor. One of these was Ferdinando Ponzetti who had commenced life as a physician and who now was able to pay 30,000 ducats for his new rank. At least six wearers of the Red Hat certainly paid nothing, for this number of the Pope's relatives were so honored, and while his brother Giuliano paraded Rome with the title of Captain General of the Church, still another kinsman ruled Florence as temporal overlord. There was great discontent amongst certain of the younger cardinals who had voted for the Pope at the conclave and who felt that they had not been rewarded suitably. One of these unhappy prelates, the Cardinal Petrucci, brooding over supposed injustices, instigated a plot to murder the Pope and the condition and standard of the Sacred College at this time is shown by the dismal fact that four other of its members, including the Dean, gave their support to the proposed crime. A conscienceless physician was bribed to commit the murder while attending the pontiff but fortunately for the latter, who trusted few men, a letter was intercepted and the evil scheme revealed. Swift punishment came to the physician and to Petrucci. Both were executed along with a few accomplices, but the other guilty cardinals, perhaps because of the Pope's charity or, more probably, because of the influence of powerful friends, were neither hung nor strangled but merely fined heavily, deprived of their electoral privileges, and banished from the city. Such conditions brought strong discontent everywhere and particularly in Germany where Luther found willing audiences, not because of the soundness of his theology, but because of the appalling abuses permitted and practised by those whom he attacked. The traffic in benefices, the ceaseless appeals from Rome for money, and the harsh fact that in Germany most of the great bishoprics were possessed by scions of royalty and nobility, overshadowed the efforts of those who were desperately working for reform from within the Church. Such men there were but, as is common, virtues and good deeds were submerged beneath the vices and wrongdoings of the spectacularly wicked; and despite the many examples of sincere vocations, the lamentable state of Church discipline was a fact acknowledged and deplored on all sides. More and more the cupidity of the Roman court was being resented and a steadily increasing spirit of nationalism was adding force to this feeling. "From his own dominion," went the words of a widely circulated pamphlet, "streams of wealth flow in to the Pope as to no other Christian prince; yet we have to pay for palliums, and send asses laden with gold to Rome, and exchange gold for corn, and rest content with blood-lettingspardon me, I mean with indulgences! [paragraph continues] Woe to this monster of avarice which is never satisfied! The craftiness of the Florentine discovers a thousand devices, each one more execrable than the last. Let German freedom be mindful not to become tributary, and not to pay tithes." Such sentiments as these were echoed vigorously by the type of Humanists, extreme and violently anti-Christian, who at this time possessed great influence in the German universities. Their brand of philosophy frankly glorified paganism and of course viewed all activities of the Church with repugnance and contempt. "The Pope is a bandit," wrote one of the leaders of this movement, "and the Church is his army." About this time a youthful but powerful prince in Holy Orders, the Elector Albert of Brandenburg, already Archbishop of Magdeburg and Administrator of the See of Halberstadt, was made Archbishop of Mayence. He wished to retain his former sees and after much negotiation with the papal representative he was allowed to do so but on the condition he pay a fee of fourteen thousand ducats besides a special tax of ten thousand of the same coin. It was a shameful transaction but not even yet complete. A banker, Jacob Fugger, advanced the over-beneficed prince the ready gold and then to enable settlement of the banker's loan, Albert was given the privilege of proclaiming the grant of St. Peter's Indulgence through his territories on the terms that he should share equally with Rome all funds so collected. In an age when bribery and simony were to be found in high places, it is not surprising that the granting of indulgences should sometimes be tainted by mercenary consideration although the doctrine of the Church leaves no doubt as to the invalidity of any accepted with the knowledge of such an arrangement. The term Indulgence is derived from the Latin indulgere meaning to be kind and it is an excellent explanation for, as defined by the Church in the XIII century, an indulgence is the remission of temporal punishment due to sin after guilt has been forgiven. It is Catholic teaching that even after the guilt of a sin has been forgiven, there may still remain due to the justice of God some measure of punishment (called temporal to distinguish it from the eternal punishment of sin not forgiven because not repented). It is with this temporal punishment, and not with the sin or its guilt, that the Indulgence is concerned. To earn such a favor the suppliant must, in addition to possessing the habitual intention, be in that state of grace which is achieved by true repentance and sincere confession and by the performance of good works such as prayer and charitable undertakings. There are partial indulgences which remit, as the name implies, only in part and there are plenary indulgences which, given by the Pope alone, cancel all temporal punishment due to sin. There are indulgences for the living and those for the dead which actually, because departed souls are of course beyond the Church's jurisdiction, are nothing more than solemn requests for the divine mercy. An indulgence had been proclaimed in the reign of Pope Julius for those who, in addition to fulfilling the usual requirements of penance and contrition, should contribute to the rebuilding of St. Peter's. Because of the eager and none too scrupulous manner in which the monies were gathered and because of the intense and mounting anti-Roman feeling already strong in Germany, there were grave and spirited protests from that country when Leo X, upon becoming Pope, not only renewed the same indulgence but thought by means of it to gather even greater sums for his treasury. The warnings were unheeded and after prolonged bickering the disgraceful arrangement with Albert of Mayence was concluded. The next step towards disaster came when the latter placed the responsibility of bringing the fateful Indulgence to the people in the hands of John Tetzel, a Dominican orator who had considerable experience in such enterprises and who was well known for his skill in gathering the lucre. It was a reputation not at all popular and even one of his brother Dominicans wrote angrily of him that he "devised unheard-of means of making money. He was far too liberal in conferring offices; he put up far too many public crosses in towns and villages, which causes scandal and breeds complaints among the people." This man now embarked upon the money raising campaign, for that is what it frankly was, with more zeal than doctrinal authority; for while he did not err in naming the requirements necessary to obtain indulgences for the living, he did make the mistake of declaring those for the dead could be gained by money alone. His statement was clearly contrary to the doctrines of the Church and the leading theologian of the time, the Cardinal Cajetan, was vehemently positive on the subject of such erroneous teachings. "Preachers speak in the name of the Church," said he, "only so long as they proclaim the doctrine of Christ and His Church; but if, for purposes of their own, they teach that about which they know nothing, and which is only their own imagination they must not be accepted as mouth pieces of the Church. No one must be surprised if such as these fall into error." Tetzel's route took him to Wittenberg where the district vicar and university lecturer, a thirty-four year old Augustinian priest named Martin Luther, impatiently awaited him with strong opinions and an able pen. Luther had once made a journey to Rome and although at that time he displayed no symptoms of displeasure he later claimed he had been disillusioned and angered at what he had seen. By nature he was deeply impressionable as well as self confident and strong willed. His adoption of the clerical state had not been the result of long and careful consideration but was because the sudden death of a close friend who had been destined for the priesthood convinced him he should take his place. This was done against the earnest pleas of his father, for the young Luther had studied for the law, a process involving hardship and sacrifice both to him and his family who were of humble circumstance. After his reception into monastic life the approval of his superiors encouraged his studies and conduct, and at the age of twenty-five he had become a professor at the new university of Wittenberg. Any measure of success is apt to be a hazard to the restraints of discipline and the academic triumphs of the young monk proved a dangerous stimulant to a proud and stubborn nature. In many ways he resembled Savonarola and even his vocabulary was marked by a similar bitter violence. "Knaves, dolts, pigs, asses, infernal blasphemers" were terms he hurled at his opponents with the harsh emphasis akin to that which had stirred the congregations of Florence. But where the Italian had been content to attack the person of a Pope and had not questioned the authority of the Church, the German was to take this fatal step and make denial and offer challenge to orthodox dogma. His "Ninety-five Theses" were nailed to the church door and soon all Germany rocked with the altercation which followed. Tetzel, unlike many other churchmen, immediately realized the dangers underlying Luther's attack, and he countered with a carefully prepared work in which he emphasized that the affair was not a matter of indulgences alone but because of it "many will be led to despise the authority and supremacy of the Pope and the Holy [paragraph continues] Roman See." His apprehension did not disturb the equanimity of the Curia or bring any vigorous action from the hierarchy. Luther sent a copy of his theses to the Metropolitan who on the advice of his counsellors referred the matter to Rome with an accompanying letter which expressed the hope "that His Holiness would grasp the situation so as to meet the error at once, as occasion offers and as the exigency requires and not lay the responsibility on us." The apparatus of correction and discipline moved slowly and ineffectually while the new movement, as yet not organized or recognized as such, spread with the rapidity of a fierce and sudden conflagration. The dislike held for Rome and the political and social state of Germany all made for the cause of Luther. The nobles coveted the properties of the Church. The intellectuals, dominated and excited by the Humanist movement, were delighted at an opportunity to destroy the conventional religion. And the peasantry, told of Roman iniquities in the most inflammatory terms, were given the chimerical hope that the new order would better their miserable lot. In the year following the gesture at Wittenberg the Pope instructed the Vicar General of the Augustinians to silence the unruly monk; but Luther disregarded such measures and anticipating excommunication boldly preached that the sentence would be futile because "the real communion of the Church was invisible and that no one could be affected by it." A few months later the Emperor Maximilian, now thoroughly alarmed by the numbers and attitude of the priest's adherents, .wrote to the Pope and declared serious measures should be immediately taken to quell him. Canonical processes commenced and Luther was summoned to Rome; but the only answer was the publication of a series of new pamphlets filled with heresy. A Legate, the gentle and learned Cardinal Cajetan, went to Germany where after some difficulty Luther consented to meet him but would give no retractation. At intervals there were further negotiations with other emissaries and there were public debates with such skilled theologians as Johann Eck defending orthodoxy. Sometimes it seemed reconciliation might be possible, for often it was Luther's mood that he would not break with Rome and at these times he would profess obedience to the Pope. But never would he make retractation or express sorrow for his past actions; and as his words grew fiercer the hope became irretrievably lost and there remained only one road for his proud and stubborn nature to follow. Irrevocably he was committed to rebellion and with the full and powerful influence of the Humanists strong upon him politics gradually crowded theology to a lesser position in his sermons. Liberty and patriotism are the unfailing slogan of the revolutionary and to these inflammatory words was now added the name of the Gospel. "Liberty! Fatherland! Gospel!" The battlecry was made. "I have cast the die," he boasted, "I now despise the rage of the Romans as much as I do their favor. I will not reconcile myself to them for all eternity . . . If a thief is punished by a halter, a murderer by the sword, and a heretic by fire, why should not we, with all our weapons attack these teachers of corruption, these Popes, Cardinals, and all the rabble of the Roman Sodom, and wash our hands in their blood." Thirty-two months after the incident at Wittenberg a Bull was issued by Leo condemning forty-one propositions extracted from the writings of Luther and excommunicating him unless he retracted within sixty days. But by now the Friar was firmly entrenched in Germany and had gained the protection of a powerful prince, the Elector of Saxony. Scornfully the claims of discipline were dismissed and with ceremony and to the cheers of the populace he publicly burned the Bull and told the students of Wittenberg that "It is now full time the Pope himself is burned. My meaning is that the Papal chair, its false teachings, and its abominations, should be given to the flames." The parchment burned brightly and the crowd roared lusty approval; and in the lurid glow of the noisy scene Protestantism thus became a fact although it was not until a decade later that the name came into use. This was at the Diet of Speyer where it was resolved that the new religion was established but that its adherents must not interfere with or hinder Catholic worship. The followers of Luther protested vigorously at the tolerant decree and hence the term, Protestant. Leo died after a reign of eight years and before him the Emperor Maximilian had gone also. He was succeeded by his grandson, Charles of Spain. Henry VIII of England had been a candidate for the Imperial honor and at the long conclave which proceeded the election of the next Pope the name of Henry's counsellor, the great Cardinal Wolsey, received serious consideration. However, the Medici family was resolved that a cousin of Leo should secure the ballots and possibly to avert the evils of deadlock an unexpected name was finally announced, that of the Cardinal Adrian Dedel who in keeping his own name as Pope Adrian VI was to break a two hundred year old tradition. The fact that he possessed the friendship and respect of the new Emperor must have influenced the decision of the cardinals but it was a decision certainly not sought by the man whom it favored. He had not attended the conclave and it was with reluctance that he embarked upon the journey from Spain to accept the responsibilities of the tiara. Born at Utrecht in Holland he was the son of a shipwright and by ability and diligence had risen to the position of tutor to the young Charles who was impressed by his talents and his honesty and who never had reason to change the opinion. Successive and successful stages of advancement had eventually brought the Netherlander to the high position of Viceroy in Spain and now had come the Papacy. It was eight months before he was crowned in Rome and it was with coldness that the people of the City greeted him for he was in every way utterly unlike the great prince prelates to whom they were accustomed. Pomp he detested, flattery too, and those noisy and undisciplined crowds of artists and poets and merchants who had fattened on the generosity of former reigns quickly discovered that papal patronage had ceased to be. No lavish court or costly pageants or feasts and games or chances for easy or dubious riches could be expected during the time of this scrupulous northerner who earnestly desired reform and a united and tranquil Christendom. These were his aims, together with plans for a crusade against the Turks who had already won the island of Rhodes, but the obstacles he had inherited seemed insurmountable; he was too late and perhaps it was this realization that hastened his end. He died less than two years after his election. The Romans received a pope more suited to their taste in the person of his successor for this time the plans of the Medici were triumphant. Giulio de Medici, cousin of Leo X, took his place as Clement VII. It was not an easy victory, for the Emperor, the Kings of France and England, the Italian factions, all had their candidates and the conclave lasted fifty days. The struggle for ballots was most lively and for a while it again seemed as though the Englishman, Wolsey, might win; but the supporters of the Medici redoubled their efforts and enlarged their promises and so won the majority necessary for their candidate. Unfortunately he was in no way equal to the responsibilities and burdens of the great position. He was a cultured and handsome man of fifty-six and was possessed of a grace of manner and ability expected of his birth and breeding. But these values were not sufficient to cope with the complex problems, both temporal and spiritual, which now confronted the papacy and disturbed the world. From the beginning misfortune attended his venturings in the intricate and dubious intrigues which constituted the diplomacy of his day. The Emperor Charles V and King Francis I of France were at war and the Pope adopted a faltering policy of pseudo-neutrality which under the existing circumstances was neither possible nor sincere and which quickly lost him the respect of both princes. Francis repelled a German invasion on his own soil and then marched to enforce his claims in Italy; but at Pavia the Imperial troops engaged again and this time the French were beaten and their monarch taken prisoner. Hopes for a united Christendom had been woefully shattered when, before this battle, the French king, made desperate by impending defeat, had tried unsuccessfully to make an alliance with the Turks. As a prisoner he concluded a treaty of surrender with Charles but the terms were harsh and secretly he plotted to form a new combine. In an effort to escape Teutonic dominance the Milanese and Venetians were susceptible to the arguments of this would-be ally of the Turk and so unfortunately was the Pope. When the Emperor learned of the covert negotiations his rage was kindled and soon his troops, a wild and long unpaid army of German and Spanish mercenaries, were unleashed upon the Papal States. Rome was defended with spirit and the commander of the attacking forces was Leo X. Reigned 1513 to 1521. Click to enlarge Pope Leo X. Machiavelli advised him: Luther defied him. See pages 235 to 246. killed but a breach was made in the walls and the city, so rich a prize, was open to a horde of ruffians savagely hungry for loot. All vestiges of discipline disappeared during orgies of killing, burning, sacrilege, and rape which followed. For centuries the sack of Rome had been the terror of those who feared the Turk. It was now a horrible fact but the despoilers of the churches and defilers of the altars did not carry the insignia of Islam. They called themselves Christians and their absent master proudly flaunted Charlemagne's grandiose title, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The Pope and seven of his cardinals fled to a fortress at Orvieto and there remained for many long months; and when he did return to the city it was a ruined and broken landscape which saddened his eye and spirit. He was forced to a peace with Charles and on Imperial terms. Thus papal dignity was sacrificed when the Pope obeyed and travelled to Bologna where with the pomp of ancient ceremony he presided at the Imperial coronation. Another journey made at royal behest and destined to bear great and grave consequences was his voyage to France when his niece married the Duke of Or- leans. It was an opportunity not neglected for the French monarch to discuss many momentous matters, including the historic demand from across the channel that the marriage of Henry VIII and his Queen be dissolved. Francis made plea for the English king and even hinted of the danger to the papacy of incurring a united French and English enmity. The Pope listened and was aware of the peril but he also remembered that the unwanted wife was the niece of the Emperor Charles. Henry had married Catherine of Aragon, the young widow of his sickly elder brother, after special permission had been granted by Rome on the grounds that the first marriage had never been consummated. Five children had been born of this union between Spanish Princess and English King but only one survived, Mary, later to be Queen. That the popular and gifted Henry had no sympathy for Luther is a well known story for with a great flourish he banned the Reformer's books from England and composed, with the aid of his divines, the famous treatise in Latin, A Defence of the Seven Sacraments against Martin Luther. In return he received violent abuse from the monk but also the gratitude of the Pope in the form of a title, Defender of the Faith, an honor which was not relinquished for Henry never considered any deed of his to be Protestant in act or intent. Seventeen years he had lived with Catherine before he developed scruples regarding the validity of their marriage and these stirrings were not the product of a stern conscience or sincere canonical doubt but were born of an illicit if not obscure love affair. It would seem that all any man could desire on earth had been Henry's inheritance for not only did the favor of exalted birth give him rank and possessions but he was also superbly endowed in physique and mind. It was natural he should receive vast measure of adulation and flattery and perhaps it was equally natural he should fall prey to such subtle poisons. Maturity usually remedies the weaknesses of adolescence with that kind of sagacity which is born of time and pain, but on those occasions when the circumstances of life are made too easy the passing of years merely serves to ripen the young fruit to rot. So it was with Henry, whose intelligence and body were subjected to temptation in numerous and elaborate forms of enticement and cunning. Self-discipline faded away and the noble ideals of youth became dim and distorted before the capricious demands of gluttony and sensual appetite. One of his mistresses had been Mary [paragraph continues] Boleyn and it was her sister Anne, who inflamed his fickle passion and distorted his judgment to such a degree that he became determined she should be his Queen. Eventually he made her so, but not with the sanction of the Pope and this fact stands out, cold and clear, from the morass of intrigue and procrastination which accompanied the royal folly. For six years the headstrong monarch tried by all means possible to win the necessary permission and the complicated negotiations which took place leave little credit to either side. Proceedings dragged on and papal and royal emissaries travelled busily to and fro, laden with the appurtenances of mystery and plot. Hopes were falsely kindled and threats rashly made. Universities were bribed to give opinions in favor of the divorce and crowds of servile courtiers masquerading as prelates eagerly and without shame prostituted their faith and their learning to assure the enamoured monarch that his conduct was correct. Counsellors of this mould even suggested that a solution of the problem would be for the Pope to grant a special dispensation allowing Henry to possess two wives! When the infatuated prince finally made Anne a Marchioness and took her to France where she was presented as the future Queen of England the Pope was forced to action. He threatened excommunication to both if they did not separate. The new Marchioness was pregnant but before her child was born a marriage ceremony was performed and the crown was placed atop her comely head amidst scenes of formal splendour. The time, long dreaded by the timid and procrastinating Pope, had arrived and to his honour he remained firm and true to dignity and responsibility. The loss of allegiance to papal authority in Europe had been devastating and now England's loyalty could be kept at the cost of one divorce. Temptation must have been great but with clarity the final decision was pronounced in Rome; Catherine was the lawful wife of the English King. Persistent and contemptible attempts had been made upon the unfortunate woman by her deluded husband to have her resign her rights, but no argument or humiliation could wring from her an admission that the long years of her married life had been merely a term of concubinage and that their daughter, Mary, was illegitimate. King and Queen met before a court of bishops and Catherine spoke with the calm dignity of a faithful wife and good mother. "I take God and all the world to witness that I have been to you a true, humble, and obedient wife, ever comportable to your will and touch . . ." Only once did she pause and then her voice became lower. "This twenty years or more I have been your true wife, and by me ye have had divers children, although it hath pleased God to call them from this world . . . And when he had me at the first, I take God to be my judge, I was a true maid, without touch of man. And whether this be true or no, I put it to your conscience." Pressure was exerted to have her enter a convent and take vows but despite her great piety the cloisters were also rejected. Anne might occupy the royal bed but Catherine knew she was wife and Queen and no act of Henry could change the fact. This was the attitude firmly maintained to her death when with superb charity she wrote to her "Dear husband and King" and gave him her forgiveness. "For the rest, I commend unto you our daughter Mary, beseeching you to be a good father unto her, as I have heretofore desired. I entreat you also, on behalf of my maids, to give them marriage portions, which is not much, they being but three. For all my other servants I solicit the wages due them and a year more, lest they be improvided for. Lastly, I make this vow, that my eyes desire you above all things." Because of the failure of the divorce proceedings in Rome the mighty Wolsey lost the favor of his master and after a rapid series of degradations was charged with High Treason. A natural death intervened to save him from a shameful end and before he expired he uttered the pathetic words which were long to be remembered. "If I had served God as diligently as I have done my King, He would not now have given me over in my grey hairs." With the aid of evil Thomas Cromwell, master architect of terror, Henry made himself supreme head of the Church in England and with bloody prodigality the block and the gallows were invoked against the many who would not admit of this presumption. England's greatest Chancellor, the scholar who held the esteem of all Europe, joined the march to the scaffold. "I die," Thomas More said, "the King's good servant, but God's first." Monasteries were suppressed, churches and shrines robbed, yet the outward forms of religion were not changed in Henry's time: his rejection of papal authority brought no sympathy or tolerance for Protestantism or its author. It was different on the continent. The Scandinavian countries were fast adopting Lutheranism, and Switzerland was falling under the influence of a similar-minded and equally eloquent ex-priest, Zwingli. In France the harsh and melancholy doctrines of Calvin were being given attention and in Hungary the prayers of the faithful were disturbed by the dreary wail of muezzins, calling to Allah, for the Turks had become masters of that country and a triumphant Mohammedan army even possessed Vienna. After eleven unhappy years as Pope, Clement died unexpectedly, leaving both his spiritual and temporal domains in chaotic condition. His unfortunate pontificate marked the end of the Renaissance and had witnessed the birth of the so-called Reformation; but it also cradled the stirrings of a real reformation within the Church for great forces and good men were at work with a sincerity and zeal and genius which could not be denied success. The Lateran Council had been warned that "men must be transformed by religion, not religion by men" and these words typified the new spirit. A unity of belief might have been lost but the faith that remained was to be the sturdier because of surviving the storms of doubt and oppression. Spontaneously the new mood invigorated both the secular clergy and the ancient Orders and also caused the formation of other groups of devoted men and women who were moved to unselfish service of God and mankind. There were the Capuchins, the Clerks Regular, the Theatines, the Barnabites, the Somaschi, the Lazarists, the Sisters of Charity, the Ursulines, and others. And the same year that Pope Clement died, an ex-soldier of noble Spanish birth, Don Inigo Lopes Ricalda y Loyola, better known to history as Ignatius of Loyola, banded together a small number of similar-minded friends and communicated to them his enthusiasm and plans. Thus, in Paris, was commenced the disciplined organization which from then on has ever been an important influence in the story of the Church. The Society of Jesus was on the march. An astonishingly rapid election brought success and fulfillment to the plans and ambitions of Alexander Farnese, Paul III, who had been a cardinal for forty years. He was sixty-six years old and was of an ancient Roman family which, in adherence to the obnoxious custom, was now to be deluged with riches and honors. His sons and daughtersfor these, true child of the Renaissance that he was, he possessedwere favored in every way possible and two of his nephews, aged fourteen and sixteen, were promptly made cardinals at the commencement of his reign. He had been a cardinal during the reign of Alexander VI and in some respects his life followed the Borgia pattern; yet he often was to display a majesty of purpose akin to that possessed by Julius II and at other times it would seem as though he were moved by the same high motives which had guided the austere Adrian. That he had enjoyed the favour of these popes, so varying in character, and of the Medici too, is proof enough of his skill in diplomacy, apropos of which an ambassador to his court complained that an annoying and typical trait of the Pope was a "scrupulous avoidance" of ever uttering a positive "Yes" or "No." Save for his extravagant nepotism he was an extremely cautious and sagacious man and he embarked upon a policy of wily neutrality between the ever clashing schemes of the French king and the Emperor. It was a difficult policy to maintain but for the first years of his pontificate it was to have a certain if uneasy degree of success. It was unforgivable that he should have bestowed the Red Hat upon his young relatives but most other cardinals of his creation were noted for their worthiness. The English bishop, John Fisher, languishing in prison and soon to lose his head on the block was thus honored and so too was another deserving Englishman, Reginald Pole, a cousin of Henry VIII, who was in Italy and so safe from the ire of his vindictive kinsman. The menace of Turkish attack was seldom absent from the cares of Paul III. Rakish craft, their lateen sails emblazoned with the Crescent, their decks crammed with blood-hungry warriors, had become a terror to shipping in the Mediterranean until the Emperor, at the behest of the Pope and with money and galleys from the same source, stormed the piratical stronghold at Tunis and administered a thorough and salutary defeat. But when war, despite the urgent entreaties of the pontiff, broke out again between France and Spain and the Emperor's troops became occupied in that direction, Barbarossa, daring chief of the Mohammedan buccaneers, recommenced his depredations upon the Italian coast and it became the boast of the Turkish Sultan that his seraglio would be moved to Rome. There were signs of panic in the Eternal City at this news for the potentate's announcement had strong chances of realization; but by the exercise of great and desperate ingenuity Paul caused an armistice to be declared between the Emperor and the French monarch and together they joined him in the formation of a Holy League. The Venetians, who held a treaty with the Turks, were persuaded that such a pact was wrong and they too became partners in the new alliance, and thus Rome remained unscarred by the scimitar. Notwithstanding his own weaknesses Paul was acutely aware of other and less tangible evils which were besieging the papacy and with acrimony the more worldly of his cardinals were told "they should set an example to others by reforming themselves." To introduce peace and authority into the babel of contemporary theological dispute and to muster a united strength against the onslaughts of the papacy's antagonists Paul III made careful plans for the convocation of a General Council, for he was of the opinion that the voice of a Council was needed to reaffirm and clarify ancient dogma and to endorse authority. The scheme was commendable and simple in thought but in actual execution fraught with difficulty and danger. His own temporal strength was negligible and he had no wish, and there was the danger, for any one sovereign or nation to exert influence upon the decision of so important a body under the guise of patronage or protection. Prejudice and patronage must be avoided and the judgments of the [paragraph continues] Fathers left unhindered. With all the genius of his diplomatic talent he fought desperately to have it so. The idea of the Council was received with enthusiasm, even by some of the Protestant princes, but as the Pope had anticipated there were many who saw the convention as an avenue for their own designs and innovations. The support of the Emperor was necessary, indeed the approval of all Christians was desired, and unwearyingly the Pope toiled to gain the good will of all and the interference of none. The Emperor was sincerely enthusiastic for he readily perceived that under such auspices the Empire might be strengthened; but the Pope, with wider horizons beckoning, regarded the Imperial zeal with apprehension and even despair and many conflicts arose between the two regarding the policies, the procedure, and even the location of the Council. Usually it was the patient pontiff who was victorious but not without the penalties of strife. Charles was of the opinion that ecclesiastical discipline should be the first concern of the meeting but the Pope held to his plan that questions appertaining to doctrine should be settled before the discussion of a workable policy of discipline. After many vexations and delays the Council assembled at Trent, in the Austrian Tyrol, on the 13th December, 1543, the eleventh year of Paul's reign. Ten times it was to meet during the remaining four years of his life and it was not to be formally dissolved, although on several occasions it suffered interruptions and a change of scene, until 1563. The decisions made and decrees issued, defining Catholic doctrine, provided splendid support for the champions of the Counter Reformation. By this time the Reformation was rapidly flowering to full development but the Council of Trent was, by a program of practical reform and definition, able to restore vigor to orthodoxy and bring strength and hope to the faithful again. The storms of altercation following Luther's outburst, the long theological arguments, the many and confusing interpretations of the Gospels, the admitted need for clerical reform, had brought perplexity to many a simple priest and layman. But now all was to be made clear and the road illuminated. The dogmas of original sin, justification, the sacraments, were explained with exactitude and so too were many other subjects of attack and dispute such as the veneration of saints and the granting of indulgences. Errors in clerical conduct were not merely censured but were exhaustively examined and practical measures for removing abuses were promulgated and adopted. A system of reform was founded which could survive and indeed grow in strength. Precise in its condemnations, constructive in its suggestions, grand in its scope, the Council of Trent can rightfully be regarded as one of the great bulwarks of Catholicity. "Thus the Council," wrote the Protestant historian Ranke, "that had been so vehemently demanded, and so long evaded, that had been twice dissolved, had been shaken by so many political storms, and whose third convocation, even, had been beset with danger, closed amid the general harmony of the Catholic world . . . Henceforth Catholicism confronted the Protestant world in renovated collected vigor." Paul III lived with all the gaudy and benevolent luxury of a Renaissance prince and Rome benefited in many ways from his generosity and his appreciation of the arts. New streets were built, churches restored, great bastions were erected, engineers worked diligently on new schemes of fortifications, and scholars toiled over the long catalogues of the Vatican library. Titian, like many a lesser colleague, was subsidized and the classic beauty of St. Peter's dome, superb symbol of the supreme authority, was raised by [paragraph continues] Michael Angelo. Paul III had done well and should have died content but the fruits of his nepotism made his end miserable and unhappy. An ungrateful and predatory grandson, with clamor and with violence, was claiming the duchy of Parma as his personal property. "My sin is ever before me," grieved the dying Pope. "If they had not the mastery over me, then I should have been without great offence." It took the cardinals ten weeks to select a successor, Giovanni Ciocchi del Monte, who took the name of Julius III. For a time, at this conclave, it seemed as though the votes would go to Reginald Pole but the conscientious Englishman refused to bargain or make promises and his moment passed. Later, when Mary became Queen, Pope Julius sent him to his native country as Legate and there he officiated as Archbishop of Canterbury, the last of his faith to take that ancient title. The new Pope was friendly with the Emperor, soon to be fighting the French again, but neither alliance with that forceful ruler nor the great responsibilities of his own position gave him the confidence or strength of purpose which had characterized the previous reign. When the Protestant allies of France invaded the Tyrol and caused an adjournment of the Council of Trent, resignation to circumstances was the attitude of the Pope. He seemed overwhelmed by the number and magnitude of his problems, and frankly abandoning all pretence of active policy he retired to the peace of his gardens. Fortunately such indolence was not reflected in the toiling body of the Church for this was the time of such men as the indefatigable Jesuit, Francis Xavier, who before embarking for hostile and unknown shores cheerfully told his fellow adventurers, "The greatest trials you have until now endured are small in comparison with those you will experience in Japan. Prepare yourself for difficulties, by setting aside all consideration for your own interests." And later the pen of the same brave man inscribed: "I am journeying, deprived of all human protection, to the island of Canton, in the hope that a friendly heathen will take me over to the continent of China." The pontificate of Julius III lasted five years. The next Pope was Marcellus II of whom much was expected, for as a cardinal and as a priest Marcello Pervino had earned an enviable reputation. Immediately after his enthronement he enthusiastically turned to the subject of reform and one of his first acts was to prohibit any member of his family from coming to Rome. Luxury was banned from his household and the customary elaborate ceremonies of coronation were avoided. In every way the hopes of the pious were fulfilled in the person of this pontiff but unfortunately their jubilance was brief for he was of delicate health and his reign ended abruptly, to the sorrow of all, after a mere twenty-two days. The name of Reginald Pole was mentioned again at the following conclave but he was absent in England and the Spanish influence which favored him was not strong enough to achieve its purpose. Elected instead, and after considerable balloting, was the seventy-nine-year-old Giovanni Pietro Caraffa whose advanced age showed no traces of senilitybut neither had it brought that mellowness of thought and judgment which usually comes with the years. Paul IV was a severe and bad tempered old man, somewhat eccentric in manner, who often times affected the simplicity of a monk but on other occasions could formidably play the despot. He was of the reform school and was a founder of the first congregation of Clerks Regular yet he was not exempt from the disease of nepotism and one of his first actions as pope was to bestow the Red Hat upon the head of his undeserving nephew, Carlo Caraffa. His support went to the French in the war with Spain; and guided by his nephew this policy brought matters to such a deplorable state that it was found necessary to employ Protestant mercenaries from Germany to protect the papal provinces from the invading army of the Duke of Alva. Meanwhile the French were defeated elsewhere and the Pope was forced to sue for peace, a costly and humiliating process for one so proud. His reign was characterized by the unbending severities of the true martinet and the punishments which came to those who crossed his will or broke the laws were as heavy as they were prompt. Eventually rumors came to him of the base conduct of his nephew and for once the ties of blood were spurned and the ungrateful and unfit wearer of the purple was expelled from Rome. Paul IV was an ardent supporter of the Inquisition, which as a cardinal he had reorganized, and wide use of its dreaded powers was made during his term. Even the Cardinal Morone, a highly respected member of the Sacred College, became enmeshed in the web of terrible accusation and to prison he went on the grounds of heresy. "Even if my own father were a heretic," said this Pope, refusing a petition for clemency, "I would gather the wood to burn him." Reginald Pole was another object of his pessimism and suspicion but Pole was in England and had the wisdom to keep from Rome. Clergy of lesser rank looked nervously to their conduct when at one sweep a hundred vagrant monks were despatched to the galleys or to the dungeons. Mercy was a quality lacking in this stern old man and when he died, after being pope four years, the mobs rioted to show their pleasure and to hurl hatred upon his memory. Down toppled his statue to be broken and defiled and with similar demonstrations of insult and delight the gates of the prison of the Inquisition were swept open and the inmates released. Nearly four months dragged by before the next conclave was concluded and devious and ugly were the intrigues which hindered the cardinals from making a quick decision. "It is not of the least consequence," wrote the obnoxious Cardinal-nephew of Paul IV, "who will be Pope, the only thing of importance is that he who is chosen should realize that he owes the dignity to the Caraffa. This house does not enjoy any favor with the Spanish or French kings, and everything therefore depends on securing the favor of the future Pope, as otherwise the ruin of the family is assured." Other Italian clans had similar ideas and in addition to their dark activities there were the schemes of the various ambassadors, all determined to secure the election of a Pope who would favor their particular national interests. In such an atmosphere the most extravagant promises were made and cunning plots formulated; the audacious Ambassador of Spain even went so far as to gain, by window or secret door, access to the quarters of cardinals, supposedly shut off from the world, and there in the dim night hours whisper his bribes and subtly phrased threats. Finally, out of the tangle of discussion, the name of the Cardinal Giovanni Angelo Medici was proclaimed and this despite the fact that but a short time previously he had disturbed the conclave by remarking during a conversation with another cardinal that, "as regards the Germans, we should have to summon a Council to see if some concessions could not be made to them with regard to the marriage of priests and Communion under both kinds." That the startling statement did not prevent him from becoming Pius IV is indicative of the understanding his colleagues had of an expansive nature which was tolerant and easy going to a fault. In all ways he was unlike his dour predecessor and he was famous for his disregard of formality and ceremony, and the conduct of his private life was continually marked by homely incidents which endeared him to the public. He was a fat man and long appreciation of the pleasures of the table had brought the gout. Thinking to reduce his corpulence and nullify the encroachments of his sickness it became his habit to take long walks. These perambulations, much to the disgust of his court, were conducted at a rapid pace and for considerable distances. "Exercise," he affirmed, "maintains good health and keeps away illness, and I do not wish to die in bed." The traditional geniality which is ascribed to rotundity was indisputably his and the clouds of gloom and suspicion which had hung over Rome during the previous pontificate now disappeared. He displayed no ill-will to the arrogant nephews of Paul IV after his reception of the tiara, but their crimes were many and foul and their enemies so powerful and determined for revenge that retribution was inevitable. A particularly horrible murder within the hated family began the forces of its destruction. The Duke of Paliano, brother of the Cardinal Carlo Caraffa, believed his wife unfaithful, and governed by extravagant ideas of honor he ordered her unfortunate supposed paramour dragged before him and then with shouts of rage he plunged his dagger again and again into the bound body of the wretch until he was dead. The drama became more horrible when the wretched Duchess, pregnant and crying her innocence, was strangled by her own brother, the Count dAlife. That the Cardinal Carlo Caraffa was a party, by knowledge and condonement, to the bloody wickedness could not be denied and with no alternative possible the Pope reluctantly set the processes of accusation and judgment in motion. "If only to secure order," he said, "I have no choice but to bring the haughty nephews of Paul IV to submission." A long list of charges was prepared, varying from murder and high treason to heresy, and brought to justice was the Cardinal Carlo, his brother the Duke of Paliano, the brother-in-law the Count d'Alife, and a younger relative, the Cardinal Alphonso Caraffa. After a long trial the latter was pardoned but the others, despite their rank, were given the supreme penalty. All three faced the executioner with dignity, and a letter to his son by the fierce Dukewho was comforted by the Jesuits during his last hoursis a missive to remember because of its faith and beauty: "This paper contains, I believe, the last words and advice I shall be able to address you in this life," he wrote. "I pray God that they may be such as a father should address his only son. . . . Flee from sin and have compassion on the misery of others; practice works of piety, and flee from idleness, and conversations and pursuits which are not fitting for you; take pains to acquire some knowledge of science and letters, for these are very necessary for a true nobleman, especially for one who has power and vassals, as well as to be able to enjoy the sweet fruits of the Holy Scriptures, which are so precious for both soul and body. If you savour such fruits, then you will despise the things of this sorrowful world, and find no small consolation in the present life. I wish you to show indomitable courage at my death, not behaving like a child, but as a reasonable man, and not listening to the promptings of the flesh, or to the love of your father, or to the talk of the world. For your consolation ponder well the fact that whatever happens is ordained by the decrees of the great God, Who rules the universe with infinite wisdom, and, Clement VII. Reigned from 1523 to 1534. Click to enlarge Pope Clement VII. He excommunicated Henry VIII. See pages 247 to 254. as it appears to me, shows me great mercy by taking me hence in this manner, rather than in any other way, for which I always thank Him, as you also must do. May it only please Him to exchange this my life for that other, the false and deceitful for the true. Do not be troubled by whatever people may say or write; say to everyone: My father is dead, because God has shown him great grace, and I hope He has saved him, and granted him a better existence. Therewith I die, but you shall live, bear no one ill-will of my death." Conciliatory measures were employed with the rulers of Europe by Pius IV, and ably representing him in many important conferences north of the Alps was the Cardinal Morone who had suffered imprisonment because of the delusions of the late pope. Nepotism was not absent from Rome for this Pope had his nephews too, but for once the custom brought glory instead of disgrace: one of these relatives was the Cardinal Charles Borromeo, a truly devout and talented character devoted to reform and good works who was, under the dispassionate scrutiny of a later generation, to be judged worthy of canonization. The goodness and ability of the young Cardinal was responsible for the resumption of the labors of the Council of Trent and in several sessions many important and historic decrees were formulated and in turn confirmed and strengthened by papal Bull. The influence of Cardinal Borromeo did not wane with the death of his uncle for happily the next pope, Pius V, a true and zealous churchman, was of a similar mind and purpose and the work of reform swept on. The new pope was the former Cardinal Michele Ghislieri. He was born of poor parents and had been a member of the Dominican Order since his early youth. As a friar he had taught and preached for twenty-eight years, then episcopal responsibilities had been given him and later had come the Red Hat and the stern duties of Inquisitor General under Paul IV. He had been well liked by that severe ruler and when he was given the supreme honor the people feared a return to the harsh discipline of the hated regime. There was, it is true, an immediate tightening of the laws, and justice was to move more swiftly than hitherto, but unlike his patron Pius V tempered strictness with mercy and understanding. He was determined Rome should be the model Capital of Christendom and a courtier, sighing for the riotousness of former days, complained that the entire city was taking on the air of a monastery. The courts were purged of bribery, the streets of prostitutes and thieves, and a ruthless war was made on corrupt officials and unjust taxes. The finances of the Papal States were subjected to critical and profound examination and many changes were made. When an enthusiastic official suggested a new scheme for bringing added revenues to the treasury, the Pope chided him and remarked that instead of amassing monies more thought should be given to collecting the allegiance of those nations which had broken away from the church. The papal army was reduced to a few companies, for he was averse to becoming embroiled in martial adventures; although his belief in the wide authority of the Holy See over the conduct of secular princes was unwavering. This belief was responsible for the issuance of a Bull which excommunicated Elizabeth of England and released her subjects from their allegiance to her. The pronouncement was a mistake which only served to bring further resentment against Rome and misery to the English Catholics for the power of England was mounting, new triumphs were being won on and across the seas, and the Queen's name was tightly woven into the cloth of national honor and patriotism. A few years after the papal sentence sturdy seamen, Protestant and Catholic alike, cheered for their good Queen Bess and merry England when they turned their small craft to meet the Armada. The vast array of great ships was laden with the flower of Spanish chivalry and carried the papal benediction but was doomed to an utter and terrible destruction. Ambition had not brought the tiara to Pius V and he had wept when informed of the decision of the cardinals. But once elected he worked at the great duties with unflagging energy and scrupulous honesty. It was fortunate that such a man should occupy the papacy so soon after the conclusion of the Council of Trent. The value of his administration to the decrees and decisions of the Council can be likened to the worth of a good cannon to the proper ammunition. Drastic changes were made in Rome. The Curia was reformed, the conduct of the cardinals examined and criticized, and stern measures were undertaken to make bishops reside in their sees. Such important works as the Catechism and the New Breviary and the New Missal were published, the value of seminaries was emphasized, and a vigilant eye was turned upon both the secular clergy and the Orders. One cardinal, an irresponsible creature who owed his Hat to the laxity of a previous reign, was confined in a monastery and placed under the conscientious care of Jesuit chaplains. Indeed no great fondness was held for the majority of the cardinals and once when the Pope was ill he was heard to remark that he was sorry death was approaching, not because he was afraid to face his Maker, but because he was leaving on earth a Sacred College filled with conniving and undeserving men. The acquisition of his high rank had brought no great change in the lowly circumstances of his family, most of whom were forbidden to enter [paragraph continues] Rome. "God has called me to be what I am, in order that I may serve the Church," he said, "and not that the Church might serve me." It is true that two nephews received his favor, if such a word can be applied to his austere patronage, but this was only because of his mistrust of the cardinals and the ceaseless intrigues kept in motion by the various ambassadors and faction leaders. In order to find a confidential secretary whose loyalty was beyond all doubt he turned to his family and thus his nephew Michele Bonelli who was also a Dominican became a cardinal. The Pope never quite forgave himself for this action and consequently made life miserable for his relative by a constant inquisitiveness as to his way of living and an equally constant criticism. The unfortunate prelate was seldom at ease and at any hour his larder, his table, his conduct, was liable to a surprise inspection from his uncle. His income was kept at a minimum, he was not allowed silver on his table, and he was even denied the consolation of his parents visiting him. His cousin, a soldier by profession, was made a Captain of the Papal Guard but from the beginning of his service he was in trouble with the Pope who expected his soldiery to live like monks. Finally the warrior, who had far different ideas, was arrested and hauled before the civil court where in the presence of his forbidding kinsman he heard that he was "to forfeit all his goods and revenues, and under pain of death to leave the Vatican within two days, the Borgo within three, and the Papal States within ten." It was a drastic sentence and nothing could induce the Pontiff to extend leniency. Little escaped his stern eye, and the devotees of the bull fight learnt that "these spectacles, where bulls and wild beasts are baited in a circus or amphitheatre, are contrary to Christian mercy and charity, suitable to demons rather than men. We forbid all clerics, regular and secular, to be present. . . ." His dislike of war did not prevent him from sending ships and men to Malta where the Knights were besieged by the Turks and later his encouragement helped mould a Christian Alliance which was able to inflict a shattering and decisive defeat upon the Turkish fleet at Lepanto. Throughout his entire reign he suffered from a painful disease which was finally the cause of his death. Pain was seldom absent from his tortured body but he never complained. "Increase, O Lord, my pains," he once cried, "so long as Thou wilt increase my patience also." He was not the kind of man to court popularity and when he had been elected there had been little rejoicing. But when he died there were true tears and the streets of Rome were silent with respect. It was as he would have wished, and so passed Pius V, the last of the popes whose memory has been honored by canonization. In less than two weeks his successor was named, the seventy-year-old Cardinal Ugo Buoncompagni, Pope Gregory XIII, who as a youth had fully enjoyed Renaissance pleasures but who had with the progress of time turned to the sterner delights of duty and reform. As prelate and papal official he had served for many years with distinction and had won considerable renown as a jurist, but neither the course of righteousness nor the possession of judicial talent prevented him on becoming pope from lavishing favors upon two nephews and a son whom he frankly acknowledged. This son was made Governor of St. Angelo while his cousins were invested with the purple. Easy-going to a fault Gregory was inferior to his predecessor; nevertheless the good works begun in the earlier reign did not cease and they continued on before an impetus steadily supplied by individual churchmen and the Orders. The great and main attack of Protestantism had been halted and a vigorous and purified [paragraph continues] Catholicism was on the increase. Gregory's chief accomplishments were in the field of education and no fewer than twenty-three new colleges opened their doors during his pontificate. Over two million Roman scudi were expended to help deserving but needy students and besides founding the English, German, Greek, and Maronite colleges in Rome the institution, later to be called the Gregorian College, which owed its existence to St. Ignatius was enlarged to accommodate scholars of all nations. Another inauguration to carry his name through the centuries was the calendar which supplanted the Julian calendar. Neither his relations with other sovereigns nor his temporal rule of the Papal States were blessed by good fortune and when he died after a three years' reign there were difficult problems of government and diplomacy both within and without the papal boundaries to greet his successor, Sixtus V. The former Cardinal Felice Peretti, who as a boy had been a swineherd, was the son of a vineyard laborer and had entered the Franciscan Order in his early adolescence. In nature and bent he resembled his patrons Paul IV and Pius V rather than his immediate predecessor and from the beginning of his reign these stern traits were revealed. The brigandage and disorder which were disturbing the papal territories at the close of the former reign were stamped out by ruthless methods and by the end of his rule his temporal domain had become the most orderly in Europe and an empty treasury had become filled with gold. Imposition of new taxes accomplished this latter feat and it was not a way for him to win the cheers of either the nobles or the merchants; but he cared little for the applause of men and his only interest was his mission. The former swineherd was Pope and he was resolved to exercise without fear and with dignity the majesty and authority of his office in all spheres. In support of the Catholic League he excommunicated the King of Navarre, heir presumptive to the French throne, in order to prevent a Protestant from ruling a Catholic nation. It was not a popular decision in France and later the monarch, after becoming a Catholic, was as Henry IV, to make peace with another pope. Sixtus also supported Spain in that country's disastrous war with England, but despite the utmost pressure he would not endorse the Spanish King's designs upon France. Grandiose schemes were propounded by him for the complete overthrow of the Turkish Empire and he dreamed of joining the Red Sea with the Mediterranean and "thus restoring the commerce of the ancient world." Preservation of the historic beauty of Rome and additional architectural projects were tasks he assumed with enthusiasm and an ingenious system, both practical and ornamental, of nobler and wider avenues in the city was devised and commenced. The important decree was issued in this reign which limited the membership of the Sacred College to a maximum number of seventy cardinals and these were ranked in three divisions, six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons. The rule was to stand and equalling it in importance was the bull Immensa issued by the same pope which systemized the centralized government of the Church by forming fifteen Congregations, each consisting of churchmen and officials of varying rank, to assume in specialized departments the burden of detailed administration. Thus, with no diminution of his authority, an immense amount of routine work was lifted from the person of the pope. The five years in which Sixtus occupied the throne of St. Peter were crowded with wise and good works but there were some blemishes to mar the recordhis severity and his nepotism. For he too succumbed to what by this time appeared to be a papal tradition and a fourteen year old relative was elevated to the cardinalate. There can be no justification for such an act; but the contemporary mind was neither surprised nor shocked, and as with former and later reigns the hateful practice was accepted by the majority of both clergy and people with that equanimity which is the due of precedent and tradition. After the death of Sixtus three worthy but ancient prelates in rapid succession and within sixteen months were elected to the papal throne. No grave mistake or scandal can assault their reputations but neither can any of the three be credited with the deeds that are born of exceptional leadership or great initiative. The same pope, Gregory XIII, had made them cardinals on the same day and they were all of an equal age, past seventy. The first to follow Sixtus was Giovanni Batista Castagna, Urban VII, noted for his charities and diplomatic skill. He reigned thirteen days and then came Nicolo Sfondrato of Cremona who in honor of his patron took the name of Gregory XIV. The policies of preceding pontificates remained unchanged during his term which did not last a year and then called was the Cardinal Giovanni Facchinetti who became Innocent IX. Within a few months he too was in his tomb and the Sacred College, after great discussion, decided that the Cardinal Ippolito Aldobrandini should be Pope. He took the name of Clement VII. The choice was a bitter blow to Spanish hopes and indeed the far seeing policies of the new pontiff were to effect a tremendous change in the destiny of that country which was now at the peak of its glory. Clement "by peaceful means, little by little, without disturbance or excitement, but with all the more security," was to strengthen the independence of the papacy by effecting happier relations with France and this circumstance was one of the factors which halted the expansion of Spanish power and made way for the decline of a proud and great nation. During the preceding pontificates Spanish influence upon the diplomatic course of the papacy had gradually become so strong that when Clement took his throne he felt Rome was almost the vassal of Madrid. This meant that the enemies of Spain were automatically on ill terms with the Holy See and no great perception was needed by the pontiff to realize the danger of a permanent rupture with France, the most hated foe of Spain. Henry IV, master of France, had been excommunicated; but now, seeking the united allegiance of his subjects he was imploring to be readmitted to the communion of the Church. Was it the gesture of one who was alleged to have remarked "Paris is well worth a mass," or was the prince truly sincere in his repentance? It was a delicate problem for the Pope. If he were over-severe, schism would be assured and France surely would go the way of England; but if he were foolishly lenient then contempt for papal authority would grow everywhere. A constant clamor of both plea and threat came from the nations involved but the cautious and conscientious Pope trod the difficult and torturous path of negotiation with extraordinary diplomatic skill and never once was principle or scruple sacrificed. He well realized that independence of the Holy See demanded relief from the ever growing dominance of Spain and that relief was possible only with France active as a counter balance; yet the sentence of excommunication could not be lifted lightly, and often the French envoys were in despair. "Would to God," the Pope told an official, "that we could trust Henry. But what has he done to deserve absolution? . . . Is it enough that he now once makes the Sign of the Cross?" At length repeated argument and evidence convinced him that the prince indeed was truly penitent and with a great and solemn ceremony, and much to the consternation of Spain, the dreaded sentence was lifted. "I have no words to praise the kindness of Your Holiness as it deserves," Henry wrote with gratitude. "My life henceforth shall have no other purpose than to glorify God by meritorious obedience. . . ." The extravagant promise was never to be completely fulfilled but an alliance had been made which brought advantages to both Pope and King. France remained a Catholic country and the papacy was no longer at the mercy of the pretentious dictates of Philip II of Spain who was an absolutist and harbored ambitions of functioning as a kind of Pope-Emperor. When the Duchy of Ferrara was left empty of a legitimate heir the Spanish king presented a candidate to contest the claims of the Pope; but supported by the new friendship of France, Clement was able to remain firm and in the end the Duchy was returned to the Papal States. In pursuance of the papal dream of a united and tranquil Christendom the Pope was able on several occasions to act as a peacemaker between the nations: products of his diplomacy were the Peace of Vervins between Spain and France and the Treaty of Lyons between the latter nation and Savoy.

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Do you know which language is the official language of 21 countries in the world, spanning four continents? It's Spanish (or Espa-ol), of course! Spanish is not only the official language of Spain and Mexico, but also of many countries in South and Central America. Which other countries can you name? Did you know that it's also the official language of a country in Africa? Equatorial Guinea lies on the western coast of Africa and its two official languages are Spanish and French. Not all Spanish sounds the same and not all Spanish words mean the same thing in each country. Many Spanish words have been incorporated into the English language. Did you know that the word "burrito" actually means "little donkey?" Have you ever heard of someone naming a car "won't go?" Not many people would want to buy that car. That's exactly why the Chevrolet Nova didn't sell in Spain and Latin America. "No va" means "won't go" in Spanish. The United States territory Puerto Rico means "rich port." The Central American country Costa Rica means "rich coast." The state of Colorado's name is actually from the Spanish word meaning "red." Nevada means "snowy" or "snowed upon" in Spanish. Do you know what state's name comes from an old Spanish term meaning "earthly paradise?" California. Can you think of any other common names that stem from the Spanish language? Have you heard the saying "Mi casa es su casa?" It's a sign of hospitality that means "my house is your house." In English we might more commonly say "make yourself at home." In some parts of India, a salary is called "pagar," which in Spanish means "to pay." Many names are actually Spanish words as well. For example, a "bandera" is a flag so the actor Antonio Banderas' name means "flags." Geraldo Rivera's last name means "riverbank" or "riverside" in Spanish, as does the name of the great Mexican artist Diego Rivera. "Rivera" looks like the word "river" in English but the word for "river" in Spanish is actually "ri-!" Spanish is all around us. What other words of Spanish origin can you find? -- Gwendolyn Gallace, Spanish teacher, Jefferson, Maine. *** Try to figure out what the Spanish poem, La Boda (right), says! Hoy en este amanecer, Suenan las campanas sin cesar, Los musicos tocan su música, Porque la boda ya va a empezar. La gente se levanta, Al ver la novia entrar, Con su vestido blanco, Y con una alegra Que no puede dejar. Atras de ella, Los pajes tiran flores, Con sus caritas peque-as, Y sus vestidos de muchos colores. Al fin la novia para, Y atras voltea, Por su novio espera. El novio ahora camina, Hacia su novia bella, Nervioso y feliz, Pero siempre pensando en ella. Mientras la ceremonia sigue, Un angel del cielo viene, Les da amor y felicidad, De la que el tiene. El angel les dice, Que vivan felices y llenos de alegra, Y que el amor siempre encuentren, Dia tras dia. -- por Marian Urias, 11 a-os de edad, Mexicana, 6th grade, El Paso, Texas.

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Its a scarlet tanager kind of yearWritten by George Ellison “The scarlet tanager flies through the green foliage as if it would ignite the leaves. You can hardly believe that a living creature can wear such colors.” — Henry David Thoreau This seems to be a scarlet tanager kind of year. I’ve been seeing and hearing them at my house, along the Blue Ridge Parkway, and in the Great Smokies. No bird in our region is more striking. Jet black wings on a trim red almost luminescent body, the male is impossible to overlook. And it’s easy to recognize by both song and call. I almost never encounter the summer tanager (whose entire body is rosy red) in Western North Carolina, but the scarlet tanager is encountered every year — to a greater or lesser extent — during the breeding season (mid-April to mid-October) in mature woodlands (especially slopes with pine and oak) between 2,000 and 5,000 feet in elevation. The bird winters in northwestern South America, where it enjoys the company of various tropical tanagers that do not migrate. Keep in mind that the female doesn’t resemble her mate except in shape. She is olive-green or yellow-orange in color. Also keep in mind there is a variant form (morph) of the male tanager that is orange rather than scarlet in color. I suspect this variant is the result of something peculiar in its diet. My first and only encounter with an orange scarlet tananger was in the Lake Junaluska area several years ago. The call note used by both the male and female is a distinctive “chip-burr … chip-burr.” The male’s song is not pretty. He sounds like a robin with a sore throat; that is, the notes in the song are hoarse and raspy. When gathering nesting material, the female sometimes sings a shorter “whisper” song in response to the male’s louder song. Males in adjacent territories often engage in combative counter-singing and will, as a last resort, go beak-to-beak. On our property, a creek sometimes serves as a boundary — the line drawn in the sand, as it were. The males sing defiantly at one another across the water and sometimes make forays into enemy territory. Meanwhile, the female is busy incubating her eggs. When not squabbling with a nearby male, her mate brings food.

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